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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of
+Education, by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of Education
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2006 [EBook #18451]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL MANUALS
+
+SCIENCE OF EDUCATION
+
+
+AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
+
+TORONTO THE RYERSON PRESS
+
+COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
+
+Second Printing, 1919.
+Third Printing, 1923.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I
+
+THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
+
+CHAPTER I                                  PAGE
+
+NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION               1
+  Conditions of Growth and Development        2
+  Worth in Human Life                         4
+  Factors in Social Efficiency                6
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FORMS OF REACTION                             9
+  Instinctive Reaction                        9
+  Habitual Reaction                          10
+  Conscious Reaction                         11
+  Factors in process                         12
+  Experience                                 13
+  Relative value of experiences              15
+  Influence of Conscious Reaction            17
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PROCESS OF EDUCATION                         19
+  Conscious Adjustment                       19
+  Education as Adjustment                    19
+  Education as Control of Adjustment         22
+  Requirements of the Instructor             24
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM                        25
+  Purposes of Curriculum                     25
+  Dangers in Use of Curriculum               28
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS                     34
+  The School                                 34
+  Other Educative Agents                     35
+    The church                               35
+    The home                                 36
+    The vocation                             36
+    Other institutions                       36
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL                    38
+  Civic Views                                38
+  Individualistic Views                      40
+  The Eclectic View                          43
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY               46
+  Control of Experience                      46
+  The Instructor's Problems                  48
+    General method                           49
+    Special methods                          49
+    School management                        50
+    History of education                     50
+
+
+PART II
+
+METHODOLOGY
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+GENERAL METHOD                               52
+  Subdivisions of Method                     52
+  Method and Mind                            53
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE LESSON PROBLEM                           55
+  Nature of Problem                          55
+  Need of Problem                            57
+  Pupil's Motive                             59
+  Awakening Interest                         61
+  Knowledge of Problem                       67
+  How to Set Problem                         69
+  Examples of Motivation                     71
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY             75
+  The Selecting Process                      77
+  Law of Preparation                         82
+    Value of preparation                     83
+    Precautions                              84
+    Necessity of preparation                 85
+    Examples of preparation                  86
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY              89
+  Nature of Synthesis                        90
+  Interaction of Processes                   91
+    Knowledge unified                        94
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE                     95
+  Types of Action                            96
+  Nature of Expression                       97
+  Types of Expression                        99
+  Value of Expression                       100
+  Dangers of Omitting                       102
+  Expression and Impression                 103
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATION                106
+  The Lecture Method                        106
+  The Text-book Method                      109
+    Uses of text-book                       111
+    Abuse of text-book                      113
+  The Developing Method                     113
+  The Objective Method                      116
+  The Illustrative Method                   118
+    Precautions                             119
+  Modes of Presentation Compared            121
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE                 122
+
+  Acquisition of Particular Knowledge       122
+    Through senses                          122
+    Through imagination                     122
+    By deduction                            123
+  Acquisition of General Knowledge          124
+    By conception                           124
+    By induction                            125
+    Applied knowledge general               126
+  Processes of Acquiring Knowledge Similar  127
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MODES OF LEARNING                           129
+  Development of Particular Knowledge       129
+    Learning through senses                 129
+    Learning through imagination            131
+    Learning by deduction                   133
+    Examples for study                      137
+  Development of General Knowledge          139
+    The conceptual lesson                   139
+    The inductive lesson                    140
+    The formal steps                        141
+    Conception as learning process          143
+    Induction as learning process           144
+    Further examples                        145
+    The inductive-deductive lesson          148
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE LESSON UNIT                             150
+  Whole to Parts                            151
+  Parts to Whole                            154
+  Precautions                               155
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+LESSON TYPES                                156
+  The Study Lesson                          157
+  The Recitation Lesson                     160
+    Conducting recitation lesson            161
+    The Drill Lesson                        162
+    The Review Lesson                       165
+      The topical review                    166
+      The comparative review                169
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+QUESTIONING                                 171
+  Qualifications of Good Questioner         171
+  Purposes of Questioning                   173
+  Socratic Questioning                      174
+  The Question                              177
+  The Answer                                179
+  Limitations                               181
+
+
+PART III
+
+EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+CONSCIOUSNESS                               183
+  Value of Educational Psychology           186
+    Limitations                             186
+  Methods of Psychology                     187
+  Phases of Consciousness                   189
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+MIND AND BODY                               192
+  The Nervous System                        192
+  The Cortex                                198
+  Reflex Acts                               199
+  Characteristics of Nervous Matter         202
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+INSTINCT                                    207
+  Human Instincts                           209
+    Curiosity                               214
+    Imitation                               217
+    Play                                    221
+      Play in education                     223
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+HABIT                                       226
+  Formation of Habits                       230
+  Value of Habits                           231
+  Improvement of Habits                     234
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ATTENTION                                   237
+  Attention Selective                       240
+  Involuntary Attention                     243
+  Non-voluntary Attention                   245
+  Voluntary Attention                       246
+  Attention in Education                    251
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE FEELING OF INTEREST                     257
+  Classes of Feelings                       258
+  Interest in Education                     261
+    Development of interests                264
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SENSE PERCEPTION                            267
+  Genesis of Perception                     270
+  Factors in Sensation                      273
+  Classification of Sensations              274
+  Education of the Senses                   276
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION                     282
+  Distinguished                             283
+  Factors of Memory                         284
+  Conditions of Memory                      285
+  Types of Recall                           288
+  Localization of Time                      290
+  Classification of Memories                290
+  Memory in Education                       291
+  Apperception                              293
+    Conditions of Apperception              294
+    Factors in Apperception                 296
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+IMAGINATION                                 298
+  Types of Imagination                      299
+    Passive                                 299
+    Active                                  300
+  Uses of Imagination                       301
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+THINKING                                    304
+  Conception                                305
+    Factors in concept                      309
+    Aims of conceptual lessons              310
+    The definition                          313
+  Judgment                                  315
+    Errors in judgment                      317
+  Reasoning                                 320
+    Deduction                               320
+    Induction                               323
+  Development of Reasoning Power            328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+FEELING                                     330
+  Conditions of Feeling Tone                331
+  Sensuous Feelings                         334
+  Emotion                                   334
+    Conditions of emotion                   335
+  Other Types of Feeling                    340
+    Mood                                    340
+    Disposition                             340
+    Temperament                             340
+    Sentiments                              341
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE WILL                                    342
+  Types of Movement                         342
+  Development of Control                    343
+  Volition                                  345
+    Factors in volitional act               346
+  Abnormal Types of Will                    348
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+CHILD STUDY                                 352
+  Methods of Child Study                    355
+  Periods of Development                    358
+    Infancy                                 358
+    Childhood                               359
+    Adolescence                             361
+  Individual Differences                    363
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+  SUGGESTED READINGS                        369
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION
+
+PART I. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION
+
+
+=Value of Scientific Knowledge.=--In the practice of any intelligent
+occupation or art, in so far as the practice attains to perfection,
+there are manifested in the processes certain scientific principles and
+methods to which the work of the one practising the art conforms. In the
+successful practice, for example, of the art of composition, there are
+manifested the principles of rhetoric; in that of housebuilding, the
+principles of architecture; and in that of government, the principles of
+civil polity. In practising any such art, moreover, the worker finds
+that a knowledge of these scientific principles and methods will guide
+him in the correct practice of the art,--a knowledge of the science of
+rhetoric assisting in the art of composition; of the science of
+architecture, in the art of housebuilding; and of the science of civil
+polity, in the art of government.
+
+=The Science of Education.=--If the practice of teaching is an
+intelligent art, there must, in like manner, be found in its processes
+certain principles and methods which may be set forth in systematic form
+as a science of education, and applied by the educator in the art of
+teaching. Assuming the existence of a science of education, it is
+further evident that the student-teacher should make himself acquainted
+with its leading principles, and likewise learn to apply these
+principles in his practice of the art of teaching. To this end,
+however, it becomes necessary at the outset to determine the limits of
+the subject-matter of the science. We shall, therefore, first consider
+the general nature and purpose of education so far as to decide the
+facts to be included in this science.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+=A. Physical Growth.=--Although differing in their particular conception
+of the nature of education, all educators agree in setting the child as
+the central figure in the educative process. As an individual, the
+child, like other living organisms, develops through a process of inner
+changes which are largely conditioned by outside influences. In the case
+of animals and plants, physical growth, or development, is found to
+consist of changes caused in the main through the individual responding
+to external stimulation. Taking one of the simplest forms of animal
+life, for example, the amoeba, we find that when stimulated by any
+foreign matter not constituting its food, say a particle of sand, such
+an organism at once withdraws itself from the stimulating elements. On
+the other hand, if it comes in contact with suitable food, the amoeba
+not only flows toward it, but by assimilating it, at once begins to
+increase in size, or grow, until it finally divides, or reproduces,
+itself as shown in the following figures. Hence the amoeba as an
+organism is not only able to react appropriately toward different
+stimuli, but is also able to change itself, or develop, by its
+appropriate reactions upon such stimulations.
+
+In plant life, also, the same principle holds. As long as a grain of
+corn, wheat, etc., is kept in a dry place, the life principle stored up
+within the seed is unable to manifest itself in growth. When, on the
+other hand, it is appropriately stimulated by water, heat, and light,
+the seed awakens to life, or germinates. In other words, the seed
+reacts upon the external stimulations of water, heat, and light, and
+manifests the activity known as growth, or development. Thus all
+physical growth, whether of the plant or the animal, is conditioned on
+the energizing of the inherent life principle, in response to
+appropriate stimulation of the environment.
+
+[Illustration: A. Simple amoeba.
+B. An amoeba developing as a result of assimilating food.
+C. An amoeba about to divide, or propagate.]
+
+
+=B. Development in Human Life.=--In addition to its physical nature,
+human life has within it a spiritual law, or principle, which enables
+the individual to respond to suitable stimulations and by that means
+develop into an intelligent and moral being. When, for instance, waves
+of light from an external object stimulate the nervous system through
+the eye, man is able, through his intelligent nature, to react mentally
+upon these stimulations and, by interpreting them, build up within his
+experience conscious images of light, colour, and form. In like manner,
+when the nerves in the hand are stimulated by an external object, the
+mind is able to react upon the impressions and, by interpreting them,
+obtain images of touch, temperature, and weight. In the sphere of
+action, also, the child who is stimulated by the sight of his elder
+pounding with a hammer, sweeping with a broom, etc., reacts imitatively
+upon such stimulations, and thus acquires skill in action. So also when
+stimulated by means of his human surroundings, as, for example, through
+the kindly acts of his mother, father, etc., he reacts morally toward
+these stimulations and thus develops such social qualities as sympathy,
+love, and kindness. Nor are the conditions of development different in
+more complex intellectual problems. If a child is given nine blocks on
+which are printed the nine digits, and is asked to arrange them in the
+form of a square so that each of the horizontal and the vertical columns
+will add up to fifteen, there is equally an inner growth through
+stimulation and response. In such a case, since the answer is unknown to
+the child, the problem serves as a stimulation to his mind. Furthermore,
+it is only by reacting upon this problem with his present knowledge of
+the value of the various digits when combined in threes, as 1, 6, 8; 5,
+7, 3; 9, 2, 4; 1, 5, 9; etc., that the necessary growth of knowledge
+relative to the solution of the problem will take place within the mind.
+
+
+WORTH IN HUMAN LIFE
+
+But the possession of an intellectual and moral nature which responds to
+appropriate stimulations implies, also, that as man develops
+intellectually, he will find meaning in human life as realized in
+himself and others. Thus he becomes able to recognize worth in human
+life and to determine the conditions which favour its highest growth, or
+development.
+
+=The Worthy Life not a Natural Growth.=--Granting that it is thus
+possible to recognize that "life is not a blank," but that it should
+develop into something of worth, it by no means follows that the young
+child will adequately recognize and desire a worthy life, or be able to
+understand and control the conditions which make for its development.
+Although, indeed, there is implanted in his nature a spiritual tendency,
+yet his early interests are almost wholly physical and his attitude
+impulsive and selfish. Left to himself, therefore, he is likely to
+develop largely as a creature of appetite, controlled by blind passions
+and the chance impressions of the moment. Until such time, therefore, as
+he obtains an adequate development of his intellectual and moral life,
+his behaviour conforms largely to the wants of his physical nature, and
+his actions are irrational and wasteful. Under such conditions the young
+child, if left to himself to develop in accordance with his native
+tendencies through the chance impressions which may stimulate him from
+without, must fall short of attaining to a life of worth. For this
+reason education is designed to control the growth, or development, of
+the child, by directing his stimulations and responses in such a way
+that his life may develop into one of worth.
+
+=Character of the Worthy Life.=--If, however, it is possible to add to
+the worth of the life of the child by controlling and modifying his
+natural reactions, the first problem confronting the scientific educator
+is to decide what constitutes a life of worth. This question belongs
+primarily to ethics, or the science of right living, to which the
+educator must turn for his solution. Here it will be learned that the
+higher life is one made up of moral relations. In other words, the
+perfect man is a social man and the perfect life is a life made up of
+social rights and duties, wherein one is able to realize his own good
+in conformity with the good of others, and seek his own happiness by
+including within it the happiness of others. But to live a life of
+social worth, man must gain such control over his lower physical wants
+and desires that he can conform them to the needs and rights of others.
+He must, in other words, in adapting himself to his social environment,
+develop a sense of duty toward his fellows which will cause him to act
+in co-operation with others. He must refuse, for instance, to satisfy
+his own want by causing want to others, or to promote his own desires by
+giving pain to others. Secondly, he must obtain such control over his
+physical surroundings, including his own body, that he is able to make
+these serve in promoting the common good. In the worthy life, therefore,
+man has so adjusted himself to his fellow men that he is able to
+co-operate with them, and has so adjusted himself to his physical
+surroundings that he is able to make this co-operation effective, and
+thus live a socially efficient life.
+
+
+FACTORS IN SOCIAL EFFICIENCY
+
+=A. Knowledge, a Factor in Social Efficiency.=--The following simple
+examples will more fully demonstrate the factors which enter into the
+socially efficient life. The young child, for instance, who lives on the
+shore of one of our great lakes, may learn through his knowledge of
+colour to distinguish between the water and the sky on the horizon line.
+This knowledge, he finds, however, does not enter in any degree into his
+social life within the home. When on the same basis, however, he learns
+to distinguish between the ripe and the unripe berries in the garden, he
+finds this knowledge of service in the community, or home, life, since
+it enables him to distinguish the fruit his mother may desire for use
+in the home. One mark of social efficiency, therefore, is to possess
+knowledge that will enable us to serve effectively in society.
+
+=B. Skill, a Factor in Social Efficiency.=--In the sphere of action,
+also, the child might acquire skill in making stones skip over the
+surface of the lake. Here, again, however, the acquired skill would
+serve no purpose in the community life, except perhaps occasionally to
+enable him to amuse himself or his fellows. When, on the other hand, he
+acquires skill in various home occupations, as opening and closing the
+gates, attending to the furnace, harnessing and driving the horse, or
+playing a musical instrument, he finds that this skill enables him in
+some measure to serve in the community life of which he is a member. A
+second factor in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession of such
+skill as will enable us to co-operate effectively within our social
+environment.
+
+=C. Right Feeling, a Factor in Social Efficiency.=--But granting the
+possession of adequate knowledge and skill, a man may yet fall far short
+of the socially efficient life. The machinist, for instance, may know
+fully all that pertains to the making of an excellent engine for the
+intended steamboat. He may further possess the skill necessary to its
+actual construction. But through indifference or a desire for selfish
+gain, this man may build for the vessel an engine which later, through
+its poor construction, causes the loss of the ship and its crew. A third
+necessary requisite in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession
+of a sense of duty which compels us to use our knowledge and skill with
+full regard to the feelings and rights of others. Thus a certain amount
+of socially useful knowledge, a certain measure of socially effective
+skill, and a certain sense of moral obligation, or right feeling, all
+enter as factors into the socially efficient life.
+
+
+FORMAL EDUCATION
+
+Assuming that the educator is thus able to distinguish what constitutes
+a life of worth, and to recognize and in some measure control the
+stimulations and reactions of the child, it is evident that he should be
+able to devise ways and means by which the child may grow into a more
+worthy, that is, into a more socially efficient, life. Such an attempt
+to control the reactions of the child as he adjusts himself to the
+physical and social world about him, in order to render him a more
+socially efficient member of the society to which he belongs, is
+described as formal education.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FORMS OF REACTION
+
+
+INSTINCTIVE REACTION
+
+Since the educator aims to direct the development of the child by
+controlling his reactions upon his physical and social surroundings, we
+have next to consider the forms under which these reactions occur. Even
+at birth the human organism is endowed with certain tendencies, which
+enable it to react effectively upon the presentation of appropriate
+stimuli. Our instinctive movements, such as sucking, hiding, grasping,
+etc., being inherited tendencies to react under given conditions in a
+more or less effective manner for our own good, constitute one type of
+reactive movement. At birth, therefore, the child is endowed with
+powers, or tendencies, which enable him to adapt himself more or less
+effectively to his surroundings. Because, however, the child's early
+needs are largely physical, many of his instincts, such as those of
+feeding, fighting, etc., lead only to self-preservative acts, and are,
+therefore, individual rather than social in character. Even these
+individual tendencies, however, enable the child to adjust himself to
+his surroundings, and thus assist that physical growth without which, as
+will be learned later, there could be no adequate intellectual and moral
+development. But besides these, the child inherits many social and
+adaptive tendencies--love of approbation, sympathy, imitation,
+curiosity, etc., which enable him of himself to participate in some
+measure in the social life about him.
+
+=Instinct and Education.=--Our instincts being inherited tendencies, it
+follows that they must cause us to react in a somewhat fixed manner upon
+particular external stimulation. For this reason, it might be assumed
+that these tendencies would build up our character independently of
+outside interference or direction. If such were the case, instinctive
+reactions would not only lie beyond the province of formal education,
+but might even seriously interfere with its operation, since our
+instinctive acts differ widely in value from the standpoint of the
+efficient life. It is found, however, that human instincts may not only
+be modified but even suppressed through education. For example, as we
+shall learn in the following paragraphs, instinctive action in man may
+be gradually supplanted by more effective habitual modes of reaction.
+Although, therefore, the child's instinctive tendencies undoubtedly play
+a large part in the early informal development of his character outside
+the school, it is equally true that they can be brought under the
+direction of the educator in the work of formal education. For that
+reason a more thorough study of instinctive forms of reaction, and of
+their relation to formal education, will be made in Chapter XXI.
+
+
+HABITUAL REACTION
+
+A second form of reaction is known as habit. On account of the plastic
+character of the matter constituting the nervous tissue in the human
+organism, any act, whether instinctive, voluntary, or accidental, if
+once performed, has a tendency to repeat itself under like
+circumstances, or to become habitual. The child, for example, when
+placed amid social surroundings, by merely yielding to his general
+tendencies of imitation, sympathy, etc., will form many valuable modes
+of habitual reaction connected with eating, dressing, talking,
+controlling the body, the use of household implements, etc. For this
+reason the early instinctive and impulsive acts of the child gradually
+develop into definite modes of action, more suited to meet the
+particular conditions of his surroundings.
+
+=Habit and Education.=--Furthermore, the formation of these habitual
+modes of reaction being largely conditioned by outside influences, it is
+possible to control the process of their formation. For this reason, the
+educator is able to modify the child's natural reactions, and develop in
+their stead more valuable habits. No small part of the work of formal
+education, therefore, must consist in adding to the social efficiency of
+the child by endowing him with habits making for neatness, regularity,
+accuracy, obedience, etc. A detailed study of habit in its relation to
+education will be made in Chapter XXII.
+
+
+CONSCIOUS REACTION
+
+=An Example.=--The third and highest form of human reaction is known as
+ideal, or conscious, reaction. In this form of reaction the mind,
+through its present ideas, reacts upon some situation or difficulty in
+such a way as to adjust itself satisfactorily to the problem with which
+it is faced. As an example of such a conscious reaction, or adjustment,
+may be taken the case of a young lad who was noticed standing over a
+stationary iron grating through which he had dropped a small coin. A few
+moments later the lad was seen of his own accord to take up a rod lying
+near, smear the end with tar and grease from the wheel of a near by
+wagon, insert the rod through the grating, and thus recover his lost
+coin. An analysis of the mental movements involved previously to the
+actual recovery of the coin will illustrate in general the nature of a
+conscious reaction, or adjustment.
+
+=Factors Involved in Process.=--In such an experience the consciousness
+of the lad is at the outset occupied with a definite problem, or felt
+need, demanding adjustment--the recovering of the lost coin, which need
+acts as a stimulus to the consciousness and gives direction and value to
+the resulting mental activity. Acting under the demands of this problem,
+or need, the mind displays an intelligent initiative in the selecting of
+ideas--stick, adhesion, tar, etc., felt to be of value for securing the
+required new adjustment. The mind finally combines these selected ideas
+into an organized system, or a new experience, which is accepted
+mentally as an adequate solution of the problem. The following factors
+are found, therefore, to enter into such an ideal, or conscious,
+reaction:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The conscious reaction is the result of a definite
+problem, or difficulty, presented in consciousness and grasped by the
+mind as such--How to recover the coin.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--To meet the solution of this problem use is
+made of ideas which already form a part of the lad's present experience,
+or knowledge, and which are felt by him to have a bearing on the
+presented problem.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--These elements of former experience are
+organized by the child into a mental plan which he believes adequate to
+solve the problem before him.
+
+4. _Application._--This resulting mental plan serves to guide a further
+physical reaction, which constitutes the actual removal of the
+difficulty--the recovery of the coin.
+
+=Significance of Conscious Reactions.=--In a conscious reaction upon any
+situation, or problem, therefore, the mind first uses its present ideas,
+or experience, in weighing the difficulties of the situation, and it is
+only after it satisfies itself in theory that a solution has been
+reached that the physical response, or application of the plan, is made.
+Hence the individual not only directs his actions by his higher
+intelligent nature, but is also able to react effectively upon varied
+and unusual situations. This, evidently, is not so largely the case with
+instinctive or habitual reactions. For efficient action, therefore,
+there must often be an adequate mental adjustment prior to the
+expression of the physical action. For this reason the value of
+consciousness consists in the guidance it affords us in meeting the
+demands laid upon us by our surroundings, or environment. This will
+become more evident, however, by a brief examination into the nature of
+experience itself.
+
+
+EXPERIENCE
+
+=Its Value.=--In the above example of conscious adjustment it was found
+that a new experience arises naturally from an effort to meet some need,
+or problem, with which the mind is at the time confronted. Our ideas,
+therefore, naturally organize themselves into new experiences, or
+knowledge, to enable us to gain some desired end. It was in order to
+effect the recovery of the lost coin, for example, that conscious effort
+was put forth by the lad to create a mental plan which should solve the
+problem. Primarily, therefore, man is a doer and his ideas, or
+knowledge, is meant to be practical, or to be applied in directing
+action. It is this fact, indeed, which gives meaning and purpose to the
+conscious states of man. Hour by hour new problems arise demanding
+adjustment; the mind grasps the import of the situation, selects ways
+and means, organizes these into an intelligent plan, and directs their
+execution, thus enabling us:
+
+    Not without aim to go round
+    In an eddy of purposeless dust.
+
+=Its Theoretic or Intellectual Value.=--But owing to the value which
+thus attaches to any experience, a new experience may be viewed as
+desirable apart from its immediate application to conduct. Although, for
+instance, there is no immediate physical need that one should learn how
+to resuscitate a drowning person, he is nevertheless prepared to make of
+it a problem, because he feels that such knowledge regarding his
+environment may enter into the solution of future difficulties. Thus the
+value of new experience, or knowledge, is often remote and intellectual,
+rather than immediate and physical, and looks to the acquisition of
+further experience quite as much as to the directing of present physical
+movement. Beyond the value they may possess in relation to the removal
+of present physical difficulty, therefore, experiences may be said to
+possess a secondary value in that they may at any time enter into the
+construction of new experiences.
+
+=Its Growth: A. Learning by Direct Experience.=--The ability to recall
+and use former experience in the upbuilding of an intelligent new
+experience is further valuable, in that it enables a person to secure
+much experience in an indirect rather than in a direct way, and thus
+avoid the direct experience when such would be undesirable. Under direct
+experience we include the lessons which may come to us at first hand
+from our surroundings, as when the child by placing his hand upon a
+thistle learns that it has sharp prickles, or by tasting quinine learns
+that it is bitter. In this manner direct experience is a teacher,
+continually adjusting man to his environment; and it is evident that
+without an ability to retain our experiences and turn them to use in
+organizing a new experience without expressing it in action, all
+conscious adjustments would have to be secured through such a direct
+method.
+
+=B. Learning Indirectly.=--Since man is able to retain his experiences
+and organize them into new experiences, he may, if desirable, enter into
+a new experience in an indirect, or theoretic, way, and thus avoid the
+harsher lessons of direct experience. The child, for example, who knows
+the discomfort of a pin-prick may apply this, without actual expression,
+in interpreting the danger lurking in the thorn. In like manner the
+child who has fallen from his chair realizes thereby, without giving it
+expression, the danger of falling from a window or balcony. It is in
+this indirect, or theoretic, way that children in their early years
+acquire, by injunction and reproof, much valuable knowledge which
+enables them to avoid the dangers and to shun the evils presented to
+them by their surroundings. By the same means, also, man is able to
+extend his knowledge to include the experiences of other men and even of
+other ages.
+
+=Relative Value of Experiences.=--While the value of experience consists
+in its power to adjust man to present or future problems, and thus
+render his action more efficient, it is to be noted that different
+experiences may vary in their value. Many of these, from the point of
+their value in meeting future problems or making adjustments, must
+appear trivial and even useless. Others, though adapted to meet our
+needs, may do this in a crude and ineffective manner. As an
+illustration of such difference in value, compare the effectiveness and
+accuracy of the notation possessed by primitive men as illustrated in
+the following strokes:
+
+     1, 11, 111, 1111, 11111, 111111, etc.,
+
+with that of our present system of notation as suggested in:
+
+     1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000, etc.
+
+In like manner to experience that ice is cold is trivial in comparison
+with experiencing its preservative effects as seen in cold storage or
+its medicinal effects in certain diseases; to know that soda is white
+would be trivial in comparison with a knowledge of its properties in
+baking.
+
+=Man Should Participate in Valuable Experiences.=--Of the three forms of
+human reaction, instinctive, habitual, and conscious, or ideal, it is
+evident that, owing to its rational character, ideal reaction is not
+only the most effective, but also the only one that will enable man to
+adjust himself to unusual situations. For this reason, and because of
+the difference in value of experiences themselves, it is further evident
+that man should participate in those experiences which are most
+effective in facilitating desired adjustments or in directing right
+conduct. It is found, moreover, that this participation can be effected
+by bringing the child's experiencing during his early years directly
+under control. It is held by some, indeed, that the whole aim of
+education is to reconstruct and enrich the experiences of the child and
+thereby add to his social efficiency. Although this conception of
+education leaves out of view the effects of instinctive and habitual
+reaction, it nevertheless covers, as we shall see later, no small part
+of the purpose of formal education.
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF CONSCIOUS REACTION
+
+=A. On Instinctive Action.=--Before concluding our survey of the various
+forms of reaction, it may be noted that both instinctive and habitual
+action are subject to the influence of conscious reaction. As a child's
+early instinctive acts develop into fixed habits, his growing knowledge
+aids in making these habits intelligent and effective. Consciousness
+evidently aids, for example, in developing the instinctive movements of
+the legs into the rhythmic habitual movements of walking, and those of
+the hands into the later habits of holding the spoon, knife, cup, etc.
+Greater still would be the influence of consciousness in developing the
+crude instinct of self-preservation into the habitual reactions of the
+spearman or boxer. In general, therefore, instinctive tendencies in man
+are subject to intelligent training, and may thereby be moulded into
+effective habits of reaction.
+
+=B. On Habitual Action.=--Further new habits may be established and old
+ones improved under the direction of conscious reaction. When a child
+first learns to represent the number four by the symbol, the problem is
+necessarily met at first through a conscious adjustment. In other words,
+the child must mentally associate into a single new experience the
+number idea and certain ideas of form and of muscular movement.
+Although, however, the child is conscious of all of these factors when
+he first attempts to give expression to this experience, it is clear
+that very soon the expressive act of writing the number is carried on
+without any conscious direction of the process. In other words, the
+child soon acquires the habit of performing the act spontaneously, or
+without direction from the mind. Inversely, any habitual mode of
+action, in whatever way established, may, if we possess the necessary
+experience, be represented in idea and be accepted or corrected
+accordingly. A person, for instance, who has acquired the necessary
+knowledge of the laws of hygiene, may represent ideally both his own and
+the proper manner of standing, sitting, reclining, etc., and seek to
+modify his present habits accordingly. The whole question of the
+relation of conscious to habitual reaction will, however, be considered
+in Chapter XXII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION
+
+
+CONSCIOUS ADJUSTMENT
+
+From the example of conscious adjustment previously considered, it would
+appear that the full process of such an adjustment presents the
+following characteristics:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The individual conceives the existence within his
+environment of a difficulty which demands adjustment, or which serves as
+a problem calling for solution.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--With this problem as a motive, there takes
+place within the experience of the individual a selecting of ideas felt
+to be of value for solving the problem which calls for adjustment.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--These relevant ideas are associated in
+consciousness and form a new experience believed to overcome the
+difficulty involved in the problem. This new experience is accepted,
+therefore, mentally, as a satisfactory plan for meeting the situation,
+or, in other words, it adjusts the individual to the problem in hand.
+
+4. _Expression._--This new experience is expressed in such form as is
+requisite to answer fully the need felt in the original problem.
+
+
+EDUCATION AS ADJUSTMENT
+
+=Example from Writing.=--An examination of any ordinary educative
+process taken from school-room experience will show that it involves in
+some degree the factors mentioned above.
+
+As a very simple example, may be taken the case of a young child
+learning to form capital letters with short sticks. Assuming that he has
+already copied letters involving straight lines, such as A, H, etc., the
+child, on meeting such a letter as C or D, finds himself face to face
+with a new problem. At first he may perhaps attempt to form the curves
+by bending the short thin sticks. Hereupon, either through his own
+failure or through some suggestion of his teacher, he comes to see a
+short, straight line as part of a large curve. Thereupon he forms the
+idea of a curve composed of a number of short, straight lines, and on
+this principle is able to express himself in such forms as are shown
+here.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In this simple process of adjustment there are clearly involved the four
+stages referred to above, as follows:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The forming of a curved letter by means of straight
+sticks.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--Selecting of the ideas straight and curved
+and the fixing of attention upon them.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--An organization of the selected ideas into a
+new experience in which the curve is viewed as made up of a number of
+short, straight lines.
+
+4. _Expression._--Working out the physical expression of the new
+experience in the actual forming of capitals involving curved lines.
+
+=Example from Arithmetic.=--An analysis of the process by which a child
+learns that there are four twos in eight, shows also the following
+factors:
+
+1. _The Problem._--To find out how many twos are contained in the
+vaguely known eight.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--To meet this problem the pupil is led from
+his present knowledge of the number two, to proceed to divide eight
+objects into groups of two; and, from his previous knowledge of the
+number four, to measure the number of these groups of two.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--Next the three ideas two, four, and eight are
+translated into a new experience, constituting a mental solution of the
+present problem.
+
+4. _Expression._--This new experience expresses itself in various ways
+in the child's dealings with the number problems connected with his
+environment.
+
+=Example from Geometry.=--Taking as another example the process by which
+a student may learn that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to
+the two interior and opposite angles, there appear also the same stages,
+thus:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The conception of a difficulty or problem in the
+geometrical environment which calls for solution, or adjustment--the
+relation of the angle _a_ to the angles _b_ and _c_ in Figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--With this problem as a motive there follows,
+as suggested by Figure 2, the selecting of a series of ideas from the
+previous experiences of the pupil which seem relative to, or are
+considered valuable for solving the problem in hand.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--These relative ideas pass into the formation
+of a new experience, as illustrated in Figure 3, constituting the
+solution of the problem.
+
+4. _Expression._--A further applying of this experience may be made in
+adjusting the pupil to other problems connected with his geometric
+environment; as, for example, to discover the sum of the interior angles
+of a triangle.
+
+
+EDUCATION AS CONTROL OF ADJUSTMENT
+
+The examples of adjustment taken from school-room practice, are found,
+however, to differ in one important respect from the previous example
+taken from practical life. This difference consists in the fact that in
+the recovery of the coin the modification of experience took place
+wholly without control or direction other than that furnished by the
+problem itself. Here the problem--the recovery of the coin--presents
+itself to the child and is seized upon as a motive by his attention
+solely on account of its own value; secondly, this problem of itself
+directs a flow of relative images which finally bring about the
+necessary adjustment. In the examples taken from the school, on the
+other hand, the processes of adjustment are, to a greater or less
+extent, directed and regulated through the presence of some type of
+educative agent. For instance, when a student goes through the process
+of learning the relation of the exterior angle to the two interior and
+opposite angles, the control of the process appears in the fact that the
+problem is directly presented to the student as an essential step in a
+sequence of geometric problems, or adjustments. The same direction or
+control of the process is seen again in the fact that the student is not
+left wholly to himself, as in the first example, to devise a solution,
+but is aided and directed thereto, first, in that the ideas bearing upon
+the problem have previously been made known to the student through
+instruction, and secondly, in that the selecting and adjusting of these
+former ideas to the solution of the new problem is also directed through
+the agency of either a text-book or a teacher. A conscious adjustment,
+therefore, which is brought about without direction from another,
+implies only a process of learning on the part of the child, while a
+controlled adjustment implies both a process of learning on the part of
+the child and a process of teaching on the part of an instructor. For
+scientific treatment, therefore, it is possible to limit formal
+education, so far as it deals with conscious adjustment, to those
+modifications of experience which are directed or controlled through an
+educative agent, or, in other words, are brought about by means of
+instruction.
+
+
+REQUIREMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTOR
+
+Formal education being an attempt to direct the development of the child
+by controlling his stimulations and responses through the agency of an
+instructor, we may now understand in general the necessary
+qualifications and offices of the teacher in directing the educative
+process.
+
+1. The teacher must understand what constitutes the worthy life; that
+is, he must have a definite aim in directing the development of the
+child.
+
+2. He must know what stimulations, or problems, are to be presented to
+the child in order to have him grow, or develop, into this life of
+worth.
+
+3. He must know how the physical, intellectual, and moral nature of the
+child reacts upon these appropriate stimulations.
+
+4. He must have skill in presenting the stimuli, or problems, to the
+child and in bringing its mind to react appropriately thereon.
+
+5. He must, in the case of conscious reactions, see that the child not
+only acquires the new experience, but that he is also able to apply it
+effectively. In other words, he must see that the child acquires not
+only knowledge, but also skill in the use of knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
+
+
+=Valuable Experience: Race Knowledge.=--Since education aims largely to
+increase the effectiveness of the moral conduct of the child by adding
+to the value of his experience, the science of education must decide the
+basis on which the educator is to select experiences that possess such a
+value in directing conduct. Now a study of the progress of a nation's
+civilization will show that this advancement is brought about through
+the gradual interpretation of the resources at the nation's command, and
+the turning of these resources to the attainment of human ends. Thus
+there is gradually built up a community, or race, experience, in which
+the materials of the physical, economic, political, moral, and religious
+life are organized and brought under control. By this means is
+constituted a body of race experience, the value of which has been
+tested in its direct application to the needs of the social life of the
+community. It is from the more typical forms of this social, or race,
+experience that education draws the experience, or problems, for the
+educative process. In other words, through education the experiences of
+the child are so reconstructed that he is put in possession of the more
+typical and more valuable forms of race experience, and thus rendered
+more efficient in his conduct, or action.
+
+
+PURPOSES OF CURRICULUM
+
+=Represents Race Experiences.=--So far as education aims to have the
+child enter into typical valuable race experiences, this can be
+accomplished only by placing these experiences before him as problems
+in such form that he may realize them through a regular process of
+learning. The purpose of the school curriculum is, therefore, to provide
+such problems as may, under the direction of the instructor, control the
+conscious reactions of the child, and enable him to participate in these
+more valuable race experiences. In this sense arithmetic becomes a means
+for providing the child with a series of problems which may give him the
+experiences which the race has found valuable in securing commercial
+accuracy and precision. In like manner, constructive work provides a
+series of problems in which the child experiences how the race has
+turned the materials of nature to human service. History provides
+problems whose solution gives the experience which enables the pupil to
+meet the political and social conditions of his own time. Physics shows
+how the forces of nature have become instruments for the service of man.
+Geography shows how the world is used as a background for social life;
+and grammar, what principles control the use of the race language as a
+medium for the communication of thought.
+
+=Classifies Race Experience.=--Without such control of the presentation
+of these racial experiences as is made possible through the school and
+the school curriculum, the child would be likely to meet them only as
+they came to him in the actual processes of social life. These processes
+are, however, so complex in modern society, that, in any attempt to
+secure experience directly, the child is likely to be overwhelmed by
+their complex and unorganized character. The message boy in the
+dye-works, for example, may have presented to him innumerable problems
+in number, language, physics, chemistry, etc., but owing to the
+confused, disorganized, and mingled character of the presentation, these
+are not likely to be seized upon by him as direct problems calling for
+adjustment. In the school curriculum, on the other hand, the different
+phases of this seemingly unorganized mass of experiences are abstracted
+and presented to the child in an organized manner, the different phases
+being classified as facts of number, reading, spelling, writing,
+geography, physics, chemistry, etc. Thus the school curriculum
+classifies for the child the various phases of this race experience and
+provides him with a comprehensive representation of his environment.
+
+=Systematizes Race Experience.=--The school curriculum further presents
+each type of experience, or each subject, in such a systematic order
+that the various experiences may develop out of one another in a natural
+way. If the child were compelled to meet his number facts altogether in
+actual life, the impressions would be received without system or order,
+now a discount experience, next a problem in fractions, at another time
+one in interest or mensuration. In the school curriculum, on the other
+hand, the child is in each subject first presented with the simple,
+near, and familiar, these in turn forming basic experiences for learning
+the complex, the remote, and the unknown. Thus he is able in geography,
+for example, on the basis of his simple and known local experiences, to
+proceed to a realization of the whole world as the background for human
+life.
+
+=Clarifies Race Experience.=--Finally, when a child is given problems by
+means of the school curriculum, the experiences come to him in a pure
+form. That is, the trivial, accidental, and distracting elements which
+are necessarily bound up with these experiences when they are met in the
+ordinary walks of life are eliminated, and the single type is presented.
+For instance, the child may every day meet accidentally examples of
+reflection and refraction of light. But these not being separated from
+the mass of accompanying impressions, his mind may never seize as
+distinct problems the important relations in these experiences, and may
+thus fail to acquire the essential principles involved. In the school
+curriculum, on the other hand, under the head of physics, he has the
+essential aspects presented to him in such an unmixed, or pure, form
+that he finds relatively little difficulty in grasping their
+significance. Thus the school curriculum renders possible an effective
+control of the experiencing of the child by presenting in a
+comprehensive form a classified, systematized, and pure representation
+of the more valuable features of the race experience. In other words, it
+provides suitable problems which may lead the child to participate more
+fully in the life about him. Through the subjects of the school
+curriculum, therefore, the child may acquire much useful knowledge which
+would not otherwise be met, and much which, if met in ordinary life,
+could not be apprehended to an equal degree.
+
+
+DANGERS IN USE OF CURRICULUM
+
+While recognizing the educational value of the school curriculum, it
+should be noticed that certain dangers attach to its use as a means of
+providing problems for developing the experiences of the child. It is
+frequently argued against the school that the experiences gained therein
+too often prove of little value to the child in the affairs of practical
+life. The world of knowledge within the school, it is claimed, is so
+different from the world of action outside the school, that the pupil
+can find no connection between them. If, however, as claimed above, the
+value of experience consists in its use as a means of efficient control
+of conduct, it is evident that the experiences acquired through the
+school should find direct application in the affairs of life, or in
+other words, the school should influence the conduct, or behaviour, of
+the child both within and without the school.
+
+=A. Child may not see Connection with Life.=--Now the school curriculum,
+as has been seen, in representing the actual social life, so classifies
+and simplifies this life that only one type of experience--number,
+language, chemistry, geography, etc., is presented to the child at one
+time. It is evident, however, that when the child faces the problems of
+actual life, they will not appear in the simple form in which he meets
+them as represented in the school curriculum. Thus, when he leaves the
+school and enters society, he frequently sees no connection between the
+complex social life outside the school and the simplified and
+systematized representation of that life, as previously met in the
+school studies. For example, when the boy, after leaving school, is set
+to fill an order in a wholesale drug store, he will in the one
+experience be compelled to use various phases of his chemical,
+arithmetical, writing, and bookkeeping knowledge, and that perhaps in
+the midst of a mass of other accidental impressions. In like manner, the
+girl in her home cooking might meet in a single experience a situation
+requiring mathematical, chemical, and physical knowledge for its
+successful adjustment, as in the substitution of soda and cream of
+tartar for baking-powder. This complex character of the problems of
+actual life may prove so bewildering that the person is unable to see
+any connection between the outside problem and his school experiences.
+Thus school knowledge frequently fails to function to an adequate degree
+in the practical affairs of life.
+
+=How to Avoid This Danger.=--To meet this difficulty, school work must
+be related as closely as possible to the practical experiences of the
+child. This would cause the teacher, for example, to draw his problems
+in arithmetic, his subjects in composition, or his materials for nature
+study from the actual life about the child, while his lessons in hygiene
+would bear directly on the care of the school-room and the home, and the
+health of the pupils. Moreover, that the work of the school may
+represent more fully the conditions of actual life, pupils should
+acquire facility in correlating different types of experience upon the
+same problem. In this way the child may use in conjunction his knowledge
+of arithmetic, language, geography, drawing, nature study, etc., in
+school gardening; and his arithmetic, language, drawing, art, etc., in
+conjunction with constructive occupations.
+
+=Value of Typical Forms of Expression.=--A chief cause in the past for
+the lack of connection between school knowledge and practical life was
+the comparative absence from the curriculum of any types of human
+activity. In other words, though the ideas controlling human activity
+were experienced by the child within the school, the materials and tools
+involved in the physical expression of such ideas were almost entirely
+absent. The result was that the physical habits connected with the
+practical use of knowledge were wanting. Thus, in addition to the lack
+of any proper co-ordinating of different types of knowledge in suitable
+forms of activity, the knowledge itself became theoretic and abstract.
+This danger will, however, be discussed more fully at a later stage.
+
+=B. Curriculum May Become Fossilized.=--A second danger in the use of
+the school curriculum consists in the fact that, as a representation of
+social life, it may not keep pace with the social changes taking place
+outside the school. This may result in the school giving its pupils
+forms of knowledge which at the time have little functional value, or
+little relation to present life about the child. An example of this was
+seen some years ago in the habit of having pupils spend considerable
+time and energy in working intricate problems in connection with British
+currency. This currency having no practical place in life outside the
+school, the child could see no connection between that part of his
+school work and any actual need. Another marked example of this tendency
+will be met in the History of Education in connection with the
+educational practice of the last two centuries in continuing the
+emphasis placed on the study of the ancient languages, although the
+functional relation of these languages to everyday life was on the
+decline, and scientific knowledge was beginning to play a much more
+important part therein. While the school curriculum may justly represent
+the life of past periods of civilization so far as these reflect on, and
+aid in the interpreting of, the present, it is evident that in so far as
+the child experiences the past without any reference to present needs,
+the connection which should exist between the school and life outside
+the school must tend to be destroyed.
+
+=C. May be Non-progressive.=--As a corollary to the above, is the fact
+that the school, when not watchful of the changes going on without the
+school, may fail to represent in its curriculum new and important phases
+of the community life. At the present time, for example, it is a
+debatable question whether the school curriculum is, in the matter of
+our industrial life, keeping pace with the changes taking place in the
+community. It is in this connection that one of the chief dangers of the
+school text-book is to be found. The text is too often looked upon as a
+final authority upon the particular subject-matter, rather than being
+treated as a mode of representing what is held valuable and true in
+relation to present-day interests and activities. The position of
+authority which the text-book thus secures, may serve as a check against
+even necessary changes in the attitude of the school toward any
+particular subject.
+
+=D. May Present Experience in too Technical Form.=--Lastly, the school
+curriculum, even when representing present life, may introduce it in a
+too highly technical form. So far at least as elementary education is
+concerned, each type of knowledge, or each subject, should find a place
+on the curriculum from a consideration of its influence upon the conduct
+and, therefore, upon the present life of the child. There is always a
+danger, however, that the teacher, who may be a specialist in the
+subject, will wish to stress its more intellectual and abstract phases,
+and thus force upon the child forms of knowledge which he is not able to
+refer to his life needs in any practical way. This tendency is
+illustrated in the desire of some teachers to substitute with young
+children a technical study of botany and zoology, in place of more
+concrete work in nature study. Now when the child approaches these
+phases of his surroundings in the form of nature study, he is able to
+see their influence upon his own community life. When, on the other
+hand, these are introduced to him in too technical a form, he is not
+able, in his present stage of learning, to discover this connection, and
+the so-called knowledge remains in his experience, if it remains at all,
+as uninteresting, non-significant, and non-digested information. In the
+elementary school at least, therefore, knowledge should not be presented
+to the child in such a technical and abstract way that it will seem to
+have no contact with daily life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
+
+
+THE SCHOOL
+
+As man, in the progress of civilization, became more fully conscious of
+the worth of human life and of the possibilities of its development
+through educational effort, the providing of special instruction for the
+young naturally began to be recognized as a duty. As this duty became
+more and more apparent, it gave rise, on the principle of the division
+of labour, to corporate, or institutional, effort in this direction. By
+this means there has been finally developed the modern school as a fully
+organized corporate institution devoted to educational work, and
+supported as an integral part of our civil or public obligations.
+
+=Origin of the School.=--To trace the origin of the school, it will be
+necessary to look briefly at certain marked stages of the development of
+civilization. The earliest and simplest forms of primitive life suggest
+a time when the family constituted the only type of social organization.
+In such a mode of life, the principle of the division of labour would be
+absent, the father or patriarch being the family carpenter, butcher,
+doctor, judge, priest, and teacher. In the two latter capacities, he
+would give whatever theoretic or practical instruction was received by
+the child. As soon, however, as a tribal form of life is met, we find
+the tribe or race collecting a body of experience which can be retained
+only by entrusting it to a selected body. This experience, or knowledge,
+is at first mainly of a religious character, and is possessed and
+handed on by a body of men forming a priesthood. Such priestly bodies,
+or colleges, may be considered the earliest special organizations
+devoted to the office of teaching. As civilization gradually advanced, a
+mass of valuable practical knowledge relative to man's environment was
+secured and added to the more theoretic forms. As this practical
+knowledge became more complex, there was felt a greater need that the
+child should be made acquainted with it in some systematic manner during
+his early years. Thus developed the conception of the school as an
+instrument by which such educative work might be carried on more
+effectively. On account of the constant increase of practical knowledge
+and its added importance in directing the political and economic life of
+the people, the civil authorities began in time to assume control of
+secular education. Thus the government of the school as an institution
+gradually passed to the state, the teacher taking the place of the
+priest as the controlling agent in the education of the young.
+
+
+OTHER EDUCATIVE AGENTS
+
+=The Church.=--But notwithstanding the organization of the present
+school as a civic institution, it is to be noticed that the church still
+continues to act as an educative agent. In many communities, in fact,
+the church is still found to retain a large control of education even of
+a secular type. Even in communities where the church no longer exercises
+control over the school, she still does much, though in a more indirect
+way, to mould the thought and character of the community life; and is
+still the chief educational agent concerned in the direct attempt to
+enrich the religious experiences of the race.
+
+=The Home.=--While much of the knowledge obtained by the child within
+his own home necessarily comes through self, or informal, education, yet
+in most homes the parent still performs in many ways the function of a
+teacher, both by giving special instruction to the child and by
+directing the formation of his habits. In certain forms of experience
+indeed, it is claimed by the school that the instruction should be given
+by the parent rather than by the teacher. In questions of morals and
+manners, the natural tie which unites child and parent will undoubtedly
+enable much of the necessary instruction to be given more effectively in
+the home. It is often claimed, in fact, that parents now leave too much
+to the school and the teacher in relation to the education of the child.
+
+=The Vocation.=--Another agent which may directly control the
+experiences of the young is found in the various vocations to which they
+devote themselves. This phase of education was very important in the
+days of apprenticeship. One essential condition in the form of agreement
+was that the master should instruct the apprentice in the art, or craft,
+to which he was apprenticed. Owing to the introduction of machinery and
+the consequent more complex division of labour, this type of formal
+education has been largely eliminated. It may be noted in passing that
+it is through these changed conditions that night classes for mechanics,
+which are now being provided by our technical schools, have become an
+important factor in our educational system.
+
+=Other Educational Institutions.=--Finally, many clubs, institutes, and
+societies attempt, in a more accidental way, to convey definite
+instruction, and therefore serve in a sense as educational institutions.
+Prominent among such institutions is the modern Public Library, which
+affords opportunity for independent study in practically every
+department of knowledge. Our Farmers' Institutes also attempt to convey
+definite instruction in connection with such subjects as dairying,
+horticulture, agriculture, etc. Many Women's Clubs seek to provide
+instruction for young women, both of a practical and also of a moral and
+religious character. Various societies of a scientific character have
+also done much to spread a knowledge of nature and her laws and are
+likewise to be classed as educational institutions. Such movements as
+these, while taking place without the limits of the school, may not
+unreasonably claim a certain recognition as educational factors in the
+community and should receive the sympathetic co-operation of the
+teacher.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL
+
+
+CIVIC VIEWS
+
+Since the school of to-day is organized and supported by the state as a
+special corporate body designed to carry on the work of education, it
+becomes of public interest to know the particular purpose served through
+the maintenance of such a state institution. We have already seen that
+the school seeks to interpret the civilized life of the community, to
+abstract out of it certain elements, and to arrange them in systematic
+or scientific order as a curriculum of study, and finally to give the
+child control of this experience, or knowledge. We have attempted to
+show further that by this means education so increases the effectiveness
+of the conscious reactions of the child and so modifies his instincts
+and his habits as to add to his social efficiency. As, however, many
+divergent and incomplete views are held by educators and others as to
+the real purpose of public instruction, it will be well at this stage to
+consider briefly some of the most important types of these theories.
+
+=Aristocratic View.=--It may be noted that the experience, or knowledge,
+represented in the curriculum cannot exist outside of the knowing mind.
+In other words, arithmetic, grammar, history, geography, etc., are not
+something existing apart from mind, but only as states of consciousness.
+Text-books, for instance, do not contain knowledge but merely symbols of
+knowledge, which would have no significance and give no light without a
+mind to interpret them. Some, therefore, hold that the school, in
+seeking to translate this social experience into the consciousness of
+the young, should have as its aim merely to conserve for the future the
+intellectual and moral achievements of the present and the past. This
+they say demands of the school only that it produce an intellectual
+priesthood, or a body of scholars, who may conserve wisdom for the light
+and guidance of the whole community. Thus arises the aristocratic view
+of the purpose of education, which sees no justification in the state
+attempting to provide educational opportunities for all of its members,
+but holds rather that education is necessary only for the leaders of
+society.
+
+=Democratic View.=--Against the above view, it is claimed by others
+that, while public education should undoubtedly be conducted for the
+benefit of the state as a whole; yet, since a chain cannot be stronger
+than its weakest link, the efficiency of the state must be measured by
+that of its individual units. The state, therefore, must aim, by means
+of education, to add to its own efficiency by adding to that of each and
+all of its members. This demands, however, that every individual should
+be able to meet in an intelligent way such situations as he is likely to
+encounter in his community life. Although carried on, therefore, for the
+good of the state, yet education should be democratic, or universal, and
+should fit every individual to become a useful member of society.
+
+=These Views Purely Civic.=--It is to be noted that though the latter
+view provides for the education of all as a duty of the state, yet both
+of the above views are purely civic in their significance, and hold that
+education exists for the welfare of the state as a whole and not for the
+individual. If, therefore, the state could be benefited by having the
+education of any class of citizens either limited or extended in an
+arbitrary way, nothing in the above conception of the purpose of state
+education would forbid such a course.
+
+
+INDIVIDUALISTIC VIEWS
+
+Opposed to the civic view of education, many hold, on the other hand,
+that education exists for the child and not for the state, and
+therefore, aims primarily to promote the welfare of the individual. By
+these educators it is argued that, since each child is created with a
+separate and distinct personality, it follows that he possesses a divine
+right to have that personality developed independently of the claims of
+the community to which he belongs. According to this view, therefore,
+the aim of education should be in each case solely to effect some good
+for the individual child. These educators, however, are again found to
+differ concerning what constitutes this individual good.
+
+=The Culture Aim.=--According to the practice of many educators,
+education is justified on the ground that it furnishes the individual a
+degree of personal culture. According to this view, the worth of
+education is found in the fact that it puts the learner in possession of
+a certain amount of conventional knowledge which is held to give a
+polish to the individual; this polish providing a distinguishing mark by
+which the learned class is separated from the ignorant. It is
+undoubtedly true that the so-called culture of the educated man should
+add to the grace and refinement of social life. In this sense, culture
+is not foreign to the conception of individual and social efficiency. A
+narrow cultural view, however, overlooks the fact that man's experience
+is significant only when it enables him to meet the needs and problems
+of the present, and that, as a member of a social community, he must
+apply himself to the actual problems to be met within his environment.
+To acquire knowledge, therefore, either as a mere possession or as a
+mark of personal superiority, is to give to experience an unnatural
+value.
+
+=The Utilitarian Aim.=--Others express quite an opposite view to the
+above, declaring that the aim of education is to enable the individual
+to get on in the world. By this is meant that education should enable us
+to be more successful in our business, and thus live more comfortable
+lives. Now, so far as this practical success of the individual can be
+achieved in harmony with the interests of society as a whole, we may
+grant that education should make for individual betterment. Indeed it
+may justly be claimed that an advancement in the comfort of the
+individual under such conditions really implies an increase in the
+comfort of society as a whole; for the man who is not able to provide
+for his own welfare must prove, if not a menace, at least a burden to
+society. If, however, it is implied that the educated man is to be
+placed in a position to advance his own interests irrespective of, or in
+direct opposition to, the rights and comforts of others, then the
+utilitarian view of the end of education must appear one-sided. To
+emphasize the good of the individual irrespective of the rights of
+others, and to educate all of its members with such an end in view,
+society would tend to destroy the unity of its own corporate life.
+
+=The Psychological Aim.=--According to others, although education aims
+to benefit the child, this benefit does not come from the acquisition of
+any particular type of knowledge, but is due rather to a development
+which takes place within the individual himself as a result of
+experiencing. In other words, the child as an intelligent being is born
+with certain attributes which, though at first only potential, may be
+developed into actual capacities or powers. Thus it is held that the
+real aim of education is to develop to the full such capacities as are
+found already within the child. Moreover, it is because the child has
+such possibilities of development within him, and because he starts at
+the very outset of his existence with a divine yearning to develop these
+inner powers, that he reaches out to experience his surroundings. For
+this reason, they argue that every individual should have his own
+particular capacities and powers fully and harmoniously developed. Thus
+the true aim of education is said to be to unfold the potential life of
+each individual and allow it to realize itself; the purpose of the
+school being primarily not to make of the child a useful member of
+society, but rather to study the nature of the child and develop
+whatever potentialities are found within him as an individual. Because
+this theory places such large emphasis on the natural tendencies and
+capacities of the child, it is spoken of as the psychological aim of
+education.
+
+=Limitations of the Aim.=--This view evidently differs from others in
+that it finds the justification for education, not primarily in the
+needs or rights of a larger society of which the child is a member, but
+rather in those of the single individual. Here, however, a difficulty
+presents itself. If the developing of the child's capacities and
+tendencies constitute the real purpose of public education, may not
+education at times conflict with the good of the state itself? Now it is
+evident that if a child has a tendency to lie, or steal, or inflict pain
+on others, the development of such tendencies must result in harm to the
+community at large. On the other hand, it is clear that in the case of
+other proclivities which the child may possess, such as industry,
+truthfulness, self-sacrifice, etc., the development of these cannot be
+separated from the idea of the good of others. To apply a purely
+individual aim to education, therefore, seems impossible; since we can
+have no standard to distinguish between good and bad tendencies, unless
+these are measured from a social standpoint or from a consideration of
+the good of others, and not from the mere tendencies and capacities of
+the individual. Moreover, to attempt the harmonious development of all
+the child's tendencies and powers is not justifiable, even in the case
+of those tendencies which might not conflict with the good of others. As
+already noted, division of labour has now gone so far that the
+individual may profitably be relieved from many forms of social
+activity. This implies as a corollary, however, that the individual will
+place greater stress upon other forms of activity.
+
+
+THE SOCIAL, OR ECLECTIC, VIEW
+
+Moreover, because, as already noted, the child is by his very nature a
+social being, it follows that the good of the individual can never in
+reality be opposed to the good of society, and that whenever the child
+has in his nature any tendencies which conflict with the good of others,
+these do not represent his true, or social, nature. For education to
+suppress these, therefore, is not only fitting the child for society but
+also advancing the development of the child so far as his higher, or
+true, nature is concerned. Thus the true view of the purpose of the
+school and of education will be a social, or eclectic, one, representing
+the element of truth contained in both the civic and the individualistic
+views. In the first place, such a view may be described as a civic one,
+since it is only by considering the good of others, that is of the
+state, that we can find a standard for judging the value of the child's
+tendencies. Moreover, it is only by using the forms of experience, or
+knowledge, that the community has evolved, that conditions can be
+provided under which the child's tendencies may realize themselves.
+Secondly, the true view is equally an individualistic view, for while it
+claims that the child is by his nature a social being, it also demands a
+full development of the social or moral tendencies of the individual, as
+being best for himself as well as for society.
+
+=This View Dynamic.=--In such an eclectic view of the aim of education,
+it is to be noted further that society may turn education to its own
+advancement. By providing that an individual may develop to his
+uttermost such good tendencies as he may possess, education not only
+allows the individual to make the most of his own higher nature, but
+also enables him to contribute something to the advancement, or
+elevation, of society itself. Such a conception of the aim of education,
+therefore, does not view the present social life as some static thing to
+which the child must be adapted in any formal sense, but as dynamic, or
+as having the power to develop itself in and through a fuller
+development of the higher and better tendencies within its individual
+members.
+
+=A Caution.=--While emphasizing the social, or moral, character of the
+aim of education, it is to be borne in mind by the educator that this
+implies more than a passive possession by the individual of a certain
+moral sentiment. Man is truly moral only when his moral character is
+functioning in goodness, or in _right action_. This is equivalent to
+declaring that the moral man must be individually efficient in action,
+and must likewise control his action from a regard for the rights of
+others. There is always a danger, however, of assuming that the
+development of moral character consists in giving the child some
+passive mark, or quality, without any necessity of having it continually
+functioning in conduct. But this reduces morality to a mere sentiment.
+In such a case, the moral aim would differ little from the cultural aim
+mentioned above.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY
+
+
+CONTROL OF EXPERIENCE
+
+=Significance of Control.=--From our previous inquiry into the nature of
+education, we may notice that at least two important problems present
+themselves for investigation in connection with the educative process.
+Our study of the subject-matter of education, or the school curriculum,
+has shown that its function as an educational instrumentality is to
+furnish for the child experiences of greater value, this enhanced value
+consisting in the greater social significance of the race experiences,
+or knowledge, embodied within the curriculum, when compared with the
+more individual experiences of the average child. It has been noted
+further, however, that the office of education is not merely to have the
+child translate this race experience into his own mind, but rather to
+have him add to his social efficiency by gaining an adequate power of
+control over these experiences. It is not, for instance, merely to know
+the number combinations, but to be able to meet his practical needs,
+that the child must master the multiplication tables. Control of
+experience, however, as we have seen from our analysis of the learning
+process, implies an ability to hold an aim, or problem, in view, and a
+further ability to select and arrange the means of gaining the desired
+end. In relation to the multiplication table, therefore, control of
+experience implies that a person is able to apprehend the present number
+situation as one that needs solution, and also that he can bring, or
+apply, his knowledge of the table to its solution.
+
+=Nature of Growth of Control.=--The young child is evidently not able at
+first to exercise this power of control over his experiences. When a
+very young child is aroused, say by the sound proceeding from a bell,
+the impression may give rise to certain random movements, but none of
+these indicate on his part any definite experience or purpose. When,
+however, under the same stimulation, in place of these random movements,
+the child reacts mentally in a definite way, it signifies on his part
+the recognition of an external object. This recognition shows that the
+child now has, in place of the first vague image, a more or less
+definite idea of the external thing. Before it was vague noise; now it
+is a bell. But a yet more valuable control is gained by the child when
+he gives this idea a wider meaning by organizing it as an element into
+more complex experiences, as when he relates it with the idea of a fire,
+of dinner, or of a call to school. Before it was merely a bell; now it
+is an alarm of fire. So far, however, as the child is lacking in the
+control of his experiences, he remains largely a mere creature of
+impulse and instinct, and is occupied with present impressions only.
+This implies also an inability to set up problems and solve them through
+a regular process of adjustment, and a consequent lack of power to
+arrange experiences as guides to action. In the educative process,
+however, as previously exemplified, we find that the child is not a
+slave to the passing transient impressions of the present, but is able
+to secure a control over his experience which enables him to set up
+intelligent aims, devise plans for their attainment, and apply these
+plans in gaining the end desired. Growth of control takes place,
+therefore, to the extent to which the child thus becomes able to keep
+an end in view and to select and organize means for its realization.
+
+=Elements of Control.=--In the growth of control manifested in the
+learning process, the child, as we have noticed, becomes able to judge
+the value, or worth, of experience. In other words, he becomes able to
+distinguish between the important and the trivial, and to see the
+relative values of various experiences when applied to practical ends.
+Further, he gains right feeling or an emotional warmth toward that which
+his intelligence affirms to be worthy, or grows to appreciate the right.
+Thirdly, he secures a power in execution that enables him to attain to
+that which his judgment and feeling have set up as a desirable end. In
+fine, the educative process implies for the child a growth of control by
+which he becomes able (1) to select worthy ends; (2) to devise plans for
+their attainment; and (3) to put these plans into successful execution.
+
+
+THE INSTRUCTOR'S PROBLEMS
+
+The end in any learning process being to set the pupils a problem which
+may stimulate them to gain such an efficient control of useful
+experience, or knowledge, we may note two important problems confronting
+the teacher as an instructor:
+
+1. _Problem of Matter._--The teacher must be so conversant with the
+subject-matter of the curriculum and with its value in relation to
+actual life, that he may select therefrom the problems and materials
+which will enable the child to come into possession of the desirable
+experiences. This constitutes the question of the subject-matter of
+education.
+
+2. _Problem of Method._--The teacher must further be conversant with the
+process by which the child gets command of experience or with the way in
+which the mind of the child, in reacting upon any subject-matter,
+selects and organizes his knowledge into new experience and puts the
+same into execution. In other words, the teacher must fully understand
+how to direct the child successfully through the four stages of the
+learning process.
+
+(_a_) _General Method._--In a scientific study of education it is
+usually assumed that the student-teacher has mastered academically the
+various subjects of the curriculum. In the professional school,
+therefore, the subject-matter of education is studied largely from the
+standpoint of method. In his study of method the student of education
+seeks first to master the details of the process of education outlined
+in the opening Chapters under the headings of problem, selecting
+process, relating process, and application. By this means the teacher
+comes to understand in greater detail how the mind of the child reacts
+upon the presented problems of the curriculum in gaining control over
+his experiences, or, in other words, how the process of learning
+actually takes place within the consciousness of the child. This
+sub-division is treated under the head of _General Method_.
+
+(_b_) _Special Methods._--In addition to General Method, the
+student-teacher must study each subject of the curriculum from the
+standpoint of its use in setting problems, or lessons, which shall
+enable the child to gain control of a richer experience. This
+sub-division is known as _Special Methods_, since it considers the
+particular problems involved in adapting the matter of each subject to
+the general purpose of the educative process.
+
+3. _Problem of Management._--From what has been seen in reference to the
+school as an institution organized for directing the education of the
+child, it is apparent that in addition to the immediate and direct
+control of the process of learning as involved in the method of
+instruction, there is the more indirect control of the process through
+the systematic organization and management of the school as a corporate
+institution. These more indirect problems connected with the control of
+education within the school will include, not only such topics as the
+organization and management of the pupils, but also the legal ways and
+means for providing these various educational instrumentalities. These
+indirect elements of control constitute a third phase of the problem of
+education, and their study is known as _School Organization and
+Management_.
+
+4. _An Historic Problem._--It has been noted that the corporate
+institution known as the school arose as the result of the principle of
+the division of labour, and thus took to itself duties previously
+performed under other less effective conditions. Thus the school
+presents on its organic side a history with which the teacher should be
+more or less familiar. On its historical side, therefore, education
+presents a fourth phase for study. This division of the subject is known
+as the _History of Education_.
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+The facts of education, as scientifically considered by the
+student-teacher, thus arrange themselves under four main heads:
+
+1. General Method
+
+2. Special Methods
+
+3. School Organization and Management
+
+4. History of Education
+
+The third and fourth divisions of education are always studied as
+separate subjects under the above heads. In dealing with Special
+Methods, also, it is customary in the study of education to treat each
+subject of the curriculum under its own head in both a professional and
+an academic way. There is left, therefore, for scientific consideration,
+the subject of General Method, to a study of which we shall now
+proceed.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.--METHODOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+GENERAL METHOD
+
+
+=Meaning of Method.=--In the last Chapter it was seen that, in relation
+to the child, education involves a gaining of control over experiences.
+It has been seen further, that the child gains control of new experience
+whenever he goes through a process of learning involving the four steps
+of problem, selecting activity, relating activity, and expression.
+Finally it has been decided that the teacher in his capacity as an
+instructor, by presenting children with suitable problems, may in a
+sense direct their selecting and relating activities and thus exercise a
+certain control over their learning processes. To the teacher,
+therefore, method will mean an ability to control the learning process
+in such a way that the children shall, in their turn, gain an adequate
+control over the new experience forming the subject-matter of any
+learning process. Thus a detailed study by student-teachers of the
+various steps of the learning process, with a view to gaining knowledge
+and skill relative to directing pupils in their learning, constitutes
+for such teachers a study of General Method.
+
+=Subdivisions of Method.=--For the student-teacher, the study of general
+method will involve a detailed investigation of how the child is to gain
+control of social experiences as outlined above, and how the teacher may
+bring about the same through instruction.
+
+Tn such an investigation, he must examine in detail the various steps of
+the educative process to discover:
+
+1. How the knowledge, or social experience, contained in the school
+curriculum should be presented to the child. This will involve an
+adequate study of the first step of the learning process--the problem.
+
+2. How the mind, or consciousness, of the child reacts during the
+learning process upon the presented materials in gaining control of this
+knowledge. This will embrace a study of the second and third steps of
+the process--the selecting and relating activities.
+
+3. How the child is to acquire facility in using a new experience, or in
+applying it to direct his conduct. This involves a particular study of
+the fourth step of the process--the law of expression.
+
+4. How the teacher may use any outside agencies, as maps, globes,
+specimens, experiments, etc., to assist in directing the learning
+process. This involves a study of various classes of educational
+instrumentalities.
+
+5. How the principles of general method are to be adapted to the
+different modes by which the learner may gain new experience, or
+knowledge. This will involve a study of the different kinds of lessons,
+or a knowledge of lesson types.
+
+
+METHOD IMPLIES KNOWLEDGE OF MIND
+
+Before we proceed to such a detailed study of the educative process as a
+process of teaching, it should be noted that the existence of a general
+method is possible only provided that the growth of conscious control
+takes place in the mind of the child in a systematic and orderly manner.
+All children, for instance, must be supposed to respond in the same
+general way in the learning process when they are confronted with the
+same problem. Without this they could not secure from the same lesson
+the same experiences and the same relative measure of control over
+these experiences. But if our conscious acts are so uniform that the
+teacher may expect from all of his pupils like responses and like states
+of experience under similar stimulations, then a knowledge on the part
+of the teacher of the orderly modes in which the mind works will be
+essential to an adequate control of the process of learning. Now a full
+and systematic account of mind and its activities is set forth in the
+Science of Psychology. As the Science of Consciousness, or Experience,
+psychology explains the processes by which all experience is built up,
+or organized, in consciousness. Thus psychology constitutes a basic
+science for educational method. It is essential, therefore, that the
+teacher should have some knowledge of the leading principles of this
+science. For this reason, frequent reference will be made, in the study
+of general method, to underlying principles of psychology. The more
+detailed examination of these principles and of their application to
+educational method will, however, be postponed to a later part of the
+text. Each of the four important steps of the learning process will now
+be treated in order, beginning in the next Chapter with the problem.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE LESSON PROBLEM
+
+
+=Problem, a Motive.=--The foregoing description and examples of the
+educative process have shown that new knowledge necessarily results
+whenever the mind faces a difficulty, or need, and adjusts itself
+thereto. In other words, knowledge is found to possess a practical value
+and to arise as man faces the difficulties, or problems, with which he
+is confronted. The basis of conscious activity in any direction is,
+therefore, a feeling of _need_. If one analyses any of his conscious
+acts, he will find that the motive is the satisfaction of some desire
+which he more or less consciously feels. The workman exerts himself at
+his labour because he feels the need of satisfying his artistic sense or
+of supplying the necessities of those who are dependent upon him; the
+teacher prepares the lessons he has to present and puts forth effort to
+teach them successfully, because he feels the need of educating the
+pupils committed to his care; the physician observes symptoms closely
+and consults authorities carefully, because he feels the need of curing
+his patients; the lawyer masters every detail of the case he is
+pleading, because he feels the need of protecting the interests of his
+client. What is true of adults is equally true of children in school.
+The pupil puts forth effort in school work because he feels that this
+work is meeting some of his needs.
+
+=Nature of Problem.=--It is not to be assumed, however, that the only
+problem which will prompt the individual to put forth conscious effort
+must be a purely physical need, such as hunger, thirst, or a distinct
+desire for the attainment of a definite object, as to avoid danger or to
+secure financial gain or personal pleasure. Nor is it to be understood
+that the learner always clearly formulates the problem in his own mind.
+Indeed, as will be seen more fully later, one very important motive for
+mastering a presented problem is the instinct of curiosity. As an
+example of such may be noted a case which came under the observation of
+the writer, where the curiosity of a small child was aroused through the
+sight of a mud-turtle crawling along a walk. After a few moments of
+intense investigation, he cried to those standing by, "Come and see the
+bug in the basket." Here, evidently, the child's curiosity gave the
+strange appearance sufficient value to cause him to make it an object of
+study. Impelled by this feeling, he must have selected ideas from his
+former experience (bug--crawling thing; basket--incasing thing), which
+seemed of value in interpreting the unknown presentation. Finally by
+focusing these upon this strange object, he formed an idea, or mental
+picture, which gave him a reasonable control over the new vague
+presentation. Such a motive as curiosity may not imply to the same
+degree as some others a personal need, nor does it mean that the child
+consciously says to himself that this new material or activity is
+satisfying a specific need, but in some vague way he knows that it
+appeals to him because of its attractiveness in itself or because of its
+relation to some other attractive object. In brief, it interests him,
+and thus creates a tendency on the part of an individual to give it his
+attention. In such situations, therefore, the learner evidently feels to
+a greater or less degree a necessity, or a practical need, for solving
+the problem before him.
+
+
+NEED OF PROBLEM
+
+=Knowledge Gained Accidentally.=--It is evident, however, that at times
+knowledge might be gained in the absence of any set problem upon which
+the learner reacts. For example, a certain person while walking along a
+road intent upon his own personal matters observed a boy standing near a
+high fence. On passing further along the street, he glanced through an
+opening and observed a vineyard within the inclosure. On returning along
+the street a few minutes later, he saw the same boy standing at a near
+by corner eating grapes. Hereupon these three ideas at once co-ordinated
+themselves into a new form of knowledge, signifying stealing-of-fruit.
+In such a case, the experience has evidently been gained without the
+presence of a problem to guide the selecting and relating of the ideas
+entering into the new knowledge. In like manner, a child whose only
+motive is to fill paper with various coloured crayon may accidentally
+discover, while engaged on this problem, that red and yellow will
+combine to make orange, or that yellow and blue will combine to make
+green. Here also the child gains valuable experience quite
+spontaneously, that is, without its constituting a motive, or problem,
+calling for adjustment.
+
+=Learning without Motive.=--In the light of the above, a question
+suggests itself in relation to the lesson problem, or motive. Granting
+that a regular school recitation must contain some valuable problem for
+which the learning process is to furnish a solution, and granting that
+the teacher must be fully conscious both of the problem and of its mode
+of solution, the question might yet be asked whether a problem is to be
+realized by the child as a felt need at the beginning of the lesson. For
+example, if the teacher wishes his pupils to learn how to compose the
+secondary colour purple, might he have them blend in a purely arbitrary
+way, red and blue, and finally ask them to note the result? Or again, if
+he wishes the pupils to learn the construction of a paper-box or
+fire-place, would he not be justified in directing them to make certain
+folds, to do certain cutting, and to join together the various sections
+in a certain way, and then asking them to note the result? If such a
+course is permissible, it would seem that, so far at least as the
+learner is concerned, he may gain control of valuable experience, or
+knowledge, without the presence of a problem, or motive, to give the
+learning process value and direction.
+
+=Problem Aids Control.=--It is true that in cases like the above, the
+child may gain the required knowledge. The cause for this is, no doubt,
+that the physical activity demanded of the pupil constitutes indirectly
+a motive for attending sufficiently to gain the knowledge. But in many
+cases no such conditions might exist. It is important, therefore, to
+have the pupil as far as possible realize at the outset a definite
+motive for each lesson. The advantage consists in the fact that the
+motive gives a value to the ideas which enter into the new knowledge,
+even before they are fully incorporated into a new experience. For
+example, if in a lesson in geometrical drawing, the teacher, instead of
+having the child set out with the problem of drawing a pair of parallel
+lines, merely orders him to follow certain directions, and then requests
+him to measure the shortest distance between the lines at different
+points, the child is not likely to grasp the connections of the various
+steps involved in the construction of the whole problem. This means,
+however, that the learner has not secured an equal control over the new
+experience.
+
+=Pupils Feel Its Lack.=--A further objection to conducting a lesson in
+such a way that the child may find no motive for the process until the
+close of the lesson, is the fact that he is himself aware of its lack.
+In school the child soon discovers that in a lesson he selects and gives
+attention to various ideas solely in order to gain control over some
+problem which he may more or less definitely conceive in advance. For
+this reason, if the teacher attempts, as in the above examples, to fix
+the child's attention on certain facts without any conception of
+purpose, the pupil nevertheless usually asks himself the question: "What
+does the teacher intend me to do with these facts?" Indeed, without at
+least that motive to hold such disconnected ideas in his mind, it is
+doubtful whether the pupil would attend to them sufficiently to organize
+them into a new item of knowledge. When, therefore, the teacher proposes
+at the outset an attractive problem to solve, he has gone a long way
+toward stimulating the intellectual activity of the pupil. The setting
+of problems, the supplying of motives, the giving of aims, the awakening
+of needs--this constitutes a large part of the business of the teacher.
+
+
+PUPIL'S MOTIVE
+
+=Pupil's Problem versus Teacher's.=--But it is important that the
+problem before the pupil at the beginning of the lesson should really be
+the pupil's and not the teacher's merely. The teacher should be careful
+not to impose the problem on the pupils in an arbitrary way, but should
+try to connect the lesson with an interest that is already active. The
+teacher's motive in teaching the lesson and the pupil's motive in
+attending to it are usually quite different. The teacher's problem
+should, of course, be identical with the real problem of the lesson.
+Thus in a literature lesson on "Hide and Seek" (_Ontario Third Reader_),
+the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil to appreciate the music
+of the lines, the beauty of the images, and the pathos of the ideas; and
+in general, to increase the pupil's capacities of constructive
+imagination and artistic appreciation. The pupil's motive might be to
+find out how the poet had described a familiar game. In a nature study
+lesson on "The Rabbit," the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil
+to make certain observations and draw certain inferences and thus add
+something to his facility in observation and inference. The pupil's
+motive in the same lesson would be to discover something new about a
+very interesting animal. In general, the teacher's motive will be (1) to
+give the pupil a certain kind of useful knowledge; (2) to develop and
+strengthen certain organs; or (3) to add something to his mechanical
+skill by the forming of habitual reactions. In general, the pupil's
+motive will be to learn some fact, to satisfy some instinct, or perform
+some activity that is interesting either in itself or because of its
+relation to some desired end. That is, the pupil's motive is the
+satisfaction of an interest or the promotion of a purpose.
+
+=Pupil's Motive May Be Indirect.=--It is evident from the foregoing that
+the pupil's motive for applying himself to any lesson may differ from
+the real lesson problem, or motive. For instance, in mastering the
+reading of a certain selection, the pupil's chief motive in applying
+himself to this particular task may be to please and win the approbation
+of the teacher. The true lesson problem, however, is to enable the
+learner to give expression to the thoughts and feelings of the author.
+When the aim, or motive, is thus somewhat disconnected from the lesson
+problem itself, it becomes an _indirect_ motive. While such indirect
+motives are undoubtedly valuable and must often be used with young
+children, it is evident that when the pupil's motive is more or less
+directly associated with the real problem of the lesson, it will form a
+better centre for the selecting and organizing of the ideas entering
+into the new experience.
+
+=Relation to Pupil's Feeling.=--A chief essential in connection with the
+pupil's motive, or attitude, toward the lesson problem, is that the
+child should _feel_ a value in the problem. That is, his apprehension of
+the problem should carry with it a desire to secure a complete mastery
+of the problem from a sense of its intrinsic value. The difference in
+feeling which a pupil may have toward the worth of a problem would be
+noticed by comparing the attitude of a class in the study of a military
+biography or a pioneer adventure taken from Canadian or United States
+sources respectively. In the case of the former, the feeling of
+patriotism associated with the lesson problem will give it a value for
+the pupils entirely absent from the other topic. The extent to which the
+pupil feels such a value in the lesson topic will in most cases also
+measure the degree of control he obtains over the new experience.
+
+
+AWAKENING INTEREST IN PROBLEMS
+
+As will be seen in Chapter XXIX, where our feeling states will be
+considered more fully, feeling is essentially a personal attitude of
+mind, and there can be little guarantee that a group of pupils will feel
+an equal value in the same problem. At times, in fact, even where the
+pupil understands fairly well the significance of a presented lesson
+problem, he may feel little personal interest in it. One of the most
+important questions of method is, therefore, how to awaken in a class
+the necessary interest in the lesson problem with which they are being
+presented.
+
+1. =Through Physical Activity.=--It is a characteristic of the young
+child to enjoy physical activity for the sake of the activity itself.
+This is true even of his earliest acts, such as stretching, smiling,
+etc. Although these are merely impulsive movements without conscious
+purpose, the child soon forms ideas of different acts, and readily
+associates these with other ideas. Thus he takes a delight in the mere
+functioning of muscles, hands, voice, etc., in expressive movements. As
+he develops, however, on account of the close association, during his
+early years, between thought and movement, the child is much interested
+in any knowledge which may be presented to him in direct association
+with motor activity. This fact is especially noticeable in that the
+efforts of a child to learn a strange object consist largely in
+endeavouring to discover what he can do with it. He throws, rolls,
+strikes, strives _to_ open it, and in various other ways makes it a
+means of physical expression. Whenever, especially, he can discover the
+use of an object, as to cut with knife or scissors, to pound with a
+hammer, to dip with a ladle, or to sweep with a broom, this social
+significance of the object gives him full satisfaction, and little
+attention is paid to other qualities. For these reasons the teacher will
+find it advantageous, whenever possible, to associate a lesson problem
+directly with some form of physical action. In primary number work, for
+example, instead of presenting the child with mere numbers and symbols,
+the teacher may provide him with objects, in handling which he may
+associate the number facts with certain acts of grouping objects. It is
+in this way that a child should approach such problems as:
+
+    How many fours are there in twelve?
+    How many feet in a yard?
+    How many quarts in a peck? etc.
+
+The teaching of fractions by means of scissors and cardboard; the
+teaching of board measure by having boards actually measured; the
+teaching of primary geography by means of the sand-table; the teaching
+of nature study by excursions to fields and woods; these are all easy
+because we are working in harmony with the child's natural tendency to
+be physically active. The more closely the lesson problem adjusts itself
+to these tendencies, the greater will be the pupil's activity and hence
+the more rapid his progress.
+
+2. Through Constructive Instinct.--The child's delight in motor
+expression is closely associated with his instinctive tendency to
+construct. When, therefore, new knowledge can be presented to the child
+in and through constructive exercises, he is more likely to feel its
+value. Thus it is possible, by means of such occupations as paper
+folding or stick-laying, to provide interesting problems for teaching
+number and geometric forms. In folding the check-board, for example, the
+child will master necessary problems relating to the numbers, 2, 4, 8,
+and 16. In learning colour, it is more interesting for the child to
+study different colours through painting leaves, flowers, and fruits,
+than to learn them through mere sense impressions, or even through
+comparing coloured objects, as in the Montessori chromatic exercises. A
+study of the various kindergarten games and occupations would give an
+abundance of examples illustrative of the possibility of presenting
+knowledge in direct association with various types of constructive
+work.
+
+=A. Activity must be Directly Connected with Problem.=--It may be noted,
+however, that certain dangers associate themselves with these methods.
+One danger consists in the fact that, if care is not taken, the physical
+activity may not really involve the knowledge to be conveyed, but may be
+only very indirectly associated with it. Such a danger might occur in
+the use of the Montessori colour tablets for teaching tints and shades.
+In handling those, kindergarten children show a strong inclination to
+build flat forms with the tablets. Now unless these building exercises
+involve the distinguishing of the various tints and shades, the
+constructive activity will be likely to divert the attention of the
+pupil away from the colour problem which the tablets are supposed to set
+for the pupils.
+
+=B. Not too much Emphasis on Manual Skill.=--Again, in expressive
+exercises intended merely to impart new knowledge, it may happen that
+the teacher will lay too much stress on perfect form of expression. In
+these exercises, however, the purpose should be rather to enable the
+child to realize the ideas in his expressive actions. When, for example,
+a child, in learning such geographical forms as island, gulf, mountain,
+etc., uses sand, clay, or plasticine as a medium of expression, too much
+striving after accuracy of form in minor details may tend to draw the
+pupil's attention from the broader elements of knowledge to be mastered.
+In other words, it is the gaining of certain ideas, or knowledge, and
+not technical perfection, that is being aimed at in such expressive
+movements.
+
+=3. Instinct of Curiosity as Motive.=--The value of the instinct of
+curiosity in setting a problem for the young child has been already
+referred to. From what was there seen, it is evident that to the extent
+to which the teacher awakens wonder and curiosity in his presentation
+of a lesson problem, the child will be ready to enter upon the further
+steps of the learning process. For example, by inserting two forks and a
+large needle into a cork, as illustrated in the accompanying Figure, and
+then apparently balancing the whole on a small hard surface, we may
+awaken a deep interest in the problem of gravity. In the same manner, by
+calling the pupils' attention to the drops on the outside of a glass
+pitcher filled with water, we may have their curiosity aroused for the
+study of condensation. So also the presentation of a picture may arouse
+curiosity in places or people.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=4. Ownership as Motive.=--The natural pleasure which children take in
+collection and ownership may often be associated with presented problems
+in a way to cause them to take a deeper interest in the knowledge to be
+acquired. For example, in presenting a lesson on the countries of
+Europe, the collection of coins or stamps representative of the
+different countries will add greatly to the interest, compared with a
+mere outline study of the political divisions from a map. A more
+detailed examination of the instincts and tendencies of the child and
+their relation to the educative process will, however, be found in
+Chapter XXI.
+
+=5. Acquired Interest as Motive.=--Finally, in the case of individual
+pupils, a knowledge of their particular, or special, interests is often
+a means of awakening in them a feeling of value for various types of
+school work. As an example, there might be cited the experience of a
+teacher who had in his school a pupil whom it seemed impossible to
+interest in reading. Thereupon the teacher made it his object to learn
+what were this pupil's chief interests outside the school. Using these
+as a basis for the selecting of simple reading matter for the boy, he
+was soon able to create in him an interest in reading for its own sake.
+The result was that in a short time this pupil was rendered reasonably
+efficient in what had previously seemed to him an uninteresting and
+impossible task.
+
+=6. Use of Knowledge as Motive.=--In the preceding cases, interest in
+the problem is made to rest primarily upon some native instinct, or
+tendency. It is to be noted, however, that as the child advances in the
+acquisition of knowledge, or experience, there develops in him also a
+desire for mental activity. In other words, the normal child takes a
+delight in the use of any knowledge over which he possesses adequate
+control. It is to be noted further, that the child masters the new
+problem by bringing to bear upon it suitable ideas selected out of his
+previously acquired experiences. It is evident, therefore, that, when a
+lesson problem is presented to the child in such a way that he sees a
+connection between it and his present knowledge and feels, further, that
+the problem may be mastered by a use of knowledge over which he has
+complete mastery, he will take a deeper interest in the learning
+process. When, on the other hand, he has imperfect control over the old
+knowledge from which the interpreting ideas are selected, his interest
+in the problem itself will be greatly reduced. Owing to this fact, the
+teacher may adapt his lesson problems, or motives, to the stage of
+development of the pupils. In the case of young children, since they
+have little knowledge, but possess a number of instinctive tendencies,
+the lesson problem should be such as may be associated with their
+instinctive tendencies. Since, however, the expressing of these
+tendencies necessarily brings to the child ideas, or increases his
+knowledge, the pupil will in time desire to use his growing knowledge
+for its own sake. Here the child becomes able to grasp a problem
+consciously, or in idea, and, so far as it appeals to his past
+experience, will desire to work for its solution. Thus any problem which
+is recognized as having a vital connection with his own experience
+constitutes for the child a strong motive. For older pupils, therefore,
+the lesson problem which constitutes the strongest motive is the one
+that is consciously recognized and felt to have some direct connection
+with their present knowledge.
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF PROBLEM
+
+=Relation to Pupil's Knowledge.=--Since the conscious apprehension of
+the problem by the pupil in its relation to his present knowledge
+constitutes the best motive for the learning process, a question arises
+how this problem is to be grasped by the pupil. First, it is evident
+that the problem is not a state of knowledge, or a complete experience.
+If such were the case, there would be nothing for him to learn. It is
+this partial ignorance that causes a problem to exist for the learner as
+a felt need, or motive. On the other hand it is not a state of complete
+ignorance, otherwise the learner could not call up any related ideas
+for its solution. When, for example, the child, after learning the
+various physical features, the climate, and people of Ontario, is
+presented with the problem of learning the chief industries, he is able
+by his former knowledge to realize the existence of these industries
+sufficiently to feel the need of a fuller realization. In the same way
+the student who has traced the events of Canadian History up to the year
+1791, is able to know the Constitutional Act as a problem for study,
+that is, he is able to experience the existence of such a problem and to
+that extent is able to know it. His mental state is equally a state of
+ignorance, in that he has not realized in his own consciousness all the
+facts relative to the Act. In the orderly study of any school subject,
+therefore, the mastery of the previous lesson or lessons will in turn
+suggest problems for further lessons. It is this further development of
+new problems out of present knowledge that demands an orderly sequence
+of topics in the different school subjects, a fact that should be fully
+realized by the teacher.
+
+=Recognition of Problem: A. Prevents Digressions.=--An adequate
+recognition of the lesson problem by the pupil in the light of his own
+experience is useful in preventing the introduction of irrelevant
+material into the lesson. Young children are particularly prone (and,
+under certain circumstances, older students also) to drag into the
+lessons interesting side issues that have been suggested by some phase
+of the work. As a rule, it is advisable to follow closely the straight
+and narrow road that leads to the goal of the lesson and not to permit
+digressions into attractive by-paths. If a pupil attempts to introduce
+irrelevant matter, he should be asked what the problem of the lesson is
+and whether what he is speaking of will be of any value in attaining
+that end. The necessity of this will, however, be seen more fully in our
+consideration of the next division of the learning process.
+
+=B. Organizes the Lesson Facts.=--The adequate recognition of the lesson
+problem is valuable in helping the pupil to organize his knowledge. If
+you take a friend for a walk along the streets of a strange city
+engaging him in interesting conversation by the way, and if, when you
+have reached a distant point, you tell him that he must find his way
+back alone, he will probably be unable to do so without assistance. But
+if you tell him at the outset what you are going to do, he will note
+carefully the streets traversed, the corners turned, the directions
+taken, and will likely find his way back easily. This is because he had
+a clearly defined problem before him. The conditions are much the same
+in a lesson. When the pupil starts out with no definite problem and is
+led along blindly to some unknown goal, he will be unable to retrace his
+route; that is, he will be unable to reproduce the matter over which he
+has been taken. But with a clearly defined problem he will be able to
+note the order of the steps of the lesson, their relation to one another
+and to the problem, and when the lesson is over he will be able to go
+over the same course again. The facts of the lesson will have become
+organized in his mind.
+
+
+HOW TO SET LESSON PROBLEM
+
+=Precautions.=--If the teacher expects his pupils to become interested
+in a problem by immediately recognizing a connection between it and
+their previous knowledge, he must avoid placing the problem before them
+in a form in which they cannot readily apprehend this connection. The
+teacher who announced at the beginning of the grammar lesson, "To-day we
+are going to learn about Mood in verbs" started the problem in a form
+that was meaningless to the class. The simplest method in such a lesson
+would be to draw attention to examples in sentences of verbs showing
+this change and then say to the class, "Let us discover why these verbs
+are changed." Similarly, to propose as the problem of the history lesson
+"the development of parliamentary government during the Stuart period"
+would be to use terms too difficult for the class to interpret. It would
+be better to say: "We are going to find out how the Stuart kings were
+forced by Parliament to give up control of certain things." Instead of
+saying, "We shall study in this lesson the municipal government of
+Ontario," it would be much better to proceed in some such way as the
+following: "A few days ago your father paid his taxes for the year. Now
+we are going to learn by whom, and for what purposes, these taxes are
+spent." Similarly, "Let us find out all we can about the cat," would be
+inferior to, "Of what use to the cat are his sharp claws, padded feet,
+and rough tongue?"
+
+On the other hand, it is evident that, in attempting to present the
+problem in a form in which the pupils may recognize its connection with
+their previous experiences, care must be taken not to tell outright the
+whole point of the lesson. In a lesson on the adverb, for instance, it
+would not do to say: "You have learned how adjectives modify, or change
+the meaning of, nouns. To-day we shall study words that modify verbs." A
+more satisfactory way of proceeding in such a lesson would be to have on
+the black-board two sets of sentences exactly alike except that the
+second would contain adverbs and the first would not. Then ask: "What
+words are in the second group of sentences that are not in the first?
+Let us examine the use of these words." In the same way, to state the
+problem of an arithmetic lesson as the discovery of "how to add
+fractions by changing them to equivalent fractions having the same
+denominator" is open to the objection of telling too much. In this case
+a better method would be to present a definite problem requiring the use
+of addition of fractions. The pupil will see that he has not the
+necessary arithmetical knowledge to solve the problem and will then be
+in the proper mental attitude for the lesson.
+
+
+EXAMPLES OF MOTIVATION
+
+A few additional examples, drawn from different school subjects, are
+here added to illustrate further what is meant by setting a problem as a
+need, or motive.
+
+=A. History.=--The members of a Form IV class were about to take up the
+study of the influence of John Wilkes upon parliamentary affairs during
+the reign of George III. As most of the pupils had visited the Canadian
+Parliament Buildings and had watched from the galleries the proceedings
+of the House of Commons, the teacher took this as the point of departure
+for the lesson. First, he obtained from the class the facts that the
+members of the Commons are elected by the different constituencies of
+the Dominion and that nobody has any power to interfere with the
+people's right to elect whomsoever they wish to represent them. The same
+conditions exist to-day in England, but this has not always been the
+case there. There was a time when the people's choice of a
+representative was sometimes set aside. The teacher then inquired
+regarding the men who sit in the gallery just above the Speaker's chair.
+These are the parliamentary reporters for the important daily
+newspapers throughout the Dominion. They send telegraphic despatches
+regarding the debates in the House to their respective newspapers. These
+despatches are published the following day, and the people of the
+country are thus enabled to know what is going on in Parliament. Nobody
+has any right to prevent these newspapers from publishing what they wish
+regarding the proceedings, provided, of course, the reports are not
+untruthful. These conditions prevail also in England now, but have not
+always done so.
+
+The work of the lesson was to see how these two conditions, freedom of
+elections and liberty of the press, have been brought about. The pupils
+were thus placed in a receptive attitude to hear the story of John
+Wilkes.
+
+=B. Arithmetic.=--A Form IV class had been studying decimals and knew
+how to read and write, add and subtract them. The teacher suggested a
+situation requiring the use of multiplication, and the pupils found
+themselves without the necessary means to meet the situation. For
+instance, "Mary's mother sent her to buy 2.25 lb. tea which cost $.375
+per lb. What would she have to pay for it?" Or, "Mr. Brown has a field
+containing 8.72 acres. Last year it yielded 21.375 bushels of wheat to
+the acre. Wheat was worth 97.5 cents per bushel. What was the crop from
+the field worth?" The pupils saw that, in order to solve these
+questions, they must know how to multiply decimals. Multiplication of
+decimals became the problem of the lesson, the goal to be attained.
+
+=C. Grammar.=--The teacher wished to show the meaning of _case_ as an
+inflection of nouns and pronouns. He had written on the black-board such
+sentences as:
+
+    I dropped my book when John pushed me.
+    When the man passed, he had his dog with him.
+
+He asked the pupils what words in these sentences refer to the same
+person, and obtained the answer that _I_, _my_, and _me_ all refer to
+one person, and _he_, _his_, and _him_ to another. Then, he proposed the
+problem, "Let us find out why we have three different forms of a word
+all meaning the same person." The problem was adapted to animate the
+curiosity of the pupils and call into activity their capacity for
+perceiving relationships.
+
+=D. Literature.=--The teacher was about to present the poem, "Hide and
+Seek," to a Form III class. He said, "You have all played 'hide and
+seek.' How do you play it? You will find on page 50 of your _Ontario
+Third Reader_ a beautiful poem describing a game of 'hide and seek' that
+is rather a sad one. Let us see how the poet has described this game."
+The pupils were at once interested in what the poet had to say about
+what was to them a very familiar diversion, and, while the lesson was in
+progress, their capacity for sympathy and for artistic appreciation was
+appealed to.
+
+=E. Geography.=--A Form III class was to study some of the more
+important commercial centres of Canada. Speaking of Montreal, the
+teacher proposed the problem, "Do you think we can find out why a city
+of half a million people has grown up at this particular point?" The
+pupils' instinct of curiosity was here appealed to and their capacity
+for perceiving relationships was challenged.
+
+=F. Composition.=--The teacher wished to take up the writing of letters
+of application with a class of Form IV pupils. He wrote on the
+black-board an advertisement copied from a recent newspaper, for
+example, "Wanted--A boy about fifteen to assist in office; must be a
+good writer and accurate in figures; apply by letter to Martin & Kelly,
+8 Central Chambers, City." Then he said, "Some day in the near future
+many of you will be called upon to answer such an advertisement as this.
+Now what should a letter of application in reply to this contain?" The
+class at once proceeded, with the teacher's assistance, to work out a
+satisfactory letter. Here, a purpose for the future was the principal
+need promoted.
+
+=G. Nature Study.=--The pupils of a Form II class had been making
+observations regarding a pet rabbit that one of their number had brought
+to school. After reporting these observations, the pupils were asked,
+"What good do you think these long ears, large eyes, strong hind legs,
+split upper lip, etc., are to the rabbit?" Here the problem set was
+related to the children's instinctive interest in a living animal,
+appealed to the instinct of curiosity, and challenged their capacity to
+draw inferences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY
+
+OR
+
+PROCESS OF ANALYSIS
+
+
+=Knowledge Obtained Through Use of Ideas.=--As already noted, the
+presented problem of a lesson is neither a state of complete knowledge
+nor a state of complete ignorance. On the other hand, its function is to
+provide a starting-point and guide for the calling up of a number of
+suitable ideas which the pupil may later relate into a single
+experience, constituting the new knowledge. Take, for example, a person
+without a knowledge of fractions, who approaches for the first time the
+problem of sharing as found in such a question as:
+
+Divide $15 between John and William, giving John $3 as often as William
+gets $2.
+
+In gaining control of this situation, the pupil must select the ideas $3
+and $2, the knowledge that $3 and $2 = $5, and the further knowledge
+that $15 contains $5 three times. These various ideas will constitute
+data for organizing the new experience of $9 for John and $6 for
+William. In the same manner, when the student in grammar is first
+presented with the problem of interpreting the grammatical value of the
+word _driving_ in the sentence, "The boy _driving_ the horse is very
+noisy," he is compelled to apply to its interpretation the ideas noun,
+adjectival relation, and adjective, and also the ideas object, objective
+relation, and verb. In this way the child secures the mental elements
+which he may organize into the new experience, or knowledge
+(participle), and thus gain control of the presented word.
+
+=Interpreting Ideas Already Known.=--It is to be noticed at the outset
+that all ideas selected to aid in the solution of the lesson problem
+have their origin in certain past experiences which have a bearing on
+the subject in hand. When presented with a strange object (guava), a
+person fixes his attention upon it, and thereupon is able, through his
+former sensation experiences, to interpret it as an unknown thing. He
+then begins to select, out of his experiences of former objects, ideas
+that bear upon the thing before him. By focusing thereon certain ideas
+with which he is perfectly familiar, as rind, flesh, seed, etc., he
+interprets the strange thing as a kind of fruit. In the same way, when
+the student is first presented in school with an example of the
+infinitive, he brings to bear upon the vague presentation various ideas
+already contained within his experience through his previous study of
+the noun and the verb. To the extent also to which he possesses and is
+able to recall these necessary old ideas, will he be able to adjust
+himself to the new and unfamiliar presented example (infinitive). It is
+evident, therefore, that a new presentation can have a meaning for us
+only as it is related to something in our past experience.
+
+=Further Examples.=--The mind invariably tries to interpret new
+presentations in terms of old ideas. A newspaper account of a railway
+wreck will be intelligible to us only through the revival and
+reconstruction of those past experiences that are similar to the
+elements described in the account. The grief, disappointment, or
+excitement of another will be appreciated only as we have experienced
+similar feelings in the past. New ideas are interpreted by means of
+related old ideas; new feelings and acts are dependent upon and made
+possible by related old feelings and acts. Moreover, the meaning
+assigned to common objects varies with different persons and even with
+the same person under different circumstances. A forest would be
+regarded by the savage as a place to hide from the attacks of his
+enemies; by the hunter as a place to secure game; by the woodcutter as
+affording firewood; by the lumberman as yielding logs for lumber; by the
+naturalist as offering opportunity for observing insects and animals; by
+the artist as a place presenting beautiful combinations of colours. This
+ability of the mind to retain and use its former knowledge in meeting
+and interpreting new experiences is known in psychology as
+_apperception_. A more detailed study of apperception as a mental
+process will be made in Chapter XXVI.
+
+
+THE SELECTING PROCESS
+
+=Learner's Mind Active.=--A further principle of method to be deduced
+from the foregoing is, that the process of bringing ideas out of former
+experiences to bear upon a presented problem must take place within the
+mind of the learner himself. The new knowledge being an experience
+organized from elements selected out of former experiences, it follows
+that the learner will possess the new knowledge only in so far as he has
+himself gone through the process of selecting the necessary interpreting
+ideas out of his own former knowledge and finally organizing them into
+new knowledge. This need for the pupil to direct mental effort, or
+attention, upon the problem in order to bring upon it, out of his former
+knowledge, the ideas relative to the solution of the question before
+him, is one of the most important laws of method. From the standpoint of
+the teacher, this law demands that he so direct the process of learning
+that the pupil will clearly call up in consciousness the selected
+interpreting ideas as portions of his old knowledge, and further feel a
+connection between these and the new problem before him.
+
+=Learner's Experience Analysed.=--The second stage of the learning
+process is found to involve also a breaking up of former experience.
+This appears in the fact that the various ideas which are necessary to
+interpret the new problem are to be selected out of larger complexes of
+past experience. For example, in a lesson whose problem is to account
+for the lack of rainfall in the Sahara desert, the pupil may have a
+complex of experiences regarding the position of the desert. Out of this
+mass of experience he must, however, select the one feature--its
+position in relation to the equator. In the same way, he may have a
+whole body of experience regarding the winds of Africa. This body must,
+however, be analysed, and the attention fixed upon the North-east
+trade-wind. Again, he may know many things about these winds, but here
+he selects out the single item of their coming from a land source.
+Again, from the complex of old knowledge which he possesses regarding
+the land area from which the wind blows, he must analyse out its
+temperature, and compare it with that of the areas toward which the wind
+is blowing. Thus it will be seen that, step by step, the special items
+of old knowledge to be used in the apperceptive process are selected out
+of larger masses of experience. For this reason this phase of the
+learning process is frequently designated as a process of analysis.
+
+=Problem as Object of Analysis.=--Although the second step of the
+learning process has been described as a selecting of elements from past
+experience, it might be supposed that the various elements which the
+mind has been said to select from its former experiences to interpret
+the new problem, come in a sense from the presentation itself. Thus it
+is often said, in describing the present step in the learning process,
+that the presentation embodies a certain aggregate of experience, which
+the learner can master by analysing it into its component parts and
+recombining the analysed parts into a better known whole.
+
+=Analysis Depends upon Selection.=--It is not in the above sense,
+however, that the term analysis is to be applied in the learning
+process. It is not true, for instance, when a person is presented with a
+strange object, say an _ornithorhynchus_, and realizes it in only a
+vague way, that any mere analysis of the object will discover for him
+the various characteristics which are to synthesize into a knowledge of
+the animal. This would imply that in analysis the mind merely breaks up
+a vaguely known whole in order to make of it a definitely known whole.
+But the learner could not discover the characteristics of such an object
+unless the mind attended to it with certain elements of its former
+experiences. Unless, for instance, the person already knew certain
+characteristics of both birds and animals, he could not interpret the
+ornithorhynchus as a bird-beaked animal. In the case of the child and
+the mud-turtle, also, there could have been no analysis of the problem
+in the way referred to, had the child not had the ideas, bug and basket,
+as elements of former experience. These characteristics, therefore,
+which enter into a definite knowledge of the object, do not come out of
+the object by a mere mechanical process of analysis, but are rather read
+into the object by the apperceptive process. That is, the learner does
+not get his new experience directly out of the presented materials, but
+builds up his new experience out of elements of his former knowledge. In
+other words, the learner sees in the new object, or problem, only such
+characteristics as his former knowledge and interest enable him to see.
+Thus while the learner may be said from one standpoint to analyse the
+new problem, this is possible only because he is able to break up, or
+analyse, his former experience and read certain of its elements into the
+new presentation. To say that the mind analyses the unknown object, or
+topic, in any other sense, would be to confound mental interpretation
+with physical analysis.
+
+=A Further Example.=--The following example will further show that the
+learner can analyse a presented problem only to the extent that he is
+able to put characteristics into it by this process of analysing or
+selecting from his past experience. Consider how a young child gains his
+knowledge of a triangle. At first his control of certain sensations
+enables him to read into it two ideas, three-sidedness and
+three-angledness, and only these factors, therefore, organize themselves
+into his experience triangle. Nor would any amount of mere attention
+enable him at this stage to discover another important quality in the
+thing triangle. Later, however, through the growth of his geometric
+experience, he may be able to read another quality into a triangle,
+namely two-right-angledness. This new quality will then, and only then,
+be organized with his former knowledge into a more complete knowledge of
+a triangle. Here again it is seen that analysis as a learning process is
+really reading into a new presentation something which the mind already
+possesses as an element of former experience, and not gaining something
+at first hand out of the presented problem.
+
+=Problem Directs Selection.=--It will be well to note here also that the
+selecting of the interpreting ideas is usually controlled by the problem
+with which the mind is engaged. This is indicated from the various ways
+in which the same object may be interpreted as the mind is confronted
+with different problems. The round stone, for instance, when one wishes
+to crack the filbert, is viewed as a hammer; when he wishes to place his
+paper on the ground, it becomes a weight; when he is threatened by the
+strange dog, it becomes a weapon of defence. In like manner the sign _x_
+suggests an unknown quantity in relation to the algebraic problem; in
+relation to phonics it is a double sound; in relation to numeration, the
+number ten. It is evident that in all these cases, what determines the
+meaning given to the presented object is the _need_, or _problem_, that
+is at the moment predominant. In the same way, any lesson problem, in so
+far as it is felt to be of value, forms a starting-point for calling up
+other ideas, and therefore starts in the learner's mind a flow of ideas
+which is likely to furnish the solution. Moreover, the mind has the
+power to measure the suitability of various ideas and select or reject
+them as they are felt to stand related to the problem in hand. For
+example, when a pupil is engaged in a study of the grammatical value of
+the word _driving_ in the sentence, "The boy driving the horse is very
+noisy," it is quite possible that he may think of the horse at his own
+home, or the shouting of his father's hired man, or even perhaps the
+form of the word _driving_, if he has just been viewing it in a writing
+lesson. The mind is able, however, to reject these irrelevant ideas, and
+select only those that seem to adjust themselves to the problem in hand.
+The cause of this lies in the fact that the problem is at the outset at
+least partly understood by the learner, which fact enables him to
+determine whether the ideas coming forward in consciousness are related
+in any way to this partially known topic. Thus in the example cited,
+the learner knows the problem sufficiently to realize that it is a
+question of grammatical function, and is able, therefore, to feel the
+value, or suitability, of any knowledge which may be applied to it, even
+before he is fully aware of its ultimate relation thereto.
+
+
+LAW OF PREPARATION
+
+=Control of Old Knowledge Necessary.=--But notwithstanding the direction
+given the apperceptive process through the aim, or problem, it is
+evident that if the pupil is to select from his former experiences the
+particular elements which bear upon the problem in hand, he must have a
+ready and intelligent control over such former knowledge. It is too
+evident, however, that pupils frequently do not possess sufficient
+control over the old knowledge which will bear upon a presented problem.
+In endeavouring, for example, to grasp the relation of the exterior
+angle to the two interior and opposite angles, the pupil may fail
+because he has not a clear knowledge of the equality of angles in
+connection with parallel lines. For this reason teachers will often find
+it necessary (before bringing old knowledge to bear upon a new problem)
+to review the old knowledge, or experience, to be used during the
+apperceptive process. Thus a lesson on the participle may begin with a
+review of the pupils' knowledge of verbs and adjectives, a lesson on the
+making of the colours orange and green for painting a pumpkin with its
+green stem may begin with a recognition of the standard colours, red,
+yellow, and blue, and the writing of a capital letter with a review of
+certain movements.
+
+=Preparation Recalls Interpreting Ideas.=--It must be noted that this
+review of former knowledge always implies, either that the pupil is
+likely to have forgotten at least partially this former knowledge, or
+that without such review he is not likely to recall and apply it readily
+when the new problem is placed before him. For this reason the teacher
+is usually warned that his lesson should always begin with a review of
+such of the pupil's old knowledge as is to be used in mastering the new
+experiences.
+
+
+VALUE OF PREPARATION
+
+=A. Aids the Understanding.=--The main advantage of this preparatory
+work is that it brings into clear consciousness that group of ideas and
+feelings best suited to give meaning to the new presentation. Without
+it, the pupil may not understand, or only partially understand, or
+entirely misunderstand the lesson. (1) He may not understand the new
+matter at all because he does not bring any related facts from his past
+experience to bear upon it. Multiplication of decimals would in all
+probability be a merely mechanical process if the significance of
+decimals and the operation of multiplying fractions were not brought to
+bear upon it, the pupil not understanding it at all as a rational
+process. (2) He may only partially understand the new matter because he
+does not see clearly the relation between his old ideas and the new
+facts, or because he does not bring to the new facts a sufficient
+equipment of old ideas to make them meaningful. The adverbial objective
+would be imperfectly understood if it were not shown that its functions
+are exactly parallel with those of the adverb. The pupil would have only
+a partial understanding of it. (3) He may entirely misunderstand the new
+facts because he uses wrong old experiences to give them meaning. Such
+was evidently the difficulty in the case of the young pupil who, after a
+lesson on the equator, described it as a menagerie lion running around
+the earth. Many of the absurd answers that a pupil gives are due to his
+failure to use the correct old ideas to interpret the new facts. He has
+misunderstood because his mind was not prepared by making the proper
+apperceiving ideas explicit.
+
+=B. Saves Time.=--There is the further advantage of economy of time,
+when an adequate preparation of the mind has been made. When the
+appropriate ideas are definitely in the forefront of consciousness, they
+seize upon kindred impressions as soon as these are presented and give
+them meaning. On the other hand, when sufficient preparation has not
+been made, time must be taken during the presentation of the new problem
+to go back in search of those experiences necessary to make it
+meaningful. Frequent interruptions and consequent waste of time will be
+inevitable. Time will be saved by having the apperceiving ideas ready
+and active.
+
+=C. Provides for Review.=--One of the most important values of the
+preparatory step is the opportunity given for the review of old ideas.
+These have to be revived, worked over, and reconstructed, and in
+consequence they become the permanent possessions of the mind. The
+pupil's knowledge of the functions of the adverb is reviewed when he
+learns the adverb phrase and adverb clause, and is still further
+illuminated when he comes to study the adverbial objective. Further, the
+apperceiving ideas become more interesting to the pupil, when he finds
+that he can use them in the conquest of new fields. He has a
+consciousness of power, which in itself is a source of satisfaction and
+pleasure.
+
+
+PRECAUTIONS REGARDING PREPARATION
+
+=Must not be too Long.=--Two precautions seem advisable in the
+preparatory step. The first is that too long a time should not be spent
+over it. There is sometimes a tendency to go back too far and drag
+forward ideas that are only remotely connected with the new ideas to be
+presented. Under such conditions much irrelevant material is likely to
+be introduced, and often a train of associations out of harmony with the
+meaning and spirit of the lesson is started. This is especially
+dangerous in lessons in literature and history. Only those experiences
+should be revived which are necessary to a clear apprehension of the
+ideas or a full appreciation of the emotions to be presented in the new
+lesson.
+
+=Must Recall Vital Ideas.=--The most active, vivid, and powerful ideas
+in the pupil's mind are those which are closely connected with his life.
+This suggests the second precaution, namely, the use wherever possible
+of the ideas associated with his surroundings, his games, his
+occupations. When this is done, not only will the new knowledge have a
+much greater interest attached to it but it will also be much more
+vividly apprehended. This will be referred to further in connection with
+the use of illustrations in teaching.
+
+
+NECESSITY OF PREPARATION
+
+Teachers, however, are not always agreed as to the amount of time or
+emphasis to be given to this preparatory step. If the teacher can assure
+himself that a lesson is following in easy sequence upon something with
+which the children are undoubtedly familiar, he may, many argue, safely
+omit such preparatory work. Indeed it is evident that after leaving
+school the child will have no personal monitor to call up beforehand the
+ideas that he must apply in solving the problems continually presenting
+themselves in practical life. On the other hand, however, it is to be
+remembered that the young child is, at the best, feeling his way in the
+process of adjusting himself to new experiences. For this reason, the
+first work for the teacher in any lesson is to ascertain whether the
+pupils are in a proper attitude for the new knowledge, and, so far as is
+necessary, prepare their minds through the recall of such knowledge as
+is related to the new experiences to be presented. Although, therefore,
+the step of preparation is not an essential part of the learning
+process, since it constitutes for the pupil merely a review of knowledge
+acquired through previous learning processes, it may be accepted as a
+step in the teacher's method of controlling the learning process.
+
+
+EXAMPLES OF PREPARATION
+
+The following additional examples as to the mode and form of the step of
+preparation may be considered by the student-teacher:
+
+In a lesson in phonic reading in a primary class, the preparation should
+consist of a review of those sounds and those words which the pupil
+already knows that are to be used in the new lesson. In a nature study
+lesson on "The Rabbit," in a Form II class, the preparation should
+include a recall of any observations the pupils may have made regarding
+the wild rabbit. They may have observed its timidity, its manner of
+running, what it feeds upon, where it makes its home, its colour during
+the winter and during the summer, the kind of tracks it makes in the
+snow, etc. All these facts will be useful in interpreting the new
+observations and in assisting the pupils to make new inferences. In a
+lesson in a Form III class on "Ottawa as a Commercial Centre," the
+preparation consists of a recall of the pupil's knowledge regarding the
+position of the city; the adjacent rivers, the Ottawa, Gatineau,
+Rideau, Lièvre, Madawaska; the waterfalls of the Rideau and Chaudière;
+the forests to the north and west, with their immense supplies of pine,
+spruce, and hemlock; and the fact that it is the Dominion capital. All
+these facts are necessary in inferring the causes of the importance of
+Ottawa. In a literature lesson in a Form III class on _The Charge of the
+Light Brigade_, the preparation would involve a recall of some deed of
+personal heroism with which the pupils are familiar, such as that of
+John Maynard, Grace Darling, or any similar one nearer home. Recall how
+such a deed is admired and praised, and the memory of the doer is
+cherished and revered. Then the teacher should tell the story of
+Balaklava with all the dramatic intensity he is master of, in order that
+the pupils may be in a proper mood to approach the study of the poem. In
+a grammar lesson on "The Adverbial Objective" the preparation should
+consist of a review of the functions of the adverb as modifying a verb,
+an adjective, and sometimes another adverb. Upon this knowledge alone
+can a rational idea of the adverbial objective be built. In an
+arithmetic lesson on "Multiplication of Decimals," in a Form IV class,
+the preparation should involve a review of the meaning of decimals, of
+the interconversion of decimals and fractions (for example, .05 = 5
+hundredths; 27 ten-thousandths = .0027, etc.); and of the multiplication
+of fractions. Unless the pupil can do these operations, it is obviously
+impossible to make his knowledge of multiplication of decimals anything
+more than a merely mechanical process.
+
+
+PREPARATION MERELY AIDS SELECTION
+
+Before closing our consideration of preparation as a stage of method, it
+will be well again to call attention to the fact that this is not one
+of the four recognized stages of the learning process, but rather a
+subsidiary feature of the second, or apperceptive stage. In other words,
+actual advance is made by the pupil toward the control of a new
+experience, not through a review of former experience, but by an active
+relating of elements selected from past experience to the interpretation
+of the new problem.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY
+
+OR
+
+PROCESS OF SYNTHESIS
+
+
+=Learning a Unifying Process.=--It has been seen that the learner, in
+gaining control of new knowledge, must organize into the new experience
+elements selected from former experiences. For instance, when a person
+gains a knowledge of a new fruit (guava), he not only brings forward in
+consciousness from his former knowledge the ideas--rind, flesh, seed,
+etc.,--to interpret the strange object, but also associates these into a
+single experience, a new fruit. So long also as the person referred to
+in an earlier chapter retained in his consciousness as distinct factors
+three experiences--seeing a boy at the fence, seeing the vineyard, and
+finally, seeing the boy eating grapes--these would not, as three such
+distinct experiences, constitute a knowledge of grape-stealing. On the
+other hand, as soon as these are combined, or associated by a relating
+act of thought, the different factors are organized into a new idea
+symbolized by the expression, _grape-stealing_.
+
+=Examples From School-room Procedure.=--A similar relating process is
+involved when the learner faces a definite school problem. When, for
+instance, the pupil gains a knowledge of the sign ÷, he must not only
+bring forward in consciousness from his former knowledge distinct ideas
+of a line, of two dots, and of a certain mathematical process, but must
+also associate these into a new idea, division-sign. So also a person
+may know that air takes up more moisture as it becomes warmer, that the
+north-east trade-winds blow over the Sahara from land areas, and that
+the Sahara is situated just north of the equator. But the mind must
+unify these into a single experience in order to gain a knowledge of the
+condition of the rainfall in that quarter.
+
+
+NATURE OF SYNTHESIS
+
+=Deals with Former Experiences.=--This mental organizing, or unifying,
+of the elements of past experiences to secure control of the new
+experience, is usually spoken of as a process of synthesis. The term
+synthesis, however, must be used with the same care as was noted in
+regard to the term analysis. Synthesis does not mean that totally _new_
+elements are being unified, but merely that whatever selected elements
+of old knowledge the mind is able to read into a presented problem, are
+built, or organized, into a new system; and constitute, for the time
+being, one's knowledge and control of that problem. This is well
+exemplified by noting the growth of a person's knowledge of any object
+or topic. Thus, so long as the child is able to apperceive only the
+three sides and three angles of a triangle, his idea of triangle
+includes a synthesis of these. When later, through the building up of
+his geometric knowledge, he is able to apperceive that the interior
+angles equal two right angles, his knowledge of a triangle expands
+through the synthesis of this with the former knowledge.
+
+=All Knowledge a Synthesis.=--The fact that all knowledge is an
+organization from earlier experiences becomes evident by looking at the
+process from the other direction. The adult who has complete knowledge
+of an orange has it as a single experience. This experience is found,
+however, to represent a co-ordination of other experiences, as touch,
+taste, colour, etc. Moreover, each of these separate characteristics is
+an association of simpler experiences. Experiencing the touch of the
+orange, for instance, is itself a complex made up of certain muscular,
+touch, and temperature sensations. From this it is evident that the
+knowledge of an orange, although a unity of experience in adult life, is
+really a complex, or synthesis, made up of a large number of different
+elements.
+
+What is true of our idea of an orange is true of every other idea.
+Whether it be the understanding of a plant, an animal, a city, a
+picture, a poem, an historical event, an arithmetical problem, or a
+scientific experiment, the process is always the same. The apperceptive
+process of interpreting the new by selecting and relating elements of
+former experience, or the process of analysis-synthesis, is universal in
+learning. Expressed in another form, what is at first indistinct and
+indefinite becomes clear and defined through attention selecting, for
+the interpretation of the new presentation, suitable old ideas and
+setting up relationships among them. Analysis, or selection, is
+incomplete without an accompanying unification, or synthesis; synthesis,
+or organization, is impossible without analysis, or selection. It is on
+account of the mind's ability to unify a number of mental factors into a
+single experience, that the process of unification, or synthesis, is
+said to imply economy within our experiences. This fact will become even
+more evident, however, when later we study such mental processes as
+sense perception and conception.
+
+
+INTERACTION OF PROCESSES
+
+It is to be noted, however, that the selecting and the relating of the
+different interpreting ideas during the learning process are not
+necessarily separate and distinct parts of the lesson. In other words,
+the mind does not first select out of its former knowledge a whole mass
+of disconnected elements, and then later build them up into a new
+organic experience. There is, rather, in almost every case, a continual
+interplay between the selecting and relating activity, or between
+analysis and synthesis, throughout the whole learning process. As soon,
+for instance, as a certain feature, or characteristic, is noted, this
+naturally relates itself to the central problem. When later, another
+characteristic is noted, this may relate itself at once both with the
+topic and with the formerly observed characteristic into a more complete
+knowledge of the object. Thus during a lesson we find a gradual growth
+of knowledge similar to that illustrated in the case of the scholar's
+knowledge of the triangle, involving a continual interplay of analysis
+and synthesis, or of selecting and relating different groups of ideas
+relative to the topic. This would he illustrated by noting a pupil's
+study of the cat. The child may first note that the cat catches and eats
+rats and mice, and picks meat from bones. These facts will at once
+relate themselves into a certain measure of knowledge regarding the food
+of the animal. Later he may note that the cat has sharp claws, padded
+feet, long pointed canines, and a rough tongue; these facts being also
+related as knowledge concerning the mouth and feet of the animal. In
+addition to this, however, the latter facts will further relate
+themselves to the former as cases of adaptation, when the child notes
+that the teeth and tongue are suited to tearing food and cleaning it
+from the bones, and that its claws and padded feet are suited to
+surprising and seizing its living prey.
+
+=Example from Study of Conjunctive Pronoun.=--This continuous selecting
+and relating throughout a process of learning is also well illustrated
+in the pupil's process of learning the _conjunctive pronoun_. By
+bringing his old knowledge to bear on such a sentence as "The men _who_
+brought it returned at once"; the pupil may be asked first to apperceive
+the subordinate clause, _who brought it_. This will not likely be
+connected by the pupil at first with the problem of the value of _who_.
+From this, however, he passes to a consideration of the value of the
+clause and its relation. Hereupon, these various ideas at once
+co-ordinate themselves into the larger idea that _who_ is conjunctive.
+Next, he may be called upon to analyse the subordinate clause. This, at
+first, also may seem to the child a disconnected experience. From this,
+however, he passes to the idea of _who_ as subject, and thence to the
+fact that it signifies man. Thereupon these ideas unify themselves with
+the word _who_ under the idea _pronoun_. Thereupon a still higher
+synthesis combines these two co-ordinated systems into the more complex
+system, or idea--_conjunctive pronoun_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This progressive interaction of analysis and synthesis is illustrated by
+the accompanying figure, in which the word _who_ represents the
+presented unknown problem; _a_, _b_, and _c_, the selecting and relating
+process which results in the knowledge, _conjunction_; _a'_, _b'_, and
+_c'_, the building up of the _pronoun_ notion; and the circle, the final
+organization of these two smaller systems into a single notion,
+_conjunctive pronoun_.
+
+The learning of any fact in history, the mastery of a poem, the study of
+a plant or animal, will furnish excellent examples of these subordinate
+stages of analysis and synthesis within a lesson. It is to be noted
+further that this feature of the learning process causes many lessons to
+fall into certain well marked sub-divisions. Each of these minor
+co-ordinations clustering around a sub-topic of the larger problem, the
+whole lesson separates itself into a number of more or less distinct
+parts. Moreover, the child's knowledge of the whole lesson will largely
+depend upon the extent to which he realizes these parts both as separate
+co-ordinations and also as related parts of the whole lesson problem.
+
+
+ALL KNOWLEDGE UNIFIED
+
+Nor does this relating activity of mind confine itself within the single
+lesson. As each lesson is organized, it will, if fully apprehended, be
+more or less directly related with former lessons in the same subject.
+In this way the student should discover a unity within the lessons of a
+single subject, such as arithmetic or grammar. In like manner, various
+groups of lessons organize themselves into larger divisions within the
+subject, in accordance with important relations which the pupil may read
+into their data. Thus, in grammar, one sequence of lessons is organized
+into a complete knowledge of sentences; another group, into a complete
+knowledge of inflection; a smaller group within the latter, into a
+complete knowledge of tense or mood. It is thus that the mind is able to
+construct its mass of knowledge into organized groups known as sciences,
+and the various smaller divisions into topics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE
+
+OR
+
+LAW OF EXPRESSION
+
+
+=Practical Significance of Knowledge.=--In our consideration of the
+fourth phase of the learning process, or the law of expression, it is
+necessary at the outset to recall what has already been noted regarding
+the correlation of knowledge and action. In this connection it was
+learned that knowledge arises naturally as man faces a difficulty, or
+problem, and that it finds significance and value in so far as it
+enables him to meet the practical and theoretical difficulties with
+which he may be confronted. In other words, man is primarily a doer, and
+knowledge is intended to guide the conduct of the individual along
+certain recognized lines. This being the case, while instruction aims to
+control the process by which the child is to acquire valuable social
+experience, or knowledge, it is equally important that it should promote
+skill by correlating that knowledge with expression, or should strive to
+influence action while forming character. To apperceive, for instance,
+the rules of government and agreement in grammar will have a very
+limited value if the student is not able to give expression to these in
+his own conversation. It becomes imperative, therefore, that as far as
+possible, expression should enter as a factor in the learning process.
+
+=Examples of Expression.=--Man's expressive acts are found, however, to
+differ greatly in their form. When one is hurt, he distorts his face
+and cries aloud; when he hears a good speech he claps his hands and
+shouts approval; when he reads an amusing story he laughs; when he
+learns of the death of a friend he sheds tears; when he is affronted his
+face grows red, his muscles tense, and he strikes a blow or breaks into
+a torrent of words; when he has seen a striking incident he tells some
+one about it or writes an account to a distant friend. When his feelings
+are stirred by a patriotic address, he springs to his feet and sings,
+"God Save the King." The desire that his team should carry the foot-ball
+to the southern goal causes the spectator to lean and push in that
+direction. When he conceives how he may launch a successful venture, the
+business man at once proceeds to carry it into effect. These are all
+examples of _expression_. Every impression, idea, or thought, tends
+sooner or later to work itself out in some form of motor expression.
+
+
+TYPES OF ACTION
+
+=A. Uncontrolled Actions.=--Passing to an examination of such physical,
+or motor, activities, we find that man's expressive acts fall into three
+somewhat distinct classes. A young child is found to engage in many
+movements which seem destitute of any conscious direction. Some of these
+movements, such as breathing, sneezing, winking, etc., are found to be
+useful to the child, and imply what might be termed inherited control of
+conduct, though they do not give expression to any consciously organized
+knowledge, or experience. At other times, his bodily movements seem to
+be mere random, or impulsive, actions. These latter actions at times
+arise in a spontaneous way as a result of native bodily vigour, as, for
+instance, stretching, kicking, etc., as seen in a baby. At other times
+these uncontrolled acts have their origin in the various impressions
+which the child is receiving from his surroundings, or environment, as
+when the babe impulsively grasps the object coming in contact with his
+hand. Although, moreover, these instinctive movements may come in time
+under conscious control, such actions do not in themselves imply
+conscious control or give expression to organized knowledge.
+
+=B. Actions Subject to Intelligent Control.=--To a second class of
+actions belong the orderly movements which are both produced and
+directed by consciousness. When, in distinction to the movements
+referred to above, a child pries open the lid to see what is in the box,
+or waves his hand to gain the attention of a companion, a conscious aim,
+or intention, produces the act, and conscious effort sustains it until
+the aim is reached. The distinction between mere impulsive and
+instinctive actions on the one hand, and guided effort on the other,
+will be considered more fully in Chapter XXX.
+
+=C. Habitual Actions.=--Thirdly, as has been noted in Chapter II, both
+consciously directed and uncontrolled action may, by repetition, become
+so fixed that it practically ceases to be directed by consciousness, or
+becomes habitual.
+
+Our expressive actions may be classified, therefore, into three
+important groups as follows:
+
+1. Instinctive, reflex, and impulsive action
+2. Consciously controlled, or directed action
+3. Habitual action.
+
+
+NATURE OF EXPRESSION
+
+=Implies Intelligent Control.=--It is evident that as a stage in the
+learning process, expression must deal primarily with the second class
+of actions, since its real purpose is to correlate the new conscious
+knowledge with action. Expression in education, therefore, must
+represent largely consciously produced and consciously directed action.
+
+=Conscious Expression may Modify A. Instinctive Acts.=--While this is
+true, however, expression, as a stage in the educative process, will
+also have a relation to the other types of action. As previously noted,
+the expression stage of the learning process may be used as a means to
+bring instinctive and impulsive acts under conscious control. This is
+indeed an important part of a child's education. For instance, it is
+only by forming ideas of muscular movements and striving to express them
+that the child can bring his muscular movements under control. It is
+evident, therefore, that the expressive stage of the lesson can be made
+to play an important part in bringing many instinctive and impulsive
+acts under conscious direction. By expressing himself in the games of
+the kindergarten, the child's social instinct will come under conscious
+control. By directing his muscular movements in art and constructive
+work, he gains the control which will in part enable him to check the
+impulse to strike the angry blow. These points will, however, be
+considered more fully in a study of the inherited tendencies in Chapter
+XXI.
+
+=B. Habits.=--Further, many of our consciously directed acts are of so
+great value that they should be made more permanent through habituation.
+Expression must, therefore, in many lessons be emphasized, not merely to
+test and render clear present conscious knowledge, but also to lead to
+habitual control of action, or to create skill. This would be especially
+true in having a child practise the formation of figures and letters.
+Although at the outset we must have him form the letter to see that he
+really knows the outline, the ultimate aim is to enable him to form
+these practically without conscious direction. In language work, also,
+the child must acquire many idiomatic expressions as habitual modes of
+speech.
+
+
+TYPES OF EXPRESSION
+
+Since the tendency to express our impressions in a motor way is a law of
+our being, it follows that the school, which is constantly seeking to
+give the pupil intelligent impressions, or valuable knowledge, should
+also provide opportunity for adequate expression of the same. The forms
+most frequently adopted in schools are speech and writing. Pupils are
+required to answer questions orally or in writing in almost every school
+subject, and in doing so they are given an opportunity for expression of
+a very valuable kind. In fact, it would often be much more economical to
+try to give pupils fewer impressions and to give them more opportunities
+for expression in language. But written or spoken language is not the
+only means of expression that the school can utilize. Pupils can
+frequently be required to express themselves by means of manual
+activity. In art, they represent objects and scenes by means of brush
+and colour, or pencil, or crayon; in manual training, they construct
+objects in cardboard and wood; in domestic science, they cook and sew.
+The primary object of these so-called "new" subjects of the school
+programme is not to make the pupils artists, carpenters, or
+house-keepers, but partly to acquaint them with typical forms of human
+activity and partly to give them means of expression having an educative
+value. In arithmetic, the pupils express numerical facts by
+manipulating blocks and splints, and measure quantities, distances,
+surfaces, and solids. In geography, they draw maps of countries, model
+them in sand or clay, and make collections to illustrate manufactures at
+various stages of the process. In literature, they dramatize stories and
+illustrate scenes and situations by a sketch with pencil or brush. In
+nature study, they illustrate by drawings and make mounted collections
+of plants and insects.
+
+
+VALUE OF EXPRESSION
+
+=A. Influences Conduct.=--In nature study, history, and literature, the
+most valuable kind of expression is that which comes through some
+modification of future conduct. That pupil has studied the birds and
+animals to little purpose who needlessly destroys their lives or causes
+them pain. He has studied the reign of King John to little purpose if he
+is not more considerate of the rights of others on the playground. He
+has gained little from the life of Robert Bruce, Columbus, or La Salle,
+if he does not manfully attack difficulties again and again until he has
+overcome them. He has not read _The Heroine of Verchères_, or _The
+Little Hero of Haarlem_ aright, if he does not act promptly in a
+situation demanding courage. He has learned little from the story of
+Damon and Pythias if he is not true to his friends under trying
+circumstances, and he has not imbibed the spirit of _The Christmas
+Carol_ if he is not sympathetic and kindly toward those less fortunate
+than himself. From the standpoint of the moral life, therefore, right
+knowledge is valuable only as it expresses itself in right action.
+
+=B. Aids Impression.=--Apart from the fact that it satisfies a demand of
+our being, expression is most important in that it tests the clearness
+of the applied knowledge. We often think that our impression is clear,
+only to discover its vagueness when we attempt to express it in some
+form. People often say that they understand a fact thoroughly, but they
+cannot exactly express it. Such a statement is usually incorrect. If the
+impression were clear, the expression under ordinary circumstances would
+also be clear. In this connection a danger should be pointed out. Pupils
+sometimes express themselves in language with apparent clearness, when
+in reality they are merely repeating words that they have memorized and
+that are quite meaningless to them. The alert teacher can, however, by
+judicious questioning, avoid being deceived in this regard.
+
+=C. Adds to Clearness of Knowledge.=--Not only does expression test the
+clearness of the apperceived new knowledge, but at the same time it
+gives the knowledge greater clearness. We learn to know by doing. A
+pupil realizes a story more fully when he has reproduced it for somebody
+else. He images a scene described in a poem more clearly when he has
+drawn it. He has a clearer idea of the volume of a cord when he has
+actually measured out a cord of wood. He has a more accurate conception
+of the difficulties attending the discoveries of La Salle when he has
+drawn a map and traced the routes of his various expeditions. There is
+much truth in the statement that one never fully knows some things until
+he has taught them to somebody else. The teacher in grammar and
+geography will often have occasion to realize this. Greater clearness of
+impression means, of course, greater permanence. We remember best those
+facts of which our impression was most vivid.
+
+
+DANGERS OF OMITTING EXPRESSION
+
+=A. Knowledge not Practical.=--It is apparent, then, that if the pupil
+is not given opportunity for expression, his ideas are vague and
+evanescent. Further than this, his capacities for _knowing_ will be
+developed but his capacities for _doing_ ignored. His _intellectual_
+powers will be exercised and his _volitional_ powers neglected. The
+pupil is thus likely to develop into a mere _theorist_; and as the
+tendencies of childhood are accentuated in later life, he becomes an
+_impractical_ man. There are many men in the world who apparently know a
+great deal, but who, through inability to make practical application of
+their knowledge, are unsuccessful in life. It is, however, seriously to
+be doubted whether knowledge is ever _real_ until it has been worked out
+in practice and conduct. To avoid the danger of becoming impractical, a
+pupil should have every opportunity for expression.
+
+=B. Feelings Weakened.=--A second serious danger of neglecting
+expression lies in the field of the emotions. To have generous emotions
+continually aroused and never to act upon them, to have one's sympathies
+frequently stirred and never to perform a kindly act, to experience
+feelings of love and never to express them in acts of service, is to
+cultivate a weakness of character. A classic instance of this is that of
+the lady who wept bitterly over the imaginary sorrows of the heroine in
+the play while her coachman was freezing to death outside the theatre.
+If worthy emotions are ever to be of the slightest moral value to us,
+they must be expressed in action. The pupil frequently has his emotions
+stirred in the lessons in literature, history, and nature study, and
+there are situations constantly arising in the school room, on the
+playground, on the street, and in the home, that afford opportunity for
+expression. To give a single instance, there is a story in the _Ontario
+Third Reader_ by Elizabeth Phelps Ward, called "Mary Elizabeth." No
+pupil could read that story without being stirred with a deep pity and
+yet profound admiration for the pathetic figure of poor little Mary
+Elizabeth. The natural expression for such emotions would be a more
+kindly and sympathetic attitude towards some unfortunate child in the
+school.
+
+
+RELATION OF EXPRESSION TO IMPRESSION
+
+=Knowledge Tends Toward Expression.=--On account of the evident
+connection between knowledge and action, the law of expression has
+formulated itself into a well-known pedagogical law of method--no
+impression without expression. Like many other educational maxims,
+however, this law may be interpreted in too wide a sense. The law of
+expression in education claims only that valuable experiences, or
+valuable forms of new knowledge, should not be built up in the child's
+mind without adequate accompanying expression. In the first case, as
+already seen, many impressions come to us which are never seized upon
+sufficiently by our consciousness to become intelligent rules for
+conduct, or action. It is true, of course that, so far as such
+impressions stimulate us, they tend toward expression, and to that
+extent the maxim is true. For instance, when a child is impressed, say,
+by a sudden strange sound, he has a tendency to express himself by
+straining his attention, and when the man imagines an enemy is before
+him, he finds his arms and fists assuming the fighting attitude.
+
+=Expression at Times Inhibited.=--It is to be noted that the child
+should early learn to form intelligent plans of action and postpone or
+even condemn them as forms of expression. In other words, a child
+should early learn to select and co-ordinate ideas into an orderly
+system independently of their actual expression in physical action.
+Without this power to suppress, or inhibit, expression, the child would
+be unable adequately to weigh and compare alternative courses of action
+and suppress such as seem undesirable. Such indeed is the weakness of
+the man who possesses an impulsive nature. Although, therefore, it is
+true that all knowledge is intended to serve in meeting actual needs, or
+to function in the control of expression, it is equally true that not
+every organized experience should find expression in action. Part at
+least of man's efficiency must consist in his ability to organize a new
+experience in an indirect way and condemn it as a rule of action. While,
+therefore, we emphasize the importance, under ordinary conditions, of
+having the child's knowledge function as directly as possible in some
+form of actual expression, it is equally important to recognize that in
+actual life many organized plans should not find expression in outer
+physical action. This being the case, the divorce between organized
+experience, or knowledge, and practical expression, which at times takes
+place in school work, is not necessarily unsound, since it tends to make
+the child proficient in separating the mental organizing of experience
+from its immediate expression, and must, therefore, tend to make him
+more capable of weighing plans before putting them into execution. This
+will in turn habituate the child to taking the necessary time for
+reflection between "the acting of a thing and the first purpose." This
+question will be considered more fully in Chapter XXX, which treats of
+the development of voluntary control.
+
+It should be noted in conclusion that the law of expression as a fourth
+stage of the learning process differs in purpose from the use of
+physical action as a means of creating interest in the problem, as
+referred to on page 62. When, for instance, we set a pupil who has no
+knowledge of long measure to use the inch in interpreting the yard
+stick, expressive action is merely a means of putting the problem before
+the child in an interesting form on account of his liking for physical
+action. When, on the other hand, the child later uses the foot or yard
+as a unit to measure the perimeter of the school-room, he is applying
+his knowledge of long measure, which has been acquired previously to
+this expressive act.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATION
+
+
+The chief office of the teacher, in controlling the pupils' process of
+learning, being to direct their self-activity in making a selection of
+ideas from their former knowledge which shall stand in vital connection
+with the problem, and lead finally to its solution, the question arises
+in what form the teacher is to conduct the process in order to obtain
+this desired result. Three different modes of directing the selecting
+activity of the student are recognized and more or less practised by
+teachers. These are usually designated the lecture method, the text-book
+method, and the developing method.
+
+
+THE LECTURE METHOD
+
+=Example of Lecture Method.=--In the lecture method so-called, the
+teacher tells the students in direct words the facts involved in the new
+problem, and expects these words to enable the pupils to call up from
+their old knowledge the ideas which will give the teacher's words
+meaning, and thus lead to a solution of the problem. For example, in
+teaching the meaning of alluvial fans in geography, a teacher might seek
+to awaken the interpreting ideas by merely stating in words the
+characteristic of a fan. This would involve telling the pupils that an
+alluvial fan is a formation on the floor of a main river valley,
+resulting from the depositing of detritus carried down the steep side of
+the valley by a tributary stream and deposited in the form of a fan,
+when the force of the water is weakened as it enters the more level
+floor of the valley. To interpret this verbal description, however, the
+pupil must first interpret the words of the teacher as sounds, and then
+convert these into ideas by bringing his former knowledge to bear upon
+the word symbols. If we could take it for granted that the pupil will
+readily grasp the ideas here signified by such words as, formation, main
+river valley, depositing, detritus, steep side, etc., and at once feel
+the relation of these several ideas to the more or less unknown
+object--alluvial fan--this method would undoubtedly give the pupil the
+knowledge required.
+
+=The Method Difficult.=--To expect of young children a ready ability in
+thus interpreting words would, however, be an evident mistake. To
+translate such sound symbols into ideas, and immediately adjust them to
+the problem, demands a power of language interpretation and of
+reflection not usually found in school children. The purely lecture
+method, therefore, has very small place with young children, whatever
+may be its value with advanced students. Pupils in the primary grades
+have not sufficient power of attention to listen to a long lecture on
+any subject, and no teacher should think of conducting a lesson by that
+method alone. The purpose of the lecture is merely to give information,
+and that is seldom the sole purpose of a lesson in elementary classes.
+There the more important purposes are to train pupils to acquire
+knowledge by thinking for themselves, and to express themselves, both of
+which are well-nigh impossible if the purely lecture method is followed.
+
+=Does not Insure Selection.=--The weakness of such a method is well
+illustrated in the case of the young teacher who, in giving her class a
+conception of the equator, followed the above method, and carefully
+explained to the pupils that the equator is an imaginary line running
+around the earth equally distant from the two poles. When the teacher
+came later to review the work with the class, one bright lad described
+the equator as a menagerie lion running around the earth. Here evidently
+the child, true to the law of apperception, had interpreted, or rather
+misinterpreted, the words of the teacher, by means of the only ideas in
+his possession which seemed to fit the uttered sounds. It is evident,
+therefore, that too often in this method the pupils will either thus
+misinterpret the meaning of the teacher's words, or else fail to
+interpret them at all, because they are not able to call up any definite
+images from what the teacher may be telling them.
+
+=When to be Used.=--It may be noted, however, that there is some place
+for the method in teaching. For example, when young children are
+presented with a suitable story, they will usually have no difficulty in
+fitting ideas to words, and thus building up the story. It requires, in
+fact, the continuity found in the telling method to keep the children's
+attention on the story, the tone of voice and gesture of the reciter
+going a long way in helping the child to call up the ideas which enable
+him to construct the story plot. Moreover, some telling must be done by
+the teacher in every lesson. Everything cannot be discovered by the
+pupils themselves. Even if it were possible, it would often be
+undesirable. Some facts are relatively unimportant, and it is much
+better to tell these outright than to spend a long time in trying to
+lead pupils to discover them. The lecture method, or telling method,
+should be used, then, to supply pupils with information they could not
+find out for themselves, or which they could find out only by spending
+an amount of time disproportionate to the importance of the facts. The
+teacher must use good judgment in discriminating between those facts
+which the pupils may reasonably be expected to find out for themselves
+and those facts which had better be told. Many teachers tell too much
+and do not throw the pupils sufficiently on their own resources. On the
+other hand, many teachers tell too little and waste valuable time in
+trying to "draw" from the pupils what they do not know, with the result
+that the pupils fall back upon the pernicious practice of guessing. The
+teacher needs to be on his guard against "the toil of dropping buckets
+into empty wells, and growing old in drawing nothing up."
+
+It may be added further that, in practical life, man is constantly
+required to interpret through spoken language. For this reason,
+therefore, all children should become proficient in securing knowledge
+through spoken language, that is, by means of the lecture, or telling,
+method.
+
+
+THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD
+
+=Nature of Text-book Method.=--In the text-book method, in place of
+listening to the words of the teacher, the pupil is expected to read in
+a text-book, in connection with each lesson problem, a series of facts
+which will aid him in calling up, or selecting, the ideas essential to
+the mastery of the new knowledge. This method is similar, therefore, in
+a general way, to the lecture method; since it implies ability in the
+pupil to interpret language, and thus recall the ideas bearing upon the
+topic being presented. Although the text-book method lacks the
+interpretation which may come through gesture and tone of voice, it
+nevertheless gives the pupil abundance of time for reflecting upon the
+meaning of the language without the danger of losing the succeeding
+context, as would be almost sure to happen in the lecture method.
+Moreover, the language and mode of presentation of the writer of the
+text-book is likely to be more effective in awakening the necessary old
+knowledge, than would be the less perfect descriptions of the ordinary
+teacher. On the whole, therefore, the text-book seems more likely to
+meet the conditions of the laws of apperception and self-activity, than
+would the lecture method.
+
+=Method Difficult for Young Children.=--The words of the text-book,
+however, like the words of the teacher, are often open to
+misinterpretation, especially in the case of young pupils. This may be
+illustrated by the case of the student, who upon reading in her history
+of the mettle of the defenders of Lacolle Mill, interpreted it as the
+possession on their part of superior arms. An amusing illustration of
+the same tendency to misinterpret printed language, in spite of the time
+and opportunity for studying the text, is seen in the case of the
+student who, after reading the song entitled "The Old Oaken Bucket," was
+called upon to illustrate in a drawing his interpretation of the scene.
+His picture displayed three buckets arranged in a row. On being called
+upon for an explanation, he stated that the first represented "The old
+oaken bucket"; the second, "The iron-bound bucket"; and the third, "The
+moss-covered bucket." Another student, when called upon to express in
+art his conception of the well-known lines:
+
+    All at once I saw a crowd,
+    A host of golden daffodils;
+    Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
+    Fluttering and dancing in the breeze;
+
+represented on his paper a bed of daffodils blooming in front of a
+platform, upon which a number of female figures were actively engaged in
+the terpsichorean art.
+
+=Pupil's Mind Often Passive.=--As in the lecture method, also, the pupil
+may often go over the language of the text in a passive way without
+attempting actively to call up old knowledge and relate it to the
+problem before him. It is evident, therefore, that without further aid
+from a teacher, the text-book could not be depended upon to guide the
+pupil in selecting the necessary interpreting ideas. As with the lecture
+method, however, it is to be recognized that, both in the school and in
+after life, the student must secure much information by reading, and
+that he should at some time gain the power of gathering information from
+books. The use of the text-book in school should assist in the
+acquisition of this power. The teacher must, therefore, distinguish
+between the proper _use_ of the text-book and the _abuse_ of it. There
+are several ways in which the text-book may be effectively used.
+
+
+USES OF TEXT-BOOK
+
+1. After a lesson has been taught, the pupils may be required by way of
+review to read the matter covered by the lesson as stated by the
+text-book. This plan is particularly useful in history and geography
+lessons. The text-book strengthens and clarifies the impression made by
+the lesson.
+
+2. Before assigning the portion to be read in the text-book, the teacher
+may prepare the way by presenting or reviewing any matter upon which the
+interpretation of the text depends. This preparatory work should be just
+sufficient to put the pupils in a position to read intelligently the
+portion assigned, and to give them a zest for the reading. Sometimes in
+this assignment, it is well to indicate definitely what facts are
+sufficiently important to be learned, and where these are discussed in
+the text-book.
+
+3. The mastery of the text by the pupils may sometimes be aided by a
+series of questions for which answers are to be found by a careful
+reading. Such questions give the pupils a definite purpose. They
+constitute a set of problems which are to be solved. They are likely to
+be interesting, because problems within the range of the pupils'
+capacity are a challenge to their intelligence. Further, these questions
+will emphasize the things that are essential, and the pupils will be
+enabled to grasp the main points of the lesson assigned. Occasionally,
+to avoid monotony, the pupils should be required, as a variation of this
+plan, to make such a series of questions themselves. In these cases, the
+pupil with the best list might be permitted, as a reward for his effort,
+to "put" his questions to the class.
+
+4. In the more advanced classes, the pupils should frequently be
+required to make a topical outline of a section or chapter of the
+text-book. This demands considerable analytic power, and the pupil who
+can do it successfully has mastered the art of reading. The ability is
+acquired slowly, and the teacher must use discretion in what he exacts
+from the pupil in this regard. If the plan were followed persistently,
+there would be less time wasted in cursory reading, the results of which
+are fleeting. What is read in this careful way will become the real
+possession of the mind and, even if less material is read, more will be
+permanently retained.
+
+The facts thus learned from the text-book should be discussed by the
+teacher and pupils in a subsequent recitation period. This may be done
+by the question and answer method, the teacher asking questions to which
+the pupils give brief answers; or by the topical recitation method, the
+pupils reporting in connected form the facts under topics suggested by
+the teacher. The teacher has thus an opportunity of emphasizing the
+important facts, of correcting misconceptions, and of amplifying and
+illustrating the facts given in the text-book. Further, the pupils are
+given an opportunity of expressing themselves, and have thus an exercise
+in language which is a valuable means of clarifying their impressions.
+
+
+ABUSE OF TEXT-BOOK
+
+As instances of the abuse of the text-book, the following might be
+cited:
+
+1. The memorization by the pupils of the words of the text-book without
+any understanding of the meaning.
+
+2. The assignment of a certain number of pages or sections to be learned
+by the pupils without any preliminary preparation for the study.
+
+3. The employment of the text-book by the teacher during the recitation
+as a means of guiding him in the questions he is to ask--a confession
+that he does not know what he requires the pupils to know.
+
+=Limitation of Text-book.=--The chief limitation of the text-book method
+of teaching is that the pupil makes few discoveries on his own account,
+and is, therefore, not trained to think for himself. The problems being
+largely solved for him by the writer, the knowledge is not valued as
+highly as it would be if it came as an original discovery. We always
+place a higher estimation on that knowledge which we discover for
+ourselves than on that which somebody else gives us.
+
+
+THE DEVELOPING METHOD
+
+=Characteristics of the Method.=--The third, or developing, method of
+directing the selecting activity of the learner, is so called because
+in this method the teacher as an instructor aims to keep the child's
+mind actively engaged throughout each step of the learning process. He
+sees, in other words, that step by step the pupil brings forward
+whatever old knowledge is necessary to the problem, and that he relates
+it in a definite way to this problem. Instead of telling the pupils
+directly, for instance, the teacher may question them upon certain known
+facts in such a way that they are able themselves to discover the new
+truth. In teaching alluvial fans, for example, the teacher would begin
+questioning the pupil regarding his knowledge of river valleys,
+tributary streams, the relation of the force of the tributary water to
+the steepness of the side of the river valley, the presence of detritus,
+etc., and thus lead the pupil to form his own conclusion as to the
+collecting of detritus at the entrance to the level valley and the
+probable shape of the deposit. So also in teaching the conjunctive
+pronoun from such an example as:
+
+     He gave it to a boy _who_ stood near him;
+
+the teacher brings forward, one by one, the elements of old knowledge
+necessary to a full understanding of the new word, and tests at each
+step whether the pupil is himself apprehending the new presentation in
+terms of his former grammatical knowledge. Beginning with the clause
+"who stood near him," the teacher may, by question and answer, assure
+himself that the pupil, through his former knowledge of subordinate
+clauses, apprehends that the clause is joined adjectively to _boy_, by
+the word _who_. Next, he assures himself that the pupil, through his
+former knowledge of the conjunction, apprehends clearly the consequent
+_conjunctive_ force of the word _who_. Finally, by means of the pupil's
+former knowledge of the subjective and pronoun functions, the teacher
+assures himself that the pupil appreciates clearly the _pronoun_
+function of the word _who_. Thus, step by step, throughout the learning
+process, the teacher makes certain that he has awakened in the mind of
+the learner the exact old knowledge which will unify into a clearly
+understood and adequately controlled new experience, as signified by the
+term _conjunctive pronoun_.
+
+=Question and Answer.=--On account of the large use of questioning as a
+means of directing and testing the pupils' selecting of old knowledge,
+or interpreting ideas, the developing method is often identified with
+the question and answer method. But the real mark of the developing
+method of teaching is the effort of an instructor to assure himself
+that, step by step, throughout the learning process, the pupil himself
+is actively apprehending the significance of the new problem by a use of
+his own previous experience. It is true, however, that the method of
+interrogation is the most universal, and perhaps the most effective,
+mode by which a teacher is able to assure himself that the learner's
+mind is really active throughout each step of the learning process.
+Moreover, as will be seen later, the other subsidiary methods of the
+developing method usually involve an accompanying use of question and
+answer for their successful operation. It is for this reason that the
+question is sometimes termed the teacher's best instrument of
+instruction. For the same reason, also, the young teacher should early
+aim to secure facility in the art of questioning. An outline of the
+leading principles of questioning will, therefore, be given in Chapter
+XVIII.
+
+=Other Forms of Development.=--Notwithstanding the large part played by
+question and answer in the developing method, it must be observed that
+there are other important means which the teacher at times may use in
+the learning process in order to awaken clear interpreting ideas in the
+mind of the learner. In so far, moreover, as any such methods on the
+part of the teacher quicken the apperceptive process in the child, or
+cause him to apply his former knowledge in a more active and definite
+way to the problem in hand, they must be classified as phases of the
+developing method. Two of these subsidiary methods will now be
+considered.
+
+
+THE OBJECTIVE METHOD
+
+=Characteristics of the Objective Method.=--One important sub-section of
+the developing method is known as the objective method. In this method
+the teacher seeks, as far as possible, (1) to present the lesson problem
+through the use of concrete materials, and (2) to have the child
+interpret the problem by examining this concrete material. A child's
+interest and knowledge being largely centred in objects and their
+qualities and uses, many truths can best be presented to children
+through the medium of objective teaching. For example, in arithmetic,
+weights and measures should be taught by actually handling weights and
+measures and building up the various tables by experiment. Tables of
+lengths, areas, and volumes may be taught by measurements of lines,
+surfaces, and solids. Geographical facts are taught by actual contact
+with the neighbouring hills, streams, and ponds; and by visits to
+markets and manufacturing plants. In nature study, plants and animals
+are studied in their natural habitat or by bringing them into the
+class-room.
+
+=Advantages of the Objective Method.=--The advantages of this method in
+such cases are readily manifest. Although, for instance, the pupil who
+knows in a general way an inch space and the numbers 144, 9, 30-1/4, 40,
+and 4, might be supposed to be able to organize out of his former
+experiences a perfect knowledge of surface measure, yet it will be found
+that compared with that of the pupil who has worked out the measure
+concretely in the school garden, the control of the former student over
+this knowledge will be very weak indeed. In like manner, when a student
+gains from a verbal description a knowledge of a plant or an animal, not
+only does he find it much more difficult to apply his old knowledge in
+interpreting the word description than he would in interpreting a
+concrete example, but his knowledge of the plant or animal is likely to
+be imperfect. Objective teaching is important, therefore, for two
+reasons:
+
+1. It makes an appeal to the mind through the senses, the avenue through
+which the most vivid images come. Frequently several senses are brought
+to bear and the impressions thereby multiplied.
+
+2. On account of his interest in objects, the young child's store of old
+experiences is mainly of objects and of their sensuous qualities and
+uses. To teach the abstract and unfamiliar through these, therefore, is
+an application of the law of apperception, since the object makes it
+easier for the child's former knowledge to be related to the presented
+problem.
+
+=Limitations of Objective Method.=--It must be recognized, however, that
+objective teaching is only a means to a higher end. The concrete is
+valuable very often only as a means of grasping the abstract. The
+progress of humanity has ever been from the sensuous and concrete to the
+ideal and abstract. Not the objects themselves, but what the objects
+symbolize is the important thing. It would be a pedagogical mistake,
+then, to make instruction begin, continue, and end in the concrete. It
+is evident, moreover, that no progress could be made through
+object-teaching, unless the question and answer method is used in
+conjunction.
+
+
+THE ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD
+
+=Characteristics of the Illustrative Method.=--In many cases it is
+impossible or impracticable to bring the concrete object into the
+school-room, or to take the pupils to see it outside. In such cases,
+somewhat the same result may be obtained by means of some form of
+graphic illustration of the object, as a picture, sketch, diagram, map,
+model, lantern slide, etc. The graphic representation of an object may
+present to the eye most of the characteristics that the actual object
+would. For this reason pictures are being more and more used in
+teaching, though it is a question whether teachers make as good use of
+the pictures of the text-book, in geography for instance, as might be
+made.
+
+=Illustrative Method Involves Imagination.=--In the illustrative method,
+however, the pupil, instead of being able to apply directly former
+knowledge obtained through the senses, in interpreting the actual
+object, must make use of his imagination to bridge over the gulf between
+the actual object and the representation. When, for example, the child
+is called upon to form his conception of the earth with its two
+hemispheres through its representation on a globe, the knowledge will
+become adequate only as the child's imagination is able to picture in
+his mind the actual object out of his own experience of land, water,
+form, and space, in harmony with the mere suggestions offered by the
+model. It is evident, for the above reason, that the illustrative method
+often demands more from the pupil than does the more concrete objective
+method. For instance, the child who is able to see an actual mountain,
+lake, canal, etc., is far more likely to obtain an accurate idea of
+these, than the student who learns them by means of illustrations. The
+cause for this lies mainly in the failure of the child to form a perfect
+image of the real object through the exercise of his imagination. In
+fact it sometimes happens that he makes very little use of his
+imagination, his mental picture of the real object differing little from
+the model placed before him. The writer was informed of a case in which
+a teacher endeavoured to give some young pupils a knowledge of the earth
+by means of a large school globe. When later the children were
+questioned thereon, it was discovered that their earth corresponded in
+almost every particular with the large globe in the school. The
+successful use of the illustrative method, therefore, demands from the
+teacher a careful test by the question and answer method, to see that
+the learner has properly bridged over, through his imagination, the gulf
+separating the actual object from its illustration. For this reason an
+acquaintance with the mental process of imagination is of great value to
+the teacher. The leading facts connected with this process will be set
+forth in Chapter XXVII.
+
+
+PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF MATERIALS
+
+In the use of objective and illustrative materials the following
+precautions are advisable:
+
+1. Their use in the lesson should not be continued too long. It should
+be remembered that their office is illustrative, and the aim of the
+teacher should be to have the pupils think in the abstract as soon as
+possible. To make pupils constantly dependent on the concrete is to make
+their thinking weak.
+
+2. The pupils must be mentally active while the concrete object or
+illustrative material is being used, and not merely gaze in a passive
+way upon the objects. It requires mental activity to grasp the abstract
+facts that the objects or illustrations typify. A tellurion will not
+teach the changes of the seasons; bundles of splints, notation; nor
+black-board examples, the law of agreement; unless these are brought
+under the child's mental apprehension. The sole purpose of such
+materials is, therefore, to start a flow of imagery or ideas which bear
+upon the presented problem.
+
+3. The objects should not be so intrinsically interesting that they
+distract the attention from what they are intended to illustrate. It
+would be injudicious to use candies or other inherently attractive
+objects to illustrate number facts in primary arithmetic. The objects,
+not the number facts, would be of supreme interest. The teacher who used
+a heap of sand and some gunpowder to teach what a volcano is, found his
+pupils anxious for "fireworks" in subsequent geography classes. The
+science teacher may make his experiments so interesting that his
+students neglect to grasp what the experiments illustrate. The preacher
+who uses a large number of anecdotes to illustrate the points of his
+sermon, would be probably disappointed to know that the only part of his
+discourse remembered by the majority of his hearers was these very
+anecdotes. In his enthusiasm for objective teaching, the teacher may
+easily make the objects so attractive that the pupils fail altogether to
+grasp what they signify.
+
+4. In the case of pictures, maps, and sketches, it is well to present
+those that are not too detailed. A map drawn on the black-board by the
+teacher is usually better for purposes of illustration than a printed
+wall map. The latter shows so many details that it is often difficult
+for the pupil to single out those required in the lesson. The
+black-board map, on the other hand, will emphasize just those details
+that are necessary. For the same reason the sketch is often better than
+the printed picture or photograph. Any one who can sketch rapidly and
+accurately has at his disposal a valuable means of communicating
+knowledge, and every teacher should strive to cultivate this power.
+
+
+MODES OF PRESENTATION COMPARED
+
+The relative clearness of different modes of presenting knowledge may be
+seen from the following:
+
+If a teacher stated to his pupils that he saw a guava yesterday,
+possibly no information would be conveyed to them other than that some
+unknown object has been referred to. Merely to name any object of
+thought, therefore, does not guarantee any real understanding in the
+mind of the pupil. If the teacher describes the object as a fruit,
+fragrant, yellow, fleshy, and pear-shaped, the mental picture of the
+pupil is likely to be much more definite. If, on the other hand, a
+picture of the fruit is shown, it is likely that the pupil will more
+fully realize at least some of the features of the fruit. If the pupil
+is given the object and allowed to bring all his senses to bear upon it,
+his knowledge will become both more full and more definite. If he were
+allowed to express himself through drawing and modelling, his knowledge
+would become still more thorough, while if he grew, marketed, and
+manufactured the fruit into jelly, his knowledge of the fruit might be
+considered complete.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+Before passing to a consideration of the various types or classes into
+which school lessons may be divided, it is necessary to note a certain
+distinction in the way the mind thinks of objects, or two classes into
+which our experiences are said to divide themselves. When the mind
+experiences, or is conscious of, this particular chair on the platform,
+that tree outside the window, the size of this piece of stone, or the
+colour and shape of this bonnet, it is said to be occupied with a
+particular experience, or to be gaining particular knowledge.
+
+
+ACQUISITION OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE
+
+=A. Through the Senses.=--These particular experiences may arise through
+the actual presentation of a thing to the senses. I _see_ this chair;
+_taste_ this sugar; _smell_ this rose; _hear_ this bell; etc. As will be
+seen later, the senses provide the primary conditions for revealing to
+the mind the presence of particular things, that is, for building up
+particular ideas, or, as they are frequently called, particular notions.
+Neither does a particular experience, or notion, necessarily represent a
+particular concrete object. It may be an idea of some particular state
+of anger or joy being experienced by an individual of the beauty
+embodied in this particular painting, etc.
+
+=B. Through the Imagination.=--Secondly, by an act of constructive
+imagination, one may image a picture of a particular object as present
+here and now. Although never having had the actual particular
+experience, a person can, with the eye of the imagination, picture as
+now present before him any particular object or event, real or
+imaginary, such as King Arthur's round table; the death scene of Sir
+Isaac Brock or Captain Scott; the sinking of the _Titanic_; the Heroine
+of Verchères; or the many-headed Hydra.
+
+=C. By Inference, or Deduction.=--Again, knowledge about a particular
+individual, or particular knowledge, may be gained in what seems a yet
+more indirect way. For instance, instead of standing beside Socrates and
+seeing him drink the hemlock and die, and thus, by actual sense
+observation, learn that Socrates is mortal; we may, by a previous series
+of experiences, have gained the knowledge that all men are mortal. For
+that reason, even while he yet lives, we may know the particular fact
+that Socrates, being a man, is also mortal. In this process the person
+is supposed to start with the known general truth, "All men are mortal";
+next, to call to mind the fact that Socrates is a man; and finally, by a
+comparison of these statements or thoughts, reason out, or deduce, the
+inference that therefore Socrates is mortal. This process is, therefore,
+usually illustrated in what is called the syllogistic form, thus:
+
+    All men are mortal.
+    Socrates is a man.
+    Socrates is mortal.
+
+When particular knowledge about an individual thing or event is thus
+inferred by comparing two known statements, it is said to be secured by
+a process of _deduction_, or by inference.
+
+
+GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+In all of the above examples, whether experienced through the senses,
+built up by an act of imagination, or gained by inference, the
+knowledge is of a single thing, fact, organism, or unity, possessing a
+real or imaginary existence. In addition to possessing its own
+individual unity, however, a thing will stand in a more or less close
+relation with many other things. Various individuals, therefore, enter
+into larger relations constituting groups, or classes, of objects. In
+addition, therefore, to recognizing the object as a particular
+experience, the mind is able, by examining certain individuals, to
+select and relate the common characteristics of such classes, or groups,
+and build up a general, or class, idea, which is representative of any
+member of the class. Thus arise such general ideas as book, man, island,
+county, etc. These are known as universal, or class, notions. Moreover,
+such rules, or definitions, as, "A noun is the name of anything"; "A
+fraction is a number which expresses one or more equal parts of a
+whole," are general truths, because they express in the form of a
+statement the general qualities which have been read into the ideas,
+noun and fraction. When the mind, from a study of particulars, thus
+either forms a class notion as noun, triangle, hepatica, etc., or draws
+a general conclusion as, "Air has weight," "Any two sides of a triangle
+are together greater than the third side," it is said to gain general
+knowledge.
+
+
+ACQUISITION OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+=A. Conception.=--In describing the method of attaining general
+knowledge, it is customary to divide such knowledge into two slightly
+different types, or classes, and also to distinguish between the
+processes by which each type is attained. When the mind, through having
+experienced particular dogs, cows, chairs, books, etc., is able to form
+such a general, or class, idea as, dog, cow, chair, or book, it is said
+to gain a class notion, or concept; and the method by which these ideas
+are gained is called _conception_.
+
+=B. Induction.=--When the mind, on the basis of particular experiences,
+arrives at some general law, or truth, as, "Any two sides of a triangle
+are together greater than the third side"; "Air has weight"; "Man is
+mortal"; "Honesty is the best policy"; etc., it is said to form a
+universal judgment, and the process by which the judgment is formed is
+called a process of _induction_.
+
+=Examples of General and Particular Knowledge.=--When a pupil learns the
+St. Lawrence River system as such, he gains a particular experience, or
+notion; when he learns of river basins, he obtains a general notion. In
+like manner, for the child to realize that here are eight blocks
+containing two groups of four blocks, is a particular experience; but
+that 4 + 4 = 8, is a general, or universal, truth. To notice this water
+rising in a tube as heat is being applied, is a particular experience;
+to know that liquids are expanded by heat is a general truth. _The air
+above this radiator is rising_ is a particular truth, but _heated air
+rises_ is a general truth. _The English people plunged into excesses in
+Charles II's reign after the removal of the stern Puritan rule_ is
+particular, but a _period of license follows a period of repression_ is
+general.
+
+=Distinction is in Ideas, not Things.=--It is to be noted further that
+the same object may be treated at one time as a particular individual,
+at another time as a member of a class, and at still another time as a
+part of a larger individual. Thus the large peninsula on the east of
+North America may be thought of now, as the individual, Nova Scotia; at
+another time, as a member of the class, province; and at still another
+time, as a part of the larger particular individual, Canada.
+
+=Only Two Types of Knowledge.=--It is evident from the foregoing that no
+matter what subject is being taught, so far as any person may aim _to
+develop a new experience_ in the mind of the pupil, that experience will
+be one or other of the two classes mentioned above. If the aim of our
+lesson is to have the pupils know the facts of the War of 1812-14, to
+study the rainfall of British Columbia, to master the spelling of a
+particular word, or to image the pictures contained in the story _Mary
+Elizabeth_, then it aims primarily to have pupils come into possession
+of a particular fact, or a number of particular facts. On the other
+hand, if the lesson aims to teach the pupils the nature of an
+infinitive, the rule for extracting square root, the law of gravity, the
+classes of nouns, etc., then the aim of the lesson is to convey some
+general idea or truth.
+
+
+APPLIED KNOWLEDGE GENERAL
+
+Before proceeding to a special consideration of such type lessons, it
+will be well to note that the mind always applies general knowledge in
+the learning process. That is, the application of old knowledge to the
+new presentation is possible only because this knowledge has taken on a
+general character, or has become a general way of thinking. The tendency
+for every new experience, whether particular or general, to pass into a
+general attitude, or to become a standard for interpreting other
+presentations, is always present, at least after the very early
+impressions of infancy. When, for instance, a child observes a strange
+object, dog, and perceives its four feet, this idea does not remain
+wholly confined to the particular object, but tends to take on a general
+character. This consists in the fact that the characteristic perceived
+is vaguely thought of as a quality distinct from the dog. This quality,
+_four-footedness_, therefore, is at least in some measure recognized as
+a quality that may occur in other objects. In other words, it takes on a
+general character, and will likely be applied in interpreting the next
+four-footed object which comes under the child's attention. So also when
+an adult first meets a strange fruit, guava, he observes perhaps that it
+is _pear-shaped, yellow-skinned, soft-pulped_, of _sweet taste_, and
+_aromatic flavour_. All such quality ideas as pear-shaped, yellow, soft,
+etc., as here applied, are general ideas of quality taken on from
+earlier experiences. Even in interpreting the qualities of particular
+objects, therefore, as this rose, this machine, or this animal, we apply
+to its interpretation general ideas, or general forms of thought, taken
+on from earlier experiences.
+
+The same fact is even more evident when the mind attempts to build up
+the idea of a particular object by an act of imagination. One may
+conceive as present, a sphere, red in colour, with smooth surface, and
+two feet in diameter. Now this particular object is defined through the
+qualities spherical, red, smooth, etc. But these notions of quality are
+all general, although here applied to building up the image of a
+particular thing.
+
+
+PROCESSES OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE SIMILAR
+
+If what has already been noted concerning the law of universal method is
+correct, and if all learning is a process of building up a new
+experience in accordance with the law of apperception, then all of the
+above modes of gaining either particular or general knowledge must
+ultimately conform to the laws of general method. Keeping in view the
+fact that applied knowledge is always general in character, it will not
+be difficult to demonstrate that these various processes do not differ
+in their essential characteristics; but that any process of acquiring
+either particular or general knowledge conforms to the method of
+selection and relation, or of analysis-synthesis, as already described
+in our study of the learning process. To demonstrate this, however, it
+will be necessary to examine and illustrate the different modes of
+learning in the light of the principles of general method already laid
+down in the text.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MODES OF LEARNING
+
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE
+
+A. LEARNING THROUGH THE SENSES
+
+In many lessons in nature study, elementary science, etc., pupils are
+led to acquire new knowledge by having placed before them some
+particular object which they may examine through the senses. The
+knowledge thus gained through the direct observation of some individual
+thing, since it is primarily knowledge about a particular individual, is
+to be classified as particular knowledge. As an example of the process
+by which a pupil may gain particular knowledge through the senses, a
+nature lesson may be taken in which he would, by actual observation,
+become acquainted with one of the constellations, say the Great Dipper.
+Here the learner first receives through his senses certain impressions
+of colour and form. Next he proceeds to read into these impressions
+definite meanings, as stars, four, corners, bowl, three, curve, handle,
+etc. In such a process of acquiring knowledge about a particular thing,
+it is to be noted that the acquisition depends upon two important
+conditions:
+
+1. The senses receive impressions from a particular thing.
+
+2. The mind reacts upon these impressions with certain phases of its old
+knowledge, here represented by such words as four, corner, bowl, etc.
+
+=Analysis of Process.=--When the mind thus gains knowledge of a
+particular object through sense perception, the process is found to
+conform exactly to the general method already laid down; for there is
+involved:
+
+1. _The Motive._--To read meaning into the strange thing which is placed
+before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses.
+
+_2. Selection, or Analysis._--Bringing selected elements of former
+knowledge to interpret the unknown impressions, the elements of his
+former knowledge being represented in the above example by such words
+as, four, bowl, curve, handle, etc.
+
+3. _Unification, or Synthesis._--A continuous relating of these
+interpreting factors into the unity of a newly interpreted object, the
+Dipper.
+
+
+SENSE PERCEPTION IN EDUCATION
+
+=A. Gives Knowledge of Things.=--In many lessons in biology, botany,
+etc., although the chief aim of the lesson is to acquire a correct class
+notion, yet the learning process is in large part the gaining of
+particular knowledge through the senses. In a nature lesson, for
+instance, the pupil may be presented with an insect which he has never
+previously met. When the pupil interprets the object as six-legged, with
+hard shell-like wing covers, under wings membranous, etc., he is able to
+gain knowledge about this particular thing:
+
+1. Because the thing manifests itself to him through the senses of sight
+and touch.
+
+2. Because he is able to bring to bear upon these sense impressions his
+old knowledge, represented by such words as six, wing, shell, hard,
+membranous, etc. So far, therefore, as the process ends with knowledge
+of the particular object presented, the learning process conforms
+exactly to that laid down above, for there is involved:
+
+1. _The Motive._--To read meaning into the new thing which is placed
+before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses.
+
+2. _Selection, or Analysis._--Bringing selected elements of former
+knowledge to interpret the unknown problem, the elements of his former
+knowledge being represented above by such words as six, leg, wing, hard,
+shell, membranous, etc.
+
+3. _Unification, or Synthesis._--A continuous relating of these
+interpreting factors into the unity of a better known object, the
+insect.
+
+=B. Is a Basis for Generalization.=--It is to be noted, however, that in
+any such lesson, although the pupil gains through his senses a knowledge
+of a particular individual only, yet he may at once accept this
+individual as a sign, or type, of a class of objects, and can readily
+apply the new knowledge in interpreting other similar things. Although,
+for example, the pupil has experienced but one such object, he does not
+necessarily think of it as a mere individual--this thing--but as a
+representative of a possible class of objects, a beetle. In other words
+the new particular notion tends to pass directly into a general, or
+class, notion.
+
+
+B. LEARNING THROUGH IMAGINATION
+
+As an example of a lesson in which the pupil secures knowledge through
+the use of his imagination, may be taken first the case of one called
+upon to image some single object of which he may have had no actual
+experience, as a desert, London Tower, the sphinx, etc. Taking the last
+named as an example, the learner must select certain characteristics as,
+woman, head, lion, body, etc., all of which are qualities which have
+been learned in other past experiences. Moreover, the mind must
+organize these several qualities into the representation of a single
+object, the sphinx. Here, evidently, the pupil follows fully the normal
+process of learning.
+
+1. The term--the sphinx--suggests a problem, or felt need, namely, to
+read meaning into the vaguely realized term.
+
+2. Under the direction of the instructor or the text-book, the pupil
+selects, or analyses out of past experience, such ideas as, woman, head,
+body, lion, which are felt to have a value in interpreting the present
+problem.
+
+3. A synthetic, or relating, activity of mind unifies the selected ideas
+into an ideally constructed object which is accepted by the learner as a
+particular object, although never directly known through the senses.
+
+Nor is the method different in more complex imagination processes. In
+literary interpretation, for instance, when the reader meets such
+expressions as:
+
+    The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
+      The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
+    The ploughman homeward plods his weary way
+      And leaves the world to darkness and to me;
+
+the words of the author suggest a problem to the mind of the reader.
+This problem then calls up in the mind of the student a set of images
+out of earlier experience, as bell, evening, herd, ploughman, lea, etc.,
+which the mind unifies into the representation of the particular scene
+depicted in the lines. It is in this way that much of our knowledge of
+various objects and scenes in nature, of historical events and
+characters, and of spiritual beings is obtained.
+
+=Imagination Gives Basis for Generalization.=--It should be noted by the
+student-teacher that in many lessons we aim to give the child a notion
+of a class of objects, though he may in actual experience never have
+met any representatives of the class. In geography, for instance, the
+child learns of deserts, volcanoes, etc., without having experienced
+these objects through the senses. It has been seen, however, that our
+general knowledge always develops from particular experience. For this
+reason the pupil who has never seen a volcano, in order to gain a
+general notion of a volcano, must first, by an act of constructive
+imagination, image a definite picture of a particular volcano. The
+importance of using in such a lesson a picture or a representation on a
+sand-board, lies in the fact that this furnishes the necessary stimulus
+to the child's imagination, which will cause him to image a particular
+individual as a basis for the required general, or class, notion. Too
+often, however, the child is expected in such lessons to form the class
+notion directly, that is, without the intervention of a particular
+experience. This question will be considered more fully in Chapter
+XXVII, which treats of the process of imagination.
+
+
+C. LEARNING BY INFERENCE, OR DEDUCTION
+
+Instead of placing himself in British Columbia, and noting by actual
+experience that there is a large rainfall there, a person may discover
+the same by what is called a process of inference. For example, one may
+have learned from an examination of other particular instances that air
+takes up moisture in passing over water; that warm air absorbs large
+quantities of moisture; that air becomes cool as it rises; and that
+warm, moist air deposits its moisture as rain when it is cooled. Knowing
+this and knowing a number of particular facts about British Columbia,
+namely that warm winds pass over it from the Pacific and must rise owing
+to the presence of mountains, we may infer of British Columbia that it
+has an abundant rainfall. When we thus discover a truth in relation to
+any particular thing by inference, we are said to go through a process
+of deduction. A more particular study of this process will be made in
+Chapter XXVIII, but certain facts may here be noted in reference to the
+process as a mode of acquiring knowledge. An examination will show that
+the deductive process follows the ordinary process of learning, or of
+selecting certain elements of old knowledge, and organizing them into a
+new particular experience in order to meet a certain problem.
+
+=Deduction as Formal Reasoning.=--It is usually stated by psychologists
+and logicians that in this process the person starts with the general
+truth and ends with the particular inference, or conclusion, for
+example:
+
+     Winds coming from the ocean are saturated with moisture.
+
+     The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific.
+
+     Therefore these winds are saturated with moisture.
+
+     All winds become colder as they rise.
+
+     The winds of British Columbia rise as they go inland.
+
+     Therefore, the winds (atmosphere) in British Columbia become colder
+     as they go inland.
+
+     The atmosphere gives out moisture as it becomes colder.
+
+     The atmosphere in British Columbia becomes colder as it goes
+     inland.
+
+     Therefore, the atmosphere gives out moisture in British Columbia.
+
+=Steps in Process.=--The various elements involved in a deductive
+process are often analysed into four parts in the following order:
+
+1. _Principles._ The general laws which are to be applied in the
+solution of the problem. These, in the above deductions, constitute the
+first sentence in each, as,
+
+     The air becomes colder as it rises.
+
+     Air gives out its moisture as it becomes colder, etc.
+
+2. _Data._ This includes the particular facts already known relative to
+the problem. In this lesson, the data are set forth in the second
+sentences, as follows:
+
+     The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific; the
+     wind rises as it goes inland, etc.
+
+3. _Inferences._ These are the conclusions arrived at as a result of
+noting relations between data and principles. In the above lesson, the
+inferences are:
+
+     The atmosphere, or trade-winds, coming from the Pacific rise,
+     become colder, and give out much moisture.
+
+4. _Verification._ In some cases at least the learner may use other
+means to verify his conclusions. In the above lesson, for example, he
+may look it up in the geography or ask some one who has had actual
+experience.
+
+=Deduction Involves a Problem.=--It is to be noted, however, that in a
+deductive learning process, the young child does not really begin with
+the general principle. On the contrary, as noted in the study of the
+learning process, the child always begins with a particular unsolved
+problem. In the case just cited, for instance, the child starts with the
+problem, "What is the condition of the rainfall in British Columbia?" It
+is owing to the presence of this problem, moreover, that the mind calls
+up the principles and data. These, of course, are already possessed as
+old knowledge, and are called up because the mind feels a connection
+between them and the problem with which it is confronted. The principles
+and data are thus both involved in the selecting process, or step of
+analysis. What the learner really does, therefore, in a deductive
+lesson is to interpret a new problem by selecting as interpreting ideas
+the principles and data. The third division, inference, is in reality
+the third step of our learning process, since the inference is a new
+experience organized out of the selected principles and data. Moreover,
+the verification is often found to take the form of ordinary expression.
+As a process of learning, therefore, deduction does not exactly follow
+the formal outline of the psychologists and logicians of (1) principles,
+(2) data, (3) inference, and (_4_) verification; but rather that of the
+learning process, namely, (1) problem, (2) selecting activity, including
+principles and data, (3) relating activity=inference, (4)
+expression=verification.
+
+=Example of Deduction as Learning Process.=--A simple and interesting
+lesson, showing how the pupil actually goes through the deductive
+process, is found in paper cutting of forms balanced about a centre, say
+the letter X.
+
+1. _Problem._ The pupil starts with the problem of discovering a way of
+cutting this letter by balancing about a centre.
+
+2. _Selection._ Principles and Data. The pupil calls up as data what he
+knows of this letter, and as principles, the laws of balance he has
+learned from such letters as, A, B, etc.
+
+3. _Organization or Inference._ The pupil infers from the principle
+involved in cutting the letter A, that the letter X (Fig. A) may be
+balanced about a vertical diameter, as in Fig. B.
+
+Repeating the process, he infers further from the principle involved in
+cutting the letter B, that this result may again be balanced about a
+horizontal diameter, as in Fig. C.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+4. _Expression or Verification._ By cutting Figure D and unfolding
+Figures E and F, he is able to verify his conclusion by noting the shape
+of the form as it unfolds, thus:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+FURTHER EXAMPLES FOR STUDY
+
+The following are given as further examples of deductive processes.
+
+The materials are here arranged in the formal or logical way. The
+student-teacher should rearrange them as they would occur in the child's
+learning process.
+
+
+I. DIVISION OF DECIMALS
+
+1. _Principles_:
+
+(_a_) Multiplying the dividend and divisor by the same number does not
+alter the quotient.
+
+(_b_) To multiply a decimal by 10, 100, 1000, etc., move the decimal
+point 1, 2, 3, etc., places respectively to the right.
+
+2. _Data_:
+
+Present knowledge of facts contained in such an example as .0027 divided
+by .05.
+
+3. _Inferences_:
+
+(_a_) The divisor (.05) may be converted into a whole number by
+multiplying it by 100.
+
+(_b_) If the divisor is multiplied by 100, the dividend must also be
+multiplied by 100 if the quotient is to be unchanged.
+
+(_c_) The problem thus becomes .27 divided by 5, for which the answer is
+.054.
+
+4. _Verification_:
+
+Check the work to see that no mistakes have been made in the
+calculation. Multiply the quotient by the divisor to see if the result
+is equal to the dividend.
+
+
+II. TRADE-WINDS
+
+1. _Principles_:
+
+(_a_) Heated air expands, becomes lighter, and is pushed upward by
+cooler and heavier currents of air.
+
+(_b_) Air currents travelling towards a region of more rapid motion have
+a tendency to "lag behind," and so appear to travel in a direction
+opposite to that of the earth's rotation.
+
+2. _Data_:
+
+(_a_) The most heated portion of the earth is the tropical region.
+
+(_b_) The rapidity of the earth's motion is greatest at the equator and
+least at the poles.
+
+(_c_) The earth rotates on its axis from west to east.
+
+3. _Inferences_:
+
+(_a_) The heated air in equatorial regions will be constantly rising.
+
+(_b_) It will be pushed upward by colder and heavier currents of air
+from the north and south.
+
+(_c_) If the earth did not rotate, there would be constant winds towards
+the south, north of the equator; and towards the north, south of the
+equator.
+
+(_d_) These currents of air are travelling from a region of less motion
+to a region of greater motion, and have a tendency to lag behind the
+earth's motion as they approach the equator.
+
+(_e_) Hence they will seem to blow in a direction contrary to the
+earth's rotation, namely, towards the west.
+
+(_f_) These two movements, towards the equator and towards the west,
+combine to give the currents of air a direction towards the south-west
+north of the equator, and towards the north-west south of the equator.
+
+4. _Verification_:
+
+Read the geography text to see if our inferences are correct.
+
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+=The Conceptual Lesson.=--As an example of a lesson involving a process
+of conception, or classification, may be taken one in which the pupil
+might gain the class notion _noun_. The pupil would first be presented
+with particular examples through sentences containing such words as
+John, Mary, Toronto, desk, boy, etc. Thereupon the pupil is led to
+examine these in order, noting certain characteristics in each.
+Examining the word _John_, for instance, he notes that it is a word;
+that it is used to name and also, perhaps, that it names a person, and
+is written with a capital letter. Of the word _Toronto_, he may note
+much the same except that it names a place; of the word _desk_, he may
+note especially that it is used to name a thing and is written without a
+capital letter. By comparing any and all the qualities thus noted, he
+is supposed, finally, by noting what characteristics are common to all,
+to form a notion of a class of words used to name.
+
+=The Inductive Lesson.=--To exemplify an inductive lesson, there may be
+noted the process of learning the rule that to multiply the numerator
+and denominator of any fraction by the same number does not alter the
+value of the fraction.
+
+
+_Conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different
+denominators_
+
+The teacher draws on the black-board a series of squares, each
+representing a square foot. These are divided by vertical lines into a
+number of equal parts. One or more of these parts are shaded, and pupils
+are asked to state what fraction of the whole square has been shaded.
+The same squares are then further divided into smaller equal parts by
+horizontal lines, and the pupils are led to discover how many of the
+smaller equal parts are contained in the shaded parts.
+
+[Illustration: 1/2=3/6 2/3=8/12 3/4=15/20 3/5=18/30]
+
+Examine these equations one by one, treating each after some such manner
+as follows:
+
+How might we obtain the numerator 18 from the numerator 3? (Multiply by
+6.)
+
+The denominator 30 from the denominator 5? (Multiply by 6.)
+
+1×3   3  2×4    8  3×5   15  3×6   18
+--- = -; --- = --; --- = --; --- = --.
+2×3   6  3×4   12  4×5   20  5×6   30
+
+If we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction
+3/5 by 6, what will be the effect upon the value of the fraction? (It
+will be unchanged.)
+
+What have we done with the numerator and denominator in every case? How
+has the fraction been affected? What rule may we infer from these
+examples? (Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number
+does not alter the value of the fraction.)
+
+
+THE FORMAL STEPS
+
+In describing the process of acquiring either a general notion or a
+general truth, the psychologist and logician usually divide it into four
+parts as follows:
+
+1. The person is said to analyse a number of particular cases. In the
+above examples this would mean, in the conceptual lesson, noting the
+various characteristics of the several words, John, Toronto, desk, etc.;
+and in the second lesson, noting the facts involved in the several cases
+of shading.
+
+2. The mind is said to compare the characteristics of the several
+particular cases, noting any likenesses and unlikenesses.
+
+3. The mind is said to pick out, or abstract, any quality or quantities
+common to all the particular cases.
+
+4. Finally the mind is supposed to synthesise these common
+characteristics into a general notion, or concept, in the conceptual
+process, and into a general truth if the process is inductive.
+
+Thus the conceptual and inductive processes are both said to involve the
+same four steps of:
+
+1. _Analysis._--Interpreting a number of individual cases.
+
+2. _Comparison._--Noting likenesses and differences between the several
+individual examples.
+
+3. _Abstraction._--Selecting the common characteristics.
+
+4. _Generalization._--Synthesis of common characteristics into a general
+truth or a general notion, as the case may be.
+
+=Criticism.=--Here again it will be found, however, that the steps of
+the logician do not fully represent what takes place in the pupil's mind
+as he goes through the learning process in a conceptual or inductive
+lesson. It is to be noted first that the above outline does not signify
+the presence of any problem to cause the child to proceed with the
+analysis of the several particular cases. Assuming the existence of the
+problem, unless this problem involves all the particular examples, the
+question arises whether the learner will suspend coming to any
+conclusion until he has analysed and compared all the particular cases
+before him. It is here that the actual learning process is found to vary
+somewhat from the outline of the psychologist and logician. As will be
+seen below, the child really finds his problem in the first particular
+case presented to him. Moreover, as he analyses out the characteristics
+of this case, he does not really suspend fully the generalizing process
+until he has examined a number of other cases, but, as the teacher is
+fully aware, is much more likely to jump at once to a more or less
+correct conclusion from the one example. It is true, of course, that it
+is only by going on to compare this with other cases that he assures
+himself that this first conclusion is correct. This slight variation of
+the actual learning process from the formal outline will become evident
+if one considers how a child builds up any general notion in ordinary
+life.
+
+
+CONCEPTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS
+
+=A. In Ordinary Life.=--Suppose a young child has received a vague
+impression of a cow from meeting a first and only example; we find that
+by accepting this as a problem and by applying to it such experience as
+he then possesses, he is able to read some meaning into it, for
+instance, that it is a brown, four-footed, hairy object. This idea, once
+formed, does not remain a mere particular idea, but becomes a general
+means for interpreting other experiences. At first, indeed, the idea may
+serve to read meaning, not only into another cow, but also into a horse
+or a buffalo. In course of time, however, as this first imperfect
+concept of the animal is used in interpreting cows and perhaps other
+animals, the first crude concept may in time, by comparison, develop
+into a relatively true, or logical, concept, applicable to only the
+actual members of the class. Now here, the child did not wait to
+generalize until such time as the several really essential
+characteristics were decided upon, but in each succeeding case applied
+his present knowledge to the particular thing presented. It was, in
+other words, by a series of regular selecting and relating processes,
+that his general notion was finally clarified.
+
+=B. In the School.=--Practically the same conditions are noted in the
+child's study of particular examples in an inductive or conceptual
+lesson in the school, although the process is much more rapid on account
+of its being controlled by the teacher. In the lesson outlined above,
+the pupil finds a problem in the very first word _John_, and adjusts
+himself thereto in a more or less perfect way by an apperceptive process
+involving both a selecting and a relating of ideas. With this first more
+or less perfect notion as a working hypothesis, the pupil goes on to
+examine the next word. If he gains the true notion from the first
+example, he merely verifies this through the other particular examples.
+If his first notion is not correct, however, he is able to correct it by
+a further process of analysis and synthesis in connection with other
+examples. Throughout the formal stages, therefore, the pupil is merely
+applying his growing general knowledge in a selective, or analytic, way
+to the interpreting of several particular examples, until such time as a
+perfect general, or class, notion is obtained and verified. It is,
+indeed, on account of this immediate tendency of the mind to generalize,
+that care must be taken to present the children with typical examples.
+To make them examine a sufficient number of examples is to ensure the
+correcting of crude notions that may be formed by any of the pupils
+through their generalizing perhaps from a single particular.
+
+
+INDUCTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS
+
+In like manner, in an inductive lesson, although the results of the
+process of the development of a general principle may for convenience be
+arranged logically under the above four heads, it is evident that the
+child could not wholly suspend his conclusions until a number of
+particular cases had been examined and compared. In the lesson on the
+rule for conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different
+denominators, the pupils could not possibly apperceive, or analyse, the
+examples as suggested under the head of selection, or analysis, without
+at the same time implicitly abstracting and generalizing. Also in the
+lesson below on the predicate adjective, the pupils could not note, in
+all the examples, all the features given under analysis and fail at the
+same time to abstract and generalize. The fact is that in such lessons,
+if the selection, or analysis, is completed in only one example,
+abstraction and generalization implicitly unfold themselves at the same
+time and constitute a relating, or synthetic, act of the mind. The
+fourfold arrangement of the matter, however, may let the teacher see
+more fully the children's mental attitude, and thus enable him to direct
+them intelligently through the apperceptive process. It will undoubtedly
+also impress on the teacher's mind the need of having the pupils compare
+particular cases until a correct notion is fully organized in
+experience.
+
+
+TWO PROCESSES SIMILAR
+
+Notwithstanding the distinction drawn by psychologists between
+conception as a process of gaining a general notion, and induction as a
+process of arriving at a general truth, it is evident from the above
+that the two processes have much in common. In the development of many
+lesson topics, in fact, the lesson may be viewed as involving both a
+conceptual and an inductive process. In the subject of grammar, for
+instance, a first lesson on the pronoun may be viewed as a conceptual
+lesson, since the child gains an idea of a class of words, as indicated
+by the new general term pronoun, this term representing the result of a
+conceptual process. It may equally be viewed as an inductive lesson,
+since the child gains from the lesson a general truth, or judgment, as
+expressed in his new definition--"A pronoun is a word that represents an
+object without naming it," the definition representing the result of an
+inductive process. This fact will be considered more fully, however, in
+Chapter XXVIII.
+
+
+FURTHER EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LESSONS
+
+As further illustrations of an inductive process, the following outlines
+of lessons might be noted. The processes are outlined according to the
+formal steps. The student-teacher should consider how the children are
+to approach each problem and to what extent they are likely to
+generalize as the various examples are being interpreted during the
+analytic stage.
+
+
+1. THE SUBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE
+
+_Analysis, or selection:_
+
+     Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate:
+
+     The man was old.
+
+     The weather turned cold.
+
+     The day grew stormy.
+
+     The boy became ill.
+
+     The concert proved successful.
+
+     What kind of man is referred to in the first sentence? What part of
+     speech is "old"? What part of the sentence does it modify? In what
+     part of the sentence does it stand? Could it be omitted? What then
+     is its duty with reference to the verb? What are its two duties?
+     (It completes the verb "was" and modifies the subject "man.")
+
+Lead the pupils to deal similarly with "cold," "stormy," "ill,"
+"successful."
+
+
+_Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:_
+
+     What two duties has each of these italicized words? Each is called
+     a "Subjective Predicate Adjective." What is a Subjective Predicate
+     Adjective? (A Subjective Predicate Adjective is an adjective that
+     completes the verb and modifies the subject.)
+
+
+2. CONDENSATION OF VAPOUR
+
+_Analysis, or selection:_
+
+The pupils should be asked to report observations they have made
+concerning some familiar occurrences like the following:
+
+     (1) Breathe upon a cold glass and upon a warm glass. What do you
+     notice in each case? Where must the drops of water have come from?
+     Can you see this water ordinarily? In what form must the water have
+     been before it formed in drops on the cold glass?
+
+     (2) What have you often noticed on the window of the kitchen on
+     cool days? From where did these drops of water come? Could you see
+     the vapour in the air? How did the temperature of the window panes
+     compare with the temperature of the room?
+
+     (3) When the water in a tea-kettle is boiling rapidly, what do you
+     see between the mouth of the spout and the cloud of steam? What
+     must have come through that clear space? Is the steam then at first
+     visible or invisible?
+
+The pupils should be further asked to report observations and make
+correct inferences concerning such things as:
+
+     (4) The deposit of moisture on the outside surface of a pitcher of
+     ice-water on a warm summer day.
+
+     (5) The clouded condition of one's eye-glasses on coming from the
+     cold outside air into a warm room.
+
+
+_Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:_
+
+     In all these cases you have reported what there has been in the
+     air. Was this vapour visible or invisible? Under what condition did
+     it become visible?
+
+The pupils should be led to sum up their observations in some such way
+as the following:
+
+Air often contains much water vapour. When this comes in contact with
+cooler bodies, it condenses into minute particles of water. In other
+words, the two conditions of condensation are (1) a considerable
+quantity of water vapour in the air, and (2) contact with cooler
+bodies.
+
+It must be borne in mind that in a conceptual or an inductive lesson
+care is to be taken by the teacher to see that the particulars are
+sufficient in number and representative in character. As already pointed
+out, crude notions often arise through generalizing from too few
+particulars or from particulars that are not typical of the whole class.
+Induction can be most frequently employed in elementary school work in
+the subjects of grammar, arithmetic, and nature study.
+
+
+INDUCTIVE-DEDUCTIVE LESSONS
+
+Before we leave this division of general method, it should be noted that
+many lessons combine in a somewhat formal way two or more of the
+foregoing lesson types.
+
+In many inductive lessons the step of application really involves a
+process of deduction. For example, after teaching the definition of a
+noun by a process of induction as outlined above, we may, in the same
+lesson, seek to have the pupil use his new knowledge in pointing out
+particular nouns in a set of given sentences. Here, however, the pupil
+is evidently called upon to discover the value of particular words by
+the use of the newly learned general principle. When, therefore, he
+discovers the grammatical value of the particular word "Provender" in
+the sentence "Provender is dear," the pupil's process of learning can be
+represented in the deductive form as follows:
+
+    All naming words are nouns.
+    _Provender_ is a naming word.
+    _Provender_ is a noun.
+
+Although in these exercises the real aim is not to have the pupil learn
+the value of the individual word, but to test his mastery of the general
+principle, such application undoubtedly corresponds with the deductive
+learning process previously outlined. Any inductive lesson, therefore,
+which includes the above type of application may rightly be described as
+an inductive-deductive lesson. A great many lessons in grammar and
+arithmetic are of this type.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE LESSON UNIT
+
+
+=What Constitutes a Lesson Problem.=--The foregoing analysis and
+description of the learning process has shown that the ordinary school
+lesson is designed to lead the pupil to build up, or organize, a new
+experience, or, as it is sometimes expressed, to gain control of a unit
+of valuable knowledge, presented as a single problem. From what has been
+learned concerning the relating activity of mind, however, it is evident
+that the teacher may face a difficulty when he is called upon to decide
+what extent of knowledge, or experience, is to be accepted as a
+knowledge unit. It was noted, for example, that many topics regularly
+treated in a single lesson fall into quite distinct sub-divisions, each
+of which represents to a certain extent a separate group of related
+ideas and, therefore, a single problem. On the other hand, many
+different lesson experiences, or topics, although taught as separate
+units, are seen to stand so closely related, that in the end they
+naturally organize themselves into a larger single unit of knowledge,
+representing a division, of the subject of study. From this it is
+evident that situations may arise, as in teaching the classes of
+sentences in grammar, in which the teacher must ask himself whether it
+will be possible to take up the whole topic with its important
+sub-divisions in a single lesson, or whether each sub-division should be
+treated in a single lesson.
+
+=How to Approach Associated Problems.=--Even when it is realized that
+the related matter is too large for a single lesson, it must be decided
+whether it will be better to bring on each sub-division as a separate
+topic, and later let these sub-divisions synthesise into a new unity; or
+whether the larger topic should be taken up first in a general way, and
+the sub-divisions made topics of succeeding lessons. In the study of
+mood in grammar, for example, shall we introduce each mood separately,
+and finally have the child synthesise the separate facts; or shall we
+begin with a lesson on mood in general, and follow this with a study of
+the separate moods? In like manner, in the study of winds in geography,
+shall we study in order land and sea breezes, trade-winds, and monsoons,
+and have the child synthesise these facts at the end of the series; or
+shall we begin with a study of winds in general, and follow this with a
+more detailed study of the three classes of winds?
+
+
+WHOLE TO PARTS
+
+=Advantages.=--The second of these methods, which is often called the
+method of proceeding from whole to parts, should, whenever possible, be
+followed. For instance, in a study of such a lesson as _Dickens in the
+Camp_, the detailed study of the various stanzas should be preceded by
+an introductory lesson, bringing out the leading thought of the poem,
+and noting the sub-topics. When, in an introductory lesson, the pupil is
+able to gain control of a large topic, and see the relation to it of a
+given number of sub-topics, he is selecting and relating the parts of
+the whole topic by the normal analytic-synthetic method. Moreover, in
+the following lessons, he is much more likely to appreciate the relation
+of the various sub-topics to the central topic, and the inter-relations
+between these various sub-topics. For this reason, in such subjects as
+history, literature, geography, etc., pupils are often introduced to
+these large divisions, or complex lesson units, and given a vague
+knowledge of the whole topic, the detailed study of the parts being made
+in subsequent lessons.
+
+=Examples.=--The following outlines will further illustrate how a series
+of lessons (numbered I, II, III, etc.) may thus proceed from a first
+study of the larger whole to a more detailed study of a number of
+subordinate parts.
+
+
+THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER SYSTEM
+
+_I. Topic.--The St. Lawrence River:_
+
+     Position, size, extent of system, other characteristics.
+     Importance--historical, commercial, industrial.
+
+_II. Sub-topic 1.--Importance historically:_
+
+     Open mouth to Europe; Open door to continent; Cartier, Champlain.
+     System of lakes and rivers large and small gave lines of
+     communication, inviting discovery and subsequent development and
+     settlement.
+
+_III. Sub-topic 2.--Importance commercially:_
+
+     Large tracts of valuable land, timber, etc., made available.
+     Highway--need of such between East and West. Difficulties to be
+     overcome, canal, ships. Competition of railways, How? Classes of
+     goods back and forth. Avenue to and from the wheat land.
+
+_IV. Sub-topic 3.--Importance industrially:_
+
+     Great commercial centres--where located and why? Water powers,
+     elevators, manufacturing of raw materials made available in the
+     large areas; Immigration; Fishing.
+
+
+STUDY OF BACTERIA
+
+_I. Topic.--Bacteria:_
+
+     What they are; relations, comparisons; other plants in same class,
+     or those of higher orders; size, shape; where found; conditions of
+     growth; propagation; modes of distribution; etc.
+
+_II. Sub-topic 1.--Our interest in bacteria, arising out of the injury
+or good they do:_
+
+     (_a_) Injury: Decay of fruits, trees, tissues, etc.,
+     diseases--diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis; how developed,
+     conditions, favourable toxins.
+
+     (_b_) Benefits: In soil, cheese, butter, etc.; chemical action,
+     building new compounds and breaking up other compounds.
+
+_III. Sub-topic 2.--Our interest in controlling them; the methods based
+on mode and conditions of growth, etc.:_
+
+     (_a_) Prevention: Eliminating favourable conditions; low
+     temperature, high temperatures, cleanliness; sewerage disposal;
+     clean cow-stables, cellars, kitchens, etc.; antiseptics--carbolic,
+     formalin, sugar for fruit, sealing up; quarantine, vaccination,
+     antitoxin.
+
+     (_b_) Cultures,--alfalfa, cheese, butter, under control.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE
+
+_I. Topic.--Europe:_
+
+     What interest to us; why we study it; position, latitude, near
+     water, boundaries, size; Surface features--highlands, lowlands,
+     drainage rivers, coast-line, etc. Climate--temperature (means,
+     Jan., July), wind, moisture.
+
+_II. Sub-topic 1.--Products (based on above conditions):_
+
+     Vegetation, animal, mineral; vary over area according to physical
+     climatic, and geological conditions; Kinds of products of each
+     class, in each area, etc.
+
+_III. Sub-topic 2.--Occupations (based on Lesson II):_
+
+     Study of operations and conditions favourable and unfavourable
+     under which each product is produced, gathered, and manufactured.
+     Industries, arising from work on the raw materials.
+
+_IV. Sub-topic 3.--Trade and Commerce (based on Lessons II and III):_
+
+     Transportation, producers selling and manufacturers buying raw
+     material, distributed to homes in country and city, to factories
+     within the region itself, to regions beyond, across oceans, etc.
+     Manufactured products sent out, exports and imports.
+
+_V. Sub-topic 4.--Civil advantages (based on Lessons I, III, and IV):_
+
+     Conditions of living--homes, dress, work and pleasure; trades,
+     education, government, social, religious, etc.
+
+
+PARTS TO WHOLE
+
+The method of whole to parts cannot be followed in all cases even where
+a number of lesson units may possess important points of inter-relation.
+Although, for instance, simple and compound addition and addition of
+fractions are only different phases of one process, no one would
+advocate the combining of these into such a unified lesson series. In
+Canadian History, also, although the conditions of the Quebec Act, the
+coming of the United Empire Loyalists, and the passing of the
+Constitutional Act, have definite points of inter-relation, it would
+nevertheless be unwise to attempt to evolve these out of a single
+complex lesson unit. In such cases, therefore, the synthesis of the
+various parts must be made as the lessons proceed. Moreover, it is well
+to ensure the complete organization of the elements by means of an
+outline review at the end of the lesson series. The student-teacher will
+meet an example of this process under the topical lesson in Chapter
+XVII.
+
+
+PRECAUTIONS
+
+It is evident from the above considerations, that certain precautions
+should be observed in deciding upon the particular subject-matter to be
+included in each lesson topic.
+
+1. A just balance should be maintained between the difficulty of each
+lesson unit and the ability of the class. Matter that is too easy
+requires no effort in its mastery and hence is uninteresting. Matter
+that is too difficult discourages effort, and is, therefore, equally
+uninteresting. It should be sufficiently easy for every pupil to master,
+and sufficiently difficult to require real effort.
+
+2. The amount of matter included should be carefully adjusted to the
+length of time taken for the lesson and to the attainments of the class.
+If too much is attempted, there will be insufficient time for adequate
+drill and review, and hence there will be lack of thoroughness. If too
+little is attempted, time will be wasted in needless repetition.
+
+3. Each unit of instruction in any subject should, in general, grow out
+of the preceding unit taken in that subject, and be closely connected
+with it. It is in this way that a pupil's interest is aroused for the
+new problem and his knowledge becomes organized. Neglect in this regard
+results in the possession of disconnected and unsystematized facts.
+
+Each lesson should contain one or more central facts around which the
+other facts are grouped. This permits easy organization of the material
+of the lesson, and ensures its retention by the pupils. Further, the
+pupils are by this means trained to discriminate between the essential
+and the non-essential.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+LESSON TYPES
+
+
+=The Developing Lesson.=--In the various lesson plans already
+considered, the aim has always appeared as an attempt to direct the
+learning process so that the pupil may both build up a new experience
+and also gain such control over it as will enable him to turn it to
+practical use. Because in all such lessons the teacher is supposed to
+direct the pupils through the four steps of the learning process in such
+a way that they discover for themselves some important new experience,
+or develop it out of their own present knowledge, the lessons are spoken
+of as developing lessons. Moreover, the two parts of the lesson in which
+the new experience is especially gained by the pupils, namely the
+selecting and relating processes, are often spoken of as a single step
+and called the step of _development,_ the lesson then being treated
+under four heads: Problem, preparation, development, and application.
+
+=Auxiliary Lessons.=--It is evident, however, that there may be lessons
+in which this direct attempt to have the pupils build up some wholly new
+experience through a regularly controlled learning process, will not
+appear as the chief purpose of the lesson. In the previous consideration
+of the deductive lesson, it was pointed out that this type may be used
+to give a further mastery of general rules previously learned, rather
+than a knowledge of particular examples. Such would be the case in an
+ordinary parsing and analysis lesson in grammar. Here the primary
+purpose is, evidently, not to give the pupils a grammatical knowledge
+of the particular words and sentences which are being parsed and
+analysed, but rather to give them better control of certain general
+rules of language which they have partially mastered in previous
+lessons. So also a lesson in writing may seek, not to teach the form of
+some new letter, but to give skill in writing a letter form which the
+pupils have already learned. In an exercise in addition of fractions,
+also, the aim is not so much to have the pupil know these particular
+questions, as to have him gain a more complete control of the previously
+learned rule. In other lessons the pupils may be left to secure new
+knowledge largely for themselves, and the recitation be devoted to
+testing whether they have been able to accomplish this successfully. In
+still other lessons the teacher may merely outline a certain topic or
+certain topics, preparatory to such independent study by the pupils.
+
+The following outlines will explain and exemplify these auxiliary lesson
+types.
+
+
+THE STUDY LESSON
+
+=Purpose of Study Lesson.=--The purpose of the Study Lesson is the
+mastery by the pupils of a stated portion of the text-book. Ultimately,
+however it is the cultivation of the power of gleaning information from
+the printed page, of selecting essential features, and of arranging
+these in their proper relationships.
+
+The main difficulty in connection with the study lesson is the
+adaptation of the matter to the interests of the pupils. This difficulty
+is sometimes due to their inability to interpret the language of the
+book, and to the difficulty of their distinguishing the salient features
+from the non-essential. The trouble in this regard is accentuated when
+they approach the lesson with an inadequate preparation of mind.
+
+The study lesson falls naturally into two parts, the assignment and the
+seat work.
+
+=The Assignment.=--The object of the assignment is to put the pupils in
+an attitude of inquiry toward the new matter. It corresponds to the
+conception of the problem and the step of preparation in the development
+lesson. The most successful assignment is one in which the interest of
+the pupils is aroused to such a pitch that they are anxious to read more
+about the subject. In general it will consist of a recall of those
+ideas, or a statement of those facts upon which the interpretation of
+the new matter depends. Most of the unsuccessful study lessons are due
+to insufficient care in the assignment. Often pupils are told to read so
+many pages of the book, without any preliminary preparation and without
+any idea of what facts they are to learn. Under such conditions, the
+result is usually a very slight interest in the lesson, and consequently
+an unsatisfactory grasp of it.
+
+=Examples of Assignment.=--A few examples will serve to illustrate what
+is meant by an adequate assignment. When a new reading lesson is to be
+prepared, the assignment should include the pronunciation and meaning of
+the different words, and a general understanding of the passage to be
+read. For a new spelling lesson, the assignment should include the
+pronunciation and meaning of the words, and any special difficulties
+that may appear in them. In assigning a history lesson on, say, the
+Capture of Quebec, the teacher should discuss with the class the
+position of Quebec, the difficulties that would present themselves to a
+besieging army, the character and personal appearance of Wolfe (making
+him stand out as vividly as possible), and the position seized by the
+British army, illustrating as far as possible by maps and diagrams.
+Then the class will be in a mental attitude to read with interest the
+dramatic story of the taking of the fortress. If the pupils were about
+to study the geography of British Columbia, the teacher might, in the
+assignment, ask them to note from the map of Canada the position of the
+province and the direction of the mountain ranges; to infer the
+character and direction of the rivers and their value for navigation; to
+infer the nature of the climate, knowing the direction of the prevailing
+winds; to infer the character of the chief industries, knowing the
+physical features and climate. With these facts in mind the class will
+be able to read intelligently what the text-book says about British
+Columbia.
+
+=The Seat Work.=--However good the assignment may be, there is always a
+danger that there will be much waste of time in connection with the seat
+work. The tendency to mind-wandering is always so great that the time
+devoted to the preparation of lessons at seats may to a large extent be
+lost, unless special precautions are taken in that regard. Unfortunately
+every lesson cannot be made so enthralling that the pupil's mind is kept
+upon it in spite of distractions. To prevent this possible waste of
+time, suggestions have already been made in another connection (page 112
+above). These will bear repetition here. Questions upon the matter to be
+studied might be placed on the black-board and pupils asked to prepare
+answers for these. The difficulty with this plan is, that, unless the
+questions are carefully thought out by the teacher, the pupils may get
+from their reading only a few disconnected facts instead of organized
+knowledge. The pupils might be asked to prepare lists of questions for
+themselves, and the one who had the best list might be permitted to put
+his questions to the rest of the class. The difficulty here is that
+most pupils have a tendency to question about what is unimportant and
+to neglect the important. In the higher classes, the pupils might be
+required to make a topical outline of the lesson studied. This requires
+considerable analytic ability, and the results at first are likely to be
+disappointing. However, it is an ability worth striving for. The
+individual who can readily outline what he has read has mastered the art
+of reading.
+
+=Use of Study Lessons.=--There is a danger that the study lesson may be
+used too much or too little. In an ungraded school containing many
+classes, the teacher may be tempted to rely solely upon the study lesson
+as a means of intellectual advancement. Used exclusively it becomes
+monotonous, and the pupils grow weary of the constant effort required.
+On the other hand, in the graded school, where a teacher has charge of
+only one class, there will be a tendency to depend entirely on the oral
+presentation of lessons, to the exclusion of the text-book altogether.
+The result is that pupils do not cultivate the power to obtain knowledge
+from books. The study lesson should alternate with the oral lesson, so
+that monotony may be avoided, and the pupils will reap the undoubted
+benefits of both methods.
+
+
+THE RECITATION LESSON
+
+=Purpose of the Recitation Lesson.=--The recitation lesson is the
+complement of the study lesson. Its purpose is to test the pupil's grasp
+of the facts he has read during the study period. Incidentally the
+teacher clears up difficulties and corrects misconceptions on the part
+of the pupil. The facts of the text-book may be amplified from the
+teacher's stock of information. Abstract facts may be illustrated in a
+concrete way. The important facts may be emphasized and the unimportant
+ones lightly passed over. The ultimate aim of the recitation lesson is
+to add something to the pupil's power of interpreting and organizing
+facts.
+
+=Precautions.=--Some precautions are to be noted in connection with the
+recitation lesson. (1) Care must be exercised that the pupils are not
+reciting mere words that have no solid basis of ideas. Young children
+are particularly expert at verbalizing. (2) Care must also be taken that
+the pupils have not merely scrappy information, but have the ideas
+thoroughly organized. (3) The teacher must know the facts to be recited
+well enough to be independent of the text-book during the recitation. To
+conduct the lesson with an open book before him is a confession of
+weakness on the part of the teacher.
+
+
+CONDUCTING THE RECITATION LESSON
+
+There are two methods of conducting the recitation lesson, namely, the
+question and answer method and the topical method.
+
+=A. The Question and Answer Method.=--This is the easier method for the
+pupil, as he is called upon to answer only in a brief form detailed
+questions asked by the teacher. The onus of the analysis of the lesson
+rests largely upon the teacher. He must ask the questions in a proper
+sequence so that, if the answers of the pupils were written out, they
+would form a connected account of the matter. He must be able to detect
+from the pupils' answers whether they have real knowledge or are merely
+masquerading with words. To be able to question well is one of the most
+valuable accomplishments that a teacher can possess. The whole problem
+of the art of questioning will be considered in the next Chapter.
+
+=B. The Topical Method.=--The topical recitation consists in the pupil's
+reporting the facts of the study lesson with a minimum of questioning on
+the part of the teacher. Two advantages are apparent: (1) It gives the
+pupil an excellent training in organizing his materials, and (2) it
+develops his language power. It is to be feared that the topical
+recitation is not so frequently used as its value warrants. The reason
+is probably that it is a difficult method to follow. Poor results are
+usually secured at first, teachers grow discouraged, they stop trying
+it, and thereafter put their whole faith in the question and answer
+recitation. This is unfortunate, for however good the latter may be, it
+is greatly inferior to the topical recitation in helping the pupil to
+institute relations among his facts, and in improving his power to use
+his mother-tongue effectively. Successful topical recitations can be
+secured only at the price of long, patient, and persistent effort. The
+teacher can gradually work towards them from detailed questions to
+questions requiring the combination of a few sentences in answer, and
+thence to the complete outline. In almost every lesson the pupils may be
+called upon to summarize some topic after it has been gone over by means
+of detailed questions. In such answers the pupils may reasonably be
+expected to state the facts in their proper connection and in good
+language form. In reviews, also, in such subjects as history and
+geography, the pupils should be frequently called upon to recite
+topically.
+
+
+THE DRILL LESSON
+
+=Purpose of Drill Lesson.=--The Drill Lesson involves the repetition of
+matter in the same form as it was originally learned, in order to fix it
+in the mind so firmly that its recall will eventually become automatic.
+In other words, the function of this type of lesson is habit-formation.
+It is necessary in those subjects that are more or less mechanical in
+nature, and that can be reduced to the plane of habit. The field of the
+drill lesson will, therefore, be largely restricted to spelling,
+writing, language, and the mechanical phases of art and arithmetic.
+
+=The Method.=--As the purpose of the drill lesson is the formation of
+habit, the method will involve the application of the principles that
+lie at the basis of habit-formation. These are, (1) attention to the
+thing to be done so as to obtain a vivid picture or a clear
+understanding of it, and (2) repetition with attention. For instance, if
+the writing lesson is the formation of the capital E, the class will
+examine carefully a model form, note the parts of which it is composed,
+the relative size and position of the parts, how they are connected,
+etc. Then will follow the repetition of the form by the pupils, each
+time with careful attention to the method of making it, comparison with
+the model, and the noting of defects in their work. This will continue
+until the letter can be made correctly without attention, that is, until
+the method of making it has been reduced to a habit. If the lesson is on
+the spelling of difficult words, the first step will be to observe the
+pronunciation of each, the division into syllables, the difficult part
+of the word, and the order of the letters. Then the word will be
+repeated attentively until it can be spelled without effort. In a
+language lesson on the correct use, say, of "lie" and "lay," the pupils
+will first be called upon to observe the forms of each, "lie, lay, lain,
+lying," and "lay, laid, laying"--as used in sentences on the
+black-board, and the meaning of each group--"lie" meaning "to recline"
+and "lay" meaning "to place." The pupils will then repeat attentively
+the correct forms of the words in sentences, until they finally reach
+the stage when they unconsciously use the words correctly, or as habits
+of speech. The same principles apply in learning the addition and
+multiplication tables, and the tables of weights and measures in
+arithmetic; in the memorization of gems of poetry and prose; in the
+learning of dates, lists of events, and important provisions of acts in
+history; and in the memorization of lists of places and products in
+geography, where this is desirable. In all the cases mentioned, it must
+not be supposed that a single drill lesson will be sufficient for the
+fixing of the desired knowledge or skill. Before instant and unconscious
+reaction can be depended upon, repetition will be needed at intervals
+for some time.
+
+=Danger in Mere Repetition.=--In connection with the repetition
+necessary in the second stage of the drill lesson, an important
+precaution should be noted. It is impossible for anybody to repeat
+anything _attentively_ many times in succession unless there is some new
+element noted in each repetition. When there is no longer a new element,
+the repetition becomes mechanical, and hence comparatively useless so
+far as acquisition of knowledge or even habit is concerned. To ask a
+pupil who has difficulty with a combination in addition, or a product in
+multiplication, or the spelling of a word, to repeat it many times in
+succession, may be not only waste of time, but even worse, because a
+tendency toward mind-wandering may be encouraged. The practice of
+requiring pupils to write out new words, or words that have been
+mis-spelled in the dictation lesson, five, ten, or twenty times
+successively, cannot be too strongly condemned. The attention cannot
+possibly be concentrated upon the work beyond two or three repetitions,
+and the fact that pupils frequently make mistakes two or three words
+down the column and repeat this mistake to the end, is sufficient proof
+of the mechanical nature of the process. The little boy who had
+difficulty with the use of "went" and "gone," and was commanded by his
+teacher to write "I have gone" a hundred times on his slate, illustrates
+this principle exactly. He had been left to finish his task alone and,
+after writing "I have gone" faithfully forty or fifty times, grew tired
+of the monotony of the process. Turning the slate over, he wrote on the
+other side, "I have went home" and left it on the desk for the teacher's
+approval.
+
+=How to Overcome Dangers.=--To avoid this difficulty, some device must
+be adopted to secure attention to each repetition until the knowledge is
+firmly fixed. For instance, instead of asking the pupil many times one
+after the other, what seven times six are, it would be better to
+introduce other combinations and come back frequently to seven times
+six. In that way the pupil would have to attend to it every time it came
+up. Similarly, in learning to spell a troublesome word like "separate,"
+the best plan would be to mix it up with other words and come back to it
+often. Repetition is always necessary in the drill lesson, but it should
+always be _repetition with attention_.
+
+
+THE REVIEW LESSON
+
+=Purpose of Review Lesson.=--As the name implies, a review is a new view
+of old knowledge. While the drill lesson repeats the matter in the same
+form as it was originally learned, the review lesson repeats the matter
+from another standpoint or in new relations. The function of the review
+lesson is the organization of the material of a series of lessons into
+an inter-connected whole, and incidentally the fixing of these facts in
+the mind by the additional repetitions.
+
+=Kinds of Review.=--Almost every lesson gives opportunities for
+incidental reviews. The step of preparation recalls old ideas in new
+connections, and may be properly considered a review. A lesson on the
+"gerund" in grammar would require a recall of the various relations in
+which a noun may stand, and the various ways in which a verb may be
+completed. It is quite probable that the pupils have never before
+brought these facts together in an organized way. Similarly, the step of
+expression affords opportunity for review. The solution of problems in
+simple interest confronts the pupils with new situations in which this
+principle can be applied. The reproduction of the matter of the history
+lesson requires the selection of the important facts from the mass of
+details given and the placing of these in their proper relationship to
+one another.
+
+But besides the incidental reviews which form a part of nearly all
+lessons, there must be lessons which are purely reviews. Without these,
+the pupil, because of insufficient repetition, would rapidly forget the
+facts he had once learned or would never really know the facts at all,
+because he had not seen them in all their connections. There are two
+methods of conducting these reviews: (1) by means of the topical
+outline, (2) by means of the method of comparison.
+
+
+THE TOPICAL REVIEW
+
+=Purpose of Topical Outlines.=--By this method the pupil gets a
+bird's-eye view of a whole field. In learning the matter originally, his
+attention was largely concentrated upon the individual facts, and it is
+quite probable that he has since lost sight of some of the threads of
+unity running through them. The topical outline will bring these into
+prominence. It will enable the pupil to keep in his mind the most
+important headings of a subject, the sub-headings, and the individual
+facts coming under these. Whatever may be said against the practice of
+memorizing topical outlines, it must be acknowledged that unless it is
+done the pupil's knowledge of the subject is likely to be very hazy,
+indefinite, and disconnected.
+
+=Illustrations from History.=--As an illustration of the review lesson
+by means of the topical outline, take the history of the Hudson's Bay
+Company. If the pupil has followed the order of the text-book, he has
+probably learned this subject in pieces--a bit here, another some pages
+later, and still another a few chapters farther on. In the multiplicity
+of other events, he has probably missed the connections among the facts,
+and a topical review will be necessary to establish these. He may be
+required to go through his history text-book, reading all the parts
+relating to the Hudson's Bay Company. He will thus get a grasp of the
+relationships among the facts, and this will be made firmer if an
+outline such as the following is worked out with the assistance of the
+teacher.
+
+
+THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY
+
+I. EARLY HISTORY:
+
+     1. Groseilliers and Radisson interest Prince Rupert in
+     possibilities of trade in North-Western Canada. Two vessels fitted
+     out for Hudson's Bay. Report favourable.
+
+     2. Charter granted Hudson's Bay Company by Charles II, 1670.
+
+     3. Forts Nelson, Albany, Rupert, and Hayes attacked and captured by
+     DeTroyes and D'Iberville, 1686. Restored by Treaty of Utrecht,
+     1713.
+
+II. NATURE OF FUR-TRADE:
+
+     1. Furs gathered by Indians in winter.
+
+     2. Conveyed to forts in summer, after incredible difficulties.
+
+     3. Ceremonies on arrival of Indians at forts.
+
+     4. Articles exchanged for furs at first showy and worthless, but
+     later more useful and valuable, for example, guns, hatchets,
+     powder, shot, blankets, etc.
+
+III. RIVALS OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY:
+
+     1. Coureurs-de-bois.
+
+     2. Scottish traders--ranged from Michilimackinac to Saskatchewan.
+     H.B. Co. built Cumberland House on Saskatchewan to compete for
+     interior trade.
+
+     3. North-West Company, 1783-4--at first friendly to H.B. Co., but
+     later bitter enemies.
+
+IV. THE SELKIRK SETTLEMENT:
+
+     1. _Establishment._--Lord Selkirk, a Scottish philanthropist, and a
+     shareholder in the Hudson's Bay Co., purchased from the Company
+     70,000 square miles of land around Red River for Scotch colonies,
+     1811. About three hundred settlers came within three years. Miles
+     Macdonell at head of the colony.
+
+     2. _Trouble with North-West Company._--
+
+     (_a_) Suspicion of N.W. Co. that colony was established by H.B. Co.
+     to compete for fur trade.
+
+     (_b_) Proclamation of Macdonell that food should not be taken out
+     of settlement. Attack on colony by Metis Indians encouraged by N.W.
+     Co. Withdrawal of colonists to Lake Winnipeg.
+
+     (_c_) Return with reinforcements under Semple. Skirmish at Seven
+     Oaks, 1816. Semple with twenty others killed.
+
+     (_d_) Selkirk's descent upon Fort William. Arrest of several
+     Nor'Westers. Colony at Red River restored.
+
+     (_e_) Nor'Westers acquitted of murder of Semple. Selkirk convicted
+     and heavily fined for acts of violence. Selkirk withdrew from
+     Canada in disappointment and disgust.
+
+     3. _Later Progress._--
+
+     (_a_) Hardships of pioneer life like those of Ontario.
+
+     (_b_) A series of disasters--grasshoppers, floods.
+
+     (_c_) Prosperity finally came.
+
+     (_d_) Government at first administered by governor of H.B. Co.,
+     later assisted by Council of fourteen members.
+
+V. AMALGAMATION OF RIVAL COMPANIES:
+
+     1. _Union._--
+
+     After withdrawal of Selkirk, the H.B. Co. and the N.W. Co. united
+     in 1821, under name of former.
+
+     2. _Subsequent Progress._--
+
+     (_a_) Governor Sir George Simpson extended posts westward to
+     Pacific.
+
+     (_b_) Through his energy Britain was able to retain possession of
+     Western Canada in spite of aggression of United States and Russia.
+
+VI. RELINQUISHMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS:
+
+     1. Canadian Government claimed that the rule of the Company
+     hindered development of Western Canada because it was interested
+     only in trade.
+
+     2. _Agreement with Canadian Government._--
+
+     (_a_) Company sold Prince Rupert's Land and gave up its trade
+     monopoly.
+
+     (_b_) In return.--
+
+         (i) Received £300,000.
+
+         (ii) Retained one twentieth of land south of the Saskatchewan.
+
+         (iii) Retained its posts and trading privileges.
+
+3. Company still exists as a trading organization with many posts in the
+West and large stores in many cities.
+
+VII. SERVICES OF H.B. CO. TO CANADA AND THE EMPIRE:
+
+     1. Opened up a valuable trade in Western Canada.
+
+     2. Explored and opened up the West for settlement.
+
+     3. Retained for Britain the territory west of Rockies when it was
+     in danger of falling into other hands.
+
+The subjects of the Public and Separate School Course where topical
+reviews are most necessary are history and geography.
+
+THE COMPARATIVE REVIEW
+
+A thing always stands out most vividly in the mind when the relations of
+similarity and difference are perceived between it and other things.
+When we compare and contrast two things, certain features of each that
+would otherwise escape our attention are brought to light. We get a
+clearer idea of both the rabbit and the squirrel when we compare their
+various characteristics. Great Britain and Germany are each better
+understood geographically, when we set up comparisons between them; Pitt
+and Walpole stand out more clearly as statesmen when we compare and
+contrast them. One of the most effective forms of review is that in
+which the relations of likeness and difference are set up between
+subjects that have already been studied. For instance, the geographical
+features of Manitoba and British Columbia may be effectively reviewed by
+instituting comparisons between them in regard to (1) position and size,
+(2) physical features, (3) climate, (4) industries, (5) products, (6)
+commercial centres. The careers of Walpole and Pitt might be reviewed by
+comparing and contrasting them with regard to (1) circumstances under
+which each became Prime Minister, (2) domestic policy, (3) foreign
+policy, (4) circumstances surrounding the resignation of each, (5)
+personal character.
+
+Whatever form the review lesson may take, the teacher should always keep
+in mind its two main purposes, namely, (1) the organization of knowledge
+which comes through the apprehension of new relationships, and (2) the
+deeper impression of facts on the mind which comes through attentive
+repetition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+QUESTIONING
+
+
+=Importance.=--As a teaching device, questioning must always occupy a
+place of the highest importance. While it may not be always true that
+good questioning is synonymous with good teaching, there can be no doubt
+that the good teacher must have, as one of his qualifications, the
+ability to question well. A good question is a problem to solve. A
+stimulating problem arouses and directs mental activity. Well-directed
+mental activity is the prime requisite of all learning and one of the
+ends which all effective teaching endeavours to realize. Questioning is
+one of the best means of securing that desirable activity of mind
+without which intellectual progress is impossible. The teacher who would
+master the technique of his art must study to attain skill in
+questioning.
+
+
+QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GOOD QUESTIONER
+
+=A. Knowledge of Subject and of Mind.=--The most obvious essentials are
+familiarity with the subject-matter and a knowledge of the mental
+processes of the child. Without the first, the questions will be
+pointless, haphazard, and unsystematic; without the second, they will be
+ill-adjusted to the interests and attainments of the pupils. A thorough
+knowledge of the facts of the lesson and a keen insight into the
+workings of the child mind are indispensable.
+
+=B. Analytic Ability.=--As an accompaniment of the first of these
+qualifications, the good questioner must have analytic ability. The
+material of the lesson must be analysed into its elements and the
+relations of these must be clearly perceived if it is to be effectively
+presented to the pupils. The teacher must further have the power to
+discriminate between the important and the unimportant. The ability to
+seize upon the essential features and to give due prominence to these is
+one of the most valuable accomplishments a teacher can have.
+
+=C. Knowledge of Pupils' Experiences.=--As an accompaniment of the
+second qualification, the good questioner must have a knowledge of the
+previous experience and of the capacities of the pupils. Good teaching
+consists largely in the skilful adjustment of the new to the old. The
+teacher must ascertain what the pupils already know, what their
+interests are, and what matter they may reasonably be expected to
+apprehend, if he is to have them assimilate properly the facts of the
+lesson. He must further show sympathy and tact in order to inspire the
+pupils to their best effort. He must be able to detect unerringly the
+symptoms of inattention, listlessness, and misbehaviour, and by a
+well-directed question to bring back the wandering attention to the
+subject in hand.
+
+=Faults in Questioning.=--There are two serious weaknesses that many
+young teachers exhibit, namely, questioning when they ought to tell and
+telling when they ought to question. To tell pupils what they might
+easily discover for themselves is to deprive them of the joy of conquest
+and to miss an opportunity of exercising and strengthening their mental
+powers. On the other hand, to question upon matter which the pupils
+cannot reasonably be expected to know or discover is to discourage
+effort and encourage guessing. To know just when to question and when
+to tell requires considerable discrimination and insight on the part of
+the teacher.
+
+
+PURPOSES OF QUESTIONING
+
+Questioning has three main purposes, namely:
+
+1. To determine the limits of the pupil's present knowledge in order
+that the teacher may have a definite basis upon which to build the new
+material;
+
+2. To direct the pupil's thought along a prescribed channel to a
+definite end, to lead him to make discoveries and form conclusions on
+his own account;
+
+3. To ascertain how far he has grasped the meaning of the new material
+that has been presented.
+
+=A. Preparatory.=--The first of these purposes may be designated as
+preparatory. Here the teacher clears the ground for the presentation of
+the new matter by recalling the old related facts necessary to the
+interpretation of the new. In thus sounding the depths of the pupil's
+previous knowledge, the teacher should usually ask questions that demand
+fairly long answers instead of those which may be answered briefly. The
+onus of the recall should be placed largely upon the pupil. The teacher
+will do comparatively little talking; the pupil will do much.
+
+=B. Developing.=--The second purpose may be described as developing. The
+pupil is led step by step to a conclusion. Each question grows naturally
+out of the preceding question, the responsibility for this logical
+connection falling upon the teacher. The pupil has before him a certain
+set of conditions, and he is asked to infer the logical result of such
+conditions. He forms inferences, makes new discoveries, sets up new
+relationships, and formulates definitions and laws. It should be noted
+that this form of questioning gives no entirely new information to the
+pupil. It merely classifies and organizes what is already in his mind in
+a more or less indistinct and nebulous form. New information cannot be
+questioned out of a pupil; it must be given to him directly.
+
+=C. Recapitulation.=--The third purpose of questioning may be described
+as recapitulatory. The pupil is asked to reproduce what he has learned
+during the progress of the lesson. At convenient intervals during the
+presentation and at the close, he should be asked to summarize in a
+connected manner the main points already covered. Thus the teacher tests
+the pupil's comprehension of the facts of the lesson. The pupil, on his
+side, as a result of such reproduction, has the facts more clearly fixed
+in his mind. As in the first stage of the lesson, the answers should be
+of considerable length, logically connected, and expressed in good
+language. The responsibility for this is again thrown largely upon the
+pupil. He does most of the talking; the teacher does little.
+
+=How Employed in Lesson.=--It will thus be recognized that questioning
+is employed for different purposes at the three different stages of the
+lesson. At the opening of the lesson it prepares the mind of the pupil
+for what is to follow. During the presentation it leads the pupil to
+form his own inferences. At the close of the lesson it tests his grasp
+of the facts and gives these greater clearness and fixity in his mind.
+The first and third might both be designated as _testing_ purposes, and
+the second _training_.
+
+
+SOCRATIC QUESTIONING
+
+=Its Characteristics.=--Developing, or training, questions, are
+sometimes referred to as Socratic questions. The terms are, however, not
+altogether synonymous. The method of Socrates had two divisions, known
+as _irony_ and _maieutics_. The former consisted in leading the pupil
+to express an opinion on some subject of current interest, an opinion
+that was apparently accepted by Socrates. Then, by a series of questions
+adroitly put, he drove his pupil into a contradiction or an absurd
+position, thus revealing the inadequacy of the answer. This phase of the
+Socratic method is rarely applicable with young children. Occasionally,
+in grammar or arithmetic, for instance, an incorrect answer may properly
+be followed up so as to lead the pupil into a contradiction, but it is
+usually not desirable to embarrass him unnecessarily. It is never
+agreeable to be covered with the confusion which such a situation
+usually brings about. The other phase of the Socratic method, the
+_maieutics_, consisted in leading the pupil, by a further series of
+questions, to formulate the correct opinion of which the first
+hastily-given answer was only a fragment. This coincides with the
+developing method and may sometimes be profitably employed with young
+children.
+
+EXAMPLE OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONING.--As an example of Socratic
+questioning may be noted the following taken from Plato's _Minos_.
+Socrates has questioned his companion concerning the nature of Law and
+has received the answer, "Law is the decree of the city." To show his
+companion the inadequacy of this definition, Socrates engages with him
+in the following dialogue:
+
+     _Socrates_: Justice and law, are highly honourable; injustice and
+     lawlessness, highly dishonourable; the former preserves cities, the
+     latter ruins them?
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes, it does.
+
+     _Socrates_: Well, then! we must consider law as something
+     honourable; and seek after it, under the assumption that it is a
+     good thing. You defined law to be the decree of the city: Are not
+     some decrees good, others evil?
+
+     _Pupil_: Unquestionably.
+
+     _Socrates_: But we have already said that law is not evil?
+
+     _Pupil_: I admit it.
+
+     _Socrates_: It is incorrect therefore to answer, as you did
+     broadly, that law is the decree of the city. An evil decree cannot
+     be law.
+
+     _Pupil_: I see that it is incorrect.
+
+Having shown his pupil the fallacy of his first definition, Socrates
+proceeds to teach him that only what is right is lawful. This part of
+the dialogue proceeds as follows:
+
+     _Socrates_: Those who know, must of necessity hold the same opinion
+     with each other, on matters which they know: always and everywhere?
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes--always and everywhere.
+
+     _Socrates_: Physicians write respecting matters of health what they
+     account to be true, and these writings of theirs are the medical
+     laws?
+
+     _Pupil_: Certainly they are.
+
+     _Socrates_: The like is true respecting the laws of farming, the
+     laws of gardening, the laws of cookery. All these are the writings
+     of persons, knowing in each of the respective pursuits?
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes.
+
+     _Socrates_: In like manner, what are the laws respecting the
+     government of a city? Are they not the writings of those who know
+     how to govern--kings, statesmen, and men of superior excellence?
+
+     _Pupil_: Truly so.
+
+     _Socrates_: Knowing men like these will not write differently from
+     each other about the same things, nor change what they have once
+     written. If, then, we see some doing this, are we to declare them
+     knowing or ignorant?
+
+     _Pupil_: Ignorant, undoubtedly.
+
+     _Socrates_: Whatever is right, therefore, we may pronounce to be
+     lawful in medicine, gardening, or cookery; whatever is not right,
+     not to be lawful but lawless. And the like in treatises respecting
+     just and unjust, prescribing how the city is to be administered.
+     That which is right, is the regal law; that which is not right, is
+     not so, but only seems to be law in the eyes of the ignorant, being
+     in truth lawless.
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes.
+
+It will be seen from the above examples, that much of the Socratic
+questioning is really explanatory; the questions, though interrogative
+in form, being often rhetorical, and therefore assertive in value.
+
+
+THE QUESTION
+
+=Characteristics of a Good Question.=--Good questions should seize upon
+the important features and emphasize these. Unimportant details, though
+useful in giving vividness to a narrative and enabling the pupil to
+build up a clear picture of the scene or incident, may well be ignored
+in questioning. The teacher must see that the pupil grasps the
+essentials and must direct his questions towards the attainment of that
+end. The questions should be arranged in logical sequence, so that the
+answers, if written out in the order given, would form a connected
+account of the topic under discussion. Further, the questions should
+require the expression of a judgment on the part of the pupil. In the
+main they should not be answerable by a single word or a brief phrase.
+One of the greatest weaknesses in the answers of pupils is the tendency
+_to_ extreme brevity. As a result, it is difficult to get pupils to give
+a connected and continuous narration, description, or exposition in any
+subject. The remedy for this defect is to ask questions which demand
+answers of considerable length, and to avoid those which require only a
+scrappy answer.
+
+=Form of the Question.=--It should ever be borne in mind that the
+teacher's language influences the language habits of his pupils.
+Carelessly worded, poorly constructed questions are likely to result in
+answers having similar characteristics. On the other hand, correctness
+in the form of the questions asked, accuracy in the use of words,
+simple, straightforward statements of the thing wanted, will be
+reflected, dimly perhaps, in the form of the pupils' answers. Care must,
+therefore, be exercised as to the form in which questions are asked.
+They should be stripped of all superfluous introductory words, such as,
+"Who can tell?" "How many of you know?" etc. Such prefaces are not only
+useless and a waste of time, but they also put before pupils a bad model
+if we are to expect concise and direct statements from them. The
+questions should be so clear and definite in meaning as to admit of only
+one interpretation. Questions such as, "What happened after this?" "What
+did Cromwell become?" "What about the rivers of Germany?" "What might we
+say of this word?" are objectionable on the score of indefiniteness.
+Many correct answers might be given for each and the pupils can only
+guess at what is required. If the question cannot be so stated as to
+make what is desired unmistakable, the information had better be given
+outright. Questions should be brief and usually deal with only one
+point, except, perhaps in asking for summaries of what has been covered
+in the lesson. In the latter case it is frequently desirable to put a
+question involving several points in order to ensure definiteness,
+conciseness, and connectedness in the answer; for example, "For what is
+Alexander Mackenzie noted? State his great aim and describe his two most
+important undertakings connected therewith." But in dealing with matter
+taken up for the first time or involving original thought, this type of
+question, demanding as it does attention to several points, would put
+too great a demand upon the powers of young children. Under such
+conditions it is best to ask questions requiring only one point in
+answer.
+
+
+THE ANSWER
+
+=Form of Answers.=--The possibility of improving the pupil's language
+power through his answers has already been referred to. To secure the
+best results in this regard, the teacher should insist on answers that
+are grammatically correct and, usually, in complete sentences. It would
+be pedantic, however, to insist always upon the latter condition. For
+such questions as, "What British officer was killed at Queenston
+Heights?" or "What province lies west of Manitoba?" the natural answers
+are "General Brock," or "Saskatchewan." To require pupils to say, "The
+British officer killed at Queenston Heights was General Brock," or "The
+province west of Manitoba is Saskatchewan," would be to make the
+recitation unnatural and formal. When answers are a mere echo of the
+question, with some slight inversion or addition, they become
+exceedingly mechanical, and useless from the point of view of language
+training. While it is desirable to avoid, as far as possible, questions
+that admit of answers of a single word or short phrase, such questions
+are sometimes necessary and are not objectionable. Questions should not
+be thrown into the form of an elliptical statement in which the pupil
+merely fills a blank, for example, "The capital of Ontario is...?" "The
+first English parliament was called by...?" Nor should they be given in
+inverted form, as, "Montreal is situated where?" "The Great Charter was
+signed by what king?" Alternative questions such as, "Is this a noun or
+an adjective?" "Was Charles I willing or unwilling to sign the Petition
+of Right?" as well as those questions that are answerable by "Yes" or
+"No," require little thought to answer and should be avoided if
+possible. When they are used, the pupil should at once be required to
+give reasons for his answer. Neither the form of the question nor the
+teacher's tone of voice or manner should afford any inkling as to the
+answer expected.
+
+=Calling for Answers.=--In order that the attention of the whole class
+may be maintained, the question should be proposed before the pupil who
+is to answer is indicated. No fixed order in calling upon the pupils
+should be adopted. If the pupils are never certain beforehand who is to
+be named to answer the question, they are more likely to be kept
+constantly on the alert. The questions should be carefully distributed
+among the class, the duller pupils being given rather more and easier
+questions than the brighter ones. One of the temptations that the
+teacher has to overcome is that of giving the clever and willing pupils
+the majority of the questions. The question should seldom be repeated
+unless the first wording is so unfortunate that the meaning is not clear
+and it is found necessary to recast it. To repeat questions habitually
+is to put a premium on inattention on the part of the pupils. A bad
+habit often noted among teachers is that of wording the question in
+several ways before any one is asked to answer it.
+
+=Methods of Dealing with Answers.=--As has been already indicated in
+another connection, the answers of the pupils should be generally in
+complete sentences and frequently should be in the form of a continuous
+paragraph or series of paragraphs, especially in summaries and reviews.
+The continuous answer should be cultivated much more than it is, as a
+means of training pupils to organize their information and to express
+themselves in clear and connected discourse. On the other hand, however,
+children should be discouraged from giving more information than is
+demanded by the question. While it is desirable that the correctness of
+an answer should be indicated in some way, the teacher should guard
+against forming the habit of indicating every correct answer by a
+stereotyped word or phrase, such as, "Yes" or "That's right." Answers
+should seldom be repeated by the teacher, unless it is desirable to
+re-word them for purposes of emphasis. Repetition of answers encourages
+careless articulation on the part of the pupil answering and inattention
+on the part of the others. One of the worst habits a teacher can
+contract is the "gramophonic" repetition of pupils' answers. The answers
+given by the pupils should almost invariably be individual, not
+collective. Simultaneous answering makes a noisy class-room, cultivates
+a monotonous and measured method of speaking, and encourages the habit
+of relying on others. There are always a few leaders in the class that
+are willing to take the initiative in answering, and the others merely
+chime in with them. The method is not suitable for the expression of
+individual opinion, for all pupils must answer alike. There is, further,
+the possibility that absurd blunders may pass uncorrected, because in
+the general repetition the teacher cannot detect them.
+
+
+LIMITATIONS
+
+Though questioning is the most valuable of teaching devices, it is quite
+susceptible of being overworked. There is quite as much danger of using
+it too extensively as there is of using it too little. Frequently,
+teachers try to question from pupils what they could not be expected to
+know. Further, it is possible by too much questioning to cover up the
+point of the lesson rather than reveal it, and to mystify the pupils
+rather than clarify their ideas. These are the two main abuses of the
+device. After all, it should be remembered that, important as good
+questioning undoubtedly is, it is not the only thing in lesson
+technique. In teaching, as elsewhere, variety is the spice of life.
+Sympathy, sincerity, enthusiasm in the teacher will do more to secure
+mental activity in the pupils than mere excellence in questioning. The
+energetic, enthusiastic, sympathetic teacher may secure better results
+than the teacher whose ability in questioning is well-nigh perfect, but
+who lacks these other qualities. If, however, to these qualities he adds
+a high degree of efficiency in questioning, his success in teaching is
+so much the more assured.
+
+
+
+
+PART III. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+CONSCIOUSNESS
+
+
+=Data of Psychology.=--Throughout the earlier parts of the text,
+occasional reference has been made to various classes of mental states,
+and to psychology, as the science which treats of these mental states,
+under the assumption that such references would be understood in a
+general way by the student-teacher. At the outset of a study of
+psychology as the science of mind, however, it becomes necessary to
+inquire somewhat more fully into the nature of the data with which the
+science is to deal. Mind is usually defined either by contrasting it
+with the concrete world of matter, or by describing its activities. It
+is said, for instance, that mind is that which feels and knows, which
+hopes, fears, determines, etc. By some, indeed, mind is described as
+merely the sum of these states of knowing and feeling and willing. The
+practical man says, however, _I_ know and feel so-and-so, and _my_ wish
+is so-and-so. Here an evident distinction is drawn between the knower,
+or conscious self, and his conscious activities. While, however, we may
+agree with the practical man that there is a mind, or self, that knows
+and wills and feels; yet it is evident that the self, or knower, can
+know himself only through his conscious states. It must be understood,
+therefore, that mind in its ultimate sense cannot be studied directly,
+but only the conscious states, or conditions of mind. Thus psychology
+becomes a study of mental states, or states of consciousness; and it
+is, in fact, frequently described as the science of consciousness.
+
+=Nature of Consciousness.=--Our previous study of the nature of
+experience has shown that various kinds of conscious states may arise in
+the mind, now the smell of burning cloth, now the sound of a ringing
+bell, now the feeling of bodily pain, now a remembered joy, now a future
+expectation or a resolution. Such a conscious state was seen, moreover,
+to represent on the part of the mind, not a mere passive impression
+coming from some external source, but an active attitude resulting in
+definite experience. It signifies, in other words, a power to react in a
+fixed way toward impressions, and direct our conduct in accordance with
+the resulting states of consciousness. Consciousness in the individual
+implies, therefore, that he is aware of phenomena as they are
+experienced, and is able to modify his behaviour accordingly.
+
+=Types of Consciousness.=--Although allowable, from the standpoint of
+the learning process, to describe a conscious state as an attitude of
+awareness in which the individual grasps the significance of an
+experience in relation to his own needs; it must be recognized that not
+all consciousness manifests this meaningful quality, or this relation to
+a felt aim, or end. While lying, for instance, in a vague, half-awake
+state, although one is conscious, the mental condition is quite devoid
+of the meaningful quality referred to, and entirely lacks the feeling of
+reaction, or of mental effort. In this case there is no distinct
+reference to the needs of the self, and a lack of that focusing of
+attention necessary to give the consciousness a meaning and purpose in
+the life of the individual. All such passive, or effortless, states of
+consciousness, which make up those portions of mental existence in
+which no definite presentation seems to hold the attention, although
+falling within the sphere of the scientific psychologist, may
+nevertheless be left out of consideration in a study of educational
+psychology. Learning involves apperception, and apperception is always
+giving a meaning to new presentations by actively bringing old knowledge
+to bear upon them. For the educator, therefore, psychology may be
+limited to a study of the definite states of consciousness which arise
+through an apperceiving act of attention, that is, to our states of
+experience and the processes connected therewith. For this reason,
+psychology is by some appropriately enough defined as the science of
+experience.
+
+=Consciousness a Stream.=--Although we describe the data of psychology
+as facts, or states, of consciousness, a moment's reflection will show
+that our conscious life is not made up of a number of mental states, or
+experiences, completely separated one from the other. Our consciousness
+is rather a unified whole, in which seemingly disconnected states blend
+into one continuous flow of conscious life. For this reason,
+consciousness is frequently compared to a stream, or river, moving
+onward in an unbroken course. This stream of consciousness appears as
+disjointed mental states, simply because the attention discriminates
+within this stream, and thus in a sense detaches different portions one
+from the other, or, as sometimes figuratively put, it creates successive
+waves on the stream of consciousness. A mental state, or experience,
+so-called, is such a discriminated portion of this stream of
+consciousness, and is, therefore, itself a process, the different
+processes blending in a continuous succession or relation to make up the
+unbroken flow of conscious life. For this reason psychology is
+frequently described as a study of conscious processes.
+
+
+VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+Within the school the child secures a control of experience only by
+passing through a process of mental reconstruction, or of changes in
+consciousness. Moreover, to bring about these mental changes, it is
+found necessary for the teacher's effort to conform as far as possible
+to the interests and tendencies of the child. So far, therefore, as the
+teacher's office is to direct and control the children's effort during
+the learning process, he must approach them primarily as mental, or
+conscious, beings. For this reason the educator should at least not
+violate the general principles governing all mental activity. By giving
+him an insight into the general principles underlying conscious
+processes, psychology should aid the teacher to control the learning
+process in the child.
+
+
+LIMITATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+=Psychology Cannot Give: A. Knowledge of Subject-matter.=--It must not
+be assumed, however, that knowledge of psychology will necessarily imply
+a corresponding ability to teach. Psychology, for instance, cannot
+decide what should be taught to the child. This, as we have seen, is a
+problem of social experience, and must be decided by considering the
+types of experience which will add to the social efficiency of the
+individual, or which will enable him best to do his duty to himself and
+to others. All, therefore, that psychology can do here is to explain the
+process by which experience is acquired, leaving to social ethics the
+problem of deciding what knowledge is of most worth.
+
+=B. Love for Children.=--Again, psychology will not necessarily furnish
+that largeness of heart and sympathy for childhood, without which no
+teacher can be successful. Indeed, it is felt by many that making
+children objects of psychological analysis will rather tend to destroy
+that more spiritual conception of their personality which should
+constitute the teacher's attitude toward his pupils. While this is no
+doubt true of the teacher who looks upon children merely as subjects for
+psychological analysis and experimentation, it is equally true that a
+knowledge of psychology will enable even the sympathetic teacher to
+realize more fully and deal more successfully with the difficulties of
+the pupil.
+
+=C. Acquaintance with the Individual Child.=--Again, the teacher's
+problem in dealing with the mental attitude of the particular child
+cannot always be interpreted through general principles. The general
+principle would be supposed to have an application to every child in a
+large class. It is often found, however, that the character and
+disposition of the particular child demands, not general, but special
+treatment. Here, what is termed the knack of the sympathetic teacher is
+often more effective than the general principle of the psychologist.
+Admitting so much, however, it yet may be argued that a knowledge of
+psychology will not hinder, but rather assist the sympathetic teacher in
+dealing even with special cases.
+
+
+METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
+
+=A. Introspection.=--A unique characteristic of mind is its ability to
+turn attention inward and make an object of study of its own states, or
+processes. For instance, the mind is able to make its present sensation,
+its remembered state of anger, its idea of a triangle, etc., stand out
+in consciousness as a subject of study for conscious attention. On
+account of this ability to give attention to his own states of
+consciousness, man is said both to know and to know that he knows. This
+reflective method of studying our own mental states is known as the
+method of _Introspection_.
+
+=B. Objective Method.=--Facts of mind may, however, be examined
+objectively. As previously noted, man, by his words, acts, and works,
+gives expression to his conscious states. These different forms of
+expression are accepted, therefore, as external indications of
+corresponding states of mind, and afford the psychologist certain data
+for developing his science. One of the most important of these objective
+methods is known as Child Study. Here, by the method of observing the
+acts and language of very young children, data are obtained concerning
+the native instincts of the child, concerning the genesis and
+development of the different mental processes, and the relation of these
+to physical development. A brief statement of the leading principles of
+Child Study will be found in Chapter XXXI.
+
+=C. Experimental Method.=--A third method of studying mind is known as
+the _Experimental_ method. Here, as in the case of the ordinary physical
+experimenter, the psychologist seeks to control certain mental processes
+by isolating them and regulating their action. This may be effectively
+done in the study of certain processes. For instance, by passing the two
+points of a pair of compasses over different parts of the body, the
+tactile sensibility of the skin may be compared at these different
+parts. By this means it may be shown that the tip of the finger can
+detect the two points when only one twelfth of an inch apart, while on
+the middle of the back they may require to be two and a half inches
+apart to give a double impression. The experimental method is often
+used in connection with the objective method in Child Study.
+
+
+PHASES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
+
+=A. Knowledge.=--Although, as previously stated, the stream of
+consciousness must at all times be looked upon as a unity, it will be
+found upon analysis to present three more or less distinct phases. A
+state of consciousness implies, in the first place, being aware of
+something as an object of attention. In other words, something is seized
+upon by consciousness as a presentation, and to the extent to which one
+is aware of this object of consciousness, he is said to recognize, or to
+know it. A state of consciousness is always, therefore, a state of
+knowledge, or of intelligence. Thus, whether we perceive this chair,
+imagine a mermaid, recall the looks of an absent friend, experience the
+toothache, judge the weight of this book, or become angry, our conscious
+state is a state of _knowledge_.
+
+=B. Feeling.=--A conscious state is also a state of feeling. Every
+conscious state has its feeling side, since it is a personal state, or
+since the mind itself is affected toward its own state. Two men, for
+instance, may know equally well the taste of a particular food, but the
+taste may affect each one quite differently. To one the experience is
+pleasant, to the other it may be even painful. Two boys may know equally
+that a point has been scored by the visiting team, but the personal
+attitude of each toward the experience may be quite different. The one
+finds in it a quality of joy; the other a quality of sorrow. In the same
+way the mind always feels more or less pleased or displeased in its
+present state of consciousness. To speak of any particular experience as
+painful, joyous, sorrowful, etc., is, therefore, to refer to it as a
+state of _feeling_.
+
+=C. Will.=--Consciousness is a state of effort, or will. It was
+especially pointed out above, that the purposeful consciousness always
+implies a straining or focusing of consciousness in order to attain a
+fuller control of the experience. This element of exertion manifest in
+consciousness may appear as a directing of attention, as the making of a
+choice, as determining upon a certain action, etc. This aspect of any
+conscious state is spoken of as a state of _will_, or volition.
+
+In the unity of the conscious life, therefore, there are three attitudes
+from which consciousness may be viewed:
+
+1. It is a state of Knowledge, or of Intelligence.
+
+2. It is a state of Feeling.
+
+3. It is a state of Will.
+
+On account of this threefold aspect of mental states, consciousness has
+been represented in the following form:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The significance of comparing the threefold aspect of consciousness to
+the three sides of a triangle consists in the fact that if any side of a
+triangle is removed no triangle remains. In like manner, none of the
+three attributes of consciousness could be wanting without the conscious
+state ceasing to exist as such. No one, for instance, could feel the
+pressure of a tight shoe without at the same time knowing it, and fixing
+his attention upon it. Neither could a person at any particular time
+know that the shoe was pinching him unless he was also attending to and
+feeling the experience.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+MIND AND BODY
+
+
+=Relation of Mind to Bodily Organism.=--Notwithstanding the antithesis
+which has been affirmed to exist between mind and matter, yet a very
+close relation exists between mind and the material organism known as
+the body. There are many ways in which this intimate connection
+manifests itself. Mental excitement is always accompanied with agitation
+of the body and a disturbance of such bodily processes as breathing, the
+beating of the heart, digestion, etc. Such mental processes as seeing,
+hearing, tasting, etc., are found also to depend upon the use of a
+bodily organ, as the eye, the ear, the tongue, without which it is quite
+impossible for the mind to come into relation with outside things.
+Moreover, disease or injury, especially to the organs of sense or to the
+brain, weakens or destroys mental power. The size of the brain, also, is
+found to bear a certain relation to mental capacity; the weight of the
+average brain being about 48 ounces, while the brain of an idiot often
+weighs only from 20 to 30 ounces.
+
+
+THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
+
+[Illustration: Brain and Spinal Cord]
+
+=Divisions of Nervous System.=--This intimate connection between mind
+and body is provided for through the existence of that part of the
+bodily organism known as the nervous system, and it is this part,
+together with its associated organs of sense, that chiefly interests the
+student of psychology. A study of the character and functions of the
+various parts of the nervous system, and of the nervous substance of
+which these parts are composed, belongs to physiology rather than to
+psychology. As the student-teacher is given a general knowledge of the
+structure of the nervous system in his study of physiology, a brief
+description will suffice for the present purpose. The nervous system
+consists of two parts, (1) the central part, or cerebro-spinal centre,
+and (2) an outer part--the spinal nerves. The central part, or
+cerebro-spinal centre, includes the spinal cord, passing upward through
+the vertebrae of the spinal column and the brain. The brain consists of
+three parts: The cerebrum, or great brain, consisting of two
+hemispheres, which, though connected, are divided in great part by a
+longitudinal fissure; the cerebellum, or little brain; and the medulla
+oblongata, or bulb. The spinal nerves consist of thirty-one pairs, which
+branch out from the spinal cord. Each pair of nerves contains a right
+and left member, distributed to the right and the left side of the body
+respectively. These nerves are of two kinds, sensory, or afferent,
+(in-carrying) nerves, which carry inward impressions from the outside
+world, and motor, or efferent, (out-carrying) nerves, which convey
+impulses outward to the muscles and cause them to contract. There are
+also twelve pairs of nerves connected with the eye, ear, nose, tongue,
+and face, which, instead of projecting from the spinal cord, proceed at
+once from the brain through openings in the cranium. These are,
+therefore, known as cerebral nerves. In their general character,
+however, they do not differ from the projection fibres.
+
+[Illustration: Pair of Spinal Nerves]
+
+=Nervous Substance.=--Nervous substance is divided into two kinds--grey,
+or cellular, substance and white, or fibrous, substance. The greater
+part of the grey matter is situated as a layer on the outside of the
+cerebrum, or great brain, where it forms a rind from one twelfth to one
+eighth of an inch in thickness, known as the cortex. It is also found on
+the surface of the cerebellum. Diffuse masses of grey matter are
+likewise met in the other parts of the brain, and extending downward
+through the centre of the spinal cord. The function of the grey matter
+is to form centres to which the nerve fibres tend and carry in
+stimulations, or from which they commence and carry out impulses.
+
+=The Neuron.=--The centres of grey matter are composed of aggregations,
+or masses, of very small nerve cells called neurons. A neuron may range
+from 1/300 to 1/3000 of an inch in diameter, and there are several
+thousand millions of these cells in the nervous system. A developed
+neuron consists of a cell body with numerous prolongations in the form
+of white, thread-like fibres. The neuron with its outgoing fibres is the
+unit of the nervous system. Neurons are supposed to be of three classes,
+sensory to receive stimulations, motor to send out impulses to the
+muscles, and association to connect sensory and motor centres.
+
+[Illustration: A Neuron in Stages of Development]
+
+These neurons, as already noted, are collected into centres, and the
+outgoing fibres give connection to the cells, the number of connections
+for each neuron depending upon its outgoing fibres. Some of these
+connections are already established within the system at birth, while
+others, as we shall see more fully later, are formed whenever the
+organism is brought into action in our thinking and doing. To speak of
+such connections being formed between nerve centres by means of their
+outgoing fibres does not necessarily mean a direct connection, but may
+imply only that the fibres of one cell approach nearly enough to those
+of another to admit of a nervous impulse passing from the one cell to
+the other. This is often spoken of as the establishment of a path
+between the centres.
+
+=The Nerve Fibres.=--The nerve fibres which transmit impressions to and
+from the centres of grey matter average about 1/6000 of an inch in
+thickness, but are often of great length, some extending perhaps half
+the length of the body. Large numbers of these fibres unite into a
+sheath or single nerve. It is estimated that the number of fibres in a
+single nerve number in most cases several thousand, those in the nerve
+of sight being estimated at about one hundred thousand. The fibres in
+the white substance of the brain are estimated at several hundred
+million.
+
+=Classes of Fibres.=--These fibres are supposed to be of four classes,
+as follows:
+
+1. _Sensory Cerebral and Spinal Fibres_
+
+These have already been referred to as spreading outward from the brain
+and spinal cord to different parts of the body. Their office is,
+therefore, to carry inward to the centres of grey matter impressions
+received from the outside world, thus setting up a connection between
+the various senses and the cortex of the brain.
+
+2. _Motor Cerebral and Spinal Fibres_
+
+These fibres connect the centres of grey matter directly with the
+muscles, and thus provide a means of communication between these muscles
+and the cortex of the brain.
+
+3. _Association Fibres_
+
+These connect one part of the cortex with another within the same
+hemisphere.
+
+4. _Commissural Fibres_
+
+These connect corresponding centres of the two hemispheres of the
+cerebrum.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=Function of Parts.=--Because the various cells are thus brought into
+relation, the whole nervous system combines into a single organism,
+which is able to receive impressions and provides conditions for the
+mind to interpret these impressions and, if necessary, react thereon.
+When, for instance, a stimulus is received by an end organ (the eye), it
+will be transmitted by a sensory nerve directly inward to a sensory
+centre, or cell, in the cortex of the brain. In such a case it may be
+interpreted by the mind and a line of action decided upon. Then by means
+of associating cells and fibres a motor centre may be stimulated and an
+impulse transmitted along an outgoing motor nerve to a muscle, whereupon
+the necessary motor reaction will take place. A pupil may, for instance,
+receive the impression of a word through the ear or through the eye and
+thereupon make a motor response by writing the word. The arrows in the
+accompanying figure indicate the course of the stimulus and the response
+in such cases.
+
+
+THE CORTEX
+
+=Cortex the Seat of Consciousness.=--Experiments in connection with the
+different nerve cords and centres have demonstrated that intelligent
+consciousness depends upon the nerve centres situated in the cortex of
+the cerebrum. For instance, a sensory impulse may be carried inward to
+the cells of the spinal cord and upward to the cerebellum without any
+resulting consciousness. When, however, the stimulus reaches a higher
+centre in the cortex of the brain, the mind becomes conscious, or
+interprets the impression, and any resulting action will be controlled
+by consciousness, through impulses given to the motor nerves. It is for
+this reason that the cortex is called the seat of consciousness, and
+that mind is said to reside in the brain.
+
+=Localization of Function.=--In addition, however, to placing the seat
+of consciousness in the cortex of the brain, psychologists also claim
+that different parts of the cortex are involved in different types of
+conscious activity. Sensations of sight, for instance, involve certain
+centres in the cortex, sensations of sound other centres, the movements
+of the organs of speech still other centres. Some go so far as to claim
+that each one of the higher intellectual processes, as memory,
+imagination, judgment, reasoning, love, anger, etc., involves neural
+activity in its own special section of the cortex. There seems no good
+evidence, however, to support this view. The fact seems rather that in
+all these higher processes, quite numerous centres of the cortex may be
+involved. The following figure indicates the main conclusions of the
+psychologists in reference to the localization of certain important
+functions in distinct areas of the cortex.
+
+[Illustration: REFLEX ACTS]
+
+=Nature of Reflex Action.=--While a lower nerve centre is not a seat for
+purposeful consciousness, these centres may, in addition to serving as
+transmission points for cortical messages, perform a special function
+by immediately receiving sensory impressions and transmitting motor
+impulses. A person, for instance, whose mind is occupied with a problem,
+may move a limb to relieve a cramp, wink the eye, etc., without any
+conscious control of the action. In such a case the sensory impression
+was reported to a lower sensory centre, directly carried to a lower
+motor centre, and the motor impulse given to perform the movement. In
+the same way, after one has acquired the habit of walking, although it
+usually requires conscious effort to initiate the movements, yet the
+person may continue walking in an almost unconscious manner, his mind
+being fully occupied with other matters. Here, also, the complex actions
+involved in walking are controlled and regulated by lower centres
+situated in the cerebellum. In like manner a person will unconsciously
+close the eyelid under the stimulus of strong light. Here the impression
+caused by the light stimulus, upon reaching the medulla along an
+afferent nerve, is deflected to a motor nerve and, without any conscious
+control of the movements, the muscles of the eyelid receive the
+necessary impulse to close. Actions which are thus directed from a lower
+centre without conscious control, are usually spoken of as reflex acts.
+Acts directed by consciousness are, on the other hand, known as
+voluntary acts. The difference in the working of the nervous mechanism
+in consciously controlled and in reflex action may be illustrated by
+means of the accompanying figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG 2]
+
+The heavy lines in Figure 1 on the opposite page show that the
+sensory-motor arc is made through the cortex, and that the mind is,
+therefore, conscious both of the sense stimulus and also of the
+resulting action. Figure 2 shows the same arc through a lower centre, in
+which case the mind is not directly attending to the impression or the
+resulting action.
+
+=Function of Consciousness.=--The facts set forth above serve further to
+illustrate the purposeful character of consciousness as man interprets
+and adjusts himself to his surroundings. So long, for instance, as the
+individual walks onward without disturbance, his mind is free to dwell
+upon other matters, cortical activity not being necessary to control the
+process of walking. If, however, he steps upon anything which perhaps
+threatens him with a fall, the rhythmic interplay between sensory and
+motor activity going on in the lower centres is at once disturbed, and a
+message is flashed along the sensory nerve to the higher, or cortical,
+centres. This at once arouses consciousness, and the disturbing factor
+becomes an object of attention. Consciousness thus appears as a means of
+adaptation to the new and varying conditions with which the organism is
+confronted.
+
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS MATTER
+
+=A. Plasticity.=--One striking characteristic of nervous matter is its
+plasticity. The nature of the connections within the nervous system have
+already been referred to. Mention has also been made of the fact that
+numerous connections are established within the nervous system as a
+result of movements taking place within the organism during life. In
+other words, the movements within the nervous system which accompany
+stimulations and responses bring about changes in the structure of the
+organism. The cause for these changes seems to be that the neurons which
+chance to work together during any experience form connections with one
+another by means of their outgrowing fibres. By this means, traces of
+past experiences are in a sense stored up within the organism, and it is
+for this reason that our experiences are said to be recorded within the
+nervous system.
+
+=B. Retentiveness.=--A second characteristic of nervous matter is its
+retentive power. In other words, the modifications which accompany any
+experience, besides taking on the permanent character referred to above,
+pre-dispose the system to transmit impulses again through the same
+centres. Moreover, with each repetition of the nervous activity, there
+develops a still greater tendency for the movements to re-establish
+themselves. This power possessed by nervous tissue to establish certain
+modes of action carries with it also an increase in the ease and
+accuracy with which the movements are performed. For example, the
+impressions and impulses involved in the first attempts of the child to
+control the clasping of an object, are performed with effort and in an
+ineffective manner. The cause for this seems to be largely the absence
+of proper connections between the centres involved, as referred to
+above. This absence causes a certain resistance within the system to the
+nervous movements. When, however, the various centres involved in the
+movements establish the proper connections with one another, the act
+will be performed in a much more effective and easy manner. From this
+it is evident that the nervous system, as the result of former
+experiences, always retains a certain potential, or power, to repeat the
+act with greater ease, and thus improve conduct, or behaviour. This
+property of nervous matter will hereafter be referred to as its power of
+retention.
+
+=C. Energy.=--Another quality of nervous matter is its energy. By this
+is meant that the cells are endowed with a certain potential, or power,
+which enables them to transmit impressions and impulses and overcome any
+resistance offered. Different explanations are given as to the nature of
+this energy, or force, with which nervous matter is endowed, but any
+study of these theories is unnecessary here.
+
+=D. Resistance.=--A fourth characteristic to be noted regarding nervous
+matter is that a nervous impulse, or current, as it is transmitted
+through the system, encounters _resistance_, or consumes an amount of
+nervous energy. Moreover, when the nervous current, whether sensory or
+motor, involves the establishment of new connections between cells, as
+when one first learns combinations of numbers or the movements involved
+in forming a new letter, a relatively greater amount of resistance is
+met or, in other words, a greater amount of nervous energy is expended.
+On the other hand, when an impulse has been transmitted a number of
+times through a given arc, the resistance is greatly lessened, or less
+energy is expended; as indicated by the ease with which an habitual act
+is performed.
+
+=Education and Nervous Energy.=--It is evident from the foregoing, that
+the forming of new ideas or of new modes of action tends to use up a
+large share of nervous energy. For this reason, the learning of new and
+difficult things should not be undertaken when the body is in a tired
+or exhausted condition; for the resistance which must be overcome, and
+the changes which must take place in the nervous tissue during the
+learning process, are not likely to be effectively accomplished under
+such conditions. Moreover, the energy thus lost must be restored through
+the blood, and therefore demands proper food, rest, and sleep on the
+part of the individual. It should be noted further that nervous tissue
+is more plastic during the early years of life. This renders it
+imperative, therefore, that knowledge and skill should be gained, as far
+as possible, during the plastic years. The person who wishes to become a
+great violinist must acquire skill to finger and handle the bow early in
+life. The person who desires to become a great linguist, if he allows
+his early years to pass without acquiring the necessary skill, cannot
+expect in middle life to train his vocal organs to articulate a number
+of different languages.
+
+=Cortical Habit.=--In the light of what has been seen regarding the
+character and function of the nervous system, it will now be possible to
+understand more fully two important forms of adjustment already referred
+to. When nervous movements are transmitted to the cortex of the brain,
+they not only awaken consciousness, or make the individual aware of
+something, but the present impression also leaves certain permanent
+effects in the nervous tissue of the cortex itself. Since, however,
+cortical activity implies consciousness, the retention of such a
+tendency within the cortical centres will imply, not an habitual act in
+the ordinary sense, but a tendency on the part of a conscious experience
+to repeat itself. This at once implies an ability to retain and recall
+past experiences, or endows the individual with power of memory.
+Cortical habit, therefore, or the establishment of permanent
+connections within the cortical centres, with their accompanying dynamic
+tendency to repeat themselves, will furnish the physiological conditions
+for a revival of former experience in memory, or will enable the
+individual to turn the past to the service of the present.
+
+=Physical Habits.=--The basis for the formation of physical habits
+appears also in this retentive power of nervous tissue. When the young
+boy, for instance, first mounts his new bicycle, he is unable, except
+with the most attentive effort and in a most laboured and awkward
+manner, either to keep his feet on the pedals, or make the handle-bars
+respond to the balancing of the wheel. In a short time, however, all
+these movements take place in an effective and graceful manner without
+any apparent attention being given to them. This efficiency is
+conditioned by the fact that all these movements have become habitual,
+or take place largely as reflex acts.
+
+In school also, when the child learns to perform such an act as making
+the figure 2, the same changes take place. Here an impression must first
+proceed from the given copy to a sensory centre in the cortex. As yet,
+however, there is no vital connection established between the sensory
+centres and the motor centres which must direct the muscles in making
+the movement. As the movement is attempted, however, faint connections
+are set up between different centres. With each repetition the
+connection is made stronger, and the formation of the figure rendered
+less difficult. So long, however, as the connection is established
+within the cortex, the movement will not take place except under
+conscious direction. Ultimately, however, similar connections between
+sensory and motor neurons may be established in lower centres, whereupon
+the action will be performed as a reflex act, or without the
+intervention of a directing act of consciousness. This evidently takes
+place when a student, in working a problem, can form the figures, while
+his consciousness is fully occupied with the thought phases of the
+problem. Thus the neural condition of physical habit is the
+establishment of easy passages between sensory and motor nerves in
+centres lower than the cortex.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+INSTINCT
+
+
+=Definition of Instinct.=--In a foregoing section, it was seen that our
+bodily movements divide into different classes according to their
+source, or origin. Among them were noted certain inherited spontaneous,
+but useful, complex movements which follow, in a more or less uniform
+way, definite types of stimuli presented to the organism. Such an
+inherited tendency on the part of an organism to react in an effective
+manner, but without any definite purpose in view, whenever a particular
+stimulus presents itself, is known as instinct, and the resulting action
+is described as an instinctive act. As an example of purely instinctive
+action may be taken the maternal instinct of insects whose larvæ require
+live prey when they are born. To provide this the mother administers
+sufficient poison to a spider or a caterpillar to stupefy it, and then
+bears it to her nest. Placing the victim close to her eggs, she incloses
+the two together, thus providing food for her future offspring. This
+complex series of acts, so essential to the continuance of the species,
+and seemingly so full of purpose, is nevertheless conducted throughout
+without reference to past experience, and without any future end in
+view. Instinct may, therefore, be defined as the ability of an organism
+to react upon a particular situation so as to gain a desirable end, yet
+without any purpose in view or any previous training.
+
+=Characteristics of Instinct.=--An instinctive act, it may be noted, is
+distinguished by certain well marked characteristics:
+
+1. The action is not brought about by experience or guided by
+intelligence, but is a direct reaction on the part of the organism to
+definite stimulation.
+
+2. Although not the result of reason, instinctive action is purposeful
+to the extent that it shows a predisposition on the part of the organism
+to react in an effective manner to a particular situation.
+
+3. An instinctive movement is a response in which the whole organism is
+concerned. It is the discomfort of the whole organism, for instance,
+that causes the bird to migrate or the child to seek food. In this
+respect it differs from a mere reflex action such as the winking of the
+eye, breathing, coughing, etc., which involves only some particular part
+of the organism.
+
+4. Although not a consciously purposed action, instinct nevertheless
+involves consciousness. In sucking, for instance, sensation accompanies
+both the discomfort of the organism giving rise to the movements and
+also the instinctive act itself. In this respect it differs from such
+automatic actions as breathing, the circulation of the blood, and the
+beating of the heart.
+
+=Origin of Instinct.=--The various instinctive movements with which an
+organism is endowed, not being a result of experience or education, a
+question at once arises as to their source, or origin. Instinct has its
+origin in the fact that certain movements which have proved beneficial
+in the ancestral experience of the race have become established as
+permanent modes of reaction, and are transmitted to each succeeding
+generation. The explanation of this transmission of tendencies is, that
+beneficial movements are retained as permanent modifications of the
+nervous system of the animal, and are transmitted to the offspring as a
+_reactive tendency_ toward definite stimuli. The partridge family, for
+instance, has preserved its offspring from the attacks of foxes, dogs,
+and other enemies only by the male taking flight and dragging itself
+along the ground, thus attracting the enemy away from the direction of
+the nest. The complex movements involved in such an act, becoming
+established as permanent motor connections within the system, are
+transmitted to the offspring as predispositions. Instinct would thus
+seem a physiological habit, or hereditary tendency, within the nervous
+system to react in a fixed manner under certain conditions. In many
+respects, however, instincts seem to depend more largely upon bodily
+development than upon nervous structure. While the babe will at first
+instinctively suck; yet as soon as teeth appear, the sucking at once
+gives way to the biting instinct. The sucking instinct then disappears
+so completely that only a process of education will re-establish it
+later. Birds also show no instinctive tendency to fly until their wings
+are developed, while the young of even the fiercest animals will flee
+from danger, until such time as their bodily organism is properly
+developed for attack. From this it would seem that instinctive action
+depends even more upon general bodily structure and development than
+upon fixed co-ordinations within the nervous system.
+
+
+HUMAN INSTINCTS
+
+On account of the apparently intelligent character of human actions, it
+is often stated that man is a creature largely devoid of instincts. The
+fact is, however, that he is endowed with a large number of impulsive or
+instinctive tendencies to act in definite ways, when in particular
+situations. Man has a tendency, under the proper conditions, to be
+fearful, bashful, angry, curious, sympathetic, grasping, etc. It is
+only, moreover, because experience finally gives man ideas of these
+instinctive movements, that they may in time be controlled by reason,
+and developed into orderly habits.
+
+=Classification of Human Instincts.=--Various attempts have been made to
+classify human instincts. For educational purposes, perhaps the most
+satisfactory method is that which classifies them according to their
+relation to the direct welfare of the individual organism. Being
+inherited tendencies on the part of the organism to react in definite
+ways to definite stimuli, all instinctive acts should naturally tend to
+promote the good of the particular individual. Different instincts will
+be found to differ, however, in the degree in which they involve the
+immediate good of the individual organism. On this basis the various
+human instincts may be divided into the following classes:
+
+1. _Individualistic Instincts._--Some instincts gain their significance
+because they tend solely to meet the needs of the individual. Examples
+of these would be the instincts involved in securing food, as biting,
+chewing, carrying objects to the mouth; such instinctive expressions as
+crying, smiling, and uttering articulate sounds; rhythmical bodily
+movements; bodily expression of fear, etc.
+
+2. _Racial Instincts._--These include such instinctive acts as make for
+the preservation of the species, as the sexual and parental instincts,
+jealousy, etc. The constructive instinct in man, also, may be considered
+parallel to the nesting instinct in birds and animals.
+
+3. _Social Instincts._--Among these are placed such instinctive
+tendencies as bashfulness, sympathy, the gregarious instinct, or love of
+companionship, anger, self-assertion, combativeness, etc.
+
+4. _Instincts of Adjustment._--Included among man's native tendencies
+are a number of complex responses which manifest themselves in his
+efforts to adjust himself to his surroundings. These may be called
+instinctive so far as concerns their mere impulsive tendency, which is
+no doubt inherited. In the operation of these so-called instincts,
+however, there is not seen that definite mode of response to a
+particular stimulus which is found in a pure instinct. Since, however,
+these are important human tendencies, and since they deal specifically
+with the child's attitude in adapting himself to his environment, they
+rank from an educational standpoint among the most important of human
+instincts. These include such tendencies as curiosity, imitation, play,
+constructiveness and acquisitiveness.
+
+=Human Instincts Modified by Experience.=--Although instinctive acts are
+performed without forethought or conscious purpose, yet in man they may
+be modified by experience. This is true to a degree even in the case of
+the instincts of the lower animals. Young spiders, for instance,
+construct their webs in a manner inferior to that of their elders. In
+the case of birds, also, the first nest is usually inferior in structure
+to those of later date. In certain cases, indeed, if accounts are to be
+accepted, animals are able to vary considerably their instinctive
+movements according to the particular conditions. It is reported that a
+swallow had selected a place for her nest between two walls, the
+surfaces of which were so smooth that she could find no foundation for
+her nest. Thereupon she fixed a bit of clay to each wall, laid a piece
+of light wood upon the clay supports, and with the stick as a foundation
+proceeded to construct her nest. On the whole, however, there seems
+little variation in animal instincts. The fish will come a second time
+to take food off the hook, the moth will fly again into the flame, and
+the spider will again and again build his web over the opening, only to
+have it again and again torn away. But whatever may be the amount of
+variation within the instincts of the lower animals, in the case of man
+instinctive action is so modified by experience that his instincts soon
+develop into personal habits. The reason for this is quite evident. As
+previously pointed out, an instinctive act, though not originally
+purposeful, is in man accompanied with a consciousness of both the
+bodily discomfort and the resulting movements. Although, therefore, the
+child instinctively sucks, grasps at objects, or is convulsed with fear,
+these acts cannot take place without his gradually understanding their
+significance as states of experience. In this way he soon learns that
+the indiscriminate performance of an instinctive act may give quite
+different results, some being much more valuable to the individual than
+others. The young child, for instance, may instinctively bite whatever
+enters his mouth, but the older child has learned that this is not
+always desirable, and therefore exercises a voluntary control over the
+movement.
+
+=Instincts Differ in Value.=--The fact that man's instinctive tendencies
+thus come within the range of experience, not only renders them amenable
+to reason, but also leaves the question of their ultimate outcome
+extremely indefinite. For this reason many instincts may appear in man
+in forms that seem undesirable. The instinct to seek food is a natural
+one, yet will be condemned when it causes the child to take fruit from
+the neighbour's garden. In like manner, the instinct to know his
+surroundings is natural to man, but will be condemned when it causes him
+to place his ear to the keyhole. The tendency to imitate is not in
+itself evil, yet the child must learn to weigh the value of what he
+imitates. One important reason, therefore, why the teacher should
+understand the native tendencies of the child is that he may direct
+their development into moral habits and suppress any tendencies which
+are socially undesirable.
+
+=Education of Instincts.=--In dealing with the moral aspects of the
+child's instinctive tendencies, the educator must bear in mind that one
+tendency may come in conflict with another. The individualistic instinct
+of feeding or ownership may conflict with the social instinct of
+companionship; the instinct of egoism, with that of imitation; and the
+instinct of fear, with that of curiosity. To establish satisfactory
+moral habits on the basis of instinct, therefore, it is often possible
+to proceed by a method of substitution. The child who shows a tendency
+to destroy school furniture can best be cured by having constructive
+exercises. The boy who shows a natural tendency to destroy animal life
+may have the same arrested by being given the care of animals and thus
+having his sympathy developed. In other cases, the removal of stimuli,
+or conditions, for awaking the instinctive tendency will be found
+effective in checking the development of an undesirable instinct into a
+habit. The boy who shows a spirit of combativeness may be cured by
+having a generous and congenial boy as his chum. The pupil whose social
+tendencies are so strong that he cannot refrain from talking may be
+cured by isolation.
+
+=Instincts May Disappear.=--In dealing with the instinctive tendencies
+of the child, it is important for the educator to remember that many of
+these are transitory in character and, if not utilized at the proper
+time, will perish for want of exercise. Even in the case of animals,
+natural instincts will not develop unless the opportunity for exercise
+is provided at the time. Birds shut up in a cage lose the instinct to
+fly; while ducks, after being kept a certain time from water, will not
+readily acquire the habit of swimming. In the same way, the child who
+is not given opportunity to associate with others will likely grow up a
+recluse. All work for a few years, and it will be impossible for Jack to
+learn later how to play. The girl who during her childhood has no
+opportunity to display any pride through neatness in dress will grow up
+untidy and careless as to her personal appearance. In like manner, it is
+only the child whose constructive tendency is early given an opportunity
+to express itself who is likely to develop into an expert workman; while
+one who has no opportunity to give expression to his æsthetic instinct
+in early life will not later develop into an artist.
+
+
+CURIOSITY
+
+=Curiosity as Motive.=--An important bearing of instinct upon the work
+of education is found in the fact that an instinctive tendency may add
+much to the force of the motive, or end, in any educative process. This
+is especially true in the case of such adaptive instincts as curiosity,
+imitation, and play. Curiosity is the inquisitive attitude, or appetite,
+of the mind which causes it to seek out what is strange in its
+surroundings and make it an object of attention. As an instinctive
+tendency, its significance consists in the fact that it leads the
+individual to interpret his surroundings. A creature devoid of
+curiosity, therefore, would not discover either the benefits to be
+derived from his surroundings or the dangers to be avoided. In addition
+to its direct practical value in leading the individual to study his
+environment in order to meet actual needs, curiosity often seeks a more
+theoretic end, appearing merely as a feeling of wonder or a thirst for
+knowledge.
+
+=Use and Abuse of Curiosity.=--While curiosity is needful for the
+welfare of the individual, an inordinate development of this instinct is
+both intellectually and morally undesirable. Since curiosity directs
+attention to the novel in our surroundings, over-curiosity is likely to
+keep the mind wandering from one novelty to another, and thus interfere
+with the fixing of attention for a sufficient time to give definiteness
+to particular impressions. The virtue of curiosity is, therefore, to
+direct attention to the novel until it is made familiar. There is a type
+of curiosity, however, which craves for mere astonishment and not for
+understanding. It is such curiosity that causes children to pry into
+other people's belongings, and men into other people's affairs.
+
+=Sensuous and Apperceptive Curiosity.=--Curiosity may be considered of
+two kinds also from the standpoint of its origin. In early life,
+curiosity must rest largely upon sense perception, being essentially an
+appetite of the senses to meet and interpret the objective surroundings.
+A bright light, a loud noise, a moving object, at once awakens
+curiosity. At this stage, curiosity serves as a counteracting influence
+to the instinct of fear, the one leading the child to use his senses
+upon his surroundings, and the other causing him to use them in a
+careful and judicious manner. As the child grows in experience, however,
+his curiosity limits itself more and more in accordance with the law of
+apperception. Here the object attracts attention not merely because of
+its sensuous properties, but because it suggests novel relations within
+the elements of past experience. The young child's curiosity, for
+instance, is aroused toward a strange plant simply because of its form
+and colour, that of the student of botany, because the plant presents
+features that do not relate themselves at once to his botanical
+experience. The first curiosity may be called objective, or sensuous,
+the second subjective, or apperceptive.
+
+=Relation of Two Types.=--The distinction between sensuous and
+apperceptive curiosity is, of course, one of degree rather than one of
+kind. A novel object could not be an object of attention unless it bore
+some relation to the present mental content. The young child, however,
+seeks mainly to give meaning to novel sense impressions, and is not
+attracted to the more hidden relations in which objects may stand one to
+another. He is attracted, for instance, to the colour, scent, and
+general form of the flower, rather than to its structure. On the other
+hand, it is found that at a later stage curiosity is usually aroused
+toward a novel problem, to the extent to which the problem finds a
+setting in previous experience. This is seen in the fact that the young
+child takes no interest in having lessons grow out of each other in a
+connected manner, but must have his curiosity aroused to the present
+situation through its own intrinsic appeal. For this reason, young
+children are mainly interested in a lesson which deals with particular
+elements in a concrete manner, such as coloured blocks, bright pictures,
+and stories of action; while the older pupil seeks out the new problem
+because it stands in definite relation to what is already known.
+
+=Importance of Apperceptive Curiosity.=--Since curiosity depends upon
+novelty, it is evident that sensuous should ultimately give place to
+apperceptive curiosity. Although objects first impress the senses with a
+degree of freshness and vigour, this freshness must disappear as the
+novelty of the impression wears off. When sensuous curiosity thus
+disappears, it is only by seeing in the world of sensuous objects other
+relations with their larger meaning, that healthy curiosity is likely
+to be maintained. Thus it is that the curiosity of the student is
+attracted to the more hidden qualities of objects, to the tracing of
+cause and effect, and to the discovery of scientific truth in general.
+
+=Novelty versus Variety.=--While the familiar must lose something of its
+freshness through its very familiarity, it is to be noted that to remit
+any experience for a time will add something to the freshness of its
+revival. Persons and places, for instance, when revisited after a period
+of absence, gain something of the charm of novelty. Variety is,
+therefore, a means by which the effect of curiosity may be sustained,
+even after the original novelty has disappeared. This fact should be
+especially remembered in dealing with the studies of young children.
+Without being constantly fed upon the novel, the child may yet avoid
+monotony by having a measure of variety within a reasonable number of
+interests. It is in this way, in fact, that permanent centres of
+interest can best be established. To keep a child's attention
+continually upon one line of experiences would destroy both curiosity
+and interest. To keep him ever attending to the novel would prevent the
+building up of any centres of interest. By variety within a reasonable
+number of subjects, both depth of interest and reasonable variety in
+interests will be obtained. This is, therefore, another reason why the
+school curriculum should show a reasonable number of subjects and
+reasonable variety in the presentation of these subjects.
+
+
+IMITATION
+
+=Nature of Imitation.=--In our study of the nervous system, attention
+was called to the close connection existing between sensory impulse and
+action. It may be noted further that, whenever the young child gains an
+idea of an action, he tends at once to express that idea in action. On
+account of this immediate connection between thought and expression, due
+to an inability to inhibit the motor discharge, a child, as soon as he
+is able to form ideas of the acts of others, must necessarily show a
+tendency to repeat, or reproduce, such acts. Granting that this
+immediate connection between sensory impulse and motor response is an
+inherited capacity, the tendency of the young child to imitate the acts
+of others may be classified as an instinct.
+
+=Imitation a Complex.=--On closer examination, however, it will be found
+that imitation is really a complex of several tendencies. The nervous
+organism of the healthy young child is usually supercharged with nervous
+energy. This energy, like a swollen stream, seems ever striving to sweep
+away any resistance to the motor discharge of sensory impulses, and must
+necessarily reinforce the natural tendency to give immediate expression
+to ideas of action. Moreover, the social instincts of the child, his
+sympathy, etc., give him a special interest in human beings and in their
+acts. These tendencies, therefore, focus his attention upon human
+action, and cause his ideas of such acts to become more vivid and
+interesting. For this reason, observation of human acts is more likely
+to lead to motor expression. That the social instincts of the child
+reinforce the tendency to imitate is indicated by the fact that his
+early imitations are of human acts especially, as yawning, smiling,
+crying, etc. The same is further evidenced in that, at a later stage,
+when ordinary objects enter into his imitative acts, the imitation is
+largely symbolic, and objects are endowed with living attributes. Here
+blocks become men; sticks, horses, etc.
+
+=Kinds of. A. Spontaneous Imitation.=--In its simplest form, imitation
+seems to follow directly upon the perception of a given act. As the
+child attends, now to the nod of the head, now to the shaking of the
+rattle, now to an uttered sound, he spontaneously reproduces these
+perceived acts. Because in such cases the imitative act follows directly
+upon the perception of the copy, without the intervention of any
+determination to imitate, it is termed spontaneous, or unconscious,
+imitation. It is by spontaneous imitation that the child gains so much
+knowledge of the world about him, and so much power over the movements
+of his own body. The occupations and language of the home, the
+operations of the workman, the movements and gestures of the older
+children in their games, all these are spontaneously reproduced through
+imitation. This enables the child to participate largely in the social
+life about him. It is for this reason that he should observe only good
+models of language and conduct during his early years.
+
+=B. Symbolic Imitation.=--If we note the imitative acts of a child of
+from four to six years of age, we may find that a new factor is often
+entering into the process. At this stage the child, instead of merely
+copying the acts of others, further clothes objects and persons with
+fancied attributes through a process of imagination. By this means, the
+little child becomes a mother and the doll a baby; one boy becomes a
+teacher or captain, the others become pupils or soldiers. This form has
+already been referred to as symbolic imitation. Frequent use is made of
+this type of imitation in education, especially in the kindergarten.
+Through the gifts, plays, etc., of the kindergarten, the child in
+imagination exemplifies numberless relations and processes of the home
+and community life. The educative value of this type consists in the
+fact that the child, by acting out in a symbolic, or make-believe, way
+valuable social processes, though doing them only in an imaginative way,
+comes to know them better by the doing.
+
+=C. Voluntary Imitation.=--As the child's increasing power of attention
+gives him larger control of his experiences, he becomes able, not only
+to distinguish between the idea of an action and its reproduction by
+imitation, but also to associate some further end, or purpose, with the
+imitative process. The little child imitates the language of his fellows
+spontaneously; the mimic, for the purpose of bringing out certain
+peculiarities in their speech. When first imitating his elder painting
+with a brush, the child imitates merely in a spontaneous or unconscious
+way the act of brushing. When later, however, he tries to secure the
+delicate touch of his art teacher, he will imitate the teacher's
+movements for the definite purpose of adding to his own skill. Because
+in this type the imitator first conceives in idea the particular act to
+be imitated, and then consciously strives to reproduce the act in like
+manner, it is classified as conscious, or voluntary, imitation.
+
+=Use of Voluntary Imitation.=--Teachers differ widely concerning the
+educational value of voluntary imitation. It is evident, however, that
+in certain cases, as learning correct forms of speech, in physical and
+manual exercises, in conduct and manners, etc., good models for
+imitation count for more than rules and precepts. On the other hand, to
+endeavour to teach a child by imitation to read intelligently could only
+result in failure. In such a case, the pupil, by attempting to analyse
+out and set up as models the different features of the teachers reading,
+would have his attention directed from the thought of the sentence. But
+without grasping the meaning, the pupil cannot make his reading
+intelligent. In like manner, to have a child learn a rule in arithmetic
+by merely imitating the process from type examples worked by the
+teacher, would be worse than useless, since it would prevent independent
+thinking on the child's part. The purpose here is not to gain skill in a
+mechanical process, but to gain knowledge of an intelligent principle.
+
+
+PLAY
+
+=Nature of Play Impulse.=--Another tendency of early childhood utilized
+by the modern educator is the so-called instinct of play. According to
+some, the impulse to play represents merely the tendency of the surplus
+energy stored up within the nervous organism to express itself in
+physical action. According to this view, play would represent, not any
+inherited tendency, but a condition of the nervous organism. It is to be
+noted, however, that this activity spends itself largely in what seems
+instinctive tendencies. The boy, in playing hide-and-seek, in chasing,
+and the like, seems to express the hunting and fleeing instincts of his
+ancestors. Playing with the doll is evidently suggested and influenced
+by the parental instinct, while in all games, the activity is evidently
+determined largely by social instincts. Like imitation, therefore, play
+seems a complex, involving a number of instinctive tendencies.
+
+=Play versus Work.=--An essential characteristic of the play impulse is
+its freedom. By this is meant that the acts are performed, not to gain
+some further end, but merely for the sake of the activity itself. The
+impulse to play, therefore, must find its initiative within the child,
+and must give expression merely to some inner tendency. So long, for
+example, as the boy shovels the sand or piles the stones merely to
+exercise his physical powers, or to satisfy an inner tendency to
+imitate the actions of others, the operation is one of play. When, on
+the other hand, these acts are performed in order to clean up the yard,
+or because they have been ordered to be done by a parent, the process is
+one of work, for the impulse to act now lies in something outside the
+act itself. To compel a child to play, therefore, would be to compel him
+to work.
+
+=Value of Play: A. Physical.=--Play is one of the most effective means
+for promoting the physical development of the child. This result follows
+naturally from the free character of the play activity. Since the
+impulse to act is found in the activity itself, the child always has a
+strong motive for carrying on the activity. On the other hand, when
+somewhat similar activities are carried on as a task set by others, the
+end is too remote from the child's present interests and tendencies to
+supply him with an immediate motive for the activity. Play, therefore,
+causes the young child to express himself physically to a degree that
+tasks set by others can never do, and thus aids him largely in securing
+control of bodily movements.
+
+=B. Intellectual and Moral.=--In play, however, the child not only
+secures physical development and a control of bodily movements, but also
+exercises and develops other tendencies and powers. Many plays and
+games, for instance, involve the use of the senses. Whether the young
+child is shaking his rattle, rolling the ball, pounding with the spoon,
+piling up blocks and knocking them over, or playing his regular guessing
+games in the kindergarten, he is constantly stimulating his senses, and
+giving his sensory nerves their needed development. As imitation and
+imagination, by their co-operation, later enable the child to symbolize
+his play, such games as keeping store, playing carpenter, farmer, baker,
+etc., both enlarge the child's knowledge of his surroundings, and also
+awaken his interest and sympathy toward these occupations. Other games,
+such as beans-in-the-bag, involve counting, and thus furnish the child
+incidental lessons in number under most interesting conditions. In games
+involving co-operation and competition, as the bowing game, the
+windmill, fill the gap, chase ball in ring, etc., the social tendencies
+of the child are developed, and such individual instincts as rivalry,
+emulation, and combativeness are brought under proper control.
+
+
+PLAY IN EDUCATION
+
+=Assigning Play.=--In adapting play to the formal education of the
+child, a difficulty seems at once to present itself. If the teacher
+endeavours to provide the child with games that possess an educative
+value, physical, intellectual, or moral, how can she give such games to
+the children, and at the same time avoid setting the game as a task?
+That such a result might follow is evident from our ordinary observation
+of young children. To the boy interested in a game of ball, the request
+to come and join his sister in playing housekeeping would, more than
+likely, be positive drudgery. May it not follow therefore, that a trade
+or guessing game given by the kindergarten director will fail to call
+forth the free activity of the child? One of the arguments of the
+advocates of the Montessori Method in favour of that system is, that the
+specially prepared apparatus of that system is itself suggestive of play
+exercises; and that, by having access to the apparatus, the child may
+choose the particular exercise which appeals to his free activity at the
+moment. This supposed superiority of the Montessori apparatus over the
+kindergarten games is, however, more apparent than real. What the
+skilful kindergarten teacher does is, through her knowledge of the
+interests and tendencies of the children, to suggest games that will be
+likely to appeal to their free activity, and at the same time have
+educative value along physical, intellectual, and moral lines. In this
+way, she does no more than children do among themselves, when one
+suggests a suitable game to his companions. In such a case, no one would
+argue, surely, that the leader is the only child to show free activity
+in the play.
+
+=Stages in Play.=--In the selecting of games, plays, etc., it is to be
+noted that these may be divided into at least three classes, according
+as they appeal to children at different ages. The very young child
+prefers merely to play with somewhat simple objects that can make an
+appeal to his senses, as the rattle, the doll, the pail and shovel,
+hammer, crayon, etc. This preference depends, on the one hand, upon his
+early individualistic nature, which would object to share the play with
+another; and, on the other hand, upon the natural hunger of his senses
+for varied stimulations. At about five years of age, owing to the growth
+of the child's imagination, symbolism begins to enter largely into his
+games. At this age the children love to play church, school, soldier,
+scavenger man, hen and chickens, keeping store, etc. At from ten to
+twelve years of age, co-operative and competitive games are preferred;
+and with boys, those games especially which demand an amount of strength
+and skill. This preference is to be accounted for through the marked
+development of the social instincts at this age and, in the case of
+boys, through increase in strength and will power.
+
+=Limitations of Play.=--Notwithstanding the value of play as an agent in
+education, it is evident that its application in the school-room is
+limited. Social efficiency demands that the child shall learn to
+appreciate the joy of work even more than the joy of play. Moreover, as
+noted in the early part of our work, the acquisition of race experience
+demands that its problems be presented to the child in definite and
+logical order. This can be accomplished only by having them presented to
+the pupil by an educative agent and therefore set as a problem or a task
+to be mastered. This, of course, does not deny that the teacher should
+strive to have the pupil express himself as freely as possible as he
+works at his school problem. It does necessitate, however, that the
+child should find in his lesson some conscious end, or aim, to be
+reached beyond the mere activity of the learning process. This in itself
+stamps the ordinary learning process of the school as more than mere
+play.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+HABIT
+
+
+=Nature of Habit.=--When an action, whether performed under the full
+direction, or control, of attention and with a sense of effort, or
+merely as an instinctive or impulsive act, comes by repetition to be
+performed with such ease that consciousness may be largely diverted from
+the act itself and given to other matters, the action is said to have
+become habitual. For example, if a person attempts a new manner of
+putting on a tie, it is first necessary for him to stand before a glass
+and follow attentively every movement. In a short time, however, he
+finds himself able to perform the act easily and skilfully both without
+the use of a glass and almost without conscious direction. Moreover if
+the person should chance in his first efforts to hold his arms and head
+in a certain way in order to watch the process more easily in the glass,
+it is found that when later he does the act even without the use of a
+glass, he must still hold his arms and head in this manner.
+
+=Basis of Habits.=--The ability of the organism to habituate an action,
+or make it a reflex is found to depend upon certain properties of
+nervous matter which have already been considered.
+
+These facts are:
+
+1. Nervous matter is composed of countless numbers of individual cells
+brought into relation with one another through their outgoing fibres.
+
+2. This tissue is so plastic that whenever it reacts upon an impression
+a permanent modification is made in its structure.
+
+3. Not only are such modifications retained permanently, but they give a
+tendency to repeat the act in the same way; while every such repetition
+makes the structural modification stronger, and this renders further
+repetition of the act both easier and more effective.
+
+4. The connections between the various nervous centres thus become so
+permanent that the action may run its course with a minimum of
+resistance within the nervous system.
+
+5. In time the movements are so fixed within the system that connections
+are formed between sensory and motor centres at points lower than the
+cortex--that is, the stimulus and response become reflex.
+
+=An Example.=--When a child strives to acquire the movements necessary
+in making a new capital letter, his eye receives an impression of the
+letter which passes along the sensory system to the cortex and, usually
+with much effort, finds an outlet in a motor attempt to form the letter.
+Thus a permanent trace, or course, is established in the nervous system,
+which will be somewhat more easily taken on a future occasion. After a
+number of repetitions, the child, by giving his attention fully to the
+act, is able to form the letter with relative ease. As these movements
+are repeated, however, the nervous system, as already noted, may shorten
+the circuit between the point of sensory impression and motor discharge
+by establishing associations in centres lower than those situated in the
+cortex. Whenever any act is repeated a great number of times, therefore,
+these lower associations are established with a resulting diminution of
+the impression upward through the cortex of the brain. This results also
+in a lessening of the amount of attention given the movement, until
+finally the act can be performed in a perfectly regular way with
+practically no conscious, or attentive, effort.
+
+=Habit and Consciousness.=--While saying that such habitual action may
+be performed with facility in the absence of conscious direction, it
+must not be understood that conscious attention is necessarily entirely
+absent during the performance of an habitual act. In many of these acts,
+as for instance, lacing and tieing a shoe, signing one's name, etc.,
+conscious effort usually gives the first impulse to perform the act.
+There may be cases, however, in which one finds himself engaged in some
+customary act without any seeming initial conscious suggestion. This
+would be noted, for instance, where a person starts for the customary
+clothes closet, perhaps to obtain something from a pocket, and suddenly
+finds himself hanging on a hook the coat he has unconsciously removed
+from his shoulders. Here the initial movement for removing the coat may
+have been suggested by the sight of the customary closet, or by the
+movement involved in opening the closet door, these impressions being
+closely co-ordinated through past experiences with those of removing the
+coat. When, also, a woman is sewing or kneading bread, although she
+seems to be able to give her attention fully to the conversation in
+which she may be engaged, yet no doubt a slight trace of conscious
+control is still exercised over the other movements. This is seen in the
+fact that, whenever the conversation becomes so absorbing that it takes
+a very strong hold on the attention, the habitual movements may cease
+without the person being at first aware that she has ceased working.
+
+=Habit and Nervous Action.=--The general flow of the nervous energy
+during such processes as the above, in which there is an interchange
+between conscious and habitual control, may be illustrated by the
+following figures. In these figures the heavy lines indicate the process
+actually going on, while the broken lines indicate that although such
+nerve courses are established, they are not being brought into active
+operation in the particular case.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1, FIG. 2, FIG. 3
+
+A. Sensory Stimulus
+B. Lower Sensory Centre
+C. Higher Sensory Centre
+
+A' Higher Motor Centre
+B' Lower Motor Centre
+C' Motor Response]
+
+The arrows in Figure 1 indicate the course of sensory stimulation and
+motor response during the first efforts to acquire skill in any
+movement. No connections are yet set up between lower centres and the
+acts are under conscious control.
+
+The arrows in Figure 2 indicate the course of sensory stimulus and motor
+response in an ordinary habitual act, as when an expert fingers the
+piano keys or controls a bicycle while his mind is occupied with other
+matters.
+
+The arrows in Figure 3 indicate how, even in performing what is
+ordinarily an habitual act, the mind may at any time assume control of
+the movement. This is illustrated in the case of a person who, when
+unconsciously directing his bicycle along the road, comes to a narrow
+plank over a culvert. Hereupon full attention may be given to the
+movements, that is, the acts may come under conscious control.
+
+
+FORMATION OF HABITS
+
+It is evident from the nature of the structure and properties of the
+nervous system, that man cannot possibly avoid the formation of habits.
+Any act once performed will not only leave an indelible trace within the
+nervous system, but will also set up in the system a tendency to repeat
+the act. It is this fact that always makes the first false step
+exceedingly dangerous. Moreover, every repetition further breaks down
+the present resistance and, therefore, in a sense further enslaves the
+individual to that mode of action. The word poorly articulated for the
+first time, the letter incorrectly formed, the impatient shrug of the
+shoulder--these set up their various tracks, create a tendency, and
+soon, through the establishment of lower connections, become unconscious
+habits. Thus it is that every one soon becomes a bundle of habits.
+
+=Precautions to be Taken.=--A most important problem in relation to the
+life of the young child is that he should at the outset form right
+habits. This includes not only doing the right thing, but also doing it
+in the right way. For this he must have the right impression, make the
+right response, and continue this response until the proper paths are
+established in the nervous system, or, in other words, until practically
+all resistance within the system is overcome. It is here that teachers
+are often very lax in dealing with the pupil in his various forms of
+expressive work. They may indeed give the child the proper impression,
+for example, the correct form of the letter, the correct pronunciation
+of the new word, the correct position for the pen and the body, but too
+often they do not exercise the vigilance necessary to have the first
+responses develop into well-fixed habits. But it must be remembered that
+the child's first response is necessarily crude; for as already seen,
+there is always at first a certain resistance to the co-ordinated
+movements, on account of the tracks within the nervous system not yet
+being surely established. The result is that during the time this
+resistance is being overcome, there is constant danger of variations
+creeping into the child's responses. Unless, therefore, he is constantly
+watched during this practice period, his response may fall much below
+the model, or standard, set by the teacher. Take, for instance, the
+child's mode of forming a letter. At the outset he is given the correct
+forms for _g_ and _m_, but on account of the resistance met in
+performing these movements he may, if left without proper supervision,
+soon fall into such movements as [symbol] and [symbol]. The chief value
+of the Montessori sandpaper letters consists in the fact that they
+enable the child to continue a correct movement without variation until
+all resistance within the nervous organism has been overcome. Two facts
+should, therefore, be kept prominently in view by the teacher concerning
+the child's efforts to secure skill. First, the learner's early attempts
+must be necessarily crude, both through the resistance at first offered
+by the nervous system on account of the proper paths not being laid in
+the system, and also through the image of the movement not being clearly
+conceived. Secondly, there is constant danger of variations from the
+proper standard establishing themselves during this period of
+resistance.
+
+
+VALUE OF HABITS
+
+=Habits Promote Efficiency.=--But notwithstanding the dangers which seem
+to attend the formation of habits, it is only through this inevitable
+reduction of his more customary acts to unconscious habit that man
+attains to proficiency. Only by relieving conscious attention from the
+ordinary mechanical processes in any occupation, is the artist able to
+attend to the special features of the work. Unless, for instance, the
+scholar possesses as an unconscious habit the ability to hold the pen
+and form and join the various letters, he could never devote his
+attention to evolving the thoughts composing his essay. In like manner,
+without an habitual control of the chisel, the carver could not possibly
+give an absorbing attention to the delicate outlines of the particular
+model. It is only because the rider has habituated himself to the
+control of the handles, etc., that he can give his attention to the
+street traffic before him and guide the bicycle or automobile through
+the ever varying passages. The first condition of efficiency, therefore,
+in any pursuit, is to reduce any general movements involved in the
+process to unconscious habits, and thus leave the conscious judgment
+free to deal with the changeable features of the work.
+
+=Habit Conserves Energy.=--Another advantage of habit is that it adds to
+the individual's capacity for work. When any movements are novel and
+require our full attention, a greater nervous resistance is met on
+account of the laying down of new paths in the nerve centres. Moreover
+longer nervous currents are produced through the cortex of the brain,
+because conscious attention is being called into play. These conditions
+necessarily consume a greater amount of nerve energy. The result is that
+man is able to continue for a longer time with less nervous exhaustion
+any series of activities after they have developed into habits. This can
+be seen by noting the ease with which one can perform any physical
+exercise after habituating himself to the movements, compared with the
+evident strain experienced when the exercise is first undertaken.
+
+=Makes the Disagreeable Easy.=--Another, though more incidental,
+advantage of the formation of habits, is that occupations in themselves
+uninteresting or even distasteful may, through habit, be performed at
+least without mental revulsion. This results largely from the fact that
+the growth of habit decreases the resistance, and thus lessens or
+destroys the disagreeable feeling. Moreover, when such acts are reduced
+to mechanical habits, the mind is largely free to consider other things.
+In this way the individual, even in the midst of his drudgery, may enjoy
+the pleasures of memory or imagination. Although, therefore, in going
+through some customary act, one may still dislike the occupation, the
+fact that he can do much of it habitually, leaves him free to enjoy a
+certain amount of mental pleasure in other ways.
+
+=Aids Morality.=--The formation of habits also has an important bearing
+on the moral life. By habituating ourselves to right forms of action, we
+no doubt make in a sense moral machines of ourselves, since the right
+action is the one that will meet the least nervous resistance, while the
+doing of the wrong action would necessitate the establishing of new
+co-ordinations in the nervous system. It is no doubt partly owing to
+this, that one whose habits are formed can so easily resist temptations;
+for to ask him to act other than in the old way is to ask him to make,
+not the easy, but the hard reaction. While this is true, however, it
+must not be supposed that in such cases the choice of the right thing
+involves only a question of customary nervous reaction. When we choose
+to do our duty, we make a conscious choice, and although earlier right
+action has set up certain nerve co-ordinations which render it now easy
+to choose the right, yet it must be remembered that _conscious judgment_
+is also involved. In such cases man does the right mainly because his
+judgment tells him that it is right. If, therefore, he is in a situation
+where he must act in a totally different way from what is customary, as
+when a quiet, peace-loving man sees a ruffian assaulting a helpless
+person, a moral man does not hesitate to change his habitual modes of
+physical action.
+
+
+IMPROVEMENT OF HABITUAL REACTIONS
+
+=To Eliminate a Habit.=--From what has been learned concerning the
+permanency of our habits, it is evident that only special effort will
+enable us to make any change in an habitual mode of reaction. In at
+least two cases, however, changes may be necessary. The fact that many
+of our early habits are formed either unconsciously, or in ignorance of
+their evil character, finds us, perhaps, as we come to years of
+discretion, in possession of certain habits from which we would gladly
+be freed. Such habits may range from relatively unimportant personal
+peculiarities to impolite and even immoral modes of conduct. In
+attempting to free ourselves from such acts, we must bear in mind what
+has been noted concerning the basis of retention. To repeat an act at
+frequent intervals is an important condition of retaining it as a habit.
+On the other hand, the absence of such repetition is almost sure, in due
+time, to obliterate the nervous tendency to repeat the act. To free
+one's self from an undesirable habit, therefore, the great essential is
+to avoid resolutely, for a reasonable time, any recurrence of the banned
+habit. While this can be accomplished only by conscious effort and
+watchfulness, yet each day passed without the repetition of the act
+weakens by so much the old nerve co-ordinations. To attempt to break an
+old habit, gradually, however, as some would prefer, can result only in
+still keeping the habitual tendency relatively strong.
+
+=To Modify a Habit.=--At other times, however, we may desire not to
+eliminate an habitual co-ordination _in toto_, but rather to modify only
+certain phases of the reaction. In writing, for instance, a pupil may be
+holding his pen correctly and also using the proper muscular movements,
+but may have developed a habit of forming certain letters incorrectly,
+as [symbol] and [symbol]. In any attempt to correct such forms, a
+special difficulty is met in the fact that the incorrect movements are
+now closely co-ordinated with a number of correct movements, which must
+necessarily be retained while the other portions of the process are
+being modified. To effect such a modification, it is necessary for
+attention to focus itself upon the incorrect elements, and form a clear
+idea of the changes desired. With this idea as a conscious aim, the
+pupil must have abundant practice in writing the new forms, and avoid
+any recurrence of the old incorrect movements. This fact emphasizes the
+importance of attending to the beginning of any habit. In teaching
+writing, for instance, the teacher might first give attention only to
+the form of the letter and then later seek to have the child acquire the
+muscular movement. In the meantime, however, the child, while learning
+to form the letters, may have been allowed to acquire the finger
+movement, and to break this habit both teacher and pupil find much
+difficulty. By limiting the child to the use of a black-board or a large
+pencil and tablet, and having him make only relatively large letters
+while he is learning to form them, the teacher could have the pupil
+avoid this early formation of the habit of writing with the finger
+movement.
+
+=Limitations of Habit.=--From what has here been learned concerning the
+formation of physical habits, it becomes evident that there are
+limitations to these as forms of reaction. Since any habit is largely
+an unconscious reaction to a particular situation, its value will be
+conditional upon the nature of the circumstances which call forth the
+reaction. These circumstances must occur quite often under almost
+identical conditions, otherwise the habit can have no value in directing
+our social conduct. On the contrary, it may seriously interfere with
+successful effort. For the player to habituate his hands to fingering
+the violin is very important, because this is a case where such constant
+conditions are to be met. For a salesman to habituate himself to one
+mode of presenting goods to his customers would be fatal, since both the
+character and the needs of the customers are so varied that no permanent
+form of approach could be effective in all cases. To habituate ourselves
+to some narrow automatic line of action and follow it even under varying
+circumstances, therefore, might prevent the mind from properly weighing
+these varying conditions, and thus deaden initiative. It is for this
+reason that experience is so valuable in directing life action. By the
+use of past experience, the mind is able to analyse each situation
+calling for reaction and, by noting any unusual circumstances it
+presents, may adapt even our habitual reactions to the particular
+conditions.
+
+The relation of habit to interest and attention is treated in Chapter
+XXIV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ATTENTION
+
+
+=Nature of Attention.=--In our study of the principles of general
+method, it was noted that the mind is able to set up and hold before
+itself as a problem any partially realized experience. From what has
+been said concerning nervous stimulation and the passing inward of
+sensuous impression, it might be thought that the mind is for the most
+part a somewhat passive recipient of conscious states as they chance to
+arise through the stimulations of the particular moment. Further
+consideration will show, however, that, at least after very early
+childhood, the mind usually exercises a strong selective control over
+what shall occupy consciousness at any particular time. In the case of a
+student striving to unravel the mazes of his mathematical problem,
+countless impressions of sight, sound, touch, etc., may be stimulating
+him from all sides, yet he refuses in a sense to attend to any of them.
+The singing of the maid, the chilliness of the room as the fire dies
+out, even the pain in the limb, all fail to make themselves known in
+consciousness, until such time as the successful solution causes the
+person to direct his attention from the work in hand. In like manner,
+the traveller at the busy station, when intent upon catching his train,
+is perhaps totally unconscious of the impressions being received from
+the passing throngs, the calling newsboys, the shunting engines, and the
+malodorous cattle cars. This ability of the mind to focus itself upon
+certain experiences to the exclusion of other possible experiences is
+known as _attention_.
+
+=Degree of Attention.=--Mention has already been made of states of
+consciousness in which the mind seems in a passive state of reverie.
+Although the mind, even in such sub-conscious states, would seem to
+exercise some slight attention, it is yet evident that it does not
+exercise a definite selective control during such passive states of
+consciousness. Attention proper, on the other hand, may be described as
+a state in which the mind focuses itself upon some particular
+impression, and thus makes it stand out more clearly in consciousness as
+a definite experience. From this standpoint it may be assumed that, in a
+state of waking reverie, the attention is so scattered that no
+impression is made to stand out clearly in consciousness. On the other
+hand, as soon as the mind focuses itself on a certain impression, for
+example, the report of a gun, the relation of two angles, or the image
+of a centaur, this stands out so clearly that it occupies the whole
+foreground of consciousness, while all other impressions hide themselves
+in the background. This single focal state of consciousness is,
+therefore, pre-eminently a state of attention while the former state of
+reverie, on account of its diffuse character, may be said to be
+relatively devoid of attention.
+
+=Physical Illustrations of Attention.=--To furnish a physical
+illustration of the working of attention, some writers describe the
+stream of our conscious life as presenting a series of waves, the
+successive waves representing the impressions or ideas upon which
+attention is focused at successive moments. When attention is in a
+diffuse state, consciousness is likened to a comparatively level stream.
+The focusing of attention upon particular impressions and thus making
+them stand out as distinct states of consciousness is said to break the
+surface of the stream into waves. This may be illustrated as follows:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--Consciousness in a state of passive reverie.
+
+FIG. 2--Active consciousness. Attention focussed on the
+definite experiences _a, b, c, d, e, f, g_.]
+
+By others, consciousness is described as a field of vision, in which the
+centre of vision represents the focal point of attention. For instance,
+if the student intent upon his problem in analysis does not notice the
+flickering light, the playing of the piano, or the smell of the burning
+meat breaking in upon him, it is because this problem occupies the
+centre of the attentive field. The other impressions, on the contrary,
+lie so far on the outside of the field that they fail to stand out in
+consciousness. This may be represented by the following diagram:
+
+[Illustration: P represents the problem on which attention is fixed. A,
+B, C, D, E, represent impressions which, though stimulating the
+organism, do not attract definite attention.]
+
+It must be understood, however, that these are merely mechanical devices
+to illustrate the fact that when the mind selects, or attends to, any
+impression, this impression is made to stand out clearly as an object in
+consciousness; or, in other words, the particular impression becomes a
+clear-cut and definite experience.
+
+[Illustration: Probable adjusting of nerve ends during active attention]
+
+=Neural Basis of Attention.=--The neural conditions under which the mind
+exercises such active attention seem to be that during the attentive
+state the nervous energy concentrates itself upon the paths and centres
+involved in the particular experience, the resistance being decreased in
+the paths connecting the cells traversed by the impulse. Moreover, any
+nervous energy tending to escape in other channels is checked and the
+movements hindered, thus shutting off attention from other possible
+experiences. For instance, a person with little interest in horticulture
+might pass a flowering shrub, the colour, form, and scent making only a
+faint impression upon him. If, however, his companion should say, "What
+a lovely colour," his attention will direct itself to this quality, with
+the result that the colour stands out much more clearly in
+consciousness, and the other features practically escape his notice.
+Here the suggestion of the companion focuses attention upon the colour,
+this being accompanied with a lessening of the resistance between the
+centres involved in interpreting the colour sensations. At the same time
+resistance in the arcs involving form and smell is increased, and the
+energy diverted from these arcs into that of colour.
+
+
+ATTENTION SELECTIVE
+
+=Attention and Interest.=--At this point a question naturally arises why
+the mind, since it is continually subject to the influence of
+impressions from without and of reviving ideas from within, should
+select and focus attention upon certain of these to the exclusion of
+others. The answer usually given is that the mind feels in each case, at
+least vaguely, a personal interest in some change or adjustment to be
+wrought either in or through the impression which it makes an object of
+attention. When, for instance, the reader diverts his attention from the
+interesting story to the loud talking outside the window, he evidently
+desires to adjust his understanding more fully to the new and strange
+impression. So, also, when the spectator rivets his attention upon the
+flying ball, it is because he associates with this the interesting
+possibility of a change in the score. In like manner, the student in
+geometry fixes his attention upon the line joining the points of
+bisection of the sides, because he desires to change his present mental
+state of uncertainty as to its parallelism with the base into one of
+certainty. He further fixes his attention upon the qualities of certain
+bases and triangles, because through attending to these, he hopes to
+gain the desired experience concerning the parallelism of the two
+lines.
+
+=Attention and the Question.=--The general conditions for determining
+the course of attention will be further understood by a reference to two
+facts already established in connection with general method. It has been
+seen that the question and answer method is usually a successful mode of
+conducting the learning process. The reason for this is that the
+question is a most effective means of directing a selective act of
+attention. For instance, in an elementary science lesson on the candle
+flame, although the child, if left to himself, might observe the flame,
+he would not, in all probability, notice particularly the luminous part.
+Or again, if a dry glass is simply held over the flame and then removed
+by the demonstrator, although the pupil may have watched the experiment
+in a general way, it is doubtful whether he would notice particularly
+the moisture deposited upon the glass. A question from the demonstrator,
+however, awakens interest, causes the mind to focus in a special
+direction, and banishes from consciousness features which might
+otherwise occupy attention. This is because the question suggests a
+problem, and thus awakens an expectant or unsatisfied state of mind,
+which is likely to be satisfied only by attending to what the question
+suggests as an object of attention.
+
+=Attention and Motive.=--It has already been noted that any process of
+learning is likely to be more effective when the child realizes a
+distinct problem, or aim, in the lesson, or feels a need for going
+through the learning process. The cause of this is that the aim, by
+awaking curiosity, etc., is an effective means of securing attention.
+When, for example, the pupil, in learning that 3 × 4 = 12, begins with
+the problem of finding out how many threes are contained in his twelve
+blocks, his curiosity can be satisfied only by grasping certain
+significant relations. In approaching the lesson, therefore, with such
+an actual problem before him, the child feels a desire to change, or
+alter, his present mental relation to the problem. In other words, he
+wishes to gain something involved in the problem which he does not now
+know or is not yet able to do. His desire to bring about this change or
+to reach this end not only holds his attention upon the problem, but
+also adjusts it to whatever ideas are likely to assist in solving the
+problem. When, therefore, pupils approach a lesson with an interesting
+problem in mind, the teacher finds it much easier to centre their
+attention upon those factors which make for the acquisition of the new
+experience.
+
+
+INVOLUNTARY ATTENTION
+
+=Nature of Involuntary Attention.=--Attention is met in its simplest
+form when the mind spontaneously focuses itself upon any strong stimulus
+received through the senses, as a flashing light, a loud crash, a bitter
+taste, or a violent pressure. As already noted, the significance of this
+type of attention lies in the fact that the mind seeks to adjust itself
+intelligently to a new condition in its surroundings which has been
+suggested to it through the violent stimulus. The ability to attend to
+such stimuli is evidently an inherited capacity, and is possessed by
+animals as well as by children. It is also the only form of attention
+exercised by very young children, and for some time the child seems to
+have little choice but to attend to the ever varying stimuli, the
+attention being drawn now to a bright light, now to a loud voice,
+according to the violence of the impressions. On account of the apparent
+lack of control over the direction of attention, this type is spoken of
+as spontaneous, or involuntary, attention.
+
+=Place and Value.=--It is only, however, during his very early years
+that man lacks a reasonable control even over relatively strong
+stimulations. As noted above, the mind acquires an ability to
+concentrate itself upon a single problem in the midst of relatively
+violent stimulations. Moreover, in the midst of various strong
+stimulations, it is able to select the one which it desires, to the
+exclusion of all others. At a relatively early age, for instance, the
+youth is able, in his games, to focus his attention upon the ball, and
+pays little attention to the shouts and movements of the spectators. On
+the other hand, however, it is also true that man never loses this
+characteristic of attending in an involuntary, or reflex, way to any
+strong stimulus. Indeed, without the possession of this hereditary
+tendency, it is hard to see how he could escape any dangers with which
+his body might be threatened while his attention is strongly engaged an
+another problem.
+
+=Educational Precautions.=--That young children naturally tend to give
+their attention to strong stimuli, is a matter of considerable moment to
+the primary teacher. It is for this cause, among others, that reasonable
+quiet and order should prevail in the class-room during the recitation.
+When the pupil is endeavouring to fix his attention upon a selected
+problem, say the relation of the square foot to the square yard, any
+undue stimulation of his senses from the school-room environment could
+not fail to distract his attention from the problem before him. For the
+same reason, the external conditions should be such as are not likely to
+furnish unusual stimulations, as will be the case if the class-room is
+on a busy street and must be ventilated by means of open windows.
+Finally, in the use of illustrative materials, the teacher should see
+that the concrete matter will not stimulate the child unduly in ways
+foreign to the lesson topic. For example, in teaching a nature lesson on
+the crow, the teacher would find great difficulty in keeping the
+children's attention on the various topics of the lesson, if he had
+before the class a live crow that kept cawing throughout the whole
+lesson period. Nor would it seem a very effective method of attracting
+attention to the problem of a lesson, if the teacher were continually
+shouting and waving his arms at the pupils.
+
+
+NON-VOLUNTARY ATTENTION
+
+=Nature of Non-voluntary Attention.=--On account of the part played by
+interest in the focusing of attention, it is possible to distinguish a
+second type of spontaneous attention in which the mind seems directly
+attracted to an object of thought because of a natural satisfaction
+gained from contemplating the subject. The lover, apparently without any
+determination, and without any external stimulus to suggest the topic,
+finds his attention ever centring itself upon the image of his fair
+lady. The young lad, also, without any apparent cause, turns his
+thoughts constantly to his favourite game. Here the impulse to attend is
+evidently from within, rather than from without, and arises from the
+interest that the mind has in the particular experience. This type of
+attention is especially manifest when trains of ideas pass through the
+mind without any apparent end in view, one idea suggesting another in
+accordance with the prevailing mood. The mind, in a half passive state,
+thinks of last evening, then of the house of a friend, then of the
+persons met there, then of the game played, etc. In the same way the
+attention of the student turns without effort to his favourite school
+subject, and its various aspects may pass in view before him without
+any effort or determination on his part. Because in this type of
+attention the different thoughts stand out in consciousness without any
+apparent choice, or selection, on the part of the mind, it is described
+as non-voluntary attention.
+
+
+VOLUNTARY ATTENTION
+
+=Nature of Voluntary Attention.=--The most important form of attention,
+however, is that in which the mind focuses itself upon an idea, not as a
+result of outside stimulation, but with some further purpose in view.
+For instance, when a person enters a room in which a strange object
+seems to be giving out musical notes automatically, he may at first give
+spontaneous attention to the sounds coming from the instrument. When,
+however, he approaches the object later with a desire to discover the
+nature of its mechanism, his attention is focused upon the object with a
+more remote aim, or end, in view, to discover where the music comes
+from. So also, when the lad mentioned in Chapter II fixed his attention
+on the lost coin, he set this object before his attention with a further
+end in view--how to regain it. Because the person here _determines_ to
+attend to, or think about, a certain problem, in order that he may reach
+a certain consciously set end, this form of attention is described as
+voluntary, or active, attention.
+
+=Near and Remote Ends.=--It is to be noted, however, that the
+interesting end toward which the mind strives in voluntary attention may
+be relatively near or remote. A child examining an automatic toy does it
+for the sake of discovering what is in the toy itself; an adult in order
+to see whether it is likely to interest his child. A student gives
+attention to the problem of the length of the hypotenuse because he is
+interested in the mathematical problem itself, the contractor because he
+desires to know how much material will be necessary for the roof of the
+building. One child may apply himself to mastering a reading lesson
+because the subject itself is interesting to him, another because he
+desires to take home a perfect report at the end of the week, and a
+third because a sense of obligation tells him that teacher and parents
+will expect him to study it.
+
+=How we Attend to a Problem.=--Since voluntary attention implies mental
+movement directed to the attainment of some end, the mind does not
+simply keep itself focused on the particular problem. For instance, in
+attempting to solve the problem that the exterior angle of a triangle
+equals the sum of the two interior and opposite angles, no progress
+toward the attainment of the end in view could be made by merely holding
+before the mind the idea of their equality. It is, in fact, impossible
+for the attention to be held for any length of time on a single topic.
+This will be readily seen if one tries to hold his attention
+continuously upon, say, the tip of a pencil. When this is attempted,
+other ideas constantly crowd out the selected idea. The only sense,
+therefore, in which one holds his attention upon the problem in an act
+of voluntary attention is, that his attention passes forward and back
+between the problem and ideas felt to be associated with it. Voluntary
+attention is, therefore, a mental process in which the mind shifts from
+one idea to another in attaining to a desired end, or problem. In this
+shifting, or movement, of voluntary attention, however, two significant
+features manifest themselves. First, in working forward and back from
+the problem as a controlling centre, attention brings into consciousness
+ideas more or less relevant to the problem. Secondly, it selects and
+adjusts to the problem those that actually make for its solution, and
+banishes from consciousness whatever is felt to be foreign to obtaining
+the desired end.
+
+=Example of Controlled Attention.=--To exemplify a process of voluntary
+attention we may notice the action of the mind in solving such a problem
+as:
+
+     Two trains started at the same moment from Toronto and Hamilton
+     respectively, one going at the rate of thirty miles an hour and the
+     other at the rate of forty miles an hour. Supposing the distance
+     between Toronto and Hamilton to be forty miles, in how many minutes
+     will the trains meet?
+
+Here the pupil must first fix his attention upon the problem--the number
+of minutes before the trains will meet. This at once forms both a centre
+and a standard for measuring other related ideas. In this way his
+attention passes to the respective rates of the two trains, thirty and
+forty miles per hour. Then perhaps he fixes attention on the thought
+that one goes a mile in two minutes and the other a mile in 1-1/2
+minutes. But as he recognizes that this is leading him away from the
+problem, resistance is offered to the flow of attention in this
+direction, and he passes to the thought that in a _minute_ the former
+goes 1/2 mile and the later 2/3 of a mile. From this he passes to the
+thought that in one minute they together go 1-1/6 miles. Hereupon
+perhaps the idea comes to his mind to see how many miles they would go
+in an hour. This, however, is soon felt to be foreign to the problem,
+and resistance being set up in this direction, the attention turns to
+consider in what time the two together cover 40 miles. Now by dividing
+40 miles by 1-1/6, he obtains the number 34-2/7 and is satisfied that
+his answer is 34-2/7 minutes. The process by which the attention here
+selected and adjusted the proper ideas to the problem might be
+illustrated by the following Figure:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Here "P" represents the problem; a, b, c, d, and e, ideas accepted as
+relevant to the problem; and b', d' ideas suggested by b and d, but
+rejected as not adjustable to the problem.
+
+=Factors in Process.=--The above facts demonstrate, however, that the
+mind can take this attitude toward any problem only if it has a certain
+store of old knowledge relative to it. Two important conditions of
+voluntary attention are therefore, first, that the mind should have the
+necessary ideas, or knowledge, with which to attend and, secondly, that
+it would select and adjust these to the purpose in view. Here the
+intimate connection of voluntary attention to the normal learning
+process is apparent. The step of preparation, for instance, is merely
+putting the mind in the proper attitude to attend voluntarily to an end
+in view, namely the lesson problem; while the so-called
+analytic-synthetic process of learning involves the selecting and
+adjusting movements of voluntary attention.
+
+=Spontaneous and Voluntary Attention Distinguished.=--In describing
+voluntary attention as an active form of attention, psychologists assume
+that since the mind here wills, or resolves, to attend, in order to gain
+a certain end in view; therefore voluntary attention must imply a much
+greater degree of effort, or strain, than other types. That such is
+always the case, however, is at times not very apparent. If one may
+judge by the straining of eye or ear, the poise of the body, the holding
+of the breath, etc., when a person gives involuntary attention to any
+sudden impression, as a strange noise at night, it is evident that the
+difference of effort, or strain, in attending to this and some selected
+problem may not, during the time it continues, be very marked.
+
+It is of course true that in voluntary attention the mind must choose
+its own object of attention as an end, or aim, while in the involuntary
+type the problem seems thrust upon us. This certainly does imply a
+deliberate choice in the former, and to that extent may be said to
+involve an effort not found in the latter. In like manner, when seeking
+to attain the end which has been set up, the mind must select the
+related ideas which will solve its problem. This in turn may demand the
+grasping of a number of complex relations. To say, however, that all
+striving to attain an end is lacking in a case of involuntary attention
+would evidently be fallacious. When the mind is startled by a strange
+noise, the mind evidently does go out, though in a less formal way, to
+interpret a problem involuntarily thrust upon it. When, for instance, we
+receive the violent impression, the mind may be said to ask itself,
+"What strange impression is this?" and to that extent, even here, faces
+a selected problem. The distinguishing feature of voluntary attention,
+therefore, is the presence of a consciously conceived end, or aim, upon
+which the mind deliberately sets its attention as something to be
+thought _about_.
+
+
+ATTENTION IN EDUCATION
+
+=Voluntary Attention and Learning.=--From what has been seen, it is
+evident that, when a pupil in his school approaches any particular
+problem, the learning process will represent a process of voluntary
+attention. This form of attention is, therefore, one of special
+significance to the teacher, since a knowledge of the process will cast
+additional light upon the learning process. The first condition of
+voluntary attention is the power to select some idea as an end, or
+problem, for attention. It was seen, however, that the focusing of
+attention upon any problem depends upon some form of desirable change to
+be effected in and through the set problem. For instance, unless the
+recovery of the coin is conceived as producing a desirable change, it
+would not become a deliberately set problem for attention. It is
+essential, therefore, that the end which the child is to choose as an
+object of attention should be one conceived as demanding a desired
+change, or adjustment. For instance, to ask a child to focus his
+attention upon two pieces of wood merely as pieces of wood is not likely
+to call forth an active effort of attention. To direct his attention to
+them to find out how many times the one is contained in the other, on
+the other hand, focuses his attention more strongly upon them; since the
+end to be reached will awaken his curiosity and set an interesting
+problem.
+
+=Non-voluntary Attention in Education.=--On account of the ease with
+which attention seems to centre itself upon its object in non-voluntary
+attention, it is sometimes erroneously claimed that this is the type of
+attention to be aimed at in the educative process, especially with young
+children. Such a view is, however, a fallacious one, and results from a
+false notion of the real character of both non-voluntary and voluntary
+attention. In a clear example of non-voluntary attention, the mind
+dwells upon the ideas merely on account of their inherent
+attractiveness, and passes from one idea to its associated idea without
+any purposeful end in view. This at once shows its ineffectiveness as a
+process of learning. When the young lover's thoughts revert in a
+non-voluntary way to the fair one, he perhaps passes into a state of
+mere reminiscence, or at best of idle fancy. Even the student whose
+thoughts run on in a purposeless manner over his favourite subject, will
+merely revive old associations, or at best make a chance discovery of
+some new knowledge. In the same way, the child who delights in musical
+sounds may be satisfied to drum the piano by the hour, but this is
+likely to give little real advance, unless definite problems are set up
+and their attainment striven for in a purposeful way.
+
+=Voluntary Attention and Interest.=--A corollary of the fallacy
+mentioned above is the assumption that voluntary attention necessarily
+implies some conflict with the mind's present desire or interest. It is
+sometimes said, for instance, that in voluntary attention, we compel our
+mind to attend, while our interest would naturally direct our attention
+elsewhere. But without a desire to effect some change in or through the
+problem being attended to, the mind would not voluntarily make it an
+object of attention. The misconception as to the relation of voluntary
+attention to interest is seen in an illustration often given as an
+example of non-voluntary attention. It is said, rightly enough, that if
+a child is reading an interesting story, and is just at the point where
+the plot is about to unravel itself, there will be difficulty in
+diverting his attention to other matters. This, it is claimed, furnishes
+a good example of the power of non-voluntary attention. But quite the
+opposite may be the case. When called upon, say by his parent, to lay
+aside the book and attend to some other problem, the child, it is true,
+shows a desire to continue reading. But this may be because he has a
+definite aim of his own in view--to find out the fate of his hero. This
+is a strongly felt need on his part, and his mind refuses to be
+satisfied until, by further attention to the problem before him, he has
+attained to this end. The only element of truth in the illustration is
+that the child's attention is strongly reinforced through the intense
+feeling tone associated with the selected, or determined, aim--the fate
+of his hero. The fact is, therefore, that a process of voluntary
+attention may have associated with its problem as strong an interest as
+is found in the non-voluntary type.
+
+=Voluntary Attention Depends on Problem.=--It is evident from the
+foregoing that the characteristic of voluntary attention is not the
+absence or the presence of any special degree of interest, but rather
+the conception of some end, or purpose, to be reached in and through the
+attentive process. In other words, voluntary attention is a state of
+mind in which the mental movements are not drifting without a chart, but
+are seeking to reach a set haven. A person who is greatly interested in
+automobiles, for instance, on seeing a new machine, may allow his
+attention to run now to this part of the machine, now to that, as each
+attracts him in turn. Here no fixed purpose is being served by the
+attentive process, and attention may pass from part to part in a
+non-voluntary way, the person's general interest in automobiles being
+sufficient to keep the attention upon the subject. Suddenly, however, he
+may notice something apparently new in the mechanism of the machine, and
+a desire arises to understand its significance. This at once becomes an
+end to which the mind desires to attain, and voluntary attention
+proceeds to direct the mental movements toward its attainment. To
+suppose, however, that the interest, manifest in the former mental
+movements, is now absent, would evidently be fallacious. The difference
+lies in this, that at first the attention seemed fixed on the object
+through a general interest only, and drifted from point to point in a
+purposeless way, while in the second case an interesting end, or
+purpose, controlled the mental movements, and therefore made each
+movement significant in relation to the whole conscious process.
+
+=Attention and Knowledge.=--Mention has already been made of the
+relation of attention to interest. It should be noted, further, that the
+difference in our attention under different circumstances is largely
+dependent upon our knowledge. The stonecutter, as he passes the fine
+mansion, gives attention to the fretted cornice; the glazier, to the
+beautiful windows; the gardener, to the well-kept lawn and beds. Even
+the present content of the mind has its influence upon attention. The
+student on his way to school, if busy with his spelling lesson, is
+attracted to the words and letters on posters and signs. If he is
+reviewing his botany, he notes especially the weeds along the walk; if
+carrying to his art teacher, with a feeling of pride, the finished
+landscape drawing, his attention goes out to the shade and colour of
+field and sky. That such a connection must exist between knowledge and
+attention is apparent from what has been already noted concerning the
+working of the law of apperception.
+
+=Physical Conditions of Attention.=--From what was learned above
+regarding the relation of nervous energy to active attention, it is
+evident that the ability to attend to a problem at any given time will
+depend in part upon the physical condition of the organism. If,
+therefore, the nervous energy is lowered through fatigue or sickness,
+the attention will be weakened. For this reason the teaching of
+subjects, such as arithmetic, grammar, etc., which present difficult
+problems, and therefore make large demands upon the attention of the
+scholars, should not be undertaken when the pupils' energy is likely to
+be at a minimum. Similarly, unsatisfactory conditions in the
+school-room, such as poor ventilation, uncomfortable seats, excessive
+heat or cold, all tend to lower the nervous energy and thus prevent a
+proper concentration of attention upon the regular school work.
+
+=Precautions Relating to Voluntary Attention.=--Although voluntary
+attention is evidently the form of attention possessing real educational
+value, certain precautions would seem necessary concerning its use. With
+very young children the aim for attending should evidently not be too
+remote. In other words, the problem should involve matter in which the
+children have a direct interest. For this reason it is sometimes said
+that young children should set their own problems. This is of course a
+paradox so far as the regular school work is concerned, though it does
+apply to the pre-school period, and also justifies the claim that with
+young children the lesson problem should be closely connected with some
+vital interest. It would be useless, for instance, to try to interest
+young children in the British North America Act by telling them that the
+knowledge will be useful when they come to write on their entrance
+examinations. The story of Sir Isaac Brock, on the other hand, wins
+attention for itself through the child's patriotism and love of story.
+Again, the problem demanding attention should not, in the case of young
+children, be too long or complex. For example, a young child might
+easily attend to the separate problems of finding out, (1) how many
+marbles he must have to give four to James and three to William; (2) how
+many times seven can be taken from twenty-eight; (3) how many marbles
+James would have if he received four marbles four times; and (4) how
+many James would have if he received three marbles three times. But if
+given the problem "to divide twenty-eight marbles between James and
+William, giving James four every time he gives William three," the
+problem may be too complex for his present power of attention. A young
+child has not the control over his knowledge necessary to continue any
+long process of selecting attention. A relatively short period of
+attention to any problem, therefore, exhausts the nervous energy in the
+centres connected with a particular set of experiences. It is for this
+reason that the lessons in primary classes should be short and varied.
+One of the objections, therefore, to a narrow curriculum is that
+attention would not obtain needed variety, and that a narrowness in
+interest and application may result. On the other hand, it is well to
+note that the child must in time learn to concentrate his attention for
+longer periods and upon topics possessing only remote, or indirect,
+interest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE FEELING OF INTEREST
+
+
+=Nature of Feeling.=--Feeling has already been described (Chapter XIX)
+as the pleasurable or painful side of any state of consciousness. We
+may recall how it was there found that any conscious state, or
+experience, for instance, being conscious of the prick of a pin, of
+success at an examination, or of the loss of a friend, is not merely a
+state of knowledge, or awareness, but is also a state of feeling. It is
+a state of feeling because it _affects_ us, that is, because being a
+state of _our_ consciousness, it appeals to us pleasurably or painfully
+in a way that it can to no one else.
+
+=Neural Conditions of Feeling.=--It has been seen that every conscious
+state, or experience, has its affective, or feeling, tone, and also that
+every experience involves the transmission of nervous energy through a
+number of connected brain cells. On this basis it is thought that the
+feeling side of any conscious state is conditioned by the degree of the
+resistance encountered as the nervous energy is transmitted. If the
+centres involved in the experience are not yet properly organized, or if
+the stimulation is strong, the resistance is greater and the feeling
+more intense. A new movement of the limbs in physical training, for
+example, may at first prove intensely painful, because the centres
+involved in the exercise are not yet organized. So also, because a very
+bright light stimulates the nerves violently, it causes a painful
+feeling. That morphine deadens pain is to be explained on the
+assumption that it decreases nervous energy, and thus lessens the
+resistance being encountered between the nervous centres affected at the
+time.
+
+=Feeling and Habit.=--That the intensity of a feeling is conditioned by
+the amount of the resistance seems evident, if we note the relation of
+feeling to habit. The first time the nurse-in-training attends a wounded
+patient, the experience is marked by intense feeling. After a number of
+such experiences, however, this feeling becomes much less. In like
+manner, the child who at first finds the physical exercise painful, as
+he becomes accustomed to the movements, finds the pain becoming less and
+less intense. In such cases it is evident that practice, by organizing
+the centres involved in the experience, decreases the resistance between
+them, and thus gradually decreases the intensity of the feeling. When
+finally the act becomes habitual, the nervous impulse traverses only
+lower centres, and therefore all feeling and indeed all consciousness
+will disappear, as happens in the habitual movements of the limbs in
+walking and of the arms during walking.
+
+
+CLASSES OF FEELINGS
+
+=Sensuous Feeling.=--As already noted, while feelings vary in intensity
+according to the strength of the resistance, they also differ in kind
+according to the arcs traversed by the impulse. Experiencing a burn on
+the hand would involve nervous impulses, or currents, other than those
+involved in hearing of the death of a friend. The one experience also
+differs in feeling from the other. Our feeling states are thus able to
+be divided into certain important classes with more or less distinct
+characteristics for each. In one class are placed those feelings which
+accompany sensory impulses. The sensations arising from the
+stimulations of the sense organs, as a sweet or bitter taste, a strong
+smell, the touch of a hot, sharp, rough, or smooth object, etc., all
+present an affective, or feeling, side. So also feeling enters into the
+general or organic sensations arising from the conditions of the bodily
+organs; as breathing, the circulation of the blood, digestion, the
+tension of the muscles, hunger, thirst, etc. The feeling which thus
+enters as a factor into any sensation is known as sensuous feeling.
+
+=Ideal Feeling.=--Other feelings enter into our ideas and thoughts. The
+perception or imagination of an accident is accompanied with a painful
+feeling, the memory or anticipation of success with a feeling of joy,
+the thought of some particular person with a thrill of love. Such
+feelings are known as ideal feelings. When a child tears his flesh on a
+nail, he experiences sensuous feeling, when he shrinks away, as he
+perceives the teeth of a snarling dog, he experiences an ideal feeling,
+known as the emotion of fear.
+
+=Interest.=--A third type of feeling especially accompanies an active
+process of attention. In our study of attention, it was seen that any
+process of attention is accompanied by a concentration of nervous energy
+upon the paths or centres involved in the experience, thus organizing
+the paths more completely and thereby decreasing the resistance. The
+impulse to attend to any experience is, therefore, accompanied with a
+desirable feeling, because a new adjustment between nerve centres is
+taking place and resistance being overcome. This affective, or feeling,
+tone which accompanies a process of attention is known as the feeling of
+interest.
+
+=Interest and Attention.=--In discussions upon educational method, it is
+usually affirmed that the attention will focus upon a problem to the
+extent to which the mind is interested. While this statement may be
+accepted in ordinary language, it is not psychologically true that I
+first become interested in a strange presentation, and then attend to it
+afterwards. In such a case it is no more true to say that I attend
+because I am interested, than to say that I am interested because I
+attend. In other words, interest and attention are not successive but
+simultaneous, or, as sometimes stated, they are back and front of the
+same mental state. This becomes evident by noting the nervous conditions
+which must accompany interest and attention. When one is attending to
+any strange phenomenon, say a botanist to the structure of a rare plant,
+it is evident that there are not only new groupings of ideas in the
+mind, but also new adjustments being set up between the brain centres.
+This implies in turn a lessening of resistance between the cells, and
+therefore the presence of the feeling tone known as interest.
+
+=Interest, Attention, and Habit.=--Since the impulse to attend to a
+presentation is conditioned by a process of adjustment, or organization,
+between brain centres, it is evident that, while the novel presentations
+call forth interest and attention, repetition, by habituating the
+nervous arcs, will tend to deaden interest and attention. For this
+reason the story, first heard with interest and attention, becomes stale
+by too much repetition. The new toy fails to interest the child after
+the novelty has worn off. It must be noted, however, that while
+repetition usually lessens interest, yet when any set of experiences are
+repeated many times, instead of lessening interest the repetition may
+develop a new interest known as the interest of custom. Thus it is that
+by repeating the experience the man is finally compelled to visit his
+club every evening, and the boy to play his favourite game every day.
+This secondary interest of custom arises because repetition has finally
+established such strong associations within the nervous system that they
+now have become a part of our nature and are thus able to make a new
+demand upon interest and attention.
+
+
+INTEREST IN EDUCATION
+
+=Uses of Term: A. Subjective; B. Objective.=--That the educator
+describes interest as something that causes the mind to give attention
+to what is before it, when in fact interest and attention are
+psychologically merely two sides of a single process, is accounted for
+by the fact that the term "interest" may be used with two quite
+different meanings. Psychologically, interest is evidently a feeling
+state, that is, it represents a phase of consciousness. My _interest_ in
+football, for instance, represents the _feeling_ of worth which
+accompanies attention to such experiences. In this sense interest and
+attention are but two sides of the single experience, interest
+representing the feeling, and attention the effort side of the
+experience. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be used
+subjectively. More, often, however, the term is applied rather to the
+thing toward which the mind directs its attention, the object being said
+to possess interest for the person. In this sense the rattle is said to
+have interest for the babe; baseball, for the young boy; and the latest
+fashions, for the young lady. Since the interest is here assumed to
+reside in the object, it seems reasonable to say that our attention is
+attracted through interest, that is, through an interesting
+presentation. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be used
+objectively.
+
+=Types of Objective Interest.=--The interest which various objects and
+occupations thus possess for the mind may be of two somewhat different
+types. In some cases the object possesses a direct, or intrinsic,
+interest for the mind. The young child, for instance, is spontaneously
+attracted to bright colours, the boy to stories of adventure, and the
+sentimental youth or maiden to the romance. In the case of any such
+direct interests, however, the feeling with which the mind contemplates
+the object may transfer itself at least partly to other objects
+associated more or less closely with the direct object of interest. It
+is thus that the child becomes interested in the cup from which his food
+is taken, and the lover in the lap dog which his fair one fondles. As
+opposed to the _direct interest_ which an object may have for the mind,
+this transferred type is known as _indirect interest_.
+
+=Importance of Transference of Interest.=--The ability of the mind thus
+to transfer its interests to associated objects is often of great
+pedagogical value. Abstract forms of knowledge become more interesting
+to young children through being associated with something possessing
+natural interest. A pupil who seems to take little interest in
+arithmetic may take great delight in manual training. By associating
+various mathematical problems with his constructive exercises, the
+teacher can frequently cause the pupil to transfer in some degree his
+primary interest in manual training to the associated work in
+arithmetic. In the same way the child in the primary grade may take more
+delight in the alphabet when he is able to make the letters in sand or
+by stick-laying. It may be said, in fact, that much of man's effort is a
+result of indirect interest. What is called doing a thing from a sense
+of duty is often a case of applying ourselves to a certain thing because
+we are interested in avoiding the disapproval of others. The child also
+often applies himself to his tasks, not so much because he takes a
+direct interest in them, but because he wishes to gain the approval and
+avoid the censure of teacher and parents.
+
+=Native and Acquired Interest.=--Interest may also be distinguished on
+the basis of its origin. As noted above, certain impressions seem to
+demand a spontaneous interest from the individual. For this cause the
+child finds his attention going out immediately to bright colours, to
+objects which give pleasure, such as candy, etc., or to that which
+causes personal pain. On the other hand, objects and occupations which
+at first seem devoid of interest may, after a certain amount of
+experience has been gained, become important centres of interest. A
+young child may at first show no interest in insects unless it be a
+feeling of revulsion. Through the visit of an entomologist to his home,
+however, he may gain some knowledge of insects. This knowledge, by
+arousing an apperceptive tendency in the direction of insect study,
+gradually develops in him a new interest which lasts throughout his
+whole life. It is in this way that the various school subjects widen the
+narrow interests of the child. By giving him an insight into various
+phases of his social environment, the school curriculum awakens in him
+different centres of interest, and thus causes him to become in the
+truest sense a part of the social life about him. This fact is one of
+the strongest arguments, also, against a narrow public school course of
+study in a society which is itself a complex of diversified interests.
+
+=Interest versus Interests.=--On account of the evident connection of
+interest and attention, the teacher may easily err in dealing with the
+young pupil. It is allowable, as pointed out above, that the teacher
+should take advantage of any native interest to secure the attention
+and effort of the child in his school work. This does not mean, however,
+that children are to be given only problems in which they are naturally
+interested. It must be remembered, as seen in a former paragraph, that,
+according to the interest of custom, any line of school work, when
+intelligently followed, may soon build up a centre of interest for
+itself. For this reason a proper study of arithmetic should develop an
+interest in arithmetic; a study of history, an interest in history; and
+a study of geography, an interest in geography. The saying that school
+work should follow a child's interest might, therefore, be better
+expressed by saying that the child's interests should follow the school
+work. It is only, in fact, as any one becomes directly interested in his
+pursuits, that the highest achievement can be reached. It is not the
+workman who is always looking forward to pay-day, who develops into an
+artist, or the teacher who is waiting for the summer holiday, who is a
+real inspiration to her pupils. In like manner, it is only as the child
+forms centres of interest in connection with his school work, that his
+life and character are likely to be affected permanently thereby.
+
+=Development of Interests.=--The problem for the educator is, therefore,
+not so much to follow the interest of the child, as it is to develop in
+him permanent centres of interest. For this reason the following facts
+concerning the origin and development of interests should be understood
+by the practical educator. First among these is the fact that certain
+instinctive tendencies of early childhood may be made a starting-point
+for the development of permanent valuable interest. The young child has
+a tendency to collect or an instinct of ownership, which may be taken
+advantage of in directing him to make collections of insects, plants,
+coins, stamps, and thus prove of permanent educative value. His
+constructive tendencies, or desire to do with what comes into his hand,
+as well as his imitative instincts, may be turned to account in building
+up an interest in various occupations. His social instinct, also,
+provides a means for developing permanent emotional interests as
+sympathy, etc. In like manner, the character of the child's surroundings
+tends to create in him various centres of interest. The young child, for
+instance, who is surrounded with beautiful objects, is almost sure to
+develop an interest in works of art, while the child who is early
+provided with fable and story will develop an interest in history.
+
+=When to Develop Interests.=--It is to be noted further concerning many
+of these forms of interest, that youth is the special period for their
+development. The child who does not, during his early years, have an
+opportunity to develop his social tendencies, is not likely later in
+life to acquire an interest in his fellow-men. In the same manner, if
+youth is spent in surroundings void of æsthetic elements, manhood will
+be lacking in artistic interests. It is in youth also that our
+intellectual interests, such as love of reading, of the study of nature,
+of mathematics, must be laid.
+
+=Interests Must be Limited.=--While emphasizing the importance of
+establishing a wide range of interests when educating a child, the
+teacher must remember that there is danger in a child acquiring too wide
+a range. This can result only in a dissipation of effort over many
+fields. While this prevents narrowness of vision and gives versatility
+of disposition, it may prevent the attainment of efficiency in any
+department, and make of the youth the proverbial "Jack-of-all-trades."
+
+A study of the feeling of interest has been made at this stage on
+account of its close connection with the problem of attention, and in
+fact with the whole learning process. An examination of the other
+classes of feeling will be made at a later stage in the course.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SENSE PERCEPTION
+
+
+=Sensation and Perception Distinguished.=--Sensation and perception are
+two terms applied usually without much distinction of meaning to our
+recognition of the world of objects. When, for instance, a man draws
+near to a stove, he may say that it gives him a _sensation_ of heat, or
+perhaps that he _perceives_ it to be hot. In psychology, however, the
+term sensation has been used in two somewhat different meanings. By some
+the term is used to signify a state of consciousness conditioned merely
+upon the stimulation of a sense organ, as the eye, ear, etc., by its
+appropriate stimulus. To others, however, sensation signifies rather a
+mental image experienced by the mind as it reacts upon and interprets
+any sensory impression. Perception, on the other hand, signifies the
+recognition of an external object as presented to the mind here and now.
+
+=Sensation Implies Externality.=--When, however, a sensory image, such
+as smooth, yellow, cold, etc., arises in consciousness as a result of
+the mind reacting when an external stimulus is applied to some sense
+organ, it is evident that, at least after very early infancy, one never
+has the image without at once referring it to some external cause. If,
+for instance, a person is but half awake and receives a sound sensation,
+he does not ask himself, "What mental state is _this_?" but rather,
+"What is _that_?" This shows an evident tendency to refer our sensations
+at once to an external cause, or indicates that our sensations always
+carry with them an implicit reference to an external object. Leaving,
+therefore, to the scientific psychologist to consider whether it is
+possible to have a pure sensation, we shall treat sensation as the
+recognition of a quality which is at least vaguely referred to an
+external object. In other words, sensation is a medium by which we are
+brought into relation with real things existing independently of our
+sensations.
+
+=Perception Involves Sensation Element.=--Moreover, an object is
+perceived as present here and now only because it is revealed to us
+through one or more of the senses. When, for instance, I reach out my
+hand in the dark room and receive a sensation of touch, I perceive the
+table as present before me. When I receive a sensation of sound as I
+pass by the church, I perceive that the organ is being played. When I
+receive a colour sensation from the store window, I say that I perceive
+oranges. Perception, therefore, involves the referring of the sensuous
+state, or image, to an external thing, while in adult life sensation is
+never accepted by our attention as satisfactory unless it is referred to
+something we regard as immediately presenting itself to us by means of
+the sensation. It is on account of this evident interrelation of the two
+that we speak of a process of sense perception.
+
+=Perception an Acquired Power.=--On the other hand, however,
+investigation will show that this power to recognize explicitly the
+existence of an external object through the presentation of a sensation,
+was not at first possessed by the mind. The ability thus to perceive
+objects represents, therefore, an acquirement on the part of the
+individual. If a person, although receiving merely sensations of colour
+and light, is able to say, "Yonder is an orange," he is evidently
+interpreting, or giving meaning to, the present sensations largely
+through past experience; for the images of colour and light are
+accepted by the mind as an indication of the presence of an external
+thing from which could be derived other images of taste, smell, etc.,
+all of which go to make up the idea "orange." An ordinary act of
+perception, therefore, must involve not merely sensation, but also an
+interpretation of sensation through past experience. It is, in fact,
+because the recognition of an external object involves this conscious
+interpretation of the sensuous impressions, that people often suffer
+delusion. When the traveller passing by a lone graveyard interprets the
+tall and slender shrub laden with white blossoms as a swaying ghost, the
+misconception does not arise from any fault of mere vision, but from the
+type of former knowledge which the other surroundings of the moment call
+up, these evidently giving the mind a certain bias in its interpretation
+of the sensuous, or colour, impressions.
+
+=Perception in Adult Life.=--In our study of general method, sense
+perception was referred to as the most common mode of acquiring
+particular knowledge. A description of the development of this power to
+perceive objects through the senses should, therefore, prove of
+pedagogical value. But to understand how an individual acquires the
+ability to perceive objects, it is well to notice first what takes place
+in an ordinary adult act of perception, as for instance, when a man
+receives and interprets a colour stimulus and says that he perceives an
+orange. If we analyse the person's idea of an orange we find that it is
+made up of a number of different quality images--colour, taste, smell,
+touch, etc., organized into a single experience, or idea, and accepted
+as a mental representation of an object existing in space. When,
+therefore, the person referred to above says that he perceives an
+orange, what really happens is that he accepts the immediate colour and
+light sensation as a sign of the whole group of qualities which make up
+his notion of the external object, orange, the other qualities essential
+to the notion coming back from past experience to unite with the
+presented qualities. Owing to this fact, any ordinary act of perception
+is said to contain both presentative and representative elements. In the
+above example, for instance, the colour would be spoken of as a
+presentative element, because it is immediately presented to the mind in
+sensuous terms, or through the senses. Anything beyond this which goes
+to make up the individual's notion orange, and is revived from past
+experience, is spoken of as representative. For the same reason, the
+sensuous elements involved in an ordinary act of perception are often
+spoken of as immediate, and the others as mediate elements of knowledge.
+
+=Genesis of Perception.=--To trace the development of this ability to
+mingle both presentative and representative elements of knowledge into a
+mental representation, or idea, of an external object, it is necessary
+to recall what has been noted regarding the relation of the nervous
+system to our conscious acts. When the young child first comes in
+contact with the world of strange objects with which he is surrounded,
+the impressions he receives therefrom will not at first have either the
+definite quality or the relation to an external thing which they later
+secure. As a being, however, whose first tendencies are those of
+movement, he grasps, bites, strokes, smells, etc., and thus goes out to
+meet whatever his surroundings thrust upon him. Gradually he finds
+himself expand to take in the existence of a something external to
+himself, and is finally able, as the necessary paths are laid down in
+his nervous system, to differentiate various quality images one from the
+other; as, touch, weight, temperature, light, sound, etc. This will at
+once involve, however, a corresponding relating, or synthetic, attitude
+of mind, in which different quality images, when experienced together as
+qualities of some vaguely felt thing, will be organized into a more or
+less definite knowledge, or idea, of that object, as illustrated in the
+figure below. As the child in time gains the ability to _attend_ to the
+sensuous presentations which come to him, and to discriminate one
+sensation from another, he discovers in the vaguely known thing the
+images of touch, colour, taste, smell, etc., and finally associates them
+into the idea of a better known object, orange.
+
+[Illustration: A. Unknown thing. B. Sensory stimuli. C. Sensory images.
+D. Idea of object.]
+
+=Control of Sensory Image as Sign.=--Since the various sense impressions
+are carried to the higher centres of the brain, they will not only be
+interpreted as sensory images and organized into a knowledge of external
+objects, but, owing to the retentive power of the nervous tissue, will
+also be subject to recall. As the child thus gains more and more the
+ability to organize and relate various sensory images into mental
+representations, or ideas, of external objects, he soon acquires such
+control over these organized groups, that when any particular sensation
+image out of a group is presented to the mind, it will be sufficient to
+call up the other qualities, or will be accepted as a sign of the
+presence of the object. When this stage of perceptual power is reached,
+an odour coming from the oven enables a person to perceive that a
+certain kind of meat is within, or a noise proceeding from the tower is
+sufficient to make known the presence of a bell. To possess the ability
+thus to refer one's sensations to an external object is to be able to
+perceive objects.
+
+=Fulness of Perception Based on Sensation.=--From the foregoing account
+of the development of our perception of the external world, it becomes
+evident that our immediate knowledge, or idea, of an individual object
+will consist only of the images our senses have been able to discover
+either in that or other similar objects. To the person born without the
+sense of sight, for instance, the flower-bed can never be known as an
+object of tints and colours. To the person born deaf, the violin cannot
+really be known as a _musical_ instrument. Moreover, only the person
+whose senses distinguish adequately variations in colour, sound, form,
+etc., is able to perceive fully the objects which present themselves to
+his senses. Even when the physical senses seem equally perfect, one man,
+through greater power of discrimination, perceives in the world of
+objects much that totally escapes the observation of another. The result
+is that few of us enter as fully as we might into the rich world of
+sights, sounds, etc., with which we are surrounded, because we fail to
+gain the abundant images that we might through certain of our senses.
+
+
+FACTORS INVOLVED IN SENSATION
+
+Passing to a consideration of the senses as organs through which the
+mind is made aware of the concrete world, it is to be noted that a
+number of factors precede the image, or mental interpretation, of the
+impression. When, for instance, the mind becomes cognizant of a musical
+note, an analysis of the whole process reveals the following factors:
+
+1. The concrete object, as the vibrating string of a violin.
+
+2. Sound waves proceeding from the vibrating object to the sense organ.
+
+3. The organ of sense--the ear.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+4. The nerves--cells and fibres involved in receiving and conveying the
+sense stimulus.
+
+5. The interpreting cells.
+
+6. The reacting mind, which interprets the impression as an image of
+sound.
+
+The different factors are somewhat arbitrarily illustrated in the
+accompanying diagram, the arrows indicating the physical stimulation and
+the conscious response:
+
+Of the six factors involved in the sensation, 1 and 2 are purely
+physical and belong to the science of acoustics; 3, 4, and 5 are
+physiological; 6 is conscious, or psychological. It is because they
+always involve the immediate presence of some physical object, that the
+sensation elements involved in ordinary perception are spoken of as
+immediate, or presentative, elements of knowledge.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS
+
+Our various sensations are usually divided into three classes as
+follows:
+
+1. Sensations of the special senses, including: sight, sound, touch
+(including temperature), taste, and smell.
+
+2. Motor, or muscular, sensations.
+
+3. Organic sensations.
+
+=Sensations of the Special Senses.=--As a study of the five special
+senses has been made by the student-teacher under the heading of
+physiology, no attempt will be made to explain the structure of these
+organs. It must be noted, however, that not all senses are equally
+capable of distinguishing differences in quality. For example, it seems
+quite beyond our power to recall the tastes and odours of the various
+dishes of which we may have partaken at a banquet, while on the other
+hand we may recall distinctly the visual appearance of the room and the
+table. It is worthy of note, also, that in the case of smell, animals
+are usually much more discriminative than man. Certain of our senses
+are, therefore, much more intellectual than others. By this is meant
+that for purposes of distinguishing the objects themselves, and for
+providing the mind with available images as materials for further
+thought, our senses are by no means equally effective. Under this
+heading the special senses are classified as follows:
+
+Higher Intellectual Senses: sight, hearing, touch.
+
+Lower Intellectual Senses: taste and smell.
+
+=Muscular Sensations.=--Under motor, or muscular, sensations are
+included the feelings which accompany consciousness of muscular
+exertion, or movement. In distinction from the other sense organs, the
+muscles are stimulated by having nervous energy pass outward over the
+motor nerves to the muscles. As the muscles are thus stimulated to
+movement, sensory nerves in turn convey inward from the muscles sensory
+impressions resulting from these movements. The important sensations
+connected with muscular action are those of strain, force, and
+resistance, as in lifting or pushing. By means of these motor
+sensations, joined with the sense of touch, the individual is able to
+distinguish especially weight, position, and change of position. In
+connection with the muscular sense, may be recalled that portion of the
+Montessori apparatus known as the weight tablets. These wooden tablets,
+it will be noted, are designed to educate the muscular sense to
+distinguish slight differences in weight. The muscular sense is chiefly
+important, however, in that delicate distinctions of pressure, movement,
+and resistance must be made in many forms of manual expression. The
+interrelation between sensory impression and motor impulse within the
+nervous system, as illustrated in the figures on page 200, is already
+understood by the reader. For an adequate conscious control of
+movements, especially when one is engaged in delicate handwork, as
+painting, modelling, wood-work, etc., there must be an ability to
+perceive slight differences in strain, pressure, and movement. Moreover,
+the most effective means for developing the muscular sense is through
+the expressive exercises referred to above.
+
+=Organic Sensations.=--The organic sensations are those states of
+consciousness that arise in connection with the processes going on
+within the organism, as circulation of the blood, digestion; breathing,
+or respiration; hunger; thirst; etc. The significance of these
+sensations lies in the fact that they reveal to consciousness any
+disturbances in connection with the vital processes, and thus enable the
+individual to provide for the preservation of the organism.
+
+
+EDUCATION OF THE SENSES
+
+=Importance.=--When it is considered that our general knowledge must be
+based on a knowledge of individuals, it becomes apparent that children
+should, through sense observation, learn as fully as possible the
+various qualities of the concrete world. Only on this basis can they
+build their more general and abstract forms of knowledge. For this
+reason the child in his study of objects should, so far as safety
+permits, bring all of his senses to bear upon them and distinguish as
+clearly as possible all their properties. By this means only can he
+really know the attributes of the objects constituting his environment.
+Moreover, without such a full knowledge of the various properties and
+qualities of concrete objects, he is not in a position to turn them
+fully to his own service. It is by distinguishing the feeling of the
+flour, that the cook discovers whether it is suited for bread-making or
+pastry. It is by noting the texture of the wood, that the artisan can
+decide its suitability for the work in hand. In fine, it was only by
+noting the properties of various natural objects that man discovered
+their social uses.
+
+=How to be Effected.=--One of the chief defects of primary education in
+the past has been a tendency to overlook the importance of giving the
+child an opportunity to exercise his senses in discovering the
+properties of the objects constituting his environment. The introduction
+of the kindergarten, objective methods of teaching, nature study, school
+gardening, and constructive occupations have done much, however, to
+remedy this defect. One of the chief claims in favour of the so-called
+Montessori Method is that it provides especially for an education of the
+senses. In doing this, however, it makes use of arbitrarily prepared
+materials instead of the ordinary objects constituting the child's
+natural environment. The one advantage in this is that it enables the
+teacher to grade the stimulations and thus exercise the child in making
+series of discriminations, for instance, a series of colours, sounds,
+weights, sizes, etc. Notwithstanding this advantage, however, it seems
+more pedagogical that the child should receive this needful exercise of
+the senses by being brought into contact with the actual objects
+constituting his environment, as is done in nature study, constructive
+exercises, art, etc.
+
+=Dangers of Neglecting the Senses.=--The former neglect of an adequate
+exercise of the senses during the early education of the child was
+evidently unpedagogical for various reasons. As already noted, other
+forms of acquiring knowledge, such as constructive imagination,
+induction, and deduction, must rest primarily upon the acquisitions of
+sense perception. Moreover, it is during the early years of life that
+the plasticity and retentive power of the nervous system will enable the
+various sense impressions to be recorded for the future use of the mind.
+Further, the senses themselves during these early years show what may be
+termed a hunger for contact with the world of concrete objects, and a
+corresponding distaste for more abstract types of experience.
+
+=Learning Through all the Senses.=--In recognizing that the process of
+sense perception constitutes a learning process, or is one of the modes
+by which man enters into new experience, the teacher should further
+understand that the same object may be interpreted through different
+senses. For example, when a child studies a new bird, he may note its
+form and colour through the eye, he may recognize the feeling and the
+outline through muscular and touch sensations, he may discover its song
+through the ear, and may give muscular expression to its form in
+painting or modelling. In the same way, in learning a figure or letter,
+he may see its form through the eye, hear its sound through the ear,
+make the sound and trace the form by calling various muscles into play,
+and thus secure a number of muscular sensations relative to the figure
+or letter. Since all these various experiences will be co-ordinated and
+retained within the nervous system, the child will not only know the
+object better, but will also be able to recall more easily any items of
+knowledge concerning it, on account of the larger number of connections
+established within the nervous system. One chief fact to be kept in mind
+by the teacher, therefore, in using the method of sense perception, is
+to have the pupil study the object through as many different senses as
+possible, and especially through those senses in which his power of
+discrimination and recall seems greatest.
+
+=Use of Different Images in Teaching.=--The importance to the teacher of
+an intimate knowledge of different types of imagery and of a further
+acquaintance with the more prevailing images of particular pupils, is
+evident in various ways. In the first place, different school subjects
+may appeal more especially to different types of imagery. Thus a study
+of plants especially involves visual, or sight, images; a study of
+birds, visual and auditory images; oral reading and music, auditory
+images; physical training, motor images; constructive work, visual,
+tactile, and motor images; a knowledge of weights and measures, tactile
+and motor images. On account of a native difference in forming images,
+also, one pupil may best learn through the eye, another through the ear,
+a third through the muscles, etc. In learning the spelling of words, for
+example, one pupil may require especially to visualize the word, another
+to hear the letters repeated in their order, and a third to articulate
+the letters by the movement of the organs of speech, or to trace them in
+writing. In choosing illustrations, also, the teacher will find that one
+pupil best appreciates a visual illustration, a second an auditory
+illustration, etc. Some young pupils, for instance, might best
+appreciate a pathetic situation through an appeal to such sensory images
+as hunger and thirst.
+
+=An Illustration.=--The wide difference in people's ability to interpret
+sensuous impressions is well exemplified in the case of sound stimuli.
+Every one whose ear is physically perfect seems able to interpret a
+sound so far as its mere quality and quantity are concerned. In the case
+of musical notes, however, the very greatest difference is found in the
+ability of different individuals to distinguish pitch. So also the
+distinguishing of distance and direction in relation to sound is an
+acquired ability, in which different people will greatly differ.
+Finally, to interpret the external relations involved in the sound, that
+is, whether the cry is that of an insect or a bird, or, if it is the
+former, from what kind of bird the sound is proceeding, this evidently
+is a phase of sense interpretation in which individuals differ very
+greatly. Yet an adequate development of the sense of hearing might be
+supposed to give the individual an ability to interpret his surroundings
+in all these ways.
+
+=Power of Sense Perception Limited: A. By Interest.=--It should be
+noted, however, that so far as our actual life needs are concerned,
+there is no large demand for an all-round ability to interpret sensuous
+impressions. For practical purposes, men are interested in different
+objects in quite different ways. One is interested in the colour of a
+certain wood, another in its smoothness, a third in its ability to
+withstand strain, while a fourth may even be interested in more hidden
+relations, not visible to the ordinary sense. This will justify one in
+ignoring entirely qualities in the object which are of the utmost
+importance to others. From such a practical standpoint, it is evidently
+a decided gain that a person is not compelled to see everything in an
+object which its sensuous attributes might permit one to discover in it.
+In the case of the man with the so-called untrained sense, therefore, it
+is questionable whether the failure to see, hear, etc., is in many cases
+so much a lack of ability to use the particular sense, as it is a lack
+of practical interest in this phase of the objective world. In such
+processes as induction and deduction, also, it is often the external
+relations of objects rather than their sensory qualities that chiefly
+interest us. Indeed, it is sometimes claimed that an excessive amount of
+mere training in sense discrimination might interfere with a proper
+development of the higher mental processes.
+
+=B. By Knowledge.=--From what has been discovered regarding the learning
+process, it is evident that the development of any sense, as sight,
+sound, touch, etc., is not brought about merely by exercising the
+particular organ. It has been learned, for instance, that the person who
+is able to observe readily the plant and animal life as he walks through
+the forest, possesses this skill, not because his physical eye, but
+because his mind, has been prepared to see these objects. In other
+words, it is because his knowledge is active along such lines that his
+eye beholds these particular things. The chief reason, therefore, why
+the exercise of any sense organ develops a power to perceive through
+that sense, is that the exercise tends to develop in the individual the
+knowledge and interest which will cause the mind to react easily and
+effectively on that particular class of impressions. A sense may be
+considered trained, therefore, to the extent to which the mind acquires
+knowledge of, and interest in, the objective elements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION
+
+
+=Nature of Memory.=--Mention has been made of the retentive power of the
+nervous system, and of a consequent tendency for mental images to
+revive, or _re-present_, themselves in consciousness. It must now be
+noted that such a re-presentation of former experiences is frequently
+accompanied with a distinct recognition that the present image or images
+have a definite reference to past time. In other words, the present
+mental fact is able to be placed in the midst of other events believed
+to make up some portion of our past experience. Such an ideal revival of
+a past experience, together with a recognition of the fact that it
+formerly occurred within our experience, is known as an act of memory.
+
+=Neural Conditions of Memory.=--When any experience is thus reproduced,
+and recognized as a reproduction of a previous experience, there is
+physiologically a transmission of nervous energy through the same brain
+centres as were involved in the original experience. The mental
+reproduction of any image is conditioned, therefore, by the physical
+reproduction of a nervous impulse through a formerly established path.
+That this is possible is owing to the susceptibility of nervous tissue
+to take on habit, or to retain as permanent modifications, all
+impressions received. From this it is evident that when we say we retain
+certain facts in our mind, the statement is not in a sense true; for
+there is no knowledge stored up in consciousness as so many ideas. The
+statement is true, therefore, only in the sense that the mind is able
+to bring into consciousness a former experience by reinstating the
+necessary nervous impulses through the proper nervous arcs. What is
+actually retained, however, is the tendency to reinstate nervous
+movements through the same paths as were involved in the original
+experience. Although, therefore, retention is usually treated as a
+factor in memory, its basis is, in reality, physiological.
+
+=Memory Distinguished from Apperception.=--The distinguishing
+characteristics of memory as a re-presentation in the mind of a former
+experience is evidently the mental attitude known as recognition.
+Memory, in other words, always implies a belief that the present mental
+state really represents a fact, or event, which formed a part of our
+past experience. In the apperceptive process as seen in an ordinary
+process of learning, on the other hand, although it seems to involve a
+re-presentation of former mental images in consciousness, this distinct
+reference of the revived imagery to past time is evidently wanting.
+When, for instance, the mind interprets a strange object as a
+pear-shaped, thin-rinded, many-seeded fruit, all these interpreting
+ideas are, in a sense, revivals of past experience; yet none carry with
+them any distinct reference to past time. In like manner, when I look at
+an object of a certain form and colour and say that it is a sweet apple,
+it is evidently owing to past experience that I can declare that
+particular object to be sweet. It is quite clear, however, that in such
+a case there is no distinct reference of the revived image of sweetness
+to any definite occurrence in one's former experience. Such an
+apperceptive revival, or re-presentation of past experience, because it
+includes merely a representation of mental images, but fails to relate
+them to the past, cannot be classed as an act of memory.
+
+=But Involves Apperceptive Process.=--While, however, the mere revival
+of old knowledge in the apperceptive process does not constitute an act
+of memory, memory is itself only a special phase of the apperceptive
+process. When I think of a particular anecdote to-day, and say I
+remember having the same experience on Sunday evening last, the present
+mental images cannot be the very same images as were then experienced.
+The former images belonged to the past, while those at present in
+consciousness are a new creation, although dependent, as we have seen,
+upon certain physiological conditions established in the past. In an act
+of memory, therefore, the new presentation, like all new presentations,
+must be interpreted in terms of past experience, or by an apperceiving
+act of attention. Whenever in this apperceptive act there is, in
+addition to the interpretation, a further feeling, or sense, of
+familiarity, the presentation is accepted by the mind as a reproduction
+from past experience, or is recognized as belonging to the past. When,
+on the way down the street, for instance, impressions are received from
+a passing form, and a resulting act of apperceiving attention, besides
+reading meaning into them, awakens a sense of familiarity, the face is
+recognized as one seen on a former occasion. Memory, therefore, is a
+special mode of the apperceptive process of learning, and includes, in
+addition to the interpreting of the new through the old, a belief that
+there is an identity between the old and the new.
+
+
+FACTORS OF MEMORY
+
+In a complete example of memory the following factors may be noted:
+
+1. The original presentation--as the first perception of an object or
+scene, the reading of a new story, the hearing of a particular voice,
+etc.
+
+2. Retention--this involves the permanent changes wrought in the nervous
+tissue as a result of the presentation or learning process and, as
+mentioned above, is really physiological.
+
+3. Recall--this implies the re-establishment of the nervous movements
+involved in the original experiences and an accompanying revival of the
+mental imagery.
+
+4. Recognition--under this heading is included the sense of familiarity
+experienced in consciousness, and the consequent belief that the present
+experience actually occurred at some certain time as an element in our
+past experience.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF MEMORY
+
+=A. Physical Conditions.=--One of the first conditions for an effective
+recollection of any particular experience will be, evidently, the
+strength of the co-ordinations set up in the nervous system during the
+learning process. The permanent changes brought about in the nervous
+tissue as a result of conscious experience is often spoken of as the
+physical basis of memory. The first consideration, therefore, relative
+to the memorizing of knowledge is to decide the conditions favourable to
+establishing such nervous paths during the learning process. First among
+these may be mentioned the condition of the nervous tissue itself. As
+already seen, the more plastic and active the condition of this tissue,
+the more susceptible it is to receive and retain impressions. For this
+reason anything studied when the body is tired and the mind exhausted is
+not likely to be remembered. It is for the same reason, also, that
+knowledge acquired in youth is much more likely to be remembered than
+things learned late in life. The intensity and the clearness of the
+presentation also cause it to make a stronger impression upon the system
+and thus render its retention more permanent. This demands in turn that
+attention should be strongly focused upon the presentations during any
+learning process. By adding to the clearness and intensity of any
+impressions, attention adds to the likelihood of their retention. The
+evident cause of the scholar's ability to learn even relatively late in
+life is the fact that he brings a much greater concentration of
+attention to the process than is usually found in others. Repetition
+also, since it tends to break down any resistance to the paths which are
+being established in the nervous system during the learning process, is
+a distinct aid to retention. For this reason any knowledge acquired
+should be revived at intervals. This is especially true of the school
+knowledge being acquired by young children, and their acquisitions must
+be occasionally reviewed and used in various ways, if the knowledge is
+to become a permanent possession. A special application of the law of
+repetition may be noted in the fact that we remember better any topic
+learned, say, in four half-hours put upon it at different intervals,
+than we should by spending the whole two hours upon it at one time.
+
+Another condition favourable to recall is the recency of the original
+experience. Anything is more easily recalled, the more recently it has
+been learned. The physiological cause for this seems to be that the
+nervous co-ordinations being recent, they are much more likely to
+re-establish themselves, not having yet been effaced or weakened through
+the lapse of time.
+
+=B. Mental Conditions.=--It must be noted, however, that although there
+is evidently the above neural concomitant of recall, yet it is not the
+nervous system, but the mind, that actually recalls and remembers. The
+real condition of recall, therefore, is mental, and depends largely
+upon the number of associations formed between the ideas themselves in
+the original presentation. According to the law of association,
+different ideas arise in the mind in virtue of certain connections
+existing between the ideas themselves. It would be quite foreign to our
+present purpose to examine the theories held among philosophic
+psychologists regarding the principle of the association of ideas. It is
+evident, however, that ideas often come to our minds in consequence of
+the presence in consciousness of a prior idea. When we see the name
+"Queenston Heights," it suggests to us Sir Isaac Brock; when we see a
+certain house, it calls to mind the pleasant evening spent there; and
+when we hear the strains of solemn music, it brings to mind the memories
+of the dead. Equally evident is the fact that anything experienced in
+isolation is much harder to remember than one experienced in such a way
+that it may enter into a larger train of ideas. If, for instance, any
+one is told to call up in half an hour telephone 3827, it is more than
+likely that the number will be forgotten, if the person goes on with
+other work and depends only on the mere impression to recall the number
+at the proper time. This would be the case also in spite of the most
+vivid presentation of the number by the one giving the order or the
+repetition of it by the person himself. If, however, the person says,
+even in a casual way, "Call up 1867," and the person addressed
+associates the number with the Confederation of the Dominion, there is
+practically no possibility of the number going out of his mind. An
+important mental condition for recall, therefore, is that ideas should
+be learned in as large associations, or groups, as possible. It is for
+the above reason that the logical and orderly presentation of the topics
+in any subject and their thorough understanding by the pupil give more
+complete control over the subject-matter. When each lesson is taught as
+a disconnected item of knowledge, there seems nothing to which the ideas
+are anchored, and recall is relatively difficult. When, on the other
+hand, points of connection are established between succeeding lessons,
+and the pupil understands these, one topic suggests another, and the
+mind finds it relatively easy to recall any particular part of the
+related ideas.
+
+
+TYPES OF RECALL
+
+=A. Involuntary.=--In connection with the working of the principle of
+association, it is interesting to note that practically two types of
+recall manifest themselves. As a result of their suggestive tendency,
+the ideas before consciousness at any particular time have a tendency to
+revive old experiences which the mind may recognize as such. Here there
+is no effort on the part of the voluntary attention to recall the
+experience from the past, the operation of the law of association being,
+as it were, sufficient to thrust the revived image into the centre of
+the field of consciousness, as when the sight of a train recalls a
+recent trip.
+
+=B. Voluntary.=--At times the mind may set out with the deliberate aim,
+or purpose, of reviving some forgotten experience. This is because
+attention is at the time engaged upon a definite problem, as when the
+student writing on his examination paper strives to recall the
+conditions of the Constitutional Act. This type is known as voluntary
+memory. Such a voluntary attempt at recall is, however, of the same
+character as the involuntary type in that both involve association. What
+the mind really strives for is to start a train of ideas which shall
+suggest the illusive ideas involved in the desired answer. Such a
+process of recall might be illustrated as follows:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Here a, b, c, d, e represent the forgotten series of ideas to be
+recalled. A, B, C, D, E represent other better known ideas, some of
+which are associated with the desired ones. By having the mind course
+over the better known facts--A, B, C, D, E, attention may finally focus
+upon the relation A, a, B, and thus start up the necessary revival of a,
+b, c, d, e.
+
+=Attention May Hinder Memory.=--While active attention is thus able
+under proper conditions to reinforce memory, yet occasionally attention
+seems detrimental to memory. That such is the case will become evident
+from the preceding figure. If the experience a, b, c, d, e, is directly
+associated only with A, B, but the mind believes the association to
+centre in C, D, E, attention is certain to keep focused upon the
+sub-group--C, D, E. At an examination in history, for example, we may
+desire to recall the circumstances associated with the topic, "The Grand
+Remonstrance," and feel vaguely that this is connected with a
+revolutionary movement. This may cause us, however, to fix attention,
+not upon the civil war, but upon the revolution of 1688. In this case,
+instead of forcing a nervous impulse into the proper centres, attention
+is in reality diverting it into other channels. When, a few minutes
+later, we have perhaps ceased our effort to remember, the impulse seems
+of itself to stimulate the proper centres, and the necessary facts come
+to us apparently without any attentive effort.
+
+
+LOCALIZATION IN TIME
+
+It has been pointed out that in an act of memory there must be a
+recognition of the present experience as one which has occurred in a
+series of past events. The definite reference of a memory image to a
+past series is sometimes spoken of as localization. The degree to which
+a memory image is localized in the past differs greatly, however, in
+different cases. Your recollection of some interesting personal event in
+your past school history may be very definitely located as to time,
+image after image reinstating themselves in memory in the order of their
+actual occurrence. Such a similar series of events must have taken place
+when, by means of handling a number of objects, you learned different
+number and quantity relations or, by drawing certain figures, discovered
+certain geometrical relations. At the present time, however, although
+you remember clearly the general relations, you are utterly unable to
+recall the more incidental facts connected with their original
+presentation, or even localize the remembered knowledge at all
+definitely in past time. Nothing, in fact, remains as a permanent
+possession except the general, or scientific, truth involved in the
+experience.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORIES
+
+=A. Mechanical.=--The above facts would indicate that in many cases the
+mind would find it more effective to omit from conscious recall what may
+appear irrelevant in the original presentation, and fix attention upon
+only the essential features. From this standpoint, two somewhat
+different types of memory are to be found among individuals. With many
+people, it seems as if a past experience must be revived in every
+detail. If such a one sets out to report a simple experience, such as
+seeing a policeman arrest a man on the street, he must bring in every
+collateral circumstance, no matter how foreign to the incident. He must
+mention, for example, that he himself had on a new straw hat, that his
+companion was smoking a cigar, was accompanied by his dog, and was
+talking about his crops, at the time they observed the arrest. This type
+is known as a mechanical memory. Very good examples of such will be seen
+in the persons of "Farmer Philip" in Tennyson's _Brook_ and the
+"landlady" in Shakespeare's _King Henry IV_.
+
+=B. Logical.=--In another type of memory, the mind does not thus
+associate into the memory experience every little detail of the original
+experience. The outstanding facts, especially those which are bound by
+some logical sequence, are the only ones which enter into permanent
+association. Such a type of mind, therefore, in recalling the past,
+selects out of the mass of experiences the incidents which will
+constitute a logical revival, and leaves out the trivial and incidental.
+This type is usually spoken of as a logical memory. This type of memory
+would, in the above incident, recall only the essential facts connected
+with the arrest, as the cause, the incidents, and the result.
+
+
+MEMORY IN EDUCATION
+
+=Value of Memory.=--It is evident that without the ability to reinstate
+past experiences in our conscious life, such experiences could not serve
+as intelligent guides for our present conduct. Each day, in fact, we
+should begin life anew so far as concerns intelligent adaptation, our
+acquired aptitude being at best only physical. It will be understood,
+therefore, why the ability to recall past experiences is accepted as an
+essential factor in the educative process. It will be noted, indeed, in
+our study of the history of education, that, at certain periods, the
+whole problem of education seemed to be to memorize knowledge so
+thoroughly that it might readily be reinstated in consciousness. Modern
+education, however, has thrown emphasis upon two additional facts
+regarding knowledge. These are, first, that the ability to use past
+knowledge, and not the mere ability to recall it, is the mark of a truly
+educated man. The second fact is that, when any experience is clearly
+understood at the time of its presentation, the problem of remembering
+it will largely take care of itself. For these reasons, modern education
+emphasizes clearness of presentation and ability to apply, rather than
+the mere memorizing of knowledge. It is a question, however, whether the
+modern educator may not often be too negligent concerning the direct
+problem of the ability to recall knowledge. For this reason, the
+student-teacher may profitably make himself acquainted with the main
+conditions of retention and recall.
+
+=The Training of Memory.=--An important problem for the educator is to
+ascertain whether it is possible to develop in the pupil a general power
+of memory. In other words, will the memorizing of any set of facts
+strengthen the mind to remember more easily any other facts whatsoever?
+From what has been noted regarding memory, it is evident that, leaving
+out of consideration the physical condition of the organism, the most
+important conditions for memory at the time are attention to, and a
+thorough understanding of, the facts to be remembered. From this it
+must appear that a person's ability to remember any facts depends
+primarily, not upon the mere amount of memorizing he has done in the
+past, but upon the extent to which his interests and old knowledge cause
+him to attend to, understand, and associate the facts to be remembered.
+There seems no justification, therefore, for the method of the teacher
+who expected to strengthen the memories of her pupils for their school
+work by having them walk quickly past the store windows and then attempt
+to recall at school what they had seen. In such cases the boys are found
+to remember certain objects, because their interests and knowledge
+enable them to notice these more distinctly at the time of the
+presentation. The girls, on the other hand, remember other objects,
+because their interests and knowledge cause them to apprehend these
+rather than the others.
+
+
+APPERCEPTION
+
+=Apperception a Law of Learning.=--In the study of the lesson process,
+Chapter III, attention was called to the fact that the interpretation
+which the mind places upon any presentation depends in large measure
+upon the mind's present content and interest. It is an essential
+characteristic of mind that it always attempts to give meaning to any
+new impression, no matter how strange that impression may be. This end
+is reached, however, only as the mind is able to apply to the
+presentation certain elements of former experience. Even in earliest
+infancy, impressions do not come to the organism as total strangers; for
+the organism is already endowed with instinctive tendencies to react in
+a definite manner to certain stimuli. As these reactions continue to
+repeat themselves, however, permanent modifications, as previously
+noted, are established in the nervous system, including both sensory and
+motor adjustments. Since, moreover, these sensory and motor adjustments
+give rise to ideas, they result in corresponding associations of mental
+imagery. As these neural and mental elements are thus organized into
+more and more complex masses, the recurrence of any element within an
+associated mass is able to reinstate the other elements. The result is
+that when a certain sensation is received, as, for instance, a sound
+stimulus, it reinstates sensory impressions and motor reactions together
+with their associated mental images, thus enabling the mind to assert
+that a dog is barking in the distance. In such a case, the present
+impression is evidently joined with, and interpreted through, what has
+already formed a part of our experience. What is true of this particular
+case is true of all cases. New presentations are always met and
+interpreted by some complex experiences with which they have something
+in common, otherwise the stimuli could not be attended to at all. This
+ability of the mind to interpret new presentations in terms of old
+knowledge on account of some connection they bear to that content, is
+known as _apperception_. In other words, apperception is the law of the
+mind to attend to such elements in a new presentation as possess some
+degree of _familiarity_ with the already assimilated experience,
+although there may be no distinct recognition of this familiarity.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF APPERCEPTION
+
+=A. Present Knowledge.=--Since the mind can apperceive only that for
+which it is prepared through former experience, the interpretation of
+the same presentations will be likely to differ greatly in different
+individuals. The book lying before him is to the young child a place in
+which to find pictures, to the ignorant man a source of mysterious
+information, and to the scholar a symbolic representation of certain
+mathematical knowledge. In the same manner, the object outside the
+window is a noxious weed to the farmer, a flower to the naturalist, and
+a medicinal plant to the physician or the druggist. From this it is
+clear that the interpretation of the impressions must differ according
+to the character of our present knowledge. In other words, the more
+important the aspects read into any presentation, the more valuable will
+be the present experience. Although when the child apperceives a stick
+as a horse, and the mechanic apperceives it as a lever, each
+interpretation is valuable within its own sphere, yet there is evidently
+a marked difference in the ultimate significance of the two
+interpretations. Education is especially valuable, in fact, in that it
+so adds to the experience of the child that he may more fully apperceive
+his surroundings.
+
+=B. Present Interests and Needs.=--But apperception is not solely
+dependent upon present knowledge. The interests and needs of the
+individual reflect themselves largely in his apperceptive tendencies.
+While the boy sees a tent in the folded paper, the girl is more likely
+to find in it a screen. To the little boy the lath is a horse, to the
+older boy it becomes a sword. Feelings and interest, therefore, as well
+as knowledge, dominate the apperceptive process. Nor should this fact be
+overlooked by the teacher. The study of a poem would be very incomplete
+and unsatisfactory if it stopped with the apprehension of the ideas.
+There must be emotional appreciation as well; otherwise the study will
+result in entire indifference to it. In introducing, for instance, the
+sonnet, "Mysterious Night" (page 394, _Ontario Reader, Book IV_), the
+teacher might ask: "Why can we not see the stars during the day?" The
+answer to this question would put the pupils in the proper intellectual
+attitude to interpret the ideas of the poem, but that is not enough. A
+recall of such an experience as his contemplation of the starry sky on a
+clear night will put the pupil in a suitable emotional attitude. He is a
+rare pupil who has not at some time gazed in wonder at the immense
+number and magnificence of the stars, or who has not thought with awe
+and reverence of the infinite power of the Creator of "such countless
+orbs." A recall of these feelings of wonder, awe, and reverence will
+place the pupil in a suitable mood for the emotional appreciation of the
+poem. It is in the teaching of literature that the importance of a
+proper feeling attitude on the part of the pupil is particularly great.
+Without it the pupil is coldly indifferent toward literature and will
+never cultivate an enthusiasm for it.
+
+
+FACTORS IN APPERCEPTION
+
+=Retention and Recall.=--The facts already noted make it plain that
+apperception involves two important factors. First, apperception implies
+retention and recall. Unless our various experiences left behind them
+the permanent effects already noted in describing the retentive power of
+the nervous organism and the consequent possibility of recall, there
+could be no adjustment to new impressions on the basis of earlier
+experiences.
+
+=Attention.=--Secondly, apperception involves attention. Since to
+apperceive is to bring the results of earlier experience to bear
+actively upon the new impression, it must involve a reactive, or
+attentive, state of consciousness; for, as noted in our study of the
+learning process, it is only by selecting elements out of former
+experience that the new impression is given definite meaning in
+consciousness. For the child to apperceive the strange object as a
+"bug-in-a-basket," demands from him therefore a process of attention in
+which the ideas "bug" and "basket" are selected from former experience
+and read into the new impression, thereby giving it a meaning in
+consciousness. A reference to any of the lesson topics previously
+considered will provide further examples of these apperceptive factors.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+IMAGINATION
+
+
+=Nature of.=--In our study of the various modes of acquiring individual
+notions, attention was called to the fact that knowledge of a particular
+object may be gained through a process of imagination. Like memory,
+imagination is a process of re-presentation, though differing from it in
+certain important regards.
+
+1. Although imagination depends on past experiences for its images,
+these images are used to build up ideal representations of objects
+without any reference to past time.
+
+2. In imagination the associated elements of past experience may be
+completely dissociated. Thus a bird may be imagined without wings, or a
+stone column without weight.
+
+3. The dissociated elements may be re-combined in various ways to
+represent objects never actually experienced, as a man with wings, or a
+horse with a man's head.
+
+Imagination is thus an apperceptive process by which we construct a
+mental representation of an object without any necessary reference to
+its actual existence in time.
+
+=Product of Imagination, Particular.=--It is to be noted that in a
+process of imagination the mind always constructs in idea a
+representation of a _particular_ object or individual. For instance, the
+ideal picture of the house I imagine situated on the hill before me is
+that of a particular house, possessing definite qualities as to height,
+size, colour, etc. In like manner, the future visit to Toronto, as it
+is being run over ideally, is constructed of particular persons, places,
+and events. So also when reading such a stanza as:
+
+    The milk-white blossoms of the thorn
+      Are waving o'er the pool,
+    Moved by the wind that breathes along,
+      So sweetly and so cool;
+
+if the mind is able to combine into a definite outline of a particular
+situation the various elements depicted, then the mental process of the
+reader is one of imagination. It is not true, of course, that the
+particular elements which enter into such an ideal representation are
+always equally vivid. Yet one test of a person's power of imagination is
+the definiteness with which the mind makes an ideal representation stand
+out in consciousness as a distinct individual.
+
+
+TYPES OF IMAGINATION
+
+=A. Passive.=--In dissociating the elements of past experience and
+combining them into new particular forms, the mind may proceed in two
+quite different ways. In some cases the mind seemingly allows itself to
+drift without purpose and almost without sense, building up fantastic
+representations of imaginary objects or events. This happens especially
+in our periods of day-dreaming. Here various images, evidently drawn
+from past experience, come before consciousness in a spontaneous way and
+enter into most unusual forms of combination, with little regard even to
+probability. In these moods the timid lad becomes a strong hero, and his
+rustic Audrey, a fair lady, for whose sake he is ever performing untold
+feats of valour. Here the ideas, instead of being selected and combined
+for a definite purpose through an act of voluntary attention, are
+suggested one after the other by the mere law of association. Because
+in such fantastic products of the imagination the various images appear
+in consciousness and combine themselves without any apparent control or
+purpose, the process is known as passive imagination, or phantasy. Such
+a type, it is evident, will have little significance as an actual
+process of learning.
+
+=B. Active, or Constructive.=--Opposed to the above type is that form of
+imagination in which the mind proceeds to build up a particular ideal
+representation with some definite purpose, or end, in view. A student,
+for example, who has never seen an aeroplane and has no direct knowledge
+of the course to be traversed, may be called upon in his composition
+work to describe an imaginary voyage through the air from Toronto to
+Winnipeg. In such an act of imagination, the selecting of elements to
+enter into the ideal picture must be chosen with an eye to their
+suitability to the end in view. When also a child is called upon in
+school to form an ideal representation of some object of which he has
+had no direct experience, as for instance, a mental picture of a
+volcano, he must in the same way, under the guidance of the teacher,
+select and combine elements of his actual experience which are adapted
+to the building up of a correct mental representation of an actual
+volcano. This type of imagination is known as active, or constructive,
+imagination.
+
+=Factors in Constructive Imagination.=--In such a purposeful, or active,
+process of imagination the following factors may be noticed:
+
+1. The purpose, end, or problem calling for the exercise of the
+imagination.
+
+2. A selective act of attention, in which the fitness or unfitness of
+elements of past experience, or their adaptability to the ideal
+creation, is realized.
+
+3. A relating, or synthetic, activity combining the selected elements
+into a new ideal representation.
+
+
+USES OF IMAGINATION
+
+=Imagination in Education.=--One important application of imagination in
+school work is found in connection with the various forms of
+constructive occupation. In such exercises, it is possible to have the
+child first build up ideally the picture of a particular object and then
+have him produce it through actual expression. For example, a class
+which has been taught certain principles of cutting may be called upon
+to conceive an original design for some object, say a valentine. Here
+the child, before proceeding to produce the actual object, must select
+from his knowledge of valentines certain elements and interpret them in
+relation to his principles of cutting. This ideal representation of the
+intended object is, therefore, a process of active, or constructive,
+imagination. In composition, also, the various events and situations
+depicted may be ideal creations to which the child gives expression in
+language. In geography and nature study likewise, constant use must be
+made of the imagination in gaining a knowledge of objects which have
+never come within the actual experience of the child. In science there
+is a further appeal to the child's imagination. When, for instance, he
+studies such topics as the law of gravity, chemical affinity, etc., the
+imagination must fill in much that falls outside the sphere of actual
+observation. In history and literature, also, the student can enter into
+the life and action of the various scenes and events only by building up
+ideal representations of what is depicted through the words of the
+author.
+
+=Imagination in Practical Life.=--In addition to the large use of
+constructive imagination in school work, this process will be found
+equally important in the after affairs of life. It is by use of the
+imagination that the workman is able to see the changes we desire made
+in the decoration of the room or in the shape of the flower-beds. It is
+by the use of imagination, also, that the general is able to outline the
+plan of campaign that shall lead his army to victory. Without
+imagination, therefore, the mind could not set up those practical aims
+toward the attainment of which most of life's effort is directed. In the
+dominion of conduct, also, imagination has its important part to play.
+It is by viewing in his imagination the effect of the one course of
+action as compared with the other, that man finally decides what
+constitutes the proper line of conduct. Even when indifferent as to his
+moral conduct, man pictures to himself what his friends may say and
+think of certain lines of action. For the enjoyment of life, also, the
+exercise of imagination has a place. It is by filling up the present
+with ideals and hopeful anticipations for the future, that much of the
+monotony of our work-a-day hours is relieved.
+
+=Development of Imagination.=--A prime condition of a creative
+imagination is evidently the possession of an abundance of mental
+materials which may be dissociated and re-combined into new mental
+products. These materials, of course, consist of the images and ideas
+retained by the mind from former experiences. One important result,
+therefore, of providing the young child with a rich store of images of
+sight, sound, touch, movement, etc., is that it provides his developing
+imagination with necessary materials. But the mere possession of
+abundant materials in the form of past images will not in itself develop
+the imagination. Here, as elsewhere, it is only by exercising
+imagination that ability to imagine can be developed. Opportunity for
+such an exercise of the imagination, moreover, may be given the child in
+various ways. As already noted, a chief function of play is that it
+stimulates the child to use his imagination in reconstructing the
+objects about him and clothing them with many fancied attributes. In
+supplementary reading and story work, also, the imagination is actively
+exercised in constructing the ideal situations, as they are being
+presented in words by the book or the teacher. Nature study, likewise,
+by bringing before the child the secret processes of nature, as noting,
+for instance, the life history of the butterfly, the germination of
+seeds, etc., will call upon him to use his imagination in various ways.
+On the other hand, to deprive a young child of all such opportunities
+will usually result in preventing a proper development of the
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+THINKING
+
+
+=Nature of Thinking.=--In the study of general method, as well as in
+that of the foregoing mental processes, it has been taken for granted
+that our minds are capable of identifying different objects on the basis
+of some common feature or features. This tendency of the mind to
+identify objects and group individual things into classes, depends upon
+its capacity to detect similarity and difference, or to make
+comparisons. When the mind, in identifying objects, events, qualities,
+etc., discovers certain relations between its various states, the
+process is especially known as that of thinking. In its technical sense,
+therefore, thought implies a more or less explicit apprehension of
+relation.
+
+=Thinking Involved in all Conscious States.=--It is evident, however,
+that every mental process must involve thinking, or a grasping of
+relations. When, by my merely touching an object, my mind perceives it
+is an apple, this act of perception, as already seen, takes place
+because elements of former experience come back as associated factors.
+This implies, evidently, that the mind is here relating elements of its
+past experience with the present touch sensation. Perception of external
+objects, therefore, implies a grasping of relations. In the same way,
+if, in having an experience to-day, one recognizes it as identical with
+a former experience, he is equally grasping a relation. Every act of
+memory, therefore, implies thinking. Thus in all forms of knowledge the
+mind is apprehending relations; for no experience could have meaning
+for the mind except as it is discriminated from other experiences. In
+treating thinking as a distinct mental process, however, it is assumed
+that the objects of sense perception, memory, etc., are known as such,
+and that the mind here deals more directly with the relations in which
+ideas stand one to another. As a mental process, thinking appears in
+three somewhat distinct forms, known as conception, judgment, and
+reasoning.
+
+
+CONCEPTION
+
+=The Abstract Notion.=--It was seen that at least in adult life, the
+perception of any object, as this particular orange, horse, cow, etc.,
+really includes a number of distinct images of quality synthesised into
+the unity of a particular idea or experience. Because of this union of a
+number of different sensible qualities in the notion of a single
+individual, the mind may limit its attention upon a particular quality,
+or characteristic, possessed by an object, and make this a distinct
+problem of attention. Thus the mind is able to form such notions as
+length, roundness, sweetness, heaviness, four-footedness, etc. When such
+an attribute is thought of as something distinct from the object, the
+mental image is especially known as an abstract idea, or notion, and the
+process as one of abstraction.
+
+=The Class Notion.=--One or more of such abstracted qualities may,
+moreover, be recognized as common to an indefinite number of objects.
+For instance, in addition to its ability to abstract from the perception
+of a dog, the abstract notions four-footedness, hairy, barking, etc.,
+the mind further gives them a general character by thinking of them as
+qualities common to an indefinite number of other possible individuals,
+namely, the class four-footed, hairy, barking objects. Because the idea
+representing the quality or qualities is here accepted by the mind as a
+means of identifying a number of objects, the idea is spoken of as a
+class notion, and the process as one of classification, or
+generalization. Thus it appears that, through its ability to detect
+sameness and difference, or discover relations, the mind is able to form
+two somewhat different notions. By mentally abstracting any quality and
+regarding it as something distinct from the object, it obtains an
+abstract notion, as sweetness, bravery, hardness, etc.; by synthesising
+and symbolizing the images of certain qualities recognized in objects,
+it obtains a general, or class, notion by which it may represent an
+indefinite number of individual things as, triangle, horse, desert, etc.
+Thus abstract notions are supposed to represent qualities; class
+notions, things. Because of its reference to a number of objects, the
+class notion is spoken of especially as a general notion, and the
+process of forming the notion as one of generalization. These two types
+of notions are technically known as concepts, and the process of their
+formation as one of conception.
+
+=Formal Analysis of Process.=--At this point may be recalled what was
+stated in Chapter XV concerning the development of a class notion.
+Mention was there made of the theory that in the formation of such
+concepts, or class notions, as cow, dog, desk, chair, adjective, etc.,
+the mind must proceed through certain set stages as follows:
+
+     1. Comparison: The examination of a certain number of particular
+     individuals in order to discover points of similarity and
+     difference.
+
+     2. Abstraction: The distinguishing of certain characteristics
+     common to the objects.
+
+     3. Generalization: The mental unification, or synthesis, of these
+     common characteristics noted in different individuals into a class
+     notion represented by a name, or general term.
+
+=But Conception is Involved in Perception.=--From what has been seen,
+however, it is evident that the development of our concepts does not
+proceed in any such formal way. If the mind perceives an individual
+object with any degree of clearness, it must recognize the object as
+possessing certain qualities. If, therefore, the child can perceive such
+an object as a dog, it implies that he recognizes it, say, as a hairy,
+four-footed creature. To recognize these qualities, however, signifies
+that the mind is able to think of them as something apart from the
+object, and the child thus has in a sense a general notion even while
+perceiving the particular dog. Whenever he passes to the perception of
+another dog, he undoubtedly interprets this with the general ideas
+already obtained from this earlier percept of a dog. To say, therefore,
+that to gain a concept he compares the qualities found in several
+individual things is not strictly true, for if his first percept becomes
+a type by which he interprets other dogs, his first experience is
+already a concept. What happens is that as this concept is used to
+interpret other individuals, the person becomes more conscious of the
+fact that his early experience is applicable to an indefinite number of
+objects. So also, when an adult first perceives an individual thing, say
+the fruit of the guava, he must apprehend certain qualities in relation
+to the individual thing. Thereupon his idea of this particular object
+becomes in itself a copy for identifying other objects, or a symbol by
+which similar future impressions may be given meaning. In this sense the
+individual idea, or percept, will serve to identify other particular
+experiences. Such being the case, this early concept of the guava has
+evidently required no abstraction of qualities beyond apprehending them
+while perceiving the one example of the fruit. This, however, is but to
+say that the perception of the guava really implied conception.
+
+=Comparison of Individuals Necessary for Correct Concepts.=--It is, of
+course, true that the correctness of the idea as a class symbol can be
+verified only as we apply it in interpreting a number of such individual
+things. As the person meets a further number of individuals, he may even
+discover the presence of qualities not previously recognized. A child,
+for instance, may have a notion of the class triangle long before he
+discovers that all triangles have the property of containing two right
+angles. When this happens, he will later modify his first concept by
+synthesising into it the newly discovered quality. Moreover, if certain
+features supposed to be common are later found to be accidental, if, for
+instance, a child's concept of the class fish includes the quality
+_always living in water_, his meeting with a flying fish will not result
+in an utterly new concept, but rather in a modification of the present
+one. Thus the young child, who on seeing the Chinese diplomat, wished to
+know where he had his laundry, was not without a class concept, although
+that concept was imperfect in at least one respect.
+
+=Concept and Term.=--A point often discussed in connection with
+conception is whether a general notion can be formed without language.
+By some it is argued that no concept could exist in the mind without the
+name, or general term. It was seen, however, that our first perception
+of any object becomes a sort of standard by which other similar
+experiences are intercepted, and is, therefore, general in character.
+From this it is evident that a rudimentary type of conception exists
+prior to language. In the case of the young child, as he gains a mental
+image of his father, the experience evidently serves as a centre for
+interpreting other similar individuals. We may notice that as soon as he
+gains control of language, other men are called by the term papa. This
+does not imply an actual confusion in identity, but his use of the term
+shows that the child interprets the new object through a crude concept
+denoted by the word papa. It is more than probable, moreover, that this
+crude concept developed as he became able to recognize his father, and
+had been used in interpreting other men before he obtained the term,
+papa. On the other hand, it is certain that the term, or class name, is
+necessary to give the notion a definite place in consciousness.
+
+
+FACTORS INVOLVED IN CONCEPT
+
+It will appear from the foregoing that a concept presents the following
+factors for consideration:
+
+1. The essential quality or qualities found in the individual things,
+and supposed to be abstracted sooner or later from the individuals.
+
+2. The concept itself, the mental image or idea representative of the
+abstracted quality; or the unification of a number of abstracted
+qualities, when the general notion implies a synthesis of different
+qualities.
+
+3. The general term, or name.
+
+4. The objects themselves, which the mind can organize into a class,
+because they are identified as possessing common characteristics. When,
+however, a single abstracted quality is taken as a symbol of a class of
+objects, for example, when the quality bitterness becomes the symbol for
+the class of bitter things, there can be no real distinction between the
+abstracted quality and the class concept. In other words, to fix
+attention upon the quality bitterness as a quality distinct from the
+object in which it is found, is at the same time to give it a general
+character, recognizing it as something which may be found in a number of
+objects--the class bitter things. Here the abstract term is in a sense
+a general notion representative of a whole class of objects which agree
+in the possession of the quality.
+
+=Intension of Concepts.=--Certain of our general notions are, however,
+much more complex than others. When a single attribute such as
+four-footedness is generalized to represent the class four-footed
+objects, the notion itself is relatively simple. In other words, a
+single property is representative of the objects, and in apprehending
+the members of the class all other properties they chance to possess may
+be left out of account. In many cases, however, the class notion will
+evidently be much more complex. The notion dog, for instance, in
+addition to implying the characteristic four-footedness, may include
+such qualities as hairy, barking, watchful, fearless, etc. This greater
+or less degree of complexity of a general notion is spoken of as its
+intensity. The notion dog, for instance, is more intensive than the
+notion four-footed animals; the notion lawyer, than the notion man.
+
+=Extension of Concepts.=--It is to be noted further that as a notion
+increases in intension it becomes limited to a smaller class of objects.
+From this standpoint, notions are said to differ in extension. The class
+lawyer, for instance, is not so extensive as the class man; nor the
+class dog, as the class four-footed objects. It will appear from the
+above that an abstract notion viewed as a sign of a class of objects is
+distinguished by its extension, while a class notion, so far as it
+implies a synthesis of several abstracted qualities, is marked rather by
+its intension.
+
+
+AIMS OF CONCEPTUAL LESSONS
+
+So far as school lessons aim to establish and develop correct class
+notions in the minds of the pupils, three somewhat distinct types of
+work may be noted:
+
+
+1. TO DEFINE CLASSES
+
+In some lessons no attempt is made to develop an utterly new class
+notion, or concept; the pupils in fact may already know the class of
+objects in a general way and be acquainted with many of their
+characteristics. The object of the lesson is, therefore, to render the
+concept more scientific by having it include the qualities which
+essentially mark it as a class and especially separate it from other
+co-ordinate classes. In studying the grasshopper; for instance, in
+entomology, the purpose is not to give the child a notion of the insect
+in the ordinary sense of the term. This the pupil may already have. The
+purpose is rather to enable him to decide just what general
+characteristics distinguish this from other insects. The lesson may,
+therefore, leave out of consideration features which are common to all
+grasshoppers, simply because they do not enter into a scientific
+differentiation of the class.
+
+
+2. TO ENLARGE A CONCEPT
+
+In many lessons the aim seems to be chiefly to enlarge certain concepts
+by adding to their intensiveness. The pupil, for instance, has a
+scientific concept of a triangle, that is, one which enables him to
+distinguish a triangle from any other geometrical figure. He may,
+however, be led to see further that the three angles of every triangle
+equal two right angles. This is really having him discover a further
+attribute in relation to triangles, although this knowledge is not
+essential to the concept as a symbol of the members of the class. In the
+same way, in grammar the pupil is taught certain attributes common to
+verbs, as mood and tense, although these are not essential attributes
+from the standpoint of distinguishing the verb as a special class of
+words.
+
+
+3. TO BUILD UP NEW CONCEPTS
+
+=A. Presentation of Unknown Individuals.=--In many lessons the chief
+object seems to be, however, to build up a new concept in the mind of
+the child. This would be the case when the pupil is presented with a
+totally unknown object, say a platypus, and called upon to examine its
+characteristics. In such lessons two important facts should be noticed.
+First, the child finds seemingly little difficulty in accepting a single
+individual as a type of a class, and is able to carry away from the
+lesson a fairly scientific class notion through a study of the one
+individual. In this regard the pupil but illustrates what has been said
+of the ability of the child to use his early percepts as standards to
+interpret other individuals. The pupil is able the more easily to form
+this accurate notion, because he no doubt has already a store of
+abstract notions with which to interpret the presentation, and also
+because his interest and attention is directed into the proper channels
+by the teacher.
+
+=B. Division of Known Classes.=--A second common mode of developing new
+concepts in school work is in breaking up larger classes into
+co-ordinate sub-classes. This, of course, involves the developing of new
+concepts to cover these sub-classes. In such cases, however, the new
+notions are merely modified forms of the higher class notion. When, for
+example, the pupil gains general notions representative of the classes,
+proper noun and common noun, the new terms merely add something to the
+intension of the more extensive term noun. This will be evident by
+considering the difference between the notions noun and proper noun.
+Both agree in possessing the attribute _used to name_. The latter is
+more intensive, however, because it signifies _used to name a particular
+object_. Although in such cases the lesson seems in a sense to develop
+new general notions, they represent merely an adding to the intension
+of a notion already possessed by the child.
+
+=Use of the Term.=--A further problem regarding the process of
+conception concerns the question of the significance of a name. When a
+person uses such a term as dog, whale, hepatica, guava, etc., to name a
+certain object, what is the exact sense, or meaning, in which the name
+is to be applied? A class name, when applied scientifically to an
+object, is evidently supposed to denote the presence in it of certain
+essential characteristics which belong to the class. It is clear,
+however, that the ordinary man rarely uses these names with any
+scientific precision. A man can point to an object and say that it is a
+horse, and yet be ignorant of many of the essential features of a horse.
+In such cases, therefore, the use of the name merely shows that the
+person considers the object to belong to a certain class, but is no
+guarantee that he is thinking of the essential qualities of the class.
+It might be said, therefore, that a class term is used for two somewhat
+different purposes, either to denote the object merely, or to signify
+scientifically the attributes possessed by the object. It is in the
+second respect that danger of error in reasoning arises. So far as a
+name represents the attributes of a class, it will signify for us just
+those attributes which we associate with that class. So long, therefore,
+as the word fish means to us an animal living in the water, we will
+include in the class the whale, which really does not belong to the
+class, and perhaps exclude from the class the flying fish, although it
+is scientifically a member of the class.
+
+
+THE DEFINITION
+
+It has been noted that, when man discovers common characteristics in a
+number of objects, he tends on this basis to unite such objects into a
+class. It is to be noted in addition, however, that in the same manner
+he is also able, by examining the characteristics of a large class of
+objects, to divide these into smaller sub-classes. Although, for
+example, we may place all three-sided figures into one class and call
+them triangles, we are further able to divide these into three
+sub-classes owing to certain differences that may be noted among them.
+Thus an important fact regarding classification is that while a class
+may possess some common quality or qualities, yet its members may be
+further divided into sub-classes and each of these smaller classes
+distinguished from the others by points of difference. Owing to this
+fact, there are two important elements entering into a scientific
+knowledge of any class, first, to know of what larger class it forms a
+part, and secondly, to know what characteristics distinguish it from the
+other classes which go with it to make up this larger class. To know the
+class equilateral triangle, for instance, we must know, first, that it
+belongs to the larger class triangle, and secondly, that it differs from
+other classes of triangles by having its three sides equal. For this
+reason a person is able to know a class scientifically without knowing
+all of its common characteristics. For instance, the large class of
+objects known as words is subdivided into smaller classes known as parts
+of speech. Taking one of these classes, the verb, we find that all verbs
+agree in possessing at least three common characteristics, they have
+power to assert, to denote manner, and to express time. To distinguish
+the verb, however, it is necessary to note only that it is a word used
+to assert, since this is the only characteristic which distinguishes it
+from the other classes of words. When, therefore, we describe any class
+of objects by first naming the larger class to which it belongs, and
+then stating the characteristics which distinguish it from the other
+co-ordinate classes, we are said to give a definition of the class, or
+to define it. The statement, "A trimeter is a verse of three measures,"
+is a definition because it gives, first, the larger class (verse) to
+which the trimeters belong, and secondly, the difference (of three
+measures) which distinguishes the trimeter from all other verses. The
+statement, "A binomial is an algebraic expression consisting of two
+terms," is a definition, because it gives, first, the larger class
+(algebraic expression) to which binomials belong, and secondly, the
+difference (consisting of two terms) which distinguishes binomials from
+other algebraic expressions.
+
+
+JUDGMENT
+
+=Nature of Judgment.=--A second form, or mode, of thinking is known as
+judgment. Our different concepts were seen to vary in their intension,
+or meaning, according to the number of attributes suggested by each. My
+notion _triangle_ may denote the attributes three-sided and
+three-angled; my notion _isosceles triangle_ will in that case include
+at least these two qualities plus equality of two of the sides. This
+indicates that various relations exist between our ideas and may be
+apprehended by the mind. When a relation between two concepts is
+distinctly apprehended in thought, or, in other words, when there is a
+mental assertion of a union between two ideas, or objects of thought,
+the process is known as _judgment_. Judgment may be defined, therefore,
+as the apprehension, or mental affirmation, of a relation between two
+ideas. If the idea, or concept, _heaviness_ enters as a mental element
+into my idea _stone_, then the mind is able to affirm a relation between
+these concepts in the form, "Stone is heavy." In like manner when the
+mind asserts, "Glass is transparent" or "Horses are animals," there is
+a distinct apprehension of a relation between the concepts involved.
+
+=Judgment Distinguished from Statement.=--It should be noted that
+judgment is the mental apprehension of a relation between ideas. When
+this relation is expressed in actual words, it is spoken of as a
+proposition, or a predication. A proposition is, therefore, the
+statement of a judgment. The proposition is composed of two terms and
+the copula, one term constituting the subject of the proposition and the
+other the predicate. Although a judgment may often be expressed in some
+other form, it can usually be converted into the above form. The
+proposition, "Horses eat oats," may be expressed in the form, "Horses
+are oat-eaters"; the proposition, "The sun melts the snow," into the
+form, "The sun is a-thing-which-melts-snow."
+
+=Relation of Judgment to Conception.=--It would appear from the above
+examples that a judgment expresses in an explicit form the relations
+involved within the concept, and is, therefore, merely a direct way of
+indicating the state of development of any idea. If my concept of a dog,
+for example, is a synthesis of the qualities four-footed, hairy, fierce,
+and barking, then an analysis of the concept will furnish the following
+judgments:
+
+            { A four-footed thing.
+            { A hairy thing.
+A dog is    { A fierce thing.
+            { A barking thing.
+
+Because in these cases a concept seems necessary for an act of judgment,
+it is said that judgment is a more advanced form of thinking than
+conception. On the other hand, however, judgment is implied in the
+formation of a concept. When the child apprehends the dog as a
+four-footed object, his mind has grasped four-footedness as a quality
+pertaining to the strange object, and has, in a sense, brought the two
+ideas into relation. But while judgment is implied in the formation of
+the concept, the concept does not bring explicitly to the mind the
+judgments it implies. The concept snow, for instance, implies the
+property of whiteness, but whiteness must be apprehended as a distinct
+idea and related mentally with the idea snow before we can be said to
+have formed, or thought, the judgment, "Snow is white." Judgment is a
+form of thinking separate from conception, therefore, because it does
+thus bring into definite relief relations only implied in our general
+notions, or concepts. One value of judgment is, in fact, that it enables
+us to analyse our concepts, and thus note more explicitly the relations
+included in them.
+
+=Universal and Particular Judgments.=--Judgments are found to differ
+also as to the universality of their affirmation. In such a judgment as
+"Man is mortal," since mortality is viewed as a quality always joined to
+manhood, the affirmation is accepted as a universal judgment. In such a
+judgment as "Men strive to subdue the air," the two objects of thought
+are not considered as always and necessarily joined together. The
+judgment is therefore particular in character. All of our laws of
+nature, as "Air has weight," "Pressure on liquids is transmitted in
+every direction," or "Heat is conducted by metals," are accepted as
+universal judgments.
+
+=Errors in Judgment due to: A. Faulty Concepts.=--It may be seen from
+the foregoing that our judgments, when explicitly grasped by the mind
+and predicated in language, reflect the accuracy or inaccuracy of our
+concepts. Whatever relations are, as it were, wrapped up in a concept
+may merge at any time in the form of explicit judgments. If the fact
+that the only Chinamen seen by a child are engaged in laundry work
+causes this attribute to enter into his concept Chinaman, this will lead
+him to affirm that the restaurant keeper, Wan Lee, is a laundry-man. The
+republican who finds two or three cases of corruption among democrats,
+may conceive corruption as a quality common to democrats and affirm that
+honest John Smith is corrupt. Faulty concepts, therefore, are very
+likely to lead to faulty judgments. A first duty in education is
+evidently to see that children are forming correct class concepts. For
+this it must be seen that they always distinguish the essential features
+of the class of objects they are studying. They must learn, also, not to
+conclude on account of superficial likeness that really unlike objects
+belong to the same class. The child, for instance, in parsing the
+sentence, "The swing broke down," must be taught to look for essential
+characteristics, and not call the word _swing_ a gerund because it ends
+in "ing"; which, though a common characteristic of gerunds, does not
+differentiate it from other classes of words. So, also, when the young
+nature student notes that the head of the spider is somewhat separated
+from the abdomen, he must not falsely conclude that the spider belongs
+to the class insects. In like manner, the pupil must not imagine, on
+account of superficial differences, that objects really the same belong
+to different classes, as for example, that a certain object is not a
+fish, but a bird, because it is flying through the air; or that a whale
+is a fish and not an animal, because it lives in water. The pupil must
+also learn to distinguish carefully between the particular and universal
+judgment. To affirm that "Men strive to subdue the air," does not imply
+that "John Smith strives to subdue the air." The importance of this
+distinction will be considered more fully in our next section.
+
+=B. Feeling.=--Faulty concepts are not, however, the only causes for
+wrong judgments. It has been noted already that feeling enters largely
+as a factor in our conscious life. Man, therefore, in forming his
+judgments, is always in danger of being swayed by his feelings. Our
+likes and dislikes, in other words, interfere with our thinking, and
+prevent us from analysing our knowledge as we should. Instead,
+therefore, of striving to develop true concepts concerning men and
+events and basing our judgments upon these, we are inclined in many
+cases to allow our judgments to be swayed by mere feeling.
+
+=C. Laziness.=--Indifference is likewise a common source of faulty
+judgments. To attend to the concept and discover its intension as a
+means for correct judgment evidently demands mental effort. Many people,
+however, prefer either to jump at conclusions or let others do their
+judging for them.
+
+=Sound Judgments Based on Scientific Concepts.=--To be able to form
+correct judgments regarding the members of any class, however, the child
+should know, not only its common characteristics, but also the essential
+features which distinguish its members from those of co-ordinate
+classes. To know adequately the equilateral triangle, for instance, the
+pupil must know both the features which distinguish it from other
+triangles and also those in which it agrees with all triangles. To know
+fully the mentha family of plants, he must know both the characteristic
+qualities of the family and also those of the larger genus labiatae.
+From this it will be seen that a large share of school work must be
+devoted to building up scientific class notions in the minds of the
+pupils. Without this, many of their judgments must necessarily be
+faulty. To form such scientific concepts, however, it is necessary to
+relate one concept with another in more indirect ways than is done
+through the formation of judgments. This brings us to a consideration of
+_reasoning_, the third and last form of thinking.
+
+
+REASONING
+
+=Nature of Reasoning.=--Reasoning is defined as a mental process in
+which the mind arrives at a new judgment by comparing other judgments.
+The mind, for instance, is in possession of the two judgments, "Stones
+are heavy" and "Flint is a stone." By bringing these two judgments under
+the eye of attention and comparing them, the mind is able to arrive at
+the new judgment, "Flint is heavy." Here the new judgment, expressing a
+relation between the notions, _flint_ and _heavy_, is supposed to be
+arrived at, neither by direct experience, nor by an immediate analysis
+of the concept _flint_, but more indirectly by comparing the other
+judgments. The judgment, or conclusion, is said, therefore, to be
+arrived at mediately, or by a process of reasoning. Reasoning is of two
+forms, deductive, or syllogistic, reasoning, and inductive reasoning.
+
+
+DEDUCTION
+
+=Nature of Deduction.=--In deduction the mind is said to start with a
+general truth, or judgment, and by a process of reasoning to arrive at a
+more particular truth, or judgment, thus:
+
+    Stone is heavy;
+    Flint is a stone;
+.'. Flint is heavy.
+
+Expressed in this form, the reasoning process, as already mentioned, is
+known as a syllogism. The whole syllogism is made up of three parts,
+major premise, minor premise, and conclusion. The three concepts
+involved in the syllogism are known as the major, the minor, and the
+middle term. In the above syllogism, _heavy_, the predicate of the major
+premise, is the major term; _flint_, the subject of the minor premise,
+is the minor term; and _stone_, to which the other two are related in
+the premises, is known as the middle term. Because of this previous
+comparison of the major and the minor terms with the middle term,
+deduction is sometimes said to be a process by which the mind discovers
+a relation between two concepts by comparing them each with a third
+concept.
+
+=Purpose of Deduction.=--It is to be noted, however, as pointed out in
+Chapter XV, that deductive reasoning takes place normally only when the
+mind is faced with a difficulty which demands solution. Take the case of
+the boy and his lost coin referred to in Chapter II. As he faces the
+problem, different methods of solution may present themselves. It may
+enter his mind, for instance, to tear up the grate, but this is rejected
+on account of possible damage to the brickwork. Finally he thinks of the
+tar and resorts to this method of recovery. In both of the above cases
+the boy based his conclusions upon known principles. As he considered
+the question of tearing up the grate, the thought came to his mind,
+"Lifting-a-grate is a-thing-which-may-cause-damage." As he considered
+the use of the tar, he had in mind the judgment, "Adhesion is a property
+of tar," and at once inferred that tar would solve his problem. In such
+practical cases, however, the mind seems to go directly from the problem
+in hand to a conclusion by means of a general principle. When a woman
+wishes to remove a stain, she at once says, "Gasoline will remove it."
+Here the mind, in arriving at its conclusion, seems to apply the
+principle, "Gasoline removes spots," directly to the particular
+problem. Thus the reasoning might seem to run as follows:
+
+    Problem: What will remove this stain?
+    Principle: Gasoline will remove stains.
+    Conclusion: Gasoline will remove this stain.
+
+Here the middle term of the syllogism seems to disappear. It is to be
+noted, however, that our thought changes from the universal idea
+"stains," mentioned in the statement of the principle, to the particular
+idea "this stain" mentioned in the problem and in the conclusion. But
+this implies a middle term, which could be expressed thus:
+
+    Gasoline will remove stains;
+    This is a stain;
+.'. Gasoline will remove _this_.
+
+The syllogism is valuable, therefore, because it displays fully and
+clearly each element in the reasoning process, and thus assures the
+validity of the conclusion.
+
+=Deduction in School Recitation.=--It will be recalled from what was
+noted in our study of general method, that deduction usually plays an
+important part during an ordinary developing lesson. In the step of
+preparation, when the pupil is given a particular example in order to
+recall old knowledge, the example suggests a problem which is intended
+to call up certain principles which are designed to be used during the
+presentation. In a lesson on the "Conjunctive Pronoun," for instance, if
+we have the pupil recall his knowledge of the conjunction by examining
+the particular word "if" in such a sentence as, "I shall go if they
+come," he interprets the word as a conjunction simply because he
+possesses a general rule applicable to it, or is able to go through a
+process of deduction. In the presentation also, when the pupil is called
+on to examine the word _who_ in such a sentence as, "The man who met us
+is very old," and decides that it is both a conjunction and a pronoun,
+he is again making deductions, since it is by his general knowledge of
+conjunctions and pronouns that he is able to interpret the two functions
+of the particular word _who_. Finally, as already noted, the application
+of an ordinary recitation frequently involves deductive processes.
+
+
+INDUCTION
+
+=Nature of Induction.=--Induction is described as a process of reasoning
+in which the mind arrives at a conclusion by an examination of
+particular cases, or judgments. A further distinguishing feature of the
+inductive process is that, while the known judgments are particular in
+character, the conclusion is accepted as a general law, or truth. As in
+deduction, the reasoning process arises on account of some difficulty,
+or problem, presented to the mind, as for example:
+
+    What is the effect of heat upon air?
+    Will glass conduct electricity?
+    Why do certain bodies refract light?
+
+To satisfy itself upon the problem, the mind appeals to actual
+experience either by ordinary observation or through experimentation.
+These observations or experiments, which necessarily deal with
+particular instances, are supposed to provide a number of particular
+judgments, by examining which a satisfactory conclusion is ultimately
+reached.
+
+=Example of Induction.=--As an example of induction, may be taken the
+solution of such a problem as, "Does air exert pressure?" To meet this
+hypothesis we must evidently do more than merely abstract the manifest
+properties of an object, as is done in ordinary conception, or appeal
+directly to some known general principle, as is done in deduction. The
+work of induction demands rather to examine the two at present known but
+disconnected things, _air_ and _pressure_, and by scientific observation
+seek to discover a relation between them. For this purpose the
+investigator may place a card over a glass filled with water, and on
+inverting it find that the card is held to the glass. Taking a glass
+tube and putting one end in water, he may place his finger over the
+other end and, on raising the tube, find that water remains in the tube.
+Soaking a heavy piece of leather in water and pressing it upon the
+smooth surface of a stone or other object, he finds the stone can be
+lifted by means of the leather. Reflecting upon each of these
+circumstances the mind comes to the following conclusions:
+
+    Air pressure holds this card to the glass,
+    Air pressure keeps the water in the tube,
+    Air pressure holds together the leather and the stone,
+.'. Air exerts pressure.
+
+=How Distinguished from, A. Deduction, and B. Conception.=--Such a
+process as the above constitutes a process of reasoning, first, because
+the conclusion gives a new affirmation, or judgment, "Air exerts
+pressure," and secondly, because the judgment is supposed to be arrived
+at by comparing other judgments. As a process of reasoning, however, it
+differs from deduction in that the final judgment is a general judgment,
+or truth, which seems to be based upon a number of particular judgments
+obtained from actual experience, while in deduction the conclusion was
+particular and the major premise general. It is for this reason that
+induction is defined as a process of going from the particular to the
+general. Moreover, since induction leads to the formation of a universal
+judgment, or general truth, it differs from the generalizing process
+known as conception, which leads to the formation of a concept, or
+general idea. It is evident, however, that the process will enrich the
+concept involved in the new judgment. When the mind is able to affirm
+that air exerts pressure, the property, exerting-pressure, is at once
+synthesised into the notion air. This point will again be referred to in
+comparing induction and conception as generalizing processes.
+
+In speaking of induction as a process of going from the particular to
+the general, this does not signify that the process deals with
+individual notions. The particulars in an inductive process are
+particular cases giving rise to particular judgments, and judgments
+involve concepts, or general ideas. When, in the inductive process, it
+is asserted that air holds the card to the glass, the mind is seeking to
+establish a relation between the notions air and pressure, and is,
+therefore, thinking in concepts. For this reason, it is usually said
+that induction takes for granted ordinary relations as involved in our
+everyday concepts, and concerns itself only with the more hidden
+relations of things. The significance of induction as a process of going
+from the particular to the general, therefore, consists in the fact that
+the conclusion is held to be a wider judgment than is contained in any
+of the premises.
+
+=Particular Truth Implies the General.=--Describing the premises of an
+inductive process as particular truths, and the conclusion as a
+universal truth, however, involves the same fiction as was noted in
+separating the percept and the concept into two distinct types of
+notions. In the first place, my particular judgment, that air presses
+the card against the glass, is itself a deduction resting upon other
+general principles. Secondly, if the judgment that air presses the card
+against the glass contains no element of universal truth, then a
+thousand such judgments could give no universal truth. Moreover, if the
+mind approaches a process of induction with a problem, or hypothesis,
+before it, the general truth is already apprehended hypothetically in
+thought even before the particular instances are examined. When we set
+out, for instance, to investigate whether the line joining the bisecting
+points of the sides of a triangle is parallel with the base, we have
+accepted hypothetically the general principle that such lines are
+parallel with the base. The fact is, therefore, that when the mind
+examines the particular case and finds it to agree with the hypothesis,
+so far as it accepts this case as a truth, it also accepts it as a
+universal truth. Although, therefore, induction may involve going from
+one particular experiment or observation to another, it is in a sense a
+process of going from the general to the general.
+
+That accepting the truth of a particular judgment may imply a universal
+judgment is very evident in the case of geometrical demonstrations. When
+it is shown, for instance, that in the case of the particular isosceles
+triangle ABC, the angles at the base are equal, the mind does not
+require to examine other particular triangles for verification, but at
+once asserts that in every isosceles triangle the angles at the base are
+equal.
+
+=Induction and Conception Interrelated.=--Although as a process,
+induction is to be distinguished from conception, it either leads to an
+enriching of some concept, or may in fact be the only means by which
+certain scientific concepts are formed. While the images obtained by
+ordinary sense perception will enable a child to gain a notion of water,
+to add to the notion the property, boiling-at-a-certain-temperature, or
+able-to-be-converted-into-two-parts-hydrogen-and-one-part-oxygen, will
+demand a process of induction. The development of such scientific
+notions as oxide, equation, predicate adjective, etc., is also dependent
+upon a regular inductive process. For this reason many lessons may be
+viewed both as conceptual and as inductive lessons. To teach the adverb
+implies a conceptual process, because the child must synthesise certain
+attributes into his notion adverb. It is also an inductive lesson,
+because these attributes being formulated as definite judgments are,
+therefore, obtained inductively. The double character of such a lesson
+is fully indicated by the two results obtained. The lesson ends with the
+acquisition of a new term, adverb, which represents the result of the
+conceptual process. It also ends with the definition: "An adverb is a
+word which modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb," which indicates
+the general truth or truths resulting from the inductive process.
+
+=Deduction and Induction Interrelated.=--In our actual teaching
+processes there is a very close inter-relation between the two processes
+of reasoning. We have already noted on page 322 that, in such inductive
+lessons as teaching the definition of a noun or the rule for the
+addition of fractions, both the preparatory step and the application
+involve deduction. It is to be noted further, however, that even in the
+development of an inductive lesson there is a continual interplay
+between induction and deduction. This will be readily seen in the case
+of a pupil seeking to discover the rule for determining the number of
+repeaters in the addition of recurring decimals. When he notes that
+adding three numbers with one, one, and two repeaters respectively,
+gives him two repeaters in his answer, he is more than likely to infer
+that the rule is to have in the answer the highest number found among
+the addenda. So far as he makes this inference, he undoubtedly will
+apply it in interpreting the next problem, and if the next numbers have
+one, one, and three repeaters respectively, he will likely be quite
+convinced that his former inference is correct. When, however, he meets
+a question with one, two, and three repeaters respectively, he finds his
+former inference is incorrect, and may, thereupon, draw a new inference,
+which he will now proceed to apply to further examples. The general fact
+to be noted here, however, is that, so far as the mind during the
+examination of the particular examples reaches any conclusion in an
+inductive lesson, it evidently applies this conclusion to some degree in
+the study of the further examples, or thinks deductively, even during
+the inductive process.
+
+=Development of Reasoning Power.=--Since reasoning is essentially a
+purposive form of thinking, it is evident that any reasoning process
+will depend largely upon the presence of some problem which shall
+stimulate the mind to seek out relations necessary to its solution.
+Power to reason, therefore, is conditioned by the ability to attend
+voluntarily to the problem and discover the necessary relations. It is
+further evident that the accuracy of any reasoning process must be
+dependent upon the accuracy of the judgments upon which the conclusions
+are based. But these judgments in turn depend for their accuracy upon
+the accuracy of the concepts involved. Correct reasoning, therefore,
+must depend largely upon the accuracy of our concepts, or, in other
+words, upon the old knowledge at our command. On the other hand,
+however, it has been seen that both deductive and inductive reasoning
+follow to some degree a systematic form. For this reason it may be
+assumed that the practice of these forms should have some effect in
+giving control of the processes. The child, for instance, who habituates
+himself to such thought processes as AB equals BC, and AC equals BC,
+therefore AB equals AC, no doubt becomes able thereby to grasp such
+relations more easily. Granting so much, however, it is still evident
+that close attention to, and accurate knowledge of, the various terms
+involved in the reasoning process is the sure foundation of correct
+reasoning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+FEELING
+
+
+=Sensuous and Ideal Feeling.=--We have noted (Chapter XXIV), that in
+addition to the general feeling tone accompanying an act of attention,
+and already described as a feeling of interest, there are two important
+classes of feeling known respectively as sensuous and ideal feeling.
+When a person says: "I feel tired" or "I feel hungry," he is referring
+to the feeling side of certain organic sensations. When he says: "The
+air feels cold" or "The paper feels smooth," he is referring to the
+feeling side of temperature and touch sensations. These are, therefore,
+examples of sensuous feeling. On the other hand, to say "I feel angry"
+or "I feel afraid," is to refer to a feeling state which accompanies
+perhaps the perception of some object, the recollection or anticipation
+of some act, or the inference that something is sure to happen, etc.
+These latter states are therefore known as ideal feelings.
+
+=Quality of Feeling States.=--The qualities of our various feeling
+states are distinguished under two heads, pleasure and pain. It might
+seem at first sight that our feeling states will fall into a much larger
+number of classes distinguished by differences in quality, or tone. The
+taste of an orange, the smell of lavender, the touch of a hot stove, the
+appreciation of a fine piece of music, and the appreciation of a lofty
+poem, seem at first sight to yield different feelings. The supposed
+difference in the quality of the feelings is due, however, to a
+difference in the knowledge elements accompanying the feelings, or to
+the fact that they are discriminated as different experiences. The idea
+of the music or the poem is of a higher grade than the sensory image of
+taste, and accordingly the feelings _appear_ to be different. The
+feelings may, of course, differ in intensity, but in _quality_ they are
+either pleasant or unpleasant.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF FEELING TONE
+
+=A. Neural.=--The quality, or tone, of a feeling will vary according to
+the intensity of the impression. Great heat stimulates the nerves
+violently and the resultant feeling state is painful; warmth gives a
+moderate stimulation and the resultant tone is pleasant. Excessive cold
+also, because it stimulates violently, produces a painful feeling. Since
+the intensity of a stimulus varies according to the resistance
+encountered in the nervous arc, the quality of a feeling state must,
+therefore, vary according to the resistance. It is for this reason that
+an experience, at first very painful, may lose much of its tone by
+repetition. By repetition the nerve centres are adapted to the
+experience, resistance is lessened, and the accompanying pain
+diminished. In this way, some work or exercise, which is at first
+positively unpleasant, may at least become endurable as the organism
+becomes adapted to the occupation. From this point of view, it is
+sometimes said that any impressions to which we are perfectly adapted
+give pleasurable feelings, while, in other cases the resultant tone will
+be painful.
+
+=B. Mental.=--The law of perfect adaptation also explains why ideal
+feelings may at one time result in a pleasant, and at another time in a
+painful, feeling tone. According to the principle of apperception, the
+new experience must organize itself with whatever thoughts and feelings
+are now occupying consciousness. It necessarily happens that a given
+experience does not always equally harmonize with our present thoughts
+and feelings. The recognition of a friend under ordinary circumstances
+is agreeable, but amid certain associations or in a certain environment,
+such recognition would be disagreeable. So, too, while an original
+experience may have been agreeable, the memory of it may now be
+disagreeable; and vice versa. For instance, the memory of a former
+success or prosperity may, in the midst of present failure and poverty,
+be disagreeable; while the recollection of former failure and defeat may
+now, in the midst of success and prosperity, be agreeable. What is it
+that makes a sensation, a perception, a memory, or an apprehended
+relation pleasant under some circumstances and unpleasant under others?
+The rule appears to be that when the experience harmonizes with our
+present train of thought, when it promotes our present interests and
+intentions, it is pleasant; but when, on the other hand, it does not
+harmonize with our train of thought or thwarts or impedes our interests
+and purposes, it is unpleasant.
+
+=Function of Pleasure and Pain.=--From what has been noted concerning
+co-ordination between the adaptation of the organism to impression and
+the quality of the accompanying feeling, it is evident that pleasure and
+pain each have their part to play in promoting the ultimate good of the
+individual. Pain is beneficial, because it lets us know that there is
+some misadjustment to our environment, and thereby warns us to remove or
+cease doing what is proving injurious. In this connection, it may be
+noted that no disease is so dangerous as one that fails to make its
+presence known through pain. Pleasure also is valuable in so far as it
+results from perfect adaptation to a perfect environment, since it
+induces the individual to continue beneficial acts. It must be
+remembered, however, that so far as heredity or education has adapted
+our organism to improper stimuli, pleasure is no proof that the good of
+the organism is being advanced. In such cases, redemption can come to
+the fallen world only through suffering.
+
+=Feeling and Knowing.=--Since the intensity of a feeling state is
+conditioned by the amount of resistance, an intense state of feeling is
+likely to be accompanied by a lowering of intellectual activity. For
+this reason excessive hunger, heat or cold, intense joy, anger or
+sorrow, are usually antagonistic to intellectual work. The explanation
+for this seems to be that so much of our nervous energy is consumed in
+overcoming the resistance in the centres affected, that little is left
+for ordinary intellectual processes. This does not, of course, imply
+that no one can do intellectual work under such conditions; nor that the
+intellectual man is always devoid of strong feelings, although such is
+often the case. Occasionally, however, a man is so strongly endowed with
+nervous energy, that even after overcoming the resistance being
+encountered, he still has a residue of energy to devote to ordinary
+intellectual processes.
+
+=Feeling and Will.=--Although, as pointed out in the last paragraph,
+there is a certain antagonism between knowing and feeling, it has also
+been seen that every experience has its knowing as well as its feeling
+side. Because of this co-ordination, the qualities of our feeling states
+become known to us, or are able to be distinguished by the mind. As a
+result of this recognition of a difference in our feeling states, we
+learn to seek states of pleasure and to avoid states of pain or, in
+other words, our mere states of feeling become desires. This means that
+we become able to contrast a present feeling with other remembered
+states, and seek either to continue the present desired state or to
+substitute another for the present undesirable feeling. In the form of
+desire, therefore, our feelings become strong motives, which may
+influence the will to certain lines of action.
+
+
+SENSUOUS FEELINGS
+
+While the sensations of the special senses, namely, sight, sound, touch,
+taste, and smell, have each their affective, or feeling, side, a minute
+study of these feelings is not necessary for our present purpose. It may
+be noted, however, that in the more intellectual senses, namely, sight,
+hearing, and touch, feeling tone is less marked, although strong feeling
+may accompany certain tactile sensations. In the lower senses of taste
+and smell, the feeling tone is more pronounced. Under muscular sensation
+we meet such marked feeling tones as fatigue, exertion, and strain,
+while associated with the organic sensations are such feelings as hunger
+and thirst, and the various pains which usually accompany derangement
+and disease of the bodily organs. Some of these feelings are important,
+because they are likely to influence the will by developing into desires
+in the form of appetites. Many sensuous feelings are important also
+because they especially warn the mind regarding the condition of the
+organism.
+
+
+EMOTION
+
+=Nature of Emotion.=--An emotion differs from sensuous feeling, not in
+its content, but in its higher intensity, its greater complexity, and
+its more elaborate motor response. It may be defined as a succession of
+interconnected feelings with a more complex physical expression than a
+simple feeling. On reading an account of a battle, one may feel sad and
+express this sadness only in a gloomy appearance of the face. But if
+one finds that in this battle a friend has been killed, the feeling is
+much intensified and may become an emotion of grief, expressing itself
+in some complex way, perhaps in tears, in sobbing, in wringing the
+hands. Similarly, a feeling of slight irritation expressed in a frowning
+face, if intensified, becomes the emotion of anger, expressed in tense
+muscles, rapidly beating heart, laboured breathing, perhaps a torrent of
+words or a hasty blow.
+
+=Emotion and Instinct.=--Feeling and instinct are closely related. Every
+instinct has its affective phase, that is, its satisfaction always
+involves an element of pleasure or pain. The satisfaction of the
+instincts of curiosity or physical activity illustrates this fact. On
+the other hand, every emotion has its characteristic instinctive
+response. Fear expresses itself in all persons alike in certain
+characteristic ways inherited from a remote ancestry; anger expresses
+itself in other instinctive reactions; grief in still others.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF EMOTION
+
+An analysis of a typical emotion will serve to show the conditions under
+which it makes its appearance. Let us take first the emotion of fear.
+Suppose a person is walking alone on a dark night along a deserted
+street. His nervous currents are discharging themselves uninterruptedly
+over their wonted channels, his current of thought is unimpeded.
+Suddenly there appears a strange and frightful object in his pathway.
+His train of thought is violently checked. His nervous currents, which a
+moment ago were passing out smoothly and without undue resistance into
+muscles of legs, arms, body, and face, are now suddenly obstructed, or
+in other words encounter violent resistance. He stands still. His heart
+momentarily stops beating. A temporary paralysis seizes him. As the
+nervous currents thus encounter resistance, the feeling tone known as
+fear is experienced. At the same time the currents burst their barriers
+and overflow into new channels that are easy of access, the motor
+centres being especially of this character. Some of the currents,
+therefore, run to the involuntary muscles, and in consequence the heart
+beats faster, the breathing becomes heavier, the face grows pale, a cold
+sweat breaks forth, the hair "stands on end." Other currents, through
+hereditary influences, pass to the voluntary muscles, and the person
+shrieks, and turns and flees.
+
+Or take the emotion of anger. Some fine morning in school everything is
+in good order, everybody is industriously at work, the lessons are
+proceeding satisfactorily. The current of the teacher's experience is
+flowing smoothly and unobstructedly. Presently a troublesome boy, who
+has been repeatedly reproved for misconduct, again shows symptoms of
+idleness and misbehaviour. The smooth current of experience being
+checked, here also both a new feeling tone is experienced and the wonted
+nerve currents flow out into other brain centres. The teacher stops his
+work and gazes fixedly at the offending pupil. His heart beats rapidly,
+the blood surges to his face, his breathing becomes heavy, his muscles
+grow tense. In these reactions we have the nervous currents passing out
+over involuntary channels. Then, perhaps, the teacher unfortunately
+breaks forth into a torrent of words or lays violent hands upon the
+offender. Here the nervous currents are passing outward over the
+voluntary system.
+
+These illustrations indicate that three important conditions are present
+at the appearance of the emotion, namely, (1) the presence of an
+unusual object in consciousness, (2) the consequent disturbance of the
+smooth flow of experience or, in physiological terms, the temporary
+obstruction of the ordinary pathways of nervous discharge through the
+great resistance encountered, and (3) the new feeling state with its
+concomitant overflow of the impulses into new motor channels, some of
+which lead to the involuntary muscles and others to the voluntary. The
+emotion proper consists in the feeling state which arises as a result of
+the resistance encountered by the nervous impulses as the smooth flow of
+experience is checked. The idea that I shall die some day arouses no
+emotion in me, because it in no way affects my ordinary thought
+processes, and therefore it in no way disturbs my nervous equilibrium.
+The perception of a wild animal about to kill me, because it suddenly
+thwarts and impedes the smooth flow of my experience through a
+suggestion of danger, produces an intense feeling and a diffused and
+intense derangement of the nervous equilibrium.
+
+=Development of Emotions.=--The question of paramount importance
+in connection with emotion is how to arouse and develop desirable
+emotions. The close connection of the three phases of the mind's
+manifestation--knowing, feeling, and willing, gives the key to the
+question. Feeling cannot be developed alone apart from knowing and
+willing. In fact, if we attend carefully to the knowing and willing
+activities, the feelings, in one sense, take care of themselves. Two
+principles, therefore, lie at the basis of proper emotional development:
+
+1. The mind must be allowed to dwell upon only those ideas to which
+worthy emotions are attached. We must refuse to think those thoughts
+that are tinged with unworthy feelings. The Apostle Paul has expressed
+this very eloquently when he says in his Epistle to the Philippians:
+"Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are
+honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure,
+whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; if
+there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things."
+
+2. The teacher's main duty in the above regard is to provide the pupil
+with a rich fund of ideas to which desirable feelings cling. An
+impressive manner, an enthusiastic attitude toward subjects of study, an
+evident interest in them, and apparent appreciation of them, will also
+aid much in inspiring pupils with proper feelings, for feelings are
+often contagious in the absence of very definite ideas. How often have
+we been deeply moved by hearing a poem impressively read even though we
+have very imperfectly grasped its meaning. The feelings of the reader
+have been communicated to us through the principle of contagion.
+Similarly, in history, art, and nature study, emotions may be stirred,
+not only through the medium of the ideas presented, but also by the
+impressiveness, the enthusiasm, and the interest exhibited by the
+teacher in presenting them.
+
+3. We must give expression to these emotions we wish to develop.
+Expression means the probability of the recurrence of the emotion, and
+gradually an emotional habit is formed. An unselfish disposition is
+cultivated by performing little acts of kindness and self-denial
+whenever the opportunity offers. The expression of a desirable emotion,
+moreover, should not stop merely with an experience of the organic
+sensations or the reflex reactions accompanying the emotion. To listen
+to a sermon and react only by an emotional thrill, a quickened heart
+beat, or a few tears, is a very ineffective kind of expression. The
+only kind of emotional expression that is of much consequence either to
+ourselves or others is conduct. Only in so far as our emotional
+experiences issue in action that is beneficial to those about us, are
+they of any practical value.
+
+=Elimination of Emotions.=--Since certain of our emotions, such as anger
+and fear, are, in general, undesirable states of feeling, a question
+arises how such emotions may be prevented. It is sometimes said that, if
+we can inhibit the expression, the emotion will disappear, that is, if I
+can prevent the trembling, I will cease to be afraid. From what has just
+been learned, however, the emotion and its expression being really
+concomitant results of the antecedent obstruction of ordinary nervous
+discharges, emotion cannot be checked by checking the expression, but
+both will be checked if the nervous impulses can be made to continue in
+their wonted courses in spite of the disturbing presentations. The real
+secret of emotional control lies, therefore, in the power of voluntary
+attention. The effect of attention is to cause the nervous energy to be
+directed without undue resistance into its wonted channels, this, in
+turn, preventing its overflow into new channels. By thus directing the
+energy into wonted and open channels, attention prevents both the
+movements and the feeling that are concomitants of a disturbance of
+nervous equilibrium. By meeting the attack of the dog in a purposeful
+and attentive manner, we cause the otherwise damming-up nervous energy
+to continue flowing into ordinary channels, and in this way prevent both
+the feeling of fear and also the flow of the energy into the motor
+centres associated with the particular emotion. But while it is not
+scientifically correct in a particular case to say that we may inhibit
+the feeling by inhibiting the movements, it is of course true that, by
+avoiding a present emotional outburst, we are less likely in the future
+to respond to situations which tend to arouse the emotional state. On
+the other hand, to give way frequently to any emotional state will make
+it more difficult to avoid yielding to the emotion under similar
+conditions.
+
+
+OTHER TYPES OF FEELING
+
+=Mood.=--Our feelings and emotions become organized and developed in
+various ways. The sum total of all the feeling tones of our sensory and
+ideational processes at any particular time gives us our _mood_ at that
+time. If, for instance, our organic sensations are prevailingly
+pleasant, if the ideas we dwell upon are tinged with agreeable feeling,
+our mood is cheerful. We can to a large extent control our current of
+thought, and can as we will, except in case of serious bodily
+disturbances, attend, or not attend, to our organic sensations.
+Consequently we are ourselves largely responsible for the moods we
+indulge.
+
+=Disposition.=--A particular kind of mood frequently indulged in
+produces a type of emotional habit, our _disposition_. For instance, the
+teacher who permits the occurrences of the class-room to trouble him
+unnecessarily, and who broods over these afterwards, soon develops a
+worrying disposition. As we have it in our power to determine what
+habits, emotional and otherwise, we form, we alone are responsible for
+the dispositions we cultivate.
+
+=Temperament.=--Some of us are provided with nervous systems that are
+predisposed to particular moods. This predisposition, together with
+frequent indulgence in particular types of mood, gives us our
+_temperament_. The responsibility for this we share with our ancestors,
+but, even though predisposed through heredity to unfortunate moods, we
+can ourselves decide whether we shall give way to them. Temperaments
+have been classified as _sanguine_, _melancholic_, _choleric_, and
+_phlegmatic_. The sanguine type is inclined to look on the bright side
+of things, to be optimistic; the melancholic tends to moodiness and
+gloom; the choleric is easily irritated, quick to anger; the phlegmatic
+is not easily aroused to emotion, is cold and sluggish. An individual
+seldom belongs exclusively to one type.
+
+=Sentiments.=--Certain emotional tendencies become organized about an
+object and constitute a _sentiment_. The sentiment of love for our
+mother had its basis in our childhood in the perception of her as the
+source of numberless experiences involving pleasant feeling tones. As we
+grew older, we understood better her solicitude for our welfare and her
+sacrifices for our sake--further experiences involving a large feeling
+element. Thus there grew up about our mother an organized system of
+emotional tendencies, our sentiment of filial love. Such sentiments as
+patriotism, religious faith, selfishness, sympathy, arise and develop in
+the same way. Compared with moods, sentiments are more permanent in
+character and involve more complex knowledge elements. Moreover, they do
+not depend upon physiological conditions as do moods. One's organic
+sensations may affect one's mood to a considerable extent, but will
+scarcely influence one's patriotism or filial love.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE WILL
+
+VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF ACTION
+
+
+=Types of Movement.=--Closely associated with the problem of voluntary
+attention is that of voluntary movement, or control of action. It is an
+evident fact that the infant can at first exercise no conscious control
+over his bodily movements. He has, it is true, certain reflex and
+instinctive tendencies which enable him to react in a definite way to
+certain special stimuli. In such cases, however, there is no conscious
+control of the movements, the bodily organs merely responding in a
+definite way whenever the proper stimulus is present. The eye, for
+instance, must wink when any foreign matter affects it; wry movements of
+the face must accompany the bitter taste; and the body must start at a
+sudden noise. At other times, bodily movements may be produced in a more
+spontaneous way. Here the physical energy stored within the system gives
+rise to bodily activity and causes those random impulsive movements so
+evident during infancy and early childhood. When these movements, which
+are the only ones possible to very early childhood, are compared with
+the movements of a workman placing the brick in the wall or of an artist
+executing a delicate piece of carving, there is found in the latter
+movements the conscious idea of a definite end, or object, to be
+reached. To gain control of one's movements is, therefore, to acquire an
+ability to direct bodily actions toward the attainment of a given end.
+Thus a question arises as to the process by which a child attains to
+this bodily control.
+
+=Ideas of Movements Acquired.=--Although, as pointed out above, a
+child's early instinctive and impulsive movements are not under
+conscious control, they nevertheless become conscious acts, in the sense
+that the movements are soon realized in idea. The movements, in other
+words, give rise to conscious states, and these in turn are retained as
+portions of past experience. For instance, although the child at first
+grasps the object only impulsively, he nevertheless soon obtains an
+idea, or experience, of what it means to grasp with the hand. So, also,
+although he may first stretch the limb impulsively or make a wry face
+reflexively, he secures, in a short time, ideas representative of these
+movements. As the child thus obtains ideas representative of different
+bodily movements, he is able ultimately, by fixing his attention upon
+any movement, to produce it in a voluntary way.
+
+=Development of Control: A. Ideo-motor Action.=--At first, on account of
+the close association between the thought centres and the motor centres
+causing the act, the child seems to have little ability to check the
+act, whenever its representative idea enters consciousness. It is for
+this reason that young children often perform such seemingly
+unreasonable acts as, for instance, slapping another person, kicking and
+throwing objects, etc. In such cases, however, it must not be assumed
+that these are always deliberate acts. More often the act is performed
+simply because the image of the act arises in the child's mind, and his
+control of the motor discharge is so weak that the act follows
+immediately upon the idea. This same tendency frequently manifests
+itself even in the adult. As one thinks intently of some favourite game,
+he may suddenly find himself taking a bodily position used in playing
+that game. It is by the same law also that the impulsive man tends to
+act out in gesture any act that he may be describing in words. Such a
+type of action is described as ideo-motor action.
+
+=B. Deliberate Action.=--Because the child in time gains ideas of
+various movements and an ability to fix his attention upon them, he thus
+becomes able to set one motor image against another as possible lines of
+action. One image may suggest to slap; the other to caress; the one to
+pull the weeds in the flower bed; the other, to lie down in the hammock.
+But attention is ultimately able, as noted in the last Chapter, so to
+control the impulse and resistance in the proper nervous centres that
+the acts themselves may be indefinitely suspended. Thus the mind becomes
+able to conceive lines of action and, by controlling bodily movement,
+gain time to consider the effectiveness of these toward the attainment
+of any end. When a bodily movement thus takes place in relation to some
+conscious end in view, it is termed a deliberate act. One important
+result of physical exercises with the young child is that they develop
+in him this deliberate control of bodily movements. The same may be said
+also of any orderly modes of action employed in the general management
+of the school. Regular forms of assembly and dismissal, of moving about
+the class-room, etc., all tend to give the child this same control over
+his acts.
+
+=Action versus Result.=--As already noted, however, most of our
+movements soon develop into fixed habits. For this reason our bodily
+acts are usually performed more or less unconsciously, that is, without
+any deliberation as to the mere act itself. For this reason, we find
+that when bodily movements are held in check, or inhibited, in order to
+allow time for deliberation, attention usually fixes itself, not upon
+the acts themselves, but rather upon the results of these acts. For
+instance, a person having an axe and a saw may wish to divide a small
+board into two parts. Although the axe may be in his hand, he is
+thinking, not how he is to use the axe, but how it will result if he
+uses this to accomplish the end. In the same way he considers, not how
+to use the saw, but the result of using the saw. By inhibiting the motor
+impulses which would lead to the use of either of these, the individual
+is able to note, say, that to use the axe is a quick, but inaccurate,
+way of gaining the end; to use the saw, a slow, but accurate, way. The
+present need being interpreted as one where only an approximate division
+is necessary, attention is thereupon given wholly to the images tending
+to promote this action; resistance is thus overcome in these centres,
+and the necessary motor discharges for using the axe are given free
+play. Here, however, the mind evidently does not deliberate on how the
+hands are to use the axe or the saw, but rather upon the results
+following the use of these.
+
+
+VOLITION
+
+=Nature of Will.=--When voluntary attention is fixed, as above, upon the
+results of conflicting lines of action, the mind is said to experience a
+conflict of desires, or motives. So long as this conflict lasts,
+physical expression is inhibited, the mind deliberating upon and
+comparing the conflicting motives. For instance, a pupil on his way to
+school may be thrown into a conflict of motives. On the one side is a
+desire to remain under the trees near the bank of the stream; on the
+other a desire to obey his parents, and go to school. So long as these
+desires each press themselves upon the attention, there results an
+inhibiting of the nervous motor discharge with an accompanying mental
+state of conflict, or indecision. This prevents, for the time being, any
+action, and the youth deliberates between the two possible lines of
+conduct. As he weighs the various elements of pleasure on the one hand
+and of duty on the other, the one desire will finally appear the
+stronger. This constitutes the person's choice, or decision, and a line
+of action follows in accordance with the end, or motive, chosen. This
+mental choice, or decision, is usually termed an act of will.
+
+=Attention in Will.=--Such a choice between motives, however, evidently
+involves an act of voluntary attention. What really goes on in
+consciousness in such a conflict of motives is that voluntary attention
+makes a single problem of the twofold situation--school versus play. To
+this problem the attention marshals relative ideas and selects and
+adjusts them to the complex problem. Finally these are built into an
+organized experience which solves the problem as one, say, of going to
+school. The so-called choice is, therefore, merely the mental solution
+of the situation; the necessary bodily action follows in an habitual
+manner, once the attention lessens the resistance in the appropriate
+centres.
+
+=Factors in Volitional Act.=--Such an act of volition, or will, is
+usually analysed in the following steps:
+
+1. Conflicting desires
+
+2. Deliberation--weighing of motives
+
+3. Choice--solving the problem
+
+4. Expression.
+
+As a mental process, however, an act of will does not include the fourth
+step--expression. The mind has evidently willed, the moment a
+conclusion, or choice, is reached in reference to the end in view. If,
+therefore, I stand undecided whether to paint the house white or green,
+an act of will has taken place when the conclusion, or mental decision,
+has been reached to paint the house green. On the other hand, however,
+only the man who forms a decision and then resolutely works out his
+decision through actual expression, will be credited with a strong will
+by the ordinary observer.
+
+=Physical Conditions of Will.=--Deliberation being but a special case of
+giving voluntary attention to a selected problem, it involves the same
+expenditure of nervous energy in overcoming resistance within the brain
+centres as was seen to accompany any act of voluntary attention. Such
+being the case, our power of will at any given time is likely to vary in
+accordance with our bodily condition. The will is relatively weak during
+sickness, for instance, because the normal amount of nervous energy
+which must accompany the mental processes of deliberation and choice is
+not able to be supplied. For the same reason, lack of food and sleep,
+working in bad air, etc., are found to weaken the will for facing a
+difficulty, though we may nevertheless feel that it is something that
+ought to be done. An added reason, therefore, why the victim of alcohol
+and narcotics finds it difficult to break his habit is that the use of
+these may permanently lessen the energy of the nervous organism. In
+facing the difficult task of breaking an old habit, therefore, this
+person has rendered the task doubly difficult, because the indulgence
+has weakened his will for undertaking the struggle of breaking an old
+habit. On the other hand, good food, sleep, exercise in the fresh air,
+by quickening the blood and generating nervous energy, in a sense
+strengthens the will in undertaking the duties and responsibilities
+before it.
+
+
+ABNORMAL TYPES OF WILL
+
+=The Impulsive Will.=--One important problem in the education of the
+will is found in the relation of deliberation to choice. As is the case
+in a process of learning, the mind in deliberating must draw upon past
+experiences, must select and weigh conflicting ideas in a more or less
+intelligent manner, and upon this basis finally make its choice. A first
+characteristic of a person of will, therefore, is to be able to
+deliberate intelligently upon any different lines of action which may
+present themselves. But in the case of many individuals, there seems a
+lack of this power of deliberation. On every hand they display almost a
+childlike impulsiveness, rushing blindly into action, and always
+following up the word with the blow. This type, which is spoken of as an
+impulsive will, is likely to prevail more or less among young children.
+It is essential, therefore, that the teacher should take this into
+account in dealing with the moral and the practical actions of these
+children. It should be seen that such children in their various
+exercises are made to inhibit their actions sufficiently to allow them
+to deliberate and choose between alternative modes of action. For this
+purpose typical forms of constructive work will be found of educational
+value. In such exercises situations may be continually created in which
+the pupil must deliberate upon alternative lines of action and make his
+choice accordingly.
+
+=The Retarded Will.=--In some cases a type of will is met in which the
+attention seems unable to lead deliberation into a state of choice. Like
+Hamlet, the person keeps ever weighing whether _to be or not to be_ is
+the better course. Such people are necessarily lacking in achievement,
+although always intending to do great things in the future. This type of
+will is not so prevalent among young children; but if met, the teacher
+should, as far as possible, encourage the pupil to pass more rapidly
+from thought to action.
+
+=The Sluggish Will.=--A third and quite common defect of will is seen
+where the mind is either too ignorant or too lazy to do the work of
+deliberating. While such characters are not impulsive, they tend to
+follow lines of action merely by habit, or in accordance with the
+direction of others, and do little thinking for themselves. The only
+remedy for such people is, of course, to quicken their intellectual
+life. Unless this can be done, the goodness of their character must
+depend largely upon the nobility of those who direct the formation of
+their habits and do their thinking for them.
+
+=Development of Will.=--By recalling what has been established
+concerning the learning process, we may learn that most school
+exercises, when properly conducted, involve the essential facts of an
+act of will. In an ordinary school exercise, the child first has before
+him a certain aim, or problem, and then must select from former
+experience the related ideas which will enable him to solve this
+problem. So far, however, as the child is led to select and reject for
+himself these interpreting ideas, he must evidently go through a process
+similar to that of an ordinary act of will. When, for example, the child
+faces the problem of finding out how many yards of carpet of a certain
+width will cover the floor of a room, he must first decide how to find
+the number of strips required. Having come to a decision on this point,
+he must next give expression to his decision by actually working out
+this part of the problem. In like manner, he must now decide how to
+proceed with the next step in his problem and, having come to a
+conclusion on this point, must also give it expression by performing
+the necessary mathematical processes. It is for this reason, that the
+ordinary lessons and exercises of the school, when presented to the
+children as actual problems, constitute an excellent means for
+developing will power.
+
+=The Essentials of Moral Character.=--It must be noted finally, that
+will power is a third essential factor in the attainment of real moral
+character, or social efficiency. We have learned that man, through the
+possession of an intelligent nature, is able to grasp the significance
+of his experience and thus form comprehensive plans and purposes for the
+regulation of his conduct. We have noted further that, through the
+development of right feeling, he may come to desire and plan for the
+attainment of only such ends as make for righteousness. Yet, however
+noble his desires, and however intelligent and comprehensive his plans
+and purposes, it is only as he develops a volitional personality, or
+determination of character which impels toward the attainment of these
+noble ends through intelligent plans, that man can be said to live the
+truly efficient life.
+
+    Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control,
+    These three alone lead life to sovereign power.
+
+In this connection, also, we cannot do better than quote Huxley's
+description of an educated man, as given in his essay on _A Liberal
+Education_, a description which may be considered to crystallize the
+true conception of an efficient citizen:
+
+     That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so
+     trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will,
+     and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism,
+     it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine,
+     with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order;
+     ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and
+     spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose
+     mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths
+     of nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted
+     ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained
+     to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender
+     conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature
+     or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+CHILD STUDY
+
+
+=Scope and Purpose of Child Study.=--By child study is meant the
+observation of the general characteristics and the leading individual
+differences exhibited by children during the periods of infancy,
+childhood, and adolescence. Its purpose is to gather facts regarding
+childhood and formulate them into principles that are applicable in
+education. From the teacher's standpoint, the purpose is to be able to
+adapt intelligently his methods in each subject to the child's mind at
+the different stages of its development.
+
+In the education of the child we have our eyes fixed, at least partly,
+upon his future. The aim of education is usually stated in terms of what
+the child is to _become_. He is to become a socially efficient
+individual, to be fitted to live completely, to develop a good moral
+character, to have his powers of mind and body harmoniously developed.
+All these aims look toward the future. But what the child _becomes_
+depends upon what he _is_. Education, in its broadest sense, means
+taking the individual's present equipment of mind and body and so using
+it as to enable him to become something else in the future. The teacher
+must be concerned, therefore, not only with what he wishes the child to
+_become_ in the future, but also with what he _is_, here and now.
+
+=Importance to the Teacher.=--The adaptation of matter and method to the
+child's tendencies, capacities, and interests, which all good teaching
+demands, is possible only through an understanding of his nature. The
+teacher must have regard, not only to the materials and the method used
+in training, but also to the being who is to be trained. A knowledge of
+child nature will prevent expensive mistakes and needless waste.
+
+A few typical examples will serve to illustrate the immense importance a
+knowledge of child nature is to his teacher.
+
+1. As has been already explained, when the teacher knows something about
+the instincts of children, he will utilize these tendencies in his
+teaching and work with them, not against them. He will, wherever
+possible, make use of the play instinct in his lessons, as for example,
+when he makes the multiplication drill a matter of climbing a stairway
+without stumbling or crossing a stream on stones without falling in. He
+will use the instinct of physical activity in having children learn
+number combinations by manipulating blocks, or square measure by
+actually measuring surfaces, or fractions by using scissors and strips
+of cardboard, or geographical features by modelling in sand and clay. He
+will use the imitative instinct in cultivating desirable personal
+habits, such as neatness, cleanliness, and order, and in modifying
+conduct through the inspiring presentation of history and literature. He
+will provide exercise for the instinct of curiosity by suggesting
+interesting problems in geography and nature study.
+
+2. When the teacher understands the principle of eliminating undesirable
+tendencies by substitution, he will not regard as cardinal sins the
+pushing, pinching, and kicking in which boys give vent to their excess
+energy, but will set about directing this purposeless activity into more
+profitable channels. He will thus substitute another means of
+expression for the present undesirable means. He will, for instance,
+give opportunity for physical exercises, paper-folding and cutting,
+cardboard work, wood-work, drawing, colour work, modelling, etc., so far
+as possible in all school subjects. He will try to transform the boy who
+teases and bullies the smaller boys into a guardian and protector. He
+will try to utilize the boy's tendency to collect useless odds and ends
+by turning it into the systematic and purposeful collection of plants,
+insects, specimens of soils, specimens illustrating phases of
+manufactures, postage stamps, coins, etc.
+
+3. When the teacher knows that the interests of pupils have much to do
+with determining their effort, he will endeavour to seize upon these
+interests when most active. He will thus be saved such blunders as
+teaching in December a literature lesson on _An Apple Orchard in the
+Spring_, or assigning a composition on "Tobogganing" in June, because he
+realizes that the interest in these topics is not then active. Each
+season, each month of the year, each festival and holiday has its own
+particular interests, which may be effectively utilized by the
+presentation of appropriate materials in literature, in composition, in
+nature study, and in history. A current event may be taken advantage of
+to teach an important lesson in history or civics. For instance, an
+election may be made the occasion of a lesson on voting by ballot, a
+miniature election being conducted for that purpose.
+
+4. When the teacher appreciates the extent of the capacities of
+children, he will not make too heavy demands upon their powers of
+logical reasoning by introducing too soon the study of formal grammar or
+the solution of difficult arithmetical problems. When he knows that the
+period from eight to twelve is the habit-forming period, he will
+stress, during these years such things as mechanical accuracy in the
+fundamental rules in arithmetic, the memorization of gems of poetry, and
+the cultivation of right physical and moral habits. When he knows the
+influence of motor expression in giving definiteness, vividness, and
+permanency to ideas, he will have much work in drawing, modelling,
+constructive work, dramatization, and oral and written expression.
+
+
+METHODS OF CHILD STUDY
+
+=A. Observation.=--From the teacher's standpoint the method of
+observation of individual children is the most practicable. He has the
+material for his observations constantly before him. He soon discovers
+that one pupil is clever, another dull; that one excels in arithmetic,
+another in history; that one is inclined to jump to conclusions, another
+is slow and deliberate. He is thus able to adapt his methods to meet
+individual requirements. But however advantageous this may be from the
+practical point of view, it must be noted that the facts thus secured
+are individual and not universal. Such child study does not in itself
+carry one very far. To be of real value to the teacher, these particular
+facts must be recognized as illustrative of a general law. When the
+teacher discovers, for instance, that nobody in his class responds very
+heartily to an abstract discussion of the rabbit, but that everybody is
+intensely interested when the actual rabbit is observed, he may regard
+the facts as illustrating the general principle that children need to be
+appealed to through the senses. Likewise when he obtains poor results in
+composition on the topic, "How I Spent My Summer Holidays," but
+excellent results on "How to Plant Bulbs," especially after the pupils
+have planted a bed of tulips on the front lawn, he may infer the law,
+that the best work is obtained when the matter is closely associated
+with the active interests of pupils. By watching the children when they
+are on the school grounds, the teacher may observe how far the
+occupations of the home, or a current event, such as a circus, an
+election, or a war, influences the play of the children. Thus the method
+of observation requires that not only individual facts should be
+obtained, but also that general principles should be inferred on the
+basis of these. Care must be taken, however, that the facts observed
+justify the inference.
+
+=B. Experiment.=--An experiment in any branch of science means the
+observation of results under controlled conditions. Experimental child
+study must, to a large extent, therefore, be relegated to the
+psychological laboratory. Such experiments as the localization of
+cutaneous impressions, the influence of certain operations on fatigue,
+or the discovery of the length of time necessary for a conscious
+reaction, can be successfully carried out only with more or less
+elaborate equipment and under favourable conditions. However, the school
+offers opportunity for some simple yet practical experiments in child
+study. The teacher may discover experimentally what is the most
+favourable period at which to place a certain subject on the school
+programme, whether, for instance, it is best to take mechanical
+arithmetic when the minds of the pupils are fresh or when they are
+weary, or whether the writing lesson had better be taught immediately
+after the strenuous play at recess or at a time when the muscles are
+rested. He may find out the response of the pupils to problems in
+arithmetic closely connected with their lives (for example, in a rural
+community problems relating to farm activities), as compared with their
+response to problems involving more or less remote ideas. He may
+discover to what extent concentration in securing neat exercises in one
+subject, composition for instance, affects the exercises in other
+subjects in which neatness has not been explicitly demanded. This latter
+experiment might throw some light upon the much debated question of
+formal discipline. In all these cases the teacher must be on his guard
+not to accept as universal principles what he has found to be true of a
+small group of pupils, until at least he has found his conclusions
+verified by other experimenters.
+
+=C. Direct Questions.=--This method involves the submission of questions
+to pupils of a particular age or grade, collecting and classifying their
+answers, and basing conclusions upon these. Much work in this direction
+has been done in recent years by certain educators, and much
+illuminating and more or less useful material has been collected. A good
+deal of light has been thrown upon the apperceptive material that
+children have possession of by noting their answers to such questions
+as: "Have you ever seen the stars? A robin? A pig? Where does milk come
+from? Where do potatoes come from?" etc., etc. The practical value of
+this method lies in the insight it gives into the interests of children,
+the kind of imagery they use, and the relationships they have set up
+among their ideas. Every teacher has been surprised at times at the
+absurd answers given by children. These absurdities are usually due to
+the teacher's taking for granted that the pupils have possession of
+certain old knowledge that is actually absent. The moral of such
+occurrences is that he should examine very carefully what "mind stuff"
+the pupils have for interpreting the new material.
+
+=D. Biographical Studies of Individual Children.=--Many books have been
+written describing the development of individual children. These
+descriptions doubtless contain much that is typical of all children, but
+one must be careful not to argue too much from an individual case. Such
+records are valuable as confirmatory evidence of what has already been
+observed in connection with other children, or as suggestive of what may
+be looked for in them.
+
+
+PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
+
+The period covered by child study may be roughly divided into three
+parts, namely, (1) infancy, extending from birth to three years of age,
+(2) childhood, from three to twelve, and (3) adolescence, from twelve to
+eighteen. While children during each of these periods exhibit striking
+dissimilarities one from another, there are nevertheless many
+characteristics that are fairly universal during each period.
+
+
+1. INFANCY
+
+=A. Physical Characteristics.=--One of the striking features of infancy
+is the rapidity with which command of the bodily organs is secured.
+Starting with a few inherited reflexes, the child at three years of age
+has attained fairly complete control of his sense organs and bodily
+movements, though he lacks that co-ordination of muscles by which
+certain delicate effects of hand and voice are produced. The relative
+growth is greater at this than at any subsequent period. Another
+prominent characteristic is the tendency to incessant movement. The
+constant handling, exploring, and analysing of objects enhances the
+child's natural thirst for knowledge, and he probably obtains a larger
+stock of ideas during the first three years of his life than during any
+equal period subsequently.
+
+=B. Mental Characteristics.=--A conspicuous feature of infancy is the
+imitative tendency, which early manifests itself. Through this means
+the child acquires many of his movements, his language power, and the
+simple games he plays. Sense impressions begin to lose their fleeting
+character and to become more permanent. As evidence of this, few
+children remember events farther back than their third year, while many
+can distinctly recall events of the third and fourth years even after
+the lapse of a long period of time. The child at this period begins to
+compare, classify, and generalize in an elementary way, though his ideas
+are still largely of the concrete variety. His attention is almost
+entirely non-voluntary; he is interested in objects and activities for
+themselves alone, and not for the sake of an end. He is, as yet, unable
+to conceive remote ends, the prime condition of voluntary attention. His
+ideas of right and wrong conduct are associated with the approval and
+disapproval of those about him.
+
+
+2. CHILDHOOD
+
+=A. Physical Characteristics.=--In the earlier period of childhood, from
+three to seven years, bodily growth is very rapid. Much of the vital
+force is thus consumed, and less energy is available for physical
+activity. The child has also less power of resistance and is thus
+susceptible to the diseases of childhood. His movements are for the same
+reason lacking in co-ordination. In the later period, from seven to
+twelve years, the bodily growth is less rapid, more energy is available
+for physical activity, and the co-ordination of muscles is greater. The
+brain has now reached its maximum size and weight, any further changes
+being due to the formation of associative pathways along nerve centres.
+This is, therefore, pre-eminently the habit-forming period. From the
+physical standpoint this means that those activities that are
+essentially habitual must have their genesis during the period between
+seven and twelve if they are to function perfectly in later life. The
+mastery of a musical instrument must be begun then if technique is ever
+to be perfect. If a foreign language is to be acquired, it should be
+begun in this period, or there will always be inaccuracies in
+pronunciation and articulation.
+
+=B. Mental Characteristics.=--The instinct of curiosity is very active
+in the earlier period of childhood, and this, combined with greater
+language power, leads to incessant questionings on the part of the
+child. He wants to know what, where, why, and how, in regard to
+everything that comes under his notice, and fortunate indeed is that
+child whose parent or teacher is sufficiently long-suffering to give
+satisfactory answers to his many and varied questions. To ignore the
+inquiries of the child, or to return impatient or grudging answers may
+inhibit the instinct and lead later to a lack of interest in the world
+about him. The imitative instinct is also still active and reveals
+itself particularly in the child's play, which in the main reflects the
+activities of those about him. He plays horse, policeman, school,
+Indian, in imitation of the occupations of others. Parents and teachers
+should depend largely upon this imitative tendency to secure desirable
+physical habits, such as erect and graceful carriage, cleanliness of
+person, orderly arrangement of personal belongings, neatness in dress,
+etc. The imagination is exceedingly active during childhood, fantastic
+and unregulated in the earlier period, under better control and
+direction in the later. It reveals itself in the love of hearing,
+reading, or inventing stories. The imitative play mentioned above is one
+phase of imaginative activity. The child's ideas of conduct, in this
+earlier stage of childhood, are derived from the pleasure or pain of
+their consequences. He has as yet little power of subordinating his
+lower impulses to an ideal end, and hence is not properly a moral being.
+Good conduct must, therefore, be secured principally through the
+exercise of arbitrary authority from without.
+
+In the later period of childhood, acquired interests begin to be formed
+and, coincident with this, active attention appears. The child begins to
+be interested in the product, not merely in the process. The mind at
+this period is most retentive of sense impressions. This is consequently
+the time to bring the child into immediate contact with his environment
+through his senses, in such departments as nature study and field work
+in geography. Thus is laid the basis of future potentialities of
+imagery, and through it appreciation of literature. On account of the
+acuteness of sense activity at this period, this is also the time for
+memorization of fine passages of prose and poetry. The child's thinking
+is still of the pictorial rather than of the abstract order, though the
+powers of generalization and language are considerably extended. The
+social interests are not yet strong, and hence co-operation for a common
+purpose is largely absent. His games show a tendency toward
+individualism. When co-operative games are indulged in, he is usually
+willing to sacrifice the interests of his team to his own personal
+glorification.
+
+
+3. ADOLESCENCE
+
+=A. Physical Characteristics.=--In early adolescence the characteristic
+physical accompaniments of early childhood are repeated, namely, rapid
+growth and lack of muscular co-ordination. From twelve to fifteen, girls
+grow more rapidly than boys and are actually taller and heavier than
+boys at corresponding ages. From fifteen onward, however, the boys
+rapidly outstrip the girls in growth. Lack of muscular co-ordination is
+responsible for the awkward movements, ungainly appearance, ungraceful
+carriage, with their attendant self-consciousness, so characteristic of
+both boys and girls in early adolescence.
+
+=B. Mental Characteristics.=--Ideas are gradually freed from their
+sensory accompaniments. The child thinks in symbols rather than in
+sensory images. Consequently there is a greater power of abstraction and
+reflective thought. This is therefore the period for emphasizing those
+subjects requiring logical reasoning, for example, mathematics, science,
+and the reflective aspects of grammar, history, and geography.
+
+From association with others or from literature and history, ideals
+begin to be formed which influence conduct. This is brought about
+largely through the principle of suggestion. In the early years of
+adolescence children are very susceptible to suggestions, but the
+suggestive ideas must be introduced by a person who is trusted, admired,
+or loved, or under circumstances inspiring these feelings; hence the
+importance to the adolescent of having teachers of strong and inspiring
+personality. However, if the suggestive idea is to influence action, it
+must be introduced in such a way as not to set up a reaction against it.
+Reaction will be set up if the idea is antagonistic to the present
+ideas, feelings, or aims, or if it is so persistently thrust upon the
+child that he begins to suspect that he is being unduly influenced. To
+avoid reaction the parent or teacher should introduce suggestive ideas
+indirectly. For instance, while the mind is concentrated upon one set of
+ideas, a suggestive idea that would otherwise be distasteful may be
+tolerated. It may lie latent for a time, and when it recurs it may be
+regarded as original, under which condition it is likely to issue in
+action.
+
+The adolescent stage is the period of greatest emotional development,
+and care should therefore be exercised to have the child's mind dwell
+upon only those ideas with which worthy emotions are associated. The
+emotional bent, whether good or bad, is determined to a large extent
+during this period of adolescence. So far as morality is the
+subordination of primitive instincts to higher ideas, the child now
+becomes a moral being. His conduct is now determined by reason and by
+ideals, and the primitive pleasure-pain motives disappear. It follows
+that coercion and arbitrary authority have little place in discipline at
+this period. Social interests are prominent, evidenced by the tendency
+to co-operate with others for a common end. The games of the period are
+mainly of the co-operative variety and are marked by a willingness to
+sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the team, or side.
+
+
+INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
+
+While, as noted above, all children have certain common characteristics
+at each of the three periods of development, it is even more apparent
+that every child is in many respects different from every other child.
+He has certain peculiarities that demand particular treatment. It is
+evident that it would be impossible to enumerate all the individual
+differences in children. The most that can be done is to classify the
+most striking differences and endeavour to place individual children in
+one or other of these classes.
+
+=A. Differences in Thought.=--One of the obvious classifications of
+pupils is that of "quick" and "slow." The former learns easily, but
+often forgets quickly; the latter learns slowly, but usually retains
+well. The former is keen and alert; the latter, dull and passive. The
+former frequently lacks perseverance; the latter is often tenacious and
+persistent. The former unjustly wins applause for his cleverness; the
+latter, equally unjustly, wins contempt for his dulness. The teacher
+must not be unfair to the dull plodder, who in later years may
+frequently outstrip his brilliant competitor in the race of life.
+
+Some pupils think better in the abstract, others, in the concrete. The
+former will analyse and parse well in grammar, distinguish fine shades
+of meaning in language, manage numbers skilfully, or work out chemical
+equations accurately. The latter will be more successful in doing
+things, for instance, measuring boards, planning and planting a garden
+plot, making toys, designing dolls' clothes, and cooking. The schools of
+the past have all emphasized the ability to think in the abstract, and
+to a large extent ignored the ability to think in the concrete. This is
+unfair to the one class of thinkers. From the ranks of those who think
+in the abstract have come the great statesmen, poets, and philosophers;
+from the ranks of those who think in the concrete have come the
+carpenters, builders, and inventors. It will be admitted that the world
+owes as great a debt from the practical standpoint to the latter class
+as to the former. Let the school not despise or ignore the pupil who,
+though unable to think well in abstract studies, is able to do things.
+
+=B. Differences in Action.=--There is a marked difference among children
+in the ability to connect an abstract direction with the required act.
+This is particularly seen in writing, art, and constructive work,
+subjects in which the aim is the formation of habit, and in which
+success depends upon following explicitly the direction given. The
+teacher will find it economical to give very definite instruction as to
+what is to be done in work in these subjects. It is equally important
+that instructions regarding conduct should be definite and unmistakable.
+
+As explained in the last Chapter, there are two extreme and contrasting
+types of will exhibited by children, namely, the impulsive type and the
+obstructed type. In the former, action occurs without deliberation
+immediately upon the appearance of the idea in consciousness. This type
+is illustrated in the case of the pupil who, as soon as he hears a
+question, thoughtlessly blurts out an answer without any reflection
+whatever. In the adult, we find a similar illustration when, immediately
+upon hearing a pitiable story from a beggar, he hands out a dollar
+without stopping to investigate whether or not the action is
+well-advised. It is useless to plead in extenuation of such actions that
+the answer may be correct or the act noble and generous. The probability
+is equally great that the opposite may be the case. The remedy for
+impulsive action is patiently and persistently to encourage the pupil to
+reflect a moment before acting. In the case of the obstructed type of
+will, the individual ponders long over a course of action before he is
+able to bring himself to a decision. Such is the child whom it is hard
+to persuade to answer even easy questions, because he is unable to
+decide in just what form to put his answer. On an examination paper he
+proceeds slowly, not because he does not know the matter, but because he
+finds it hard to decide just what facts to select and how to express
+them. The bashful child belongs to this type. He would like to answer
+questions asked him, to talk freely with others, to act without any
+feeling of restraint, but is unable to bring himself to do so. The
+obstinate child is also of this type. He knows what he ought to do, but
+the opposing motives are strong enough to inhibit action in the right
+direction. As already shown, the remedy for the obstructed will is to
+encourage rapid deliberation and choice and then immediate action,
+thrusting aside all opposing motives. Show such pupils that in cases
+where the motives for and against a certain course of action are of
+equal strength, it often does not matter which course is selected. One
+may safely choose either and thus end the indecision. The "quick" child
+usually belongs to the impulsive type; the "slow" child, to the
+obstructed type. The former is apt to decide and act hastily and
+frequently unwisely; the latter is more guarded and, on the whole, more
+sound in his decision and action.
+
+=C. Differences in Temperament.=--All four types of temperament given in
+the formal classification are represented among children in school. The
+_choleric_ type is energetic, impulsive, quick-tempered, yet forgiving,
+interested in outward events. The _phlegmatic_ type is impassive,
+unemotional, slow to anger, but not of great kindness, persistent in
+pursuing his purposes. The _sanguine_ type is optimistic,
+impressionable, enthusiastic, but unsteady. The _melancholic_ type is
+pessimistic, introspective, moody, suspicious of the motives of others.
+Most pupils belong to more than one class. Perhaps the two most
+prominent types represented in school are (1) that variety of the
+sanguine temperament which leads the individual to think himself, his
+possessions, and his work superior to all others, and (2) that variety
+of the melancholic temperament which leads the individual to fancy
+himself constantly the victim of injustice on the part of the teacher or
+the other pupils. A pupil of the first type always believes that his
+work is perfectly done; he boasts that he is sure he made a hundred per
+cent. on his examinations; what he has is always, in his own estimation,
+better than that of others. When the teacher suggests that his work
+might be better done, the pupil appears surprised and aggrieved. Such a
+child should be shown that he is right in not being discouraged over his
+own efforts, but wrong in thinking that his work does not admit of
+improvement. A pupil of the second type is continually imagining that
+the teacher treats him unjustly, that the other pupils slight or injure
+him, that, in short, he is an object of persecution. Such a pupil should
+be shown that nobody has a grudge against him, that the so-called
+slights are entirely imaginary, and that he should take a sane view of
+these things, depending more upon judgment than on feeling to estimate
+the action of others toward him.
+
+=D. Sex Differences.=--Boys differ from girls in the predominance of
+certain instincts, interests, and mental powers. In boys the fighting
+instinct, and capacities of leadership, initiative, and mastery are
+prominent. In girls the instinct of nursing and fondling, and the
+capacities to comfort and relieve are prominent. These are revealed in
+the games of the playground. The interests of the two sexes are
+different, since their games and later pursuits are different. In a
+system of co-education it is impossible to take full cognizance of this
+fact in the work of the school. Yet it is possible to make some
+differentiation between the work assigned to boys and that assigned to
+girls. For instance, arithmetical problems given to boys might deal with
+activities interesting to boys, and those to girls might deal with
+activities interesting to girls. In composition the differentiation will
+be easier. Such a topic as "A Game of Baseball" would be more suitable
+for boys, and on the other hand "How to Bake Bread" would make a
+stronger appeal to girls. Similarly in literature, such a poem as _How
+They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix_ would be particularly
+interesting to boys, while _The Romance of a Swan's Nest_ would be of
+greater interest to girls. As to mental capacities, boys are usually
+superior in those fields where logical reasoning is demanded, while
+girls usually surpass boys in those fields involving perceptive powers
+and verbal memory. For instance, boys succeed better in mathematics,
+science, and the reflective phases of history; girls succeed better in
+spelling, in harmonizing colours in art work, in distinguishing fine
+shades of meaning in language, and in memorizing poetry. The average
+intellectual ability of each sex is nearly the same, but boys deviate
+from the average more than girls. Thus while the most brilliant pupils
+are likely to be boys, the dullest are also likely to be boys. It is a
+scientific fact that there are more individuals of conspicuously clever
+mind, but also more of weak intellect, among men than there are among
+women.
+
+=A Caution.=--While it has been stated that the teacher should take
+notice of individual differences in his pupils, it may be advisable also
+to warn the student-teacher against any extravagant tendency in the
+direction of such a study. A teacher is occasionally met who seems to
+act on the assumption that his chief function is not to educate but to
+study children. Too much of his time may therefore be spent in the
+conducting of experiments and the making of observations to that end.
+While the data thus secured may be of some value, it must not be
+forgotten that control of the subject-matter of education and of the
+method of presenting that subject-matter to the normal child, together
+with an earnest, enthusiastic, and sympathetic manner, are the prime
+qualifications of the teacher as an instructor.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+SUGGESTED READINGS FROM BOOKS OF REFERENCE
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter I.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter II.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter I.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter I.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Bagley        Educational Values, Chapters I, II, III.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter III.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter I.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XIV.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter I.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XI.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters II, XV.
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapters VI, VII.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter XVIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter III.
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part II.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapters I, IV.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter XIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV.
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VII.
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part II.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter II.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VII.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VI.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapters IV, IX.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter VI.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, V, IX.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+Betts         Psychology, Chapter XVI.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter XIII.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter IX.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VII.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters XIX, XX.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter XXII.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapters VIII, X.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters V, VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters XXI, XXII.
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter IV.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters IV, VIII, X.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XII.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Educative Process, Chapter XI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter I.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Education, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter II.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter I.
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter II.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter III.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter II.
+Halleck       Education of the Central Nervous System.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV.
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter X.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter III.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter IV.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter III.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter VII.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter V.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter VIII.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter XIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter IV.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter II.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter XXI.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XIII.
+James         Talks to Teachers, Chapter X.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters V, VI.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VI.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapters IV, VII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter IX.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XI.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VIII.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter III.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter VIII.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter IX.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters X, XII.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IX, X.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter X.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter XXII.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter IX.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters XIII, XIV.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapters XII, XIV.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapters XI, XII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters XX, XXII.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XV.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter XIII.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter XII.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter V.
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science
+of Education, by Ontario Ministry of Education
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Science of Education, by The Minister of Education for Ontario.
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of
+Education, by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of Education
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2006 [EBook #18451]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL ***
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+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h1>ONTARIO<br />
+NORMAL SCHOOL MANUALS</h1>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%;" />
+
+<h1>SCIENCE OF EDUCATION</h1>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus001.jpg"
+alt="emblem"
+title="emblem" /></p>
+
+<h3>AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<h4>TORONTO<br />
+THE RYERSON PRESS</h4>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;"><span class="smcap">Copyright, Canada</span>, 1915, <span class="smcap">by The Minister of Education for
+Ontario</span></p>
+
+<p style="text-align:center;">Second Printing, 1919. Third Printing, 1923.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="TABLE OF CONTENTS">
+<tr><td align='center'>PART I</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter I</span></td><td align='right'><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Nature and Purpose of Education</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Conditions of Growth and Development</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Worth in Human Life</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Factors in Social Efficiency</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter II</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Forms of Reaction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Instinctive Reaction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Habitual Reaction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Conscious Reaction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Factors in process</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Experience</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Relative value of experiences</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Influence of Conscious Reaction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter III</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Process of Education</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Conscious Adjustment</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Education as Adjustment</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Education as Control of Adjustment</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Requirements of the Instructor</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter IV</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The School Curriculum</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Purposes of Curriculum</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Dangers in Use of Curriculum</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter V</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Educational Institutions</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The School</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Other Educative Agents</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The church</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The home</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The vocation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Other institutions</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter VI</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Purpose of the School</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Civic Views</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_38">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Individualistic Views</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Eclectic View</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter VII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Divisions of Educational Study</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Control of Experience</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Instructor's Problems</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">General method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Special methods</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">School management</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">History of education</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>PART II</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>METHODOLOGY</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter VIII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">General Method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Subdivisions of Method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Method and Mind</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter IX</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Lesson Problem</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Nature of Problem</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Need of Problem</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Pupil's Motive</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Awakening Interest</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Knowledge of Problem</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">How to Set Problem</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Examples of Motivation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter X</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Learning as a Selecting Activity</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Selecting Process</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Law of Preparation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Value of preparation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Precautions</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Necessity of preparation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Examples of preparation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XI</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Learning as a Relating Activity</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Nature of Synthesis</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Interaction of Processes</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Knowledge unified</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Application of Knowledge</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Types of Action</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Nature of Expression</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Types of Expression</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Value of Expression</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Dangers of Omitting</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Expression and Impression</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XIII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Forms of Lesson Presentation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Lecture Method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Text-book Method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Uses of text-book</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Abuse of text-book</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Developing Method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Objective Method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Illustrative Method</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Precautions</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Modes of Presentation Compared</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XIV</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Classification of Knowledge</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Acquisition of Particular Knowledge</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Through senses</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Through imagination</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">By deduction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Acquisition of General Knowledge</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">By conception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">By induction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Applied knowledge general</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Processes of Acquiring Knowledge Similar</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_127">127</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XV</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Modes of Learning</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Development of Particular Knowledge</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Learning through senses</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Learning through imagination</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Learning by deduction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Examples for study</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Development of General Knowledge</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The conceptual lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The inductive lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The formal steps</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Conception as learning process</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Induction as learning process</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Further examples</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The inductive-deductive lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XVI</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Lesson Unit</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Whole to Parts</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Parts to Whole</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Precautions</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XVII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Lesson Types</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Study Lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Recitation Lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Conducting recitation lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The Drill Lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The Review Lesson</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind3">The topical review</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind3">The comparative review</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XVIII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Questioning</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Qualifications of Good Questioner</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Purposes of Questioning</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Socratic Questioning</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Question</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Answer</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Limitations</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>PART III</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XIX</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Consciousness</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Value of Educational Psychology</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Limitations</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Methods of Psychology</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Phases of Consciousness</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XX</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Mind and Body</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Nervous System</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">The Cortex</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Reflex Acts</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Characteristics of Nervous Matter</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXI</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Instinct</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Human Instincts</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Curiosity</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Imitation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Play</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind3">Play in education</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Habit</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Formation of Habits</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Value of Habits</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_231">231</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Improvement of Habits</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXIII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Attention</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Attention Selective</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_240">240</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Involuntary Attention</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Non-voluntary Attention</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Voluntary Attention</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Attention in Education</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXIV</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Feeling of Interest</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Classes of Feelings</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Interest in Education</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_261">261</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Development of interests</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXV</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Sense Perception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Genesis of Perception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Factors in Sensation</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Classification of Sensations</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Education of the Senses</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_276">276</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXVI</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Memory and Apperception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Distinguished</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Factors of Memory</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_284">284</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Conditions of Memory</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Types of Recall</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Localization of Time</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Classification of Memories</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_290">290</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Memory in Education</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Apperception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Conditions of Apperception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Factors in Apperception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXVII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Imagination</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Types of Imagination</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Passive</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Active</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Uses of Imagination</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_301">301</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXVIII</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Thinking</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Conception</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Factors in concept</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Aims of conceptual lessons</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">The definition</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_313">313</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Judgment</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Errors in judgment</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Reasoning</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Deduction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Induction</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Development of Reasoning Power</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXIX</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Feeling</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Conditions of Feeling Tone</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_331">331</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Sensuous Feelings</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Emotion</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Conditions of emotion</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Other Types of Feeling</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Mood</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Disposition</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Temperament</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Sentiments</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_341">341</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXX</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Will</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Types of Movement</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_342">342</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Development of Control</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Volition</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Factors in volitional act</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Abnormal Types of Will</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_348">348</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Chapter XXXI</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Child Study</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Methods of Child Study</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Periods of Development</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Infancy</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Childhood</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_359">359</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind2">Adolescence</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_361">361</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="ind1">Individual Differences</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Appendix</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span class="smcap ind2">Suggested Readings</span></td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION</h1>
+
+<h2>PART I. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<h2>NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Value of Scientific Knowledge.</b>&mdash;In the practice of any intelligent
+occupation or art, in so far as the practice attains to perfection,
+there are manifested in the processes certain scientific principles and
+methods to which the work of the one practising the art conforms. In the
+successful practice, for example, of the art of composition, there are
+manifested the principles of rhetoric; in that of housebuilding, the
+principles of architecture; and in that of government, the principles of
+civil polity. In practising any such art, moreover, the worker finds
+that a knowledge of these scientific principles and methods will guide
+him in the correct practice of the art,&mdash;a knowledge of the science of
+rhetoric assisting in the art of composition; of the science of
+architecture, in the art of housebuilding; and of the science of civil
+polity, in the art of government.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Science of Education.</b>&mdash;If the practice of teaching is an
+intelligent art, there must, in like manner, be found in its processes
+certain principles and methods which may be set forth in systematic form
+as a science of education, and applied by the educator in the art of
+teaching. Assuming the existence of a science of education, it is
+further evident that the student-teacher should make himself acquainted
+with its leading principles, and likewise learn to apply these
+principles in his practice of the art of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> teaching. To this end,
+however, it becomes necessary at the outset to determine the limits of
+the subject-matter of the science. We shall, therefore, first consider
+the general nature and purpose of education so far as to decide the
+facts to be included in this science.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Physical Growth.</b>&mdash;Although differing in their particular conception
+of the nature of education, all educators agree in setting the child as
+the central figure in the educative process. As an individual, the
+child, like other living organisms, develops through a process of inner
+changes which are largely conditioned by outside influences. In the case
+of animals and plants, physical growth, or development, is found to
+consist of changes caused in the main through the individual responding
+to external stimulation. Taking one of the simplest forms of animal
+life, for example, the amoeba, we find that when stimulated by any
+foreign matter not constituting its food, say a particle of sand, such
+an organism at once withdraws itself from the stimulating elements. On
+the other hand, if it comes in contact with suitable food, the amoeba
+not only flows toward it, but by assimilating it, at once begins to
+increase in size, or grow, until it finally divides, or reproduces,
+itself as shown in the following figures. Hence the amoeba as an
+organism is not only able to react appropriately toward different
+stimuli, but is also able to change itself, or develop, by its
+appropriate reactions upon such stimulations.</p>
+
+<p>In plant life, also, the same principle holds. As long as a grain of
+corn, wheat, etc., is kept in a dry place, the life principle stored up
+within the seed is unable to manifest itself in growth. When, on the
+other hand, it is appropriately stimulated by water, heat, and light,
+the seed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> awakens to life, or germinates. In other words, the seed
+reacts upon the external stimulations of water, heat, and light, and
+manifests the activity known as growth, or development. Thus all
+physical growth, whether of the plant or the animal, is conditioned on
+the energizing of the inherent life principle, in response to
+appropriate stimulation of the environment.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus002.jpg"
+alt="Amoeba"
+title="Amoeba" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">
+A. Simple amoeba.<br />
+B. An amoeba developing as a result of assimilating food.<br />
+C. An amoeba about to divide, or propagate.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>B. Development in Human Life.</b>&mdash;In addition to its physical nature,
+human life has within it a spiritual law, or principle, which enables
+the individual to respond to suitable stimulations and by that means
+develop into an intelligent and moral being. When, for instance, waves
+of light from an external object stimulate the nervous system through
+the eye, man is able, through his intelligent nature, to react mentally
+upon these stimulations and, by interpreting them, build up within his
+experience conscious images of light, colour, and form. In like manner,
+when the nerves in the hand are stimulated by an external object, the
+mind is able to react upon the impressions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> and, by interpreting them,
+obtain images of touch, temperature, and weight. In the sphere of
+action, also, the child who is stimulated by the sight of his elder
+pounding with a hammer, sweeping with a broom, etc., reacts imitatively
+upon such stimulations, and thus acquires skill in action. So also when
+stimulated by means of his human surroundings, as, for example, through
+the kindly acts of his mother, father, etc., he reacts morally toward
+these stimulations and thus develops such social qualities as sympathy,
+love, and kindness. Nor are the conditions of development different in
+more complex intellectual problems. If a child is given nine blocks on
+which are printed the nine digits, and is asked to arrange them in the
+form of a square so that each of the horizontal and the vertical columns
+will add up to fifteen, there is equally an inner growth through
+stimulation and response. In such a case, since the answer is unknown to
+the child, the problem serves as a stimulation to his mind. Furthermore,
+it is only by reacting upon this problem with his present knowledge of
+the value of the various digits when combined in threes, as 1, 6, 8; 5,
+7, 3; 9, 2, 4; 1, 5, 9; etc., that the necessary growth of knowledge
+relative to the solution of the problem will take place within the mind.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WORTH IN HUMAN LIFE</h3>
+
+<p>But the possession of an intellectual and moral nature which responds to
+appropriate stimulations implies, also, that as man develops
+intellectually, he will find meaning in human life as realized in
+himself and others. Thus he becomes able to recognize worth in human
+life and to determine the conditions which favour its highest growth, or
+development.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Worthy Life not a Natural Growth.</b>&mdash;Granting that it is thus
+possible to recognize that "life is not a blank," but that it should
+develop into something of worth, it by no means follows that the young
+child will adequately recognize and desire a worthy life, or be able to
+understand and control the conditions which make for its development.
+Although, indeed, there is implanted in his nature a spiritual tendency,
+yet his early interests are almost wholly physical and his attitude
+impulsive and selfish. Left to himself, therefore, he is likely to
+develop largely as a creature of appetite, controlled by blind passions
+and the chance impressions of the moment. Until such time, therefore, as
+he obtains an adequate development of his intellectual and moral life,
+his behaviour conforms largely to the wants of his physical nature, and
+his actions are irrational and wasteful. Under such conditions the young
+child, if left to himself to develop in accordance with his native
+tendencies through the chance impressions which may stimulate him from
+without, must fall short of attaining to a life of worth. For this
+reason education is designed to control the growth, or development, of
+the child, by directing his stimulations and responses in such a way
+that his life may develop into one of worth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Character of the Worthy Life.</b>&mdash;If, however, it is possible to add to
+the worth of the life of the child by controlling and modifying his
+natural reactions, the first problem confronting the scientific educator
+is to decide what constitutes a life of worth. This question belongs
+primarily to ethics, or the science of right living, to which the
+educator must turn for his solution. Here it will be learned that the
+higher life is one made up of moral relations. In other words, the
+perfect man is a social man and the perfect life is a life made up of
+social rights and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> duties, wherein one is able to realize his own good
+in conformity with the good of others, and seek his own happiness by
+including within it the happiness of others. But to live a life of
+social worth, man must gain such control over his lower physical wants
+and desires that he can conform them to the needs and rights of others.
+He must, in other words, in adapting himself to his social environment,
+develop a sense of duty toward his fellows which will cause him to act
+in co-operation with others. He must refuse, for instance, to satisfy
+his own want by causing want to others, or to promote his own desires by
+giving pain to others. Secondly, he must obtain such control over his
+physical surroundings, including his own body, that he is able to make
+these serve in promoting the common good. In the worthy life, therefore,
+man has so adjusted himself to his fellow men that he is able to
+co-operate with them, and has so adjusted himself to his physical
+surroundings that he is able to make this co-operation effective, and
+thus live a socially efficient life.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FACTORS IN SOCIAL EFFICIENCY</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Knowledge, a Factor in Social Efficiency.</b>&mdash;The following simple
+examples will more fully demonstrate the factors which enter into the
+socially efficient life. The young child, for instance, who lives on the
+shore of one of our great lakes, may learn through his knowledge of
+colour to distinguish between the water and the sky on the horizon line.
+This knowledge, he finds, however, does not enter in any degree into his
+social life within the home. When on the same basis, however, he learns
+to distinguish between the ripe and the unripe berries in the garden, he
+finds this knowledge of service in the community, or home, life, since
+it enables him to distinguish the fruit his mother<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> may desire for use
+in the home. One mark of social efficiency, therefore, is to possess
+knowledge that will enable us to serve effectively in society.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Skill, a Factor in Social Efficiency.</b>&mdash;In the sphere of action,
+also, the child might acquire skill in making stones skip over the
+surface of the lake. Here, again, however, the acquired skill would
+serve no purpose in the community life, except perhaps occasionally to
+enable him to amuse himself or his fellows. When, on the other hand, he
+acquires skill in various home occupations, as opening and closing the
+gates, attending to the furnace, harnessing and driving the horse, or
+playing a musical instrument, he finds that this skill enables him in
+some measure to serve in the community life of which he is a member. A
+second factor in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession of such
+skill as will enable us to co-operate effectively within our social
+environment.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Right Feeling, a Factor in Social Efficiency.</b>&mdash;But granting the
+possession of adequate knowledge and skill, a man may yet fall far short
+of the socially efficient life. The machinist, for instance, may know
+fully all that pertains to the making of an excellent engine for the
+intended steamboat. He may further possess the skill necessary to its
+actual construction. But through indifference or a desire for selfish
+gain, this man may build for the vessel an engine which later, through
+its poor construction, causes the loss of the ship and its crew. A third
+necessary requisite in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession
+of a sense of duty which compels us to use our knowledge and skill with
+full regard to the feelings and rights of others. Thus a certain amount
+of socially useful knowledge, a certain measure of socially effective
+skill, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> a certain sense of moral obligation, or right feeling, all
+enter as factors into the socially efficient life.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FORMAL EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p>Assuming that the educator is thus able to distinguish what constitutes
+a life of worth, and to recognize and in some measure control the
+stimulations and reactions of the child, it is evident that he should be
+able to devise ways and means by which the child may grow into a more
+worthy, that is, into a more socially efficient, life. Such an attempt
+to control the reactions of the child as he adjusts himself to the
+physical and social world about him, in order to render him a more
+socially efficient member of the society to which he belongs, is
+described as formal education.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<h2>FORMS OF REACTION</h2>
+
+
+<h3>INSTINCTIVE REACTION</h3>
+
+<p>Since the educator aims to direct the development of the child by
+controlling his reactions upon his physical and social surroundings, we
+have next to consider the forms under which these reactions occur. Even
+at birth the human organism is endowed with certain tendencies, which
+enable it to react effectively upon the presentation of appropriate
+stimuli. Our instinctive movements, such as sucking, hiding, grasping,
+etc., being inherited tendencies to react under given conditions in a
+more or less effective manner for our own good, constitute one type of
+reactive movement. At birth, therefore, the child is endowed with
+powers, or tendencies, which enable him to adapt himself more or less
+effectively to his surroundings. Because, however, the child's early
+needs are largely physical, many of his instincts, such as those of
+feeding, fighting, etc., lead only to self-preservative acts, and are,
+therefore, individual rather than social in character. Even these
+individual tendencies, however, enable the child to adjust himself to
+his surroundings, and thus assist that physical growth without which, as
+will be learned later, there could be no adequate intellectual and moral
+development. But besides these, the child inherits many social and
+adaptive tendencies&mdash;love of approbation, sympathy, imitation,
+curiosity, etc., which enable him of himself to participate in some
+measure in the social life about him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Instinct and Education.</b>&mdash;Our instincts being inherited tendencies, it
+follows that they must cause us to react in a somewhat fixed manner upon
+particular external stimulation. For this reason, it might be assumed
+that these tendencies would build up our character independently of
+outside interference or direction. If such were the case, instinctive
+reactions would not only lie beyond the province of formal education,
+but might even seriously interfere with its operation, since our
+instinctive acts differ widely in value from the standpoint of the
+efficient life. It is found, however, that human instincts may not only
+be modified but even suppressed through education. For example, as we
+shall learn in the following paragraphs, instinctive action in man may
+be gradually supplanted by more effective habitual modes of reaction.
+Although, therefore, the child's instinctive tendencies undoubtedly play
+a large part in the early informal development of his character outside
+the school, it is equally true that they can be brought under the
+direction of the educator in the work of formal education. For that
+reason a more thorough study of instinctive forms of reaction, and of
+their relation to formal education, will be made in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">Chapter XXI</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HABITUAL REACTION</h3>
+
+<p>A second form of reaction is known as habit. On account of the plastic
+character of the matter constituting the nervous tissue in the human
+organism, any act, whether instinctive, voluntary, or accidental, if
+once performed, has a tendency to repeat itself under like
+circumstances, or to become habitual. The child, for example, when
+placed amid social surroundings, by merely yielding to his general
+tendencies of imitation, sympathy, etc., will form many valuable modes
+of habitual reaction connected with eating,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> dressing, talking,
+controlling the body, the use of household implements, etc. For this
+reason the early instinctive and impulsive acts of the child gradually
+develop into definite modes of action, more suited to meet the
+particular conditions of his surroundings.</p>
+
+<p><b>Habit and Education.</b>&mdash;Furthermore, the formation of these habitual
+modes of reaction being largely conditioned by outside influences, it is
+possible to control the process of their formation. For this reason, the
+educator is able to modify the child's natural reactions, and develop in
+their stead more valuable habits. No small part of the work of formal
+education, therefore, must consist in adding to the social efficiency of
+the child by endowing him with habits making for neatness, regularity,
+accuracy, obedience, etc. A detailed study of habit in its relation to
+education will be made in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">Chapter XXII</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONSCIOUS REACTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>An Example.</b>&mdash;The third and highest form of human reaction is known as
+ideal, or conscious, reaction. In this form of reaction the mind,
+through its present ideas, reacts upon some situation or difficulty in
+such a way as to adjust itself satisfactorily to the problem with which
+it is faced. As an example of such a conscious reaction, or adjustment,
+may be taken the case of a young lad who was noticed standing over a
+stationary iron grating through which he had dropped a small coin. A few
+moments later the lad was seen of his own accord to take up a rod lying
+near, smear the end with tar and grease from the wheel of a near by
+wagon, insert the rod through the grating, and thus recover his lost
+coin. An analysis of the mental movements involved previously to the
+actual recovery of the coin will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> illustrate in general the nature of a
+conscious reaction, or adjustment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Factors Involved in Process.</b>&mdash;In such an experience the consciousness
+of the lad is at the outset occupied with a definite problem, or felt
+need, demanding adjustment&mdash;the recovering of the lost coin, which need
+acts as a stimulus to the consciousness and gives direction and value to
+the resulting mental activity. Acting under the demands of this problem,
+or need, the mind displays an intelligent initiative in the selecting of
+ideas&mdash;stick, adhesion, tar, etc., felt to be of value for securing the
+required new adjustment. The mind finally combines these selected ideas
+into an organized system, or a new experience, which is accepted
+mentally as an adequate solution of the problem. The following factors
+are found, therefore, to enter into such an ideal, or conscious,
+reaction:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Problem.</i>&mdash;The conscious reaction is the result of a definite
+problem, or difficulty, presented in consciousness and grasped by the
+mind as such&mdash;How to recover the coin.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>A Selecting Process.</i>&mdash;To meet the solution of this problem use is
+made of ideas which already form a part of the lad's present experience,
+or knowledge, and which are felt by him to have a bearing on the
+presented problem.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>A Relating Process.</i>&mdash;These elements of former experience are
+organized by the child into a mental plan which he believes adequate to
+solve the problem before him.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Application.</i>&mdash;This resulting mental plan serves to guide a further
+physical reaction, which constitutes the actual removal of the
+difficulty&mdash;the recovery of the coin.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Significance of Conscious Reactions.</b>&mdash;In a conscious reaction upon any
+situation, or problem, therefore, the mind first uses its present ideas,
+or experience, in weighing the difficulties of the situation, and it is
+only after it satisfies itself in theory that a solution has been
+reached that the physical response, or application of the plan, is made.
+Hence the individual not only directs his actions by his higher
+intelligent nature, but is also able to react effectively upon varied
+and unusual situations. This, evidently, is not so largely the case with
+instinctive or habitual reactions. For efficient action, therefore,
+there must often be an adequate mental adjustment prior to the
+expression of the physical action. For this reason the value of
+consciousness consists in the guidance it affords us in meeting the
+demands laid upon us by our surroundings, or environment. This will
+become more evident, however, by a brief examination into the nature of
+experience itself.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EXPERIENCE</h3>
+
+<p><b>Its Value.</b>&mdash;In the above example of conscious adjustment it was found
+that a new experience arises naturally from an effort to meet some need,
+or problem, with which the mind is at the time confronted. Our ideas,
+therefore, naturally organize themselves into new experiences, or
+knowledge, to enable us to gain some desired end. It was in order to
+effect the recovery of the lost coin, for example, that conscious effort
+was put forth by the lad to create a mental plan which should solve the
+problem. Primarily, therefore, man is a doer and his ideas, or
+knowledge, is meant to be practical, or to be applied in directing
+action. It is this fact, indeed, which gives meaning and purpose to the
+conscious states of man. Hour by hour new problems arise demanding
+adjustment; the mind grasps the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> import of the situation, selects ways
+and means, organizes these into an intelligent plan, and directs their
+execution, thus enabling us:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Not without aim to go round<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In an eddy of purposeless dust.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p><b>Its Theoretic or Intellectual Value.</b>&mdash;But owing to the value which
+thus attaches to any experience, a new experience may be viewed as
+desirable apart from its immediate application to conduct. Although, for
+instance, there is no immediate physical need that one should learn how
+to resuscitate a drowning person, he is nevertheless prepared to make of
+it a problem, because he feels that such knowledge regarding his
+environment may enter into the solution of future difficulties. Thus the
+value of new experience, or knowledge, is often remote and intellectual,
+rather than immediate and physical, and looks to the acquisition of
+further experience quite as much as to the directing of present physical
+movement. Beyond the value they may possess in relation to the removal
+of present physical difficulty, therefore, experiences may be said to
+possess a secondary value in that they may at any time enter into the
+construction of new experiences.</p>
+
+<p><b>Its Growth: A. Learning by Direct Experience.</b>&mdash;The ability to recall
+and use former experience in the upbuilding of an intelligent new
+experience is further valuable, in that it enables a person to secure
+much experience in an indirect rather than in a direct way, and thus
+avoid the direct experience when such would be undesirable. Under direct
+experience we include the lessons which may come to us at first hand
+from our surroundings, as when the child by placing his hand upon a
+thistle learns that it has sharp prickles, or by tasting quinine learns
+that it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> bitter. In this manner direct experience is a teacher,
+continually adjusting man to his environment; and it is evident that
+without an ability to retain our experiences and turn them to use in
+organizing a new experience without expressing it in action, all
+conscious adjustments would have to be secured through such a direct
+method.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Learning Indirectly.</b>&mdash;Since man is able to retain his experiences
+and organize them into new experiences, he may, if desirable, enter into
+a new experience in an indirect, or theoretic, way, and thus avoid the
+harsher lessons of direct experience. The child, for example, who knows
+the discomfort of a pin-prick may apply this, without actual expression,
+in interpreting the danger lurking in the thorn. In like manner the
+child who has fallen from his chair realizes thereby, without giving it
+expression, the danger of falling from a window or balcony. It is in
+this indirect, or theoretic, way that children in their early years
+acquire, by injunction and reproof, much valuable knowledge which
+enables them to avoid the dangers and to shun the evils presented to
+them by their surroundings. By the same means, also, man is able to
+extend his knowledge to include the experiences of other men and even of
+other ages.</p>
+
+<p><b>Relative Value of Experiences.</b>&mdash;While the value of experience consists
+in its power to adjust man to present or future problems, and thus
+render his action more efficient, it is to be noted that different
+experiences may vary in their value. Many of these, from the point of
+their value in meeting future problems or making adjustments, must
+appear trivial and even useless. Others, though adapted to meet our
+needs, may do this in a crude and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> ineffective manner. As an
+illustration of such difference in value, compare the effectiveness and
+accuracy of the notation possessed by primitive men as illustrated in
+the following strokes:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1, 11, 111, 1111, 11111, 111111, etc.,</p></div>
+
+<p>with that of our present system of notation as suggested in:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>In like manner to experience that ice is cold is trivial in comparison
+with experiencing its preservative effects as seen in cold storage or
+its medicinal effects in certain diseases; to know that soda is white
+would be trivial in comparison with a knowledge of its properties in
+baking.</p>
+
+<p><b>Man Should Participate in Valuable Experiences.</b>&mdash;Of the three forms of
+human reaction, instinctive, habitual, and conscious, or ideal, it is
+evident that, owing to its rational character, ideal reaction is not
+only the most effective, but also the only one that will enable man to
+adjust himself to unusual situations. For this reason, and because of
+the difference in value of experiences themselves, it is further evident
+that man should participate in those experiences which are most
+effective in facilitating desired adjustments or in directing right
+conduct. It is found, moreover, that this participation can be effected
+by bringing the child's experiencing during his early years directly
+under control. It is held by some, indeed, that the whole aim of
+education is to reconstruct and enrich the experiences of the child and
+thereby add to his social efficiency. Although this conception of
+education leaves out of view the effects of instinctive and habitual
+reaction, it nevertheless covers, as we shall see later, no small part
+of the purpose of formal education.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>INFLUENCE OF CONSCIOUS REACTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. On Instinctive Action.</b>&mdash;Before concluding our survey of the various
+forms of reaction, it may be noted that both instinctive and habitual
+action are subject to the influence of conscious reaction. As a child's
+early instinctive acts develop into fixed habits, his growing knowledge
+aids in making these habits intelligent and effective. Consciousness
+evidently aids, for example, in developing the instinctive movements of
+the legs into the rhythmic habitual movements of walking, and those of
+the hands into the later habits of holding the spoon, knife, cup, etc.
+Greater still would be the influence of consciousness in developing the
+crude instinct of self-preservation into the habitual reactions of the
+spearman or boxer. In general, therefore, instinctive tendencies in man
+are subject to intelligent training, and may thereby be moulded into
+effective habits of reaction.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. On Habitual Action.</b>&mdash;Further new habits may be established and old
+ones improved under the direction of conscious reaction. When a child
+first learns to represent the number four by the symbol, the problem is
+necessarily met at first through a conscious adjustment. In other words,
+the child must mentally associate into a single new experience the
+number idea and certain ideas of form and of muscular movement.
+Although, however, the child is conscious of all of these factors when
+he first attempts to give expression to this experience, it is clear
+that very soon the expressive act of writing the number is carried on
+without any conscious direction of the process. In other words, the
+child soon acquires the habit of performing the act spontaneously, or
+without direction from the mind. Inversely, any habitual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> mode of
+action, in whatever way established, may, if we possess the necessary
+experience, be represented in idea and be accepted or corrected
+accordingly. A person, for instance, who has acquired the necessary
+knowledge of the laws of hygiene, may represent ideally both his own and
+the proper manner of standing, sitting, reclining, etc., and seek to
+modify his present habits accordingly. The whole question of the
+relation of conscious to habitual reaction will, however, be considered
+in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">Chapter XXII</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<h2>THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION</h2>
+
+
+<h3>CONSCIOUS ADJUSTMENT</h3>
+
+<p>From the example of conscious adjustment previously considered, it would
+appear that the full process of such an adjustment presents the
+following characteristics:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Problem.</i>&mdash;The individual conceives the existence within his
+environment of a difficulty which demands adjustment, or which serves as
+a problem calling for solution.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>A Selecting Process.</i>&mdash;With this problem as a motive, there takes
+place within the experience of the individual a selecting of ideas felt
+to be of value for solving the problem which calls for adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>A Relating Process.</i>&mdash;These relevant ideas are associated in
+consciousness and form a new experience believed to overcome the
+difficulty involved in the problem. This new experience is accepted,
+therefore, mentally, as a satisfactory plan for meeting the situation,
+or, in other words, it adjusts the individual to the problem in hand.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Expression.</i>&mdash;This new experience is expressed in such form as is
+requisite to answer fully the need felt in the original problem.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EDUCATION AS ADJUSTMENT</h3>
+
+<p><b>Example from Writing.</b>&mdash;An examination of any ordinary educative
+process taken from school-room experience will show that it involves in
+some degree the factors mentioned above.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>As a very simple example, may be taken the case of a young child
+learning to form capital letters with short sticks. Assuming that he has
+already copied letters involving straight lines, such as A, H, etc., the
+child, on meeting such a letter as C or D, finds himself face to face
+with a new problem. At first he may perhaps attempt to form the curves
+by bending the short thin sticks. Hereupon, either through his own
+failure or through some suggestion of his teacher, he comes to see a
+short, straight line as part of a large curve. Thereupon he forms the
+idea of a curve composed of a number of short, straight lines, and on
+this principle is able to express himself in such forms as are shown
+here.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus003.jpg"
+alt="A H"
+title="A H" /></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus004.jpg"
+alt="C D"
+title="C D" /></p>
+
+<p>In this simple process of adjustment there are clearly involved the four
+stages referred to above, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Problem.</i>&mdash;The forming of a curved letter by means of straight
+sticks.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>A Selecting Process.</i>&mdash;Selecting of the ideas straight and curved
+and the fixing of attention upon them.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>A Relating Process.</i>&mdash;An organization of the selected ideas into a
+new experience in which the curve is viewed as made up of a number of
+short, straight lines.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Expression.</i>&mdash;Working out the physical expression of the new
+experience in the actual forming of capitals involving curved lines.</p>
+
+<p><b>Example from Arithmetic.</b>&mdash;An analysis of the process by which a child
+learns that there are four twos in eight, shows also the following
+factors:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Problem.</i>&mdash;To find out how many twos are contained in the
+vaguely known eight.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>A Selecting Process.</i>&mdash;To meet this problem the pupil is led from
+his present knowledge of the number two, to proceed to divide eight
+objects into groups of two; and, from his previous knowledge of the
+number four, to measure the number of these groups of two.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>A Relating Process.</i>&mdash;Next the three ideas two, four, and eight are
+translated into a new experience, constituting a mental solution of the
+present problem.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Expression.</i>&mdash;This new experience expresses itself in various ways
+in the child's dealings with the number problems connected with his
+environment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Example from Geometry.</b>&mdash;Taking as another example the process by which
+a student may learn that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to
+the two interior and opposite angles, there appear also the same stages,
+thus:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Problem.</i>&mdash;The conception of a difficulty or problem in the
+geometrical environment which calls for solution, or adjustment&mdash;the
+relation of the angle <i>a</i> to the angles <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> in Figure 1.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustration005">
+<tr><td align='center'><img src="./images/illus005-1.jpg" alt="Fig.1" title="Fig.1" /></td><td align='center'><img src="./images/illus005-2.jpg" alt="Fig.2" title="Fig.2" /></td><td align='center'><img src="./images/illus005-3.jpg" alt="Fig.3" title="Fig.3" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><b>Fig. 1</b></td><td align='center'><b>Fig. 2</b></td><td align='center'><b>Fig. 3</b></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>2. <i>A Selecting Process.</i>&mdash;With this problem as a motive there follows,
+as suggested by Figure 2, the selecting of a series of ideas from the
+previous experiences of the pupil which seem relative to, or are
+considered valuable for solving the problem in hand.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>A Relating Process.</i>&mdash;These relative ideas pass into the formation
+of a new experience, as illustrated in Figure 3, constituting the
+solution of the problem.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Expression.</i>&mdash;A further applying of this experience may be made in
+adjusting the pupil to other problems connected with his geometric
+environment; as, for example, to discover the sum of the interior angles
+of a triangle.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EDUCATION AS CONTROL OF ADJUSTMENT</h3>
+
+<p>The examples of adjustment taken from school-room practice, are found,
+however, to differ in one important respect from the previous example
+taken from practical life. This difference consists in the fact that in
+the recovery of the coin the modification of experience took place
+wholly without control or direction other than that furnished by the
+problem itself. Here the problem&mdash;the recovery of the coin&mdash;presents
+itself to the child and is seized upon as a motive by his attention
+solely on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> of its own value; secondly, this problem of itself
+directs a flow of relative images which finally bring about the
+necessary adjustment. In the examples taken from the school, on the
+other hand, the processes of adjustment are, to a greater or less
+extent, directed and regulated through the presence of some type of
+educative agent. For instance, when a student goes through the process
+of learning the relation of the exterior angle to the two interior and
+opposite angles, the control of the process appears in the fact that the
+problem is directly presented to the student as an essential step in a
+sequence of geometric problems, or adjustments. The same direction or
+control of the process is seen again in the fact that the student is not
+left wholly to himself, as in the first example, to devise a solution,
+but is aided and directed thereto, first, in that the ideas bearing upon
+the problem have previously been made known to the student through
+instruction, and secondly, in that the selecting and adjusting of these
+former ideas to the solution of the new problem is also directed through
+the agency of either a text-book or a teacher. A conscious adjustment,
+therefore, which is brought about without direction from another,
+implies only a process of learning on the part of the child, while a
+controlled adjustment implies both a process of learning on the part of
+the child and a process of teaching on the part of an instructor. For
+scientific treatment, therefore, it is possible to limit formal
+education, so far as it deals with conscious adjustment, to those
+modifications of experience which are directed or controlled through an
+educative agent, or, in other words, are brought about by means of
+instruction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>REQUIREMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTOR</h3>
+
+<p>Formal education being an attempt to direct the development of the child
+by controlling his stimulations and responses through the agency of an
+instructor, we may now understand in general the necessary
+qualifications and offices of the teacher in directing the educative
+process.</p>
+
+<p>1. The teacher must understand what constitutes the worthy life; that
+is, he must have a definite aim in directing the development of the
+child.</p>
+
+<p>2. He must know what stimulations, or problems, are to be presented to
+the child in order to have him grow, or develop, into this life of
+worth.</p>
+
+<p>3. He must know how the physical, intellectual, and moral nature of the
+child reacts upon these appropriate stimulations.</p>
+
+<p>4. He must have skill in presenting the stimuli, or problems, to the
+child and in bringing its mind to react appropriately thereon.</p>
+
+<p>5. He must, in the case of conscious reactions, see that the child not
+only acquires the new experience, but that he is also able to apply it
+effectively. In other words, he must see that the child acquires not
+only knowledge, but also skill in the use of knowledge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<h2>THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Valuable Experience: Race Knowledge.</b>&mdash;Since education aims largely to
+increase the effectiveness of the moral conduct of the child by adding
+to the value of his experience, the science of education must decide the
+basis on which the educator is to select experiences that possess such a
+value in directing conduct. Now a study of the progress of a nation's
+civilization will show that this advancement is brought about through
+the gradual interpretation of the resources at the nation's command, and
+the turning of these resources to the attainment of human ends. Thus
+there is gradually built up a community, or race, experience, in which
+the materials of the physical, economic, political, moral, and religious
+life are organized and brought under control. By this means is
+constituted a body of race experience, the value of which has been
+tested in its direct application to the needs of the social life of the
+community. It is from the more typical forms of this social, or race,
+experience that education draws the experience, or problems, for the
+educative process. In other words, through education the experiences of
+the child are so reconstructed that he is put in possession of the more
+typical and more valuable forms of race experience, and thus rendered
+more efficient in his conduct, or action.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PURPOSES OF CURRICULUM</h3>
+
+<p><b>Represents Race Experiences.</b>&mdash;So far as education aims to have the
+child enter into typical valuable race experiences, this can be
+accomplished only by placing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> these experiences before him as problems
+in such form that he may realize them through a regular process of
+learning. The purpose of the school curriculum is, therefore, to provide
+such problems as may, under the direction of the instructor, control the
+conscious reactions of the child, and enable him to participate in these
+more valuable race experiences. In this sense arithmetic becomes a means
+for providing the child with a series of problems which may give him the
+experiences which the race has found valuable in securing commercial
+accuracy and precision. In like manner, constructive work provides a
+series of problems in which the child experiences how the race has
+turned the materials of nature to human service. History provides
+problems whose solution gives the experience which enables the pupil to
+meet the political and social conditions of his own time. Physics shows
+how the forces of nature have become instruments for the service of man.
+Geography shows how the world is used as a background for social life;
+and grammar, what principles control the use of the race language as a
+medium for the communication of thought.</p>
+
+<p><b>Classifies Race Experience.</b>&mdash;Without such control of the presentation
+of these racial experiences as is made possible through the school and
+the school curriculum, the child would be likely to meet them only as
+they came to him in the actual processes of social life. These processes
+are, however, so complex in modern society, that, in any attempt to
+secure experience directly, the child is likely to be overwhelmed by
+their complex and unorganized character. The message boy in the
+dye-works, for example, may have presented to him innumerable problems
+in num<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>ber, language, physics, chemistry, etc., but owing to the
+confused, disorganized, and mingled character of the presentation, these
+are not likely to be seized upon by him as direct problems calling for
+adjustment. In the school curriculum, on the other hand, the different
+phases of this seemingly unorganized mass of experiences are abstracted
+and presented to the child in an organized manner, the different phases
+being classified as facts of number, reading, spelling, writing,
+geography, physics, chemistry, etc. Thus the school curriculum
+classifies for the child the various phases of this race experience and
+provides him with a comprehensive representation of his environment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Systematizes Race Experience.</b>&mdash;The school curriculum further presents
+each type of experience, or each subject, in such a systematic order
+that the various experiences may develop out of one another in a natural
+way. If the child were compelled to meet his number facts altogether in
+actual life, the impressions would be received without system or order,
+now a discount experience, next a problem in fractions, at another time
+one in interest or mensuration. In the school curriculum, on the other
+hand, the child is in each subject first presented with the simple,
+near, and familiar, these in turn forming basic experiences for learning
+the complex, the remote, and the unknown. Thus he is able in geography,
+for example, on the basis of his simple and known local experiences, to
+proceed to a realization of the whole world as the background for human
+life.</p>
+
+<p><b>Clarifies Race Experience.</b>&mdash;Finally, when a child is given problems by
+means of the school curriculum, the experiences come to him in a pure
+form. That is, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> trivial, accidental, and distracting elements which
+are necessarily bound up with these experiences when they are met in the
+ordinary walks of life are eliminated, and the single type is presented.
+For instance, the child may every day meet accidentally examples of
+reflection and refraction of light. But these not being separated from
+the mass of accompanying impressions, his mind may never seize as
+distinct problems the important relations in these experiences, and may
+thus fail to acquire the essential principles involved. In the school
+curriculum, on the other hand, under the head of physics, he has the
+essential aspects presented to him in such an unmixed, or pure, form
+that he finds relatively little difficulty in grasping their
+significance. Thus the school curriculum renders possible an effective
+control of the experiencing of the child by presenting in a
+comprehensive form a classified, systematized, and pure representation
+of the more valuable features of the race experience. In other words, it
+provides suitable problems which may lead the child to participate more
+fully in the life about him. Through the subjects of the school
+curriculum, therefore, the child may acquire much useful knowledge which
+would not otherwise be met, and much which, if met in ordinary life,
+could not be apprehended to an equal degree.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DANGERS IN USE OF CURRICULUM</h3>
+
+<p>While recognizing the educational value of the school curriculum, it
+should be noticed that certain dangers attach to its use as a means of
+providing problems for developing the experiences of the child. It is
+frequently argued against the school that the experiences gained therein
+too often prove of little value to the child in the affairs of practical
+life. The world of knowledge within the school, it is claimed, is so
+different from the world of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> action outside the school, that the pupil
+can find no connection between them. If, however, as claimed above, the
+value of experience consists in its use as a means of efficient control
+of conduct, it is evident that the experiences acquired through the
+school should find direct application in the affairs of life, or in
+other words, the school should influence the conduct, or behaviour, of
+the child both within and without the school.</p>
+
+<p><b>A. Child may not see Connection with Life.</b>&mdash;Now the school curriculum,
+as has been seen, in representing the actual social life, so classifies
+and simplifies this life that only one type of experience&mdash;number,
+language, chemistry, geography, etc., is presented to the child at one
+time. It is evident, however, that when the child faces the problems of
+actual life, they will not appear in the simple form in which he meets
+them as represented in the school curriculum. Thus, when he leaves the
+school and enters society, he frequently sees no connection between the
+complex social life outside the school and the simplified and
+systematized representation of that life, as previously met in the
+school studies. For example, when the boy, after leaving school, is set
+to fill an order in a wholesale drug store, he will in the one
+experience be compelled to use various phases of his chemical,
+arithmetical, writing, and bookkeeping knowledge, and that perhaps in
+the midst of a mass of other accidental impressions. In like manner, the
+girl in her home cooking might meet in a single experience a situation
+requiring mathematical, chemical, and physical knowledge for its
+successful adjustment, as in the substitution of soda and cream of
+tartar for baking-powder. This complex character of the problems of
+actual life may prove so bewildering that the person is unable to see
+any connection between the outside problem and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> school experiences.
+Thus school knowledge frequently fails to function to an adequate degree
+in the practical affairs of life.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to Avoid This Danger.</b>&mdash;To meet this difficulty, school work must
+be related as closely as possible to the practical experiences of the
+child. This would cause the teacher, for example, to draw his problems
+in arithmetic, his subjects in composition, or his materials for nature
+study from the actual life about the child, while his lessons in hygiene
+would bear directly on the care of the school-room and the home, and the
+health of the pupils. Moreover, that the work of the school may
+represent more fully the conditions of actual life, pupils should
+acquire facility in correlating different types of experience upon the
+same problem. In this way the child may use in conjunction his knowledge
+of arithmetic, language, geography, drawing, nature study, etc., in
+school gardening; and his arithmetic, language, drawing, art, etc., in
+conjunction with constructive occupations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Value of Typical Forms of Expression.</b>&mdash;A chief cause in the past for
+the lack of connection between school knowledge and practical life was
+the comparative absence from the curriculum of any types of human
+activity. In other words, though the ideas controlling human activity
+were experienced by the child within the school, the materials and tools
+involved in the physical expression of such ideas were almost entirely
+absent. The result was that the physical habits connected with the
+practical use of knowledge were wanting. Thus, in addition to the lack
+of any proper co-ordinating of different types of knowledge in suitable
+forms of activity, the knowledge itself became theoretic and abstract.
+This danger will, however, be discussed more fully at a later stage.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>B. Curriculum May Become Fossilized.</b>&mdash;A second danger in the use of
+the school curriculum consists in the fact that, as a representation of
+social life, it may not keep pace with the social changes taking place
+outside the school. This may result in the school giving its pupils
+forms of knowledge which at the time have little functional value, or
+little relation to present life about the child. An example of this was
+seen some years ago in the habit of having pupils spend considerable
+time and energy in working intricate problems in connection with British
+currency. This currency having no practical place in life outside the
+school, the child could see no connection between that part of his
+school work and any actual need. Another marked example of this tendency
+will be met in the History of Education in connection with the
+educational practice of the last two centuries in continuing the
+emphasis placed on the study of the ancient languages, although the
+functional relation of these languages to everyday life was on the
+decline, and scientific knowledge was beginning to play a much more
+important part therein. While the school curriculum may justly represent
+the life of past periods of civilization so far as these reflect on, and
+aid in the interpreting of, the present, it is evident that in so far as
+the child experiences the past without any reference to present needs,
+the connection which should exist between the school and life outside
+the school must tend to be destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. May be Non-progressive.</b>&mdash;As a corollary to the above, is the fact
+that the school, when not watchful of the changes going on without the
+school, may fail to represent in its curriculum new and important phases
+of the community life. At the present time, for example, it is a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+debatable question whether the school curriculum is, in the matter of
+our industrial life, keeping pace with the changes taking place in the
+community. It is in this connection that one of the chief dangers of the
+school text-book is to be found. The text is too often looked upon as a
+final authority upon the particular subject-matter, rather than being
+treated as a mode of representing what is held valuable and true in
+relation to present-day interests and activities. The position of
+authority which the text-book thus secures, may serve as a check against
+even necessary changes in the attitude of the school toward any
+particular subject.</p>
+
+<p><b>D. May Present Experience in too Technical Form.</b>&mdash;Lastly, the school
+curriculum, even when representing present life, may introduce it in a
+too highly technical form. So far at least as elementary education is
+concerned, each type of knowledge, or each subject, should find a place
+on the curriculum from a consideration of its influence upon the conduct
+and, therefore, upon the present life of the child. There is always a
+danger, however, that the teacher, who may be a specialist in the
+subject, will wish to stress its more intellectual and abstract phases,
+and thus force upon the child forms of knowledge which he is not able to
+refer to his life needs in any practical way. This tendency is
+illustrated in the desire of some teachers to substitute with young
+children a technical study of botany and zoology, in place of more
+concrete work in nature study. Now when the child approaches these
+phases of his surroundings in the form of nature study, he is able to
+see their influence upon his own community life. When, on the other
+hand, these are introduced to him in too technical a form, he is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+able, in his present stage of learning, to discover this connection, and
+the so-called knowledge remains in his experience, if it remains at all,
+as uninteresting, non-significant, and non-digested information. In the
+elementary school at least, therefore, knowledge should not be presented
+to the child in such a technical and abstract way that it will seem to
+have no contact with daily life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<h2>EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS</h2>
+
+
+<h3>THE SCHOOL</h3>
+
+<p>As man, in the progress of civilization, became more fully conscious of
+the worth of human life and of the possibilities of its development
+through educational effort, the providing of special instruction for the
+young naturally began to be recognized as a duty. As this duty became
+more and more apparent, it gave rise, on the principle of the division
+of labour, to corporate, or institutional, effort in this direction. By
+this means there has been finally developed the modern school as a fully
+organized corporate institution devoted to educational work, and
+supported as an integral part of our civil or public obligations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Origin of the School.</b>&mdash;To trace the origin of the school, it will be
+necessary to look briefly at certain marked stages of the development of
+civilization. The earliest and simplest forms of primitive life suggest
+a time when the family constituted the only type of social organization.
+In such a mode of life, the principle of the division of labour would be
+absent, the father or patriarch being the family carpenter, butcher,
+doctor, judge, priest, and teacher. In the two latter capacities, he
+would give whatever theoretic or practical instruction was received by
+the child. As soon, however, as a tribal form of life is met, we find
+the tribe or race collecting a body of experience which can be retained
+only by entrusting it to a selected body. This experience, or knowledge,
+is at first mainly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> of a religious character, and is possessed and
+handed on by a body of men forming a priesthood. Such priestly bodies,
+or colleges, may be considered the earliest special organizations
+devoted to the office of teaching. As civilization gradually advanced, a
+mass of valuable practical knowledge relative to man's environment was
+secured and added to the more theoretic forms. As this practical
+knowledge became more complex, there was felt a greater need that the
+child should be made acquainted with it in some systematic manner during
+his early years. Thus developed the conception of the school as an
+instrument by which such educative work might be carried on more
+effectively. On account of the constant increase of practical knowledge
+and its added importance in directing the political and economic life of
+the people, the civil authorities began in time to assume control of
+secular education. Thus the government of the school as an institution
+gradually passed to the state, the teacher taking the place of the
+priest as the controlling agent in the education of the young.</p>
+
+
+<h3>OTHER EDUCATIVE AGENTS</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Church.</b>&mdash;But notwithstanding the organization of the present
+school as a civic institution, it is to be noticed that the church still
+continues to act as an educative agent. In many communities, in fact,
+the church is still found to retain a large control of education even of
+a secular type. Even in communities where the church no longer exercises
+control over the school, she still does much, though in a more indirect
+way, to mould the thought and character of the community life; and is
+still the chief educational agent concerned in the direct attempt to
+enrich the religious experiences of the race.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Home.</b>&mdash;While much of the knowledge obtained by the child within
+his own home necessarily comes through self, or informal, education, yet
+in most homes the parent still performs in many ways the function of a
+teacher, both by giving special instruction to the child and by
+directing the formation of his habits. In certain forms of experience
+indeed, it is claimed by the school that the instruction should be given
+by the parent rather than by the teacher. In questions of morals and
+manners, the natural tie which unites child and parent will undoubtedly
+enable much of the necessary instruction to be given more effectively in
+the home. It is often claimed, in fact, that parents now leave too much
+to the school and the teacher in relation to the education of the child.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Vocation.</b>&mdash;Another agent which may directly control the
+experiences of the young is found in the various vocations to which they
+devote themselves. This phase of education was very important in the
+days of apprenticeship. One essential condition in the form of agreement
+was that the master should instruct the apprentice in the art, or craft,
+to which he was apprenticed. Owing to the introduction of machinery and
+the consequent more complex division of labour, this type of formal
+education has been largely eliminated. It may be noted in passing that
+it is through these changed conditions that night classes for mechanics,
+which are now being provided by our technical schools, have become an
+important factor in our educational system.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Educational Institutions.</b>&mdash;Finally, many clubs, institutes, and
+societies attempt, in a more accidental way, to convey definite
+instruction, and therefore serve in a sense as educational institutions.
+Prominent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> among such institutions is the modern Public Library, which
+affords opportunity for independent study in practically every
+department of knowledge. Our Farmers' Institutes also attempt to convey
+definite instruction in connection with such subjects as dairying,
+horticulture, agriculture, etc. Many Women's Clubs seek to provide
+instruction for young women, both of a practical and also of a moral and
+religious character. Various societies of a scientific character have
+also done much to spread a knowledge of nature and her laws and are
+likewise to be classed as educational institutions. Such movements as
+these, while taking place without the limits of the school, may not
+unreasonably claim a certain recognition as educational factors in the
+community and should receive the sympathetic co-operation of the
+teacher.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<h2>THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL</h2>
+
+
+<h3>CIVIC VIEWS</h3>
+
+<p>Since the school of to-day is organized and supported by the state as a
+special corporate body designed to carry on the work of education, it
+becomes of public interest to know the particular purpose served through
+the maintenance of such a state institution. We have already seen that
+the school seeks to interpret the civilized life of the community, to
+abstract out of it certain elements, and to arrange them in systematic
+or scientific order as a curriculum of study, and finally to give the
+child control of this experience, or knowledge. We have attempted to
+show further that by this means education so increases the effectiveness
+of the conscious reactions of the child and so modifies his instincts
+and his habits as to add to his social efficiency. As, however, many
+divergent and incomplete views are held by educators and others as to
+the real purpose of public instruction, it will be well at this stage to
+consider briefly some of the most important types of these theories.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aristocratic View.</b>&mdash;It may be noted that the experience, or knowledge,
+represented in the curriculum cannot exist outside of the knowing mind.
+In other words, arithmetic, grammar, history, geography, etc., are not
+something existing apart from mind, but only as states of consciousness.
+Text-books, for instance, do not contain knowledge but merely symbols of
+knowledge, which would have no significance and give no light without a
+mind to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> interpret them. Some, therefore, hold that the school, in
+seeking to translate this social experience into the consciousness of
+the young, should have as its aim merely to conserve for the future the
+intellectual and moral achievements of the present and the past. This
+they say demands of the school only that it produce an intellectual
+priesthood, or a body of scholars, who may conserve wisdom for the light
+and guidance of the whole community. Thus arises the aristocratic view
+of the purpose of education, which sees no justification in the state
+attempting to provide educational opportunities for all of its members,
+but holds rather that education is necessary only for the leaders of
+society.</p>
+
+<p><b>Democratic View.</b>&mdash;Against the above view, it is claimed by others
+that, while public education should undoubtedly be conducted for the
+benefit of the state as a whole; yet, since a chain cannot be stronger
+than its weakest link, the efficiency of the state must be measured by
+that of its individual units. The state, therefore, must aim, by means
+of education, to add to its own efficiency by adding to that of each and
+all of its members. This demands, however, that every individual should
+be able to meet in an intelligent way such situations as he is likely to
+encounter in his community life. Although carried on, therefore, for the
+good of the state, yet education should be democratic, or universal, and
+should fit every individual to become a useful member of society.</p>
+
+<p><b>These Views Purely Civic.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted that though the latter
+view provides for the education of all as a duty of the state, yet both
+of the above views are purely civic in their significance, and hold that
+education exists for the welfare of the state as a whole and not for the
+individual. If, therefore, the state could be benefited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> by having the
+education of any class of citizens either limited or extended in an
+arbitrary way, nothing in the above conception of the purpose of state
+education would forbid such a course.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INDIVIDUALISTIC VIEWS</h3>
+
+<p>Opposed to the civic view of education, many hold, on the other hand,
+that education exists for the child and not for the state, and
+therefore, aims primarily to promote the welfare of the individual. By
+these educators it is argued that, since each child is created with a
+separate and distinct personality, it follows that he possesses a divine
+right to have that personality developed independently of the claims of
+the community to which he belongs. According to this view, therefore,
+the aim of education should be in each case solely to effect some good
+for the individual child. These educators, however, are again found to
+differ concerning what constitutes this individual good.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Culture Aim.</b>&mdash;According to the practice of many educators,
+education is justified on the ground that it furnishes the individual a
+degree of personal culture. According to this view, the worth of
+education is found in the fact that it puts the learner in possession of
+a certain amount of conventional knowledge which is held to give a
+polish to the individual; this polish providing a distinguishing mark by
+which the learned class is separated from the ignorant. It is
+undoubtedly true that the so-called culture of the educated man should
+add to the grace and refinement of social life. In this sense, culture
+is not foreign to the conception of individual and social efficiency. A
+narrow cultural view, however, overlooks the fact that man's experience
+is significant only when it enables him to meet the needs and problems
+of the present,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> and that, as a member of a social community, he must
+apply himself to the actual problems to be met within his environment.
+To acquire knowledge, therefore, either as a mere possession or as a
+mark of personal superiority, is to give to experience an unnatural
+value.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Utilitarian Aim.</b>&mdash;Others express quite an opposite view to the
+above, declaring that the aim of education is to enable the individual
+to get on in the world. By this is meant that education should enable us
+to be more successful in our business, and thus live more comfortable
+lives. Now, so far as this practical success of the individual can be
+achieved in harmony with the interests of society as a whole, we may
+grant that education should make for individual betterment. Indeed it
+may justly be claimed that an advancement in the comfort of the
+individual under such conditions really implies an increase in the
+comfort of society as a whole; for the man who is not able to provide
+for his own welfare must prove, if not a menace, at least a burden to
+society. If, however, it is implied that the educated man is to be
+placed in a position to advance his own interests irrespective of, or in
+direct opposition to, the rights and comforts of others, then the
+utilitarian view of the end of education must appear one-sided. To
+emphasize the good of the individual irrespective of the rights of
+others, and to educate all of its members with such an end in view,
+society would tend to destroy the unity of its own corporate life.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Psychological Aim.</b>&mdash;According to others, although education aims
+to benefit the child, this benefit does not come from the acquisition of
+any particular type of knowledge, but is due rather to a development
+which takes place within the individual himself as a result of
+experiencing. In other words, the child as an intelligent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> being is born
+with certain attributes which, though at first only potential, may be
+developed into actual capacities or powers. Thus it is held that the
+real aim of education is to develop to the full such capacities as are
+found already within the child. Moreover, it is because the child has
+such possibilities of development within him, and because he starts at
+the very outset of his existence with a divine yearning to develop these
+inner powers, that he reaches out to experience his surroundings. For
+this reason, they argue that every individual should have his own
+particular capacities and powers fully and harmoniously developed. Thus
+the true aim of education is said to be to unfold the potential life of
+each individual and allow it to realize itself; the purpose of the
+school being primarily not to make of the child a useful member of
+society, but rather to study the nature of the child and develop
+whatever potentialities are found within him as an individual. Because
+this theory places such large emphasis on the natural tendencies and
+capacities of the child, it is spoken of as the psychological aim of
+education.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limitations of the Aim.</b>&mdash;This view evidently differs from others in
+that it finds the justification for education, not primarily in the
+needs or rights of a larger society of which the child is a member, but
+rather in those of the single individual. Here, however, a difficulty
+presents itself. If the developing of the child's capacities and
+tendencies constitute the real purpose of public education, may not
+education at times conflict with the good of the state itself? Now it is
+evident that if a child has a tendency to lie, or steal, or inflict pain
+on others, the development of such tendencies must result in harm to the
+community at large. On the other hand, it is clear that in the case of
+other proclivities which the child may possess, such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> as industry,
+truthfulness, self-sacrifice, etc., the development of these cannot be
+separated from the idea of the good of others. To apply a purely
+individual aim to education, therefore, seems impossible; since we can
+have no standard to distinguish between good and bad tendencies, unless
+these are measured from a social standpoint or from a consideration of
+the good of others, and not from the mere tendencies and capacities of
+the individual. Moreover, to attempt the harmonious development of all
+the child's tendencies and powers is not justifiable, even in the case
+of those tendencies which might not conflict with the good of others. As
+already noted, division of labour has now gone so far that the
+individual may profitably be relieved from many forms of social
+activity. This implies as a corollary, however, that the individual will
+place greater stress upon other forms of activity.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SOCIAL, OR ECLECTIC, VIEW</h3>
+
+<p>Moreover, because, as already noted, the child is by his very nature a
+social being, it follows that the good of the individual can never in
+reality be opposed to the good of society, and that whenever the child
+has in his nature any tendencies which conflict with the good of others,
+these do not represent his true, or social, nature. For education to
+suppress these, therefore, is not only fitting the child for society but
+also advancing the development of the child so far as his higher, or
+true, nature is concerned. Thus the true view of the purpose of the
+school and of education will be a social, or eclectic, one, representing
+the element of truth contained in both the civic and the individualistic
+views. In the first place, such a view may be described as a civic one,
+since it is only by considering the good of others, that is of the
+state, that we can find a standard for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span> judging the value of the child's
+tendencies. Moreover, it is only by using the forms of experience, or
+knowledge, that the community has evolved, that conditions can be
+provided under which the child's tendencies may realize themselves.
+Secondly, the true view is equally an individualistic view, for while it
+claims that the child is by his nature a social being, it also demands a
+full development of the social or moral tendencies of the individual, as
+being best for himself as well as for society.</p>
+
+<p><b>This View Dynamic.</b>&mdash;In such an eclectic view of the aim of education,
+it is to be noted further that society may turn education to its own
+advancement. By providing that an individual may develop to his
+uttermost such good tendencies as he may possess, education not only
+allows the individual to make the most of his own higher nature, but
+also enables him to contribute something to the advancement, or
+elevation, of society itself. Such a conception of the aim of education,
+therefore, does not view the present social life as some static thing to
+which the child must be adapted in any formal sense, but as dynamic, or
+as having the power to develop itself in and through a fuller
+development of the higher and better tendencies within its individual
+members.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Caution.</b>&mdash;While emphasizing the social, or moral, character of the
+aim of education, it is to be borne in mind by the educator that this
+implies more than a passive possession by the individual of a certain
+moral sentiment. Man is truly moral only when his moral character is
+functioning in goodness, or in <i>right action</i>. This is equivalent to
+declaring that the moral man must be individually efficient in action,
+and must likewise control his action from a regard for the rights of
+others. There is always a danger, however, of assuming that the
+development of moral char<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span>acter consists in giving the child some
+passive mark, or quality, without any necessity of having it continually
+functioning in conduct. But this reduces morality to a mere sentiment.
+In such a case, the moral aim would differ little from the cultural aim
+mentioned above.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<h2>DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY</h2>
+
+
+<h3>CONTROL OF EXPERIENCE</h3>
+
+<p><b>Significance of Control.</b>&mdash;From our previous inquiry into the nature of
+education, we may notice that at least two important problems present
+themselves for investigation in connection with the educative process.
+Our study of the subject-matter of education, or the school curriculum,
+has shown that its function as an educational instrumentality is to
+furnish for the child experiences of greater value, this enhanced value
+consisting in the greater social significance of the race experiences,
+or knowledge, embodied within the curriculum, when compared with the
+more individual experiences of the average child. It has been noted
+further, however, that the office of education is not merely to have the
+child translate this race experience into his own mind, but rather to
+have him add to his social efficiency by gaining an adequate power of
+control over these experiences. It is not, for instance, merely to know
+the number combinations, but to be able to meet his practical needs,
+that the child must master the multiplication tables. Control of
+experience, however, as we have seen from our analysis of the learning
+process, implies an ability to hold an aim, or problem, in view, and a
+further ability to select and arrange the means of gaining the desired
+end. In relation to the multiplication table, therefore, control of
+experience implies that a person is able to apprehend the present number
+situation as one that needs solution, and also that he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> can bring, or
+apply, his knowledge of the table to its solution.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Growth of Control.</b>&mdash;The young child is evidently not able at
+first to exercise this power of control over his experiences. When a
+very young child is aroused, say by the sound proceeding from a bell,
+the impression may give rise to certain random movements, but none of
+these indicate on his part any definite experience or purpose. When,
+however, under the same stimulation, in place of these random movements,
+the child reacts mentally in a definite way, it signifies on his part
+the recognition of an external object. This recognition shows that the
+child now has, in place of the first vague image, a more or less
+definite idea of the external thing. Before it was vague noise; now it
+is a bell. But a yet more valuable control is gained by the child when
+he gives this idea a wider meaning by organizing it as an element into
+more complex experiences, as when he relates it with the idea of a fire,
+of dinner, or of a call to school. Before it was merely a bell; now it
+is an alarm of fire. So far, however, as the child is lacking in the
+control of his experiences, he remains largely a mere creature of
+impulse and instinct, and is occupied with present impressions only.
+This implies also an inability to set up problems and solve them through
+a regular process of adjustment, and a consequent lack of power to
+arrange experiences as guides to action. In the educative process,
+however, as previously exemplified, we find that the child is not a
+slave to the passing transient impressions of the present, but is able
+to secure a control over his experience which enables him to set up
+intelligent aims, devise plans for their attainment, and apply these
+plans in gaining the end desired. Growth of control takes place,
+therefore, to the extent to which the child thus becomes able to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> keep
+an end in view and to select and organize means for its realization.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elements of Control.</b>&mdash;In the growth of control manifested in the
+learning process, the child, as we have noticed, becomes able to judge
+the value, or worth, of experience. In other words, he becomes able to
+distinguish between the important and the trivial, and to see the
+relative values of various experiences when applied to practical ends.
+Further, he gains right feeling or an emotional warmth toward that which
+his intelligence affirms to be worthy, or grows to appreciate the right.
+Thirdly, he secures a power in execution that enables him to attain to
+that which his judgment and feeling have set up as a desirable end. In
+fine, the educative process implies for the child a growth of control by
+which he becomes able (1) to select worthy ends; (2) to devise plans for
+their attainment; and (3) to put these plans into successful execution.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE INSTRUCTOR'S PROBLEMS</h3>
+
+<p>The end in any learning process being to set the pupils a problem which
+may stimulate them to gain such an efficient control of useful
+experience, or knowledge, we may note two important problems confronting
+the teacher as an instructor:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Problem of Matter.</i>&mdash;The teacher must be so conversant with the
+subject-matter of the curriculum and with its value in relation to
+actual life, that he may select therefrom the problems and materials
+which will enable the child to come into possession of the desirable
+experiences. This constitutes the question of the subject-matter of
+education.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Problem of Method.</i>&mdash;The teacher must further be conversant with the
+process by which the child gets command of experience or with the way in
+which the mind of the child, in reacting upon any subject-matter,
+selects and organizes his knowledge into new experience and puts the
+same into execution. In other words, the teacher must fully understand
+how to direct the child successfully through the four stages of the
+learning process.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>General Method.</i>&mdash;In a scientific study of education it is
+usually assumed that the student-teacher has mastered academically the
+various subjects of the curriculum. In the professional school,
+therefore, the subject-matter of education is studied largely from the
+standpoint of method. In his study of method the student of education
+seeks first to master the details of the process of education outlined
+in the opening Chapters under the headings of problem, selecting
+process, relating process, and application. By this means the teacher
+comes to understand in greater detail how the mind of the child reacts
+upon the presented problems of the curriculum in gaining control over
+his experiences, or, in other words, how the process of learning
+actually takes place within the consciousness of the child. This
+sub-division is treated under the head of <i>General Method</i>.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Special Methods.</i>&mdash;In addition to General Method, the
+student-teacher must study each subject of the curriculum from the
+standpoint of its use in setting problems, or lessons, which shall
+enable the child to gain control of a richer experience. This
+sub-division is known as <i>Special Methods</i>, since it considers the
+particular problems involved in adapting the matter of each subject to
+the general purpose of the educative process.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Problem of Management.</i>&mdash;From what has been seen in reference to the
+school as an institution organized for directing the education of the
+child, it is apparent that in addition to the immediate and direct
+control of the process of learning as involved in the method of
+instruction, there is the more indirect control of the process through
+the systematic organization and management of the school as a corporate
+institution. These more indirect problems connected with the control of
+education within the school will include, not only such topics as the
+organization and management of the pupils, but also the legal ways and
+means for providing these various educational instrumentalities. These
+indirect elements of control constitute a third phase of the problem of
+education, and their study is known as <i>School Organization and
+Management</i>.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>An Historic Problem.</i>&mdash;It has been noted that the corporate
+institution known as the school arose as the result of the principle of
+the division of labour, and thus took to itself duties previously
+performed under other less effective conditions. Thus the school
+presents on its organic side a history with which the teacher should be
+more or less familiar. On its historical side, therefore, education
+presents a fourth phase for study. This division of the subject is known
+as the <i>History of Education</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SUMMARY</h3>
+
+<p>The facts of education, as scientifically considered by the
+student-teacher, thus arrange themselves under four main heads:</p>
+
+<p>1. General Method</p>
+
+<p>2. Special Methods</p>
+
+<p>3. School Organization and Management</p>
+
+<p>4. History of Education<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The third and fourth divisions of education are always studied as
+separate subjects under the above heads. In dealing with Special
+Methods, also, it is customary in the study of education to treat each
+subject of the curriculum under its own head in both a professional and
+an academic way. There is left, therefore, for scientific consideration,
+the subject of General Method, to a study of which we shall now
+proceed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PART_II_METHODOLOGY" id="PART_II_METHODOLOGY"></a>PART II.&mdash;METHODOLOGY</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<h2>GENERAL METHOD</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Meaning of Method.</b>&mdash;In the last Chapter it was seen that, in relation
+to the child, education involves a gaining of control over experiences.
+It has been seen further, that the child gains control of new experience
+whenever he goes through a process of learning involving the four steps
+of problem, selecting activity, relating activity, and expression.
+Finally it has been decided that the teacher in his capacity as an
+instructor, by presenting children with suitable problems, may in a
+sense direct their selecting and relating activities and thus exercise a
+certain control over their learning processes. To the teacher,
+therefore, method will mean an ability to control the learning process
+in such a way that the children shall, in their turn, gain an adequate
+control over the new experience forming the subject-matter of any
+learning process. Thus a detailed study by student-teachers of the
+various steps of the learning process, with a view to gaining knowledge
+and skill relative to directing pupils in their learning, constitutes
+for such teachers a study of General Method.</p>
+
+<p><b>Subdivisions of Method.</b>&mdash;For the student-teacher, the study of general
+method will involve a detailed investigation of how the child is to gain
+control of social experiences as outlined above, and how the teacher may
+bring about the same through instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Tn such an investigation, he must examine in detail the various steps of
+the educative process to discover:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. How the knowledge, or social experience, contained in the school
+curriculum should be presented to the child. This will involve an
+adequate study of the first step of the learning process&mdash;the problem.</p>
+
+<p>2. How the mind, or consciousness, of the child reacts during the
+learning process upon the presented materials in gaining control of this
+knowledge. This will embrace a study of the second and third steps of
+the process&mdash;the selecting and relating activities.</p>
+
+<p>3. How the child is to acquire facility in using a new experience, or in
+applying it to direct his conduct. This involves a particular study of
+the fourth step of the process&mdash;the law of expression.</p>
+
+<p>4. How the teacher may use any outside agencies, as maps, globes,
+specimens, experiments, etc., to assist in directing the learning
+process. This involves a study of various classes of educational
+instrumentalities.</p>
+
+<p>5. How the principles of general method are to be adapted to the
+different modes by which the learner may gain new experience, or
+knowledge. This will involve a study of the different kinds of lessons,
+or a knowledge of lesson types.</p>
+
+
+<h3>METHOD IMPLIES KNOWLEDGE OF MIND</h3>
+
+<p>Before we proceed to such a detailed study of the educative process as a
+process of teaching, it should be noted that the existence of a general
+method is possible only provided that the growth of conscious control
+takes place in the mind of the child in a systematic and orderly manner.
+All children, for instance, must be supposed to respond in the same
+general way in the learning process when they are confronted with the
+same problem. Without this they could not secure from the same lesson
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> same experiences and the same relative measure of control over
+these experiences. But if our conscious acts are so uniform that the
+teacher may expect from all of his pupils like responses and like states
+of experience under similar stimulations, then a knowledge on the part
+of the teacher of the orderly modes in which the mind works will be
+essential to an adequate control of the process of learning. Now a full
+and systematic account of mind and its activities is set forth in the
+Science of Psychology. As the Science of Consciousness, or Experience,
+psychology explains the processes by which all experience is built up,
+or organized, in consciousness. Thus psychology constitutes a basic
+science for educational method. It is essential, therefore, that the
+teacher should have some knowledge of the leading principles of this
+science. For this reason, frequent reference will be made, in the study
+of general method, to underlying principles of psychology. The more
+detailed examination of these principles and of their application to
+educational method will, however, be postponed to a later part of the
+text. Each of the four important steps of the learning process will now
+be treated in order, beginning in the next Chapter with the problem.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<h2>THE LESSON PROBLEM</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Problem, a Motive.</b>&mdash;The foregoing description and examples of the
+educative process have shown that new knowledge necessarily results
+whenever the mind faces a difficulty, or need, and adjusts itself
+thereto. In other words, knowledge is found to possess a practical value
+and to arise as man faces the difficulties, or problems, with which he
+is confronted. The basis of conscious activity in any direction is,
+therefore, a feeling of <i>need</i>. If one analyses any of his conscious
+acts, he will find that the motive is the satisfaction of some desire
+which he more or less consciously feels. The workman exerts himself at
+his labour because he feels the need of satisfying his artistic sense or
+of supplying the necessities of those who are dependent upon him; the
+teacher prepares the lessons he has to present and puts forth effort to
+teach them successfully, because he feels the need of educating the
+pupils committed to his care; the physician observes symptoms closely
+and consults authorities carefully, because he feels the need of curing
+his patients; the lawyer masters every detail of the case he is
+pleading, because he feels the need of protecting the interests of his
+client. What is true of adults is equally true of children in school.
+The pupil puts forth effort in school work because he feels that this
+work is meeting some of his needs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Problem.</b>&mdash;It is not to be assumed, however, that the only
+problem which will prompt the individ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>ual to put forth conscious effort
+must be a purely physical need, such as hunger, thirst, or a distinct
+desire for the attainment of a definite object, as to avoid danger or to
+secure financial gain or personal pleasure. Nor is it to be understood
+that the learner always clearly formulates the problem in his own mind.
+Indeed, as will be seen more fully later, one very important motive for
+mastering a presented problem is the instinct of curiosity. As an
+example of such may be noted a case which came under the observation of
+the writer, where the curiosity of a small child was aroused through the
+sight of a mud-turtle crawling along a walk. After a few moments of
+intense investigation, he cried to those standing by, "Come and see the
+bug in the basket." Here, evidently, the child's curiosity gave the
+strange appearance sufficient value to cause him to make it an object of
+study. Impelled by this feeling, he must have selected ideas from his
+former experience (bug&mdash;crawling thing; basket&mdash;incasing thing), which
+seemed of value in interpreting the unknown presentation. Finally by
+focusing these upon this strange object, he formed an idea, or mental
+picture, which gave him a reasonable control over the new vague
+presentation. Such a motive as curiosity may not imply to the same
+degree as some others a personal need, nor does it mean that the child
+consciously says to himself that this new material or activity is
+satisfying a specific need, but in some vague way he knows that it
+appeals to him because of its attractiveness in itself or because of its
+relation to some other attractive object. In brief, it interests him,
+and thus creates a tendency on the part of an individual to give it his
+attention. In such situations, therefore, the learner evidently feels to
+a greater or less degree a necessity, or a practical need, for solving
+the problem before him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>NEED OF PROBLEM</h3>
+
+<p><b>Knowledge Gained Accidentally.</b>&mdash;It is evident, however, that at times
+knowledge might be gained in the absence of any set problem upon which
+the learner reacts. For example, a certain person while walking along a
+road intent upon his own personal matters observed a boy standing near a
+high fence. On passing further along the street, he glanced through an
+opening and observed a vineyard within the inclosure. On returning along
+the street a few minutes later, he saw the same boy standing at a near
+by corner eating grapes. Hereupon these three ideas at once co-ordinated
+themselves into a new form of knowledge, signifying stealing-of-fruit.
+In such a case, the experience has evidently been gained without the
+presence of a problem to guide the selecting and relating of the ideas
+entering into the new knowledge. In like manner, a child whose only
+motive is to fill paper with various coloured crayon may accidentally
+discover, while engaged on this problem, that red and yellow will
+combine to make orange, or that yellow and blue will combine to make
+green. Here also the child gains valuable experience quite
+spontaneously, that is, without its constituting a motive, or problem,
+calling for adjustment.</p>
+
+<p><b>Learning without Motive.</b>&mdash;In the light of the above, a question
+suggests itself in relation to the lesson problem, or motive. Granting
+that a regular school recitation must contain some valuable problem for
+which the learning process is to furnish a solution, and granting that
+the teacher must be fully conscious both of the problem and of its mode
+of solution, the question might yet be asked whether a problem is to be
+realized by the child as a felt need at the beginning of the lesson. For
+example, if the teacher wishes his pupils to learn how to compose the
+sec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>ondary colour purple, might he have them blend in a purely arbitrary
+way, red and blue, and finally ask them to note the result? Or again, if
+he wishes the pupils to learn the construction of a paper-box or
+fire-place, would he not be justified in directing them to make certain
+folds, to do certain cutting, and to join together the various sections
+in a certain way, and then asking them to note the result? If such a
+course is permissible, it would seem that, so far at least as the
+learner is concerned, he may gain control of valuable experience, or
+knowledge, without the presence of a problem, or motive, to give the
+learning process value and direction.</p>
+
+<p><b>Problem Aids Control.</b>&mdash;It is true that in cases like the above, the
+child may gain the required knowledge. The cause for this is, no doubt,
+that the physical activity demanded of the pupil constitutes indirectly
+a motive for attending sufficiently to gain the knowledge. But in many
+cases no such conditions might exist. It is important, therefore, to
+have the pupil as far as possible realize at the outset a definite
+motive for each lesson. The advantage consists in the fact that the
+motive gives a value to the ideas which enter into the new knowledge,
+even before they are fully incorporated into a new experience. For
+example, if in a lesson in geometrical drawing, the teacher, instead of
+having the child set out with the problem of drawing a pair of parallel
+lines, merely orders him to follow certain directions, and then requests
+him to measure the shortest distance between the lines at different
+points, the child is not likely to grasp the connections of the various
+steps involved in the construction of the whole problem. This means,
+however, that the learner has not secured an equal control over the new
+experience.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Pupils Feel Its Lack.</b>&mdash;A further objection to conducting a lesson in
+such a way that the child may find no motive for the process until the
+close of the lesson, is the fact that he is himself aware of its lack.
+In school the child soon discovers that in a lesson he selects and gives
+attention to various ideas solely in order to gain control over some
+problem which he may more or less definitely conceive in advance. For
+this reason, if the teacher attempts, as in the above examples, to fix
+the child's attention on certain facts without any conception of
+purpose, the pupil nevertheless usually asks himself the question: "What
+does the teacher intend me to do with these facts?" Indeed, without at
+least that motive to hold such disconnected ideas in his mind, it is
+doubtful whether the pupil would attend to them sufficiently to organize
+them into a new item of knowledge. When, therefore, the teacher proposes
+at the outset an attractive problem to solve, he has gone a long way
+toward stimulating the intellectual activity of the pupil. The setting
+of problems, the supplying of motives, the giving of aims, the awakening
+of needs&mdash;this constitutes a large part of the business of the teacher.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PUPIL'S MOTIVE</h3>
+
+<p><b>Pupil's Problem versus Teacher's.</b>&mdash;But it is important that the
+problem before the pupil at the beginning of the lesson should really be
+the pupil's and not the teacher's merely. The teacher should be careful
+not to impose the problem on the pupils in an arbitrary way, but should
+try to connect the lesson with an interest that is already active. The
+teacher's motive in teaching the lesson and the pupil's motive in
+attending to it are usually quite different. The teacher's problem
+should, of course, be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> identical with the real problem of the lesson.
+Thus in a literature lesson on "Hide and Seek" (<i>Ontario Third Reader</i>),
+the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil to appreciate the music
+of the lines, the beauty of the images, and the pathos of the ideas; and
+in general, to increase the pupil's capacities of constructive
+imagination and artistic appreciation. The pupil's motive might be to
+find out how the poet had described a familiar game. In a nature study
+lesson on "The Rabbit," the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil
+to make certain observations and draw certain inferences and thus add
+something to his facility in observation and inference. The pupil's
+motive in the same lesson would be to discover something new about a
+very interesting animal. In general, the teacher's motive will be (1) to
+give the pupil a certain kind of useful knowledge; (2) to develop and
+strengthen certain organs; or (3) to add something to his mechanical
+skill by the forming of habitual reactions. In general, the pupil's
+motive will be to learn some fact, to satisfy some instinct, or perform
+some activity that is interesting either in itself or because of its
+relation to some desired end. That is, the pupil's motive is the
+satisfaction of an interest or the promotion of a purpose.</p>
+
+<p><b>Pupil's Motive May Be Indirect.</b>&mdash;It is evident from the foregoing that
+the pupil's motive for applying himself to any lesson may differ from
+the real lesson problem, or motive. For instance, in mastering the
+reading of a certain selection, the pupil's chief motive in applying
+himself to this particular task may be to please and win the approbation
+of the teacher. The true lesson problem, however, is to enable the
+learner to give expression to the thoughts and feelings of the author.
+When the aim, or motive, is thus somewhat disconnected from the lesson<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>
+problem itself, it becomes an <i>indirect</i> motive. While such indirect
+motives are undoubtedly valuable and must often be used with young
+children, it is evident that when the pupil's motive is more or less
+directly associated with the real problem of the lesson, it will form a
+better centre for the selecting and organizing of the ideas entering
+into the new experience.</p>
+
+<p><b>Relation to Pupil's Feeling.</b>&mdash;A chief essential in connection with the
+pupil's motive, or attitude, toward the lesson problem, is that the
+child should <i>feel</i> a value in the problem. That is, his apprehension of
+the problem should carry with it a desire to secure a complete mastery
+of the problem from a sense of its intrinsic value. The difference in
+feeling which a pupil may have toward the worth of a problem would be
+noticed by comparing the attitude of a class in the study of a military
+biography or a pioneer adventure taken from Canadian or United States
+sources respectively. In the case of the former, the feeling of
+patriotism associated with the lesson problem will give it a value for
+the pupils entirely absent from the other topic. The extent to which the
+pupil feels such a value in the lesson topic will in most cases also
+measure the degree of control he obtains over the new experience.</p>
+
+
+<h3>AWAKENING INTEREST IN PROBLEMS</h3>
+
+<p>As will be seen in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">Chapter XXIX</a>, where our feeling states will be
+considered more fully, feeling is essentially a personal attitude of
+mind, and there can be little guarantee that a group of pupils will feel
+an equal value in the same problem. At times, in fact, even where the
+pupil understands fairly well the significance of a presented lesson
+problem, he may feel little personal interest in it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> One of the most
+important questions of method is, therefore, how to awaken in a class
+the necessary interest in the lesson problem with which they are being
+presented.</p>
+
+<p>1. <b>Through Physical Activity.</b>&mdash;It is a characteristic of the young
+child to enjoy physical activity for the sake of the activity itself.
+This is true even of his earliest acts, such as stretching, smiling,
+etc. Although these are merely impulsive movements without conscious
+purpose, the child soon forms ideas of different acts, and readily
+associates these with other ideas. Thus he takes a delight in the mere
+functioning of muscles, hands, voice, etc., in expressive movements. As
+he develops, however, on account of the close association, during his
+early years, between thought and movement, the child is much interested
+in any knowledge which may be presented to him in direct association
+with motor activity. This fact is especially noticeable in that the
+efforts of a child to learn a strange object consist largely in
+endeavouring to discover what he can do with it. He throws, rolls,
+strikes, strives <i>to</i> open it, and in various other ways makes it a
+means of physical expression. Whenever, especially, he can discover the
+use of an object, as to cut with knife or scissors, to pound with a
+hammer, to dip with a ladle, or to sweep with a broom, this social
+significance of the object gives him full satisfaction, and little
+attention is paid to other qualities. For these reasons the teacher will
+find it advantageous, whenever possible, to associate a lesson problem
+directly with some form of physical action. In primary number work, for
+example, instead of presenting the child with mere numbers and symbols,
+the teacher may provide him with objects, in handling which he may
+associate the number facts with certain acts of grouping objects. It is
+in this way that a child should approach such problems as:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">How many fours are there in twelve?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How many feet in a yard?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How many quarts in a peck? etc.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>The teaching of fractions by means of scissors and cardboard; the
+teaching of board measure by having boards actually measured; the
+teaching of primary geography by means of the sand-table; the teaching
+of nature study by excursions to fields and woods; these are all easy
+because we are working in harmony with the child's natural tendency to
+be physically active. The more closely the lesson problem adjusts itself
+to these tendencies, the greater will be the pupil's activity and hence
+the more rapid his progress.</p>
+
+<p>2. Through Constructive Instinct.&mdash;The child's delight in motor
+expression is closely associated with his instinctive tendency to
+construct. When, therefore, new knowledge can be presented to the child
+in and through constructive exercises, he is more likely to feel its
+value. Thus it is possible, by means of such occupations as paper
+folding or stick-laying, to provide interesting problems for teaching
+number and geometric forms. In folding the check-board, for example, the
+child will master necessary problems relating to the numbers, 2, 4, 8,
+and 16. In learning colour, it is more interesting for the child to
+study different colours through painting leaves, flowers, and fruits,
+than to learn them through mere sense impressions, or even through
+comparing coloured objects, as in the Montessori chromatic exercises. A
+study of the various kindergarten games and occupations would give an
+abundance of examples illustrative of the possibility of presenting
+knowledge in direct association with various types of constructive
+work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>A. Activity must be Directly Connected with Problem.</b>&mdash;It may be noted,
+however, that certain dangers associate themselves with these methods.
+One danger consists in the fact that, if care is not taken, the physical
+activity may not really involve the knowledge to be conveyed, but may be
+only very indirectly associated with it. Such a danger might occur in
+the use of the Montessori colour tablets for teaching tints and shades.
+In handling those, kindergarten children show a strong inclination to
+build flat forms with the tablets. Now unless these building exercises
+involve the distinguishing of the various tints and shades, the
+constructive activity will be likely to divert the attention of the
+pupil away from the colour problem which the tablets are supposed to set
+for the pupils.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Not too much Emphasis on Manual Skill.</b>&mdash;Again, in expressive
+exercises intended merely to impart new knowledge, it may happen that
+the teacher will lay too much stress on perfect form of expression. In
+these exercises, however, the purpose should be rather to enable the
+child to realize the ideas in his expressive actions. When, for example,
+a child, in learning such geographical forms as island, gulf, mountain,
+etc., uses sand, clay, or plasticine as a medium of expression, too much
+striving after accuracy of form in minor details may tend to draw the
+pupil's attention from the broader elements of knowledge to be mastered.
+In other words, it is the gaining of certain ideas, or knowledge, and
+not technical perfection, that is being aimed at in such expressive
+movements.</p>
+
+<p class="figright"><img src="./images/illus006.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" /></p>
+
+<p><b>3. Instinct of Curiosity as Motive.</b>&mdash;The value of the instinct of
+curiosity in setting a problem for the young child has been already
+referred to. From what was there seen, it is evident that to the extent
+to which the teacher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> awakens wonder and curiosity in his presentation
+of a lesson problem, the child will be ready to enter upon the further
+steps of the learning process. For example, by inserting two forks and a
+large needle into a cork, as illustrated in the accompanying Figure, and
+then apparently balancing the whole on a small hard surface, we may
+awaken a deep interest in the problem of gravity. In the same manner, by
+calling the pupils' attention to the drops on the outside of a glass
+pitcher filled with water, we may have their curiosity aroused for the
+study of condensation. So also the presentation of a picture may arouse
+curiosity in places or people.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. Ownership as Motive.</b>&mdash;The natural pleasure which children take in
+collection and ownership may often be associated with presented problems
+in a way to cause them to take a deeper interest in the knowledge to be
+acquired. For example, in presenting a lesson on the countries of
+Europe, the collection of coins or stamps representative of the
+different countries will add greatly to the interest, compared with a
+mere outline study of the political divisions from a map. A more
+detailed examination of the instincts and tendencies of the child and
+their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> relation to the educative process will, however, be found in
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">Chapter XXI</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Acquired Interest as Motive.</b>&mdash;Finally, in the case of individual
+pupils, a knowledge of their particular, or special, interests is often
+a means of awakening in them a feeling of value for various types of
+school work. As an example, there might be cited the experience of a
+teacher who had in his school a pupil whom it seemed impossible to
+interest in reading. Thereupon the teacher made it his object to learn
+what were this pupil's chief interests outside the school. Using these
+as a basis for the selecting of simple reading matter for the boy, he
+was soon able to create in him an interest in reading for its own sake.
+The result was that in a short time this pupil was rendered reasonably
+efficient in what had previously seemed to him an uninteresting and
+impossible task.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. Use of Knowledge as Motive.</b>&mdash;In the preceding cases, interest in
+the problem is made to rest primarily upon some native instinct, or
+tendency. It is to be noted, however, that as the child advances in the
+acquisition of knowledge, or experience, there develops in him also a
+desire for mental activity. In other words, the normal child takes a
+delight in the use of any knowledge over which he possesses adequate
+control. It is to be noted further, that the child masters the new
+problem by bringing to bear upon it suitable ideas selected out of his
+previously acquired experiences. It is evident, therefore, that, when a
+lesson problem is presented to the child in such a way that he sees a
+connection between it and his present knowledge and feels, further, that
+the problem may be mastered by a use of knowledge over which he has
+complete mastery, he will take a deeper interest in the learning
+pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>cess. When, on the other hand, he has imperfect control over the old
+knowledge from which the interpreting ideas are selected, his interest
+in the problem itself will be greatly reduced. Owing to this fact, the
+teacher may adapt his lesson problems, or motives, to the stage of
+development of the pupils. In the case of young children, since they
+have little knowledge, but possess a number of instinctive tendencies,
+the lesson problem should be such as may be associated with their
+instinctive tendencies. Since, however, the expressing of these
+tendencies necessarily brings to the child ideas, or increases his
+knowledge, the pupil will in time desire to use his growing knowledge
+for its own sake. Here the child becomes able to grasp a problem
+consciously, or in idea, and, so far as it appeals to his past
+experience, will desire to work for its solution. Thus any problem which
+is recognized as having a vital connection with his own experience
+constitutes for the child a strong motive. For older pupils, therefore,
+the lesson problem which constitutes the strongest motive is the one
+that is consciously recognized and felt to have some direct connection
+with their present knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<h3>KNOWLEDGE OF PROBLEM</h3>
+
+<p><b>Relation to Pupil's Knowledge.</b>&mdash;Since the conscious apprehension of
+the problem by the pupil in its relation to his present knowledge
+constitutes the best motive for the learning process, a question arises
+how this problem is to be grasped by the pupil. First, it is evident
+that the problem is not a state of knowledge, or a complete experience.
+If such were the case, there would be nothing for him to learn. It is
+this partial ignorance that causes a problem to exist for the learner as
+a felt need, or motive. On the other hand it is not a state of complete
+ignorance,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> otherwise the learner could not call up any related ideas
+for its solution. When, for example, the child, after learning the
+various physical features, the climate, and people of Ontario, is
+presented with the problem of learning the chief industries, he is able
+by his former knowledge to realize the existence of these industries
+sufficiently to feel the need of a fuller realization. In the same way
+the student who has traced the events of Canadian History up to the year
+1791, is able to know the Constitutional Act as a problem for study,
+that is, he is able to experience the existence of such a problem and to
+that extent is able to know it. His mental state is equally a state of
+ignorance, in that he has not realized in his own consciousness all the
+facts relative to the Act. In the orderly study of any school subject,
+therefore, the mastery of the previous lesson or lessons will in turn
+suggest problems for further lessons. It is this further development of
+new problems out of present knowledge that demands an orderly sequence
+of topics in the different school subjects, a fact that should be fully
+realized by the teacher.</p>
+
+<p><b>Recognition of Problem: A. Prevents Digressions.</b>&mdash;An adequate
+recognition of the lesson problem by the pupil in the light of his own
+experience is useful in preventing the introduction of irrelevant
+material into the lesson. Young children are particularly prone (and,
+under certain circumstances, older students also) to drag into the
+lessons interesting side issues that have been suggested by some phase
+of the work. As a rule, it is advisable to follow closely the straight
+and narrow road that leads to the goal of the lesson and not to permit
+digressions into attractive by-paths. If a pupil attempts to introduce
+irrelevant matter, he should be asked what the problem of the lesson is
+and whether what he is speaking of will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> be of any value in attaining
+that end. The necessity of this will, however, be seen more fully in our
+consideration of the next division of the learning process.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Organizes the Lesson Facts.</b>&mdash;The adequate recognition of the lesson
+problem is valuable in helping the pupil to organize his knowledge. If
+you take a friend for a walk along the streets of a strange city
+engaging him in interesting conversation by the way, and if, when you
+have reached a distant point, you tell him that he must find his way
+back alone, he will probably be unable to do so without assistance. But
+if you tell him at the outset what you are going to do, he will note
+carefully the streets traversed, the corners turned, the directions
+taken, and will likely find his way back easily. This is because he had
+a clearly defined problem before him. The conditions are much the same
+in a lesson. When the pupil starts out with no definite problem and is
+led along blindly to some unknown goal, he will be unable to retrace his
+route; that is, he will be unable to reproduce the matter over which he
+has been taken. But with a clearly defined problem he will be able to
+note the order of the steps of the lesson, their relation to one another
+and to the problem, and when the lesson is over he will be able to go
+over the same course again. The facts of the lesson will have become
+organized in his mind.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HOW TO SET LESSON PROBLEM</h3>
+
+<p><b>Precautions.</b>&mdash;If the teacher expects his pupils to become interested
+in a problem by immediately recognizing a connection between it and
+their previous knowledge, he must avoid placing the problem before them
+in a form in which they cannot readily apprehend this connection.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> The
+teacher who announced at the beginning of the grammar lesson, "To-day we
+are going to learn about Mood in verbs" started the problem in a form
+that was meaningless to the class. The simplest method in such a lesson
+would be to draw attention to examples in sentences of verbs showing
+this change and then say to the class, "Let us discover why these verbs
+are changed." Similarly, to propose as the problem of the history lesson
+"the development of parliamentary government during the Stuart period"
+would be to use terms too difficult for the class to interpret. It would
+be better to say: "We are going to find out how the Stuart kings were
+forced by Parliament to give up control of certain things." Instead of
+saying, "We shall study in this lesson the municipal government of
+Ontario," it would be much better to proceed in some such way as the
+following: "A few days ago your father paid his taxes for the year. Now
+we are going to learn by whom, and for what purposes, these taxes are
+spent." Similarly, "Let us find out all we can about the cat," would be
+inferior to, "Of what use to the cat are his sharp claws, padded feet,
+and rough tongue?"</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it is evident that, in attempting to present the
+problem in a form in which the pupils may recognize its connection with
+their previous experiences, care must be taken not to tell outright the
+whole point of the lesson. In a lesson on the adverb, for instance, it
+would not do to say: "You have learned how adjectives modify, or change
+the meaning of, nouns. To-day we shall study words that modify verbs." A
+more satisfactory way of proceeding in such a lesson would be to have on
+the black-board two sets of sentences exactly alike except that the
+second would contain adverbs and the first would not. Then ask: "What
+words are in the second group of sen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>tences that are not in the first?
+Let us examine the use of these words." In the same way, to state the
+problem of an arithmetic lesson as the discovery of "how to add
+fractions by changing them to equivalent fractions having the same
+denominator" is open to the objection of telling too much. In this case
+a better method would be to present a definite problem requiring the use
+of addition of fractions. The pupil will see that he has not the
+necessary arithmetical knowledge to solve the problem and will then be
+in the proper mental attitude for the lesson.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EXAMPLES OF MOTIVATION</h3>
+
+<p>A few additional examples, drawn from different school subjects, are
+here added to illustrate further what is meant by setting a problem as a
+need, or motive.</p>
+
+<p><b>A. History.</b>&mdash;The members of a Form IV class were about to take up the
+study of the influence of John Wilkes upon parliamentary affairs during
+the reign of George III. As most of the pupils had visited the Canadian
+Parliament Buildings and had watched from the galleries the proceedings
+of the House of Commons, the teacher took this as the point of departure
+for the lesson. First, he obtained from the class the facts that the
+members of the Commons are elected by the different constituencies of
+the Dominion and that nobody has any power to interfere with the
+people's right to elect whomsoever they wish to represent them. The same
+conditions exist to-day in England, but this has not always been the
+case there. There was a time when the people's choice of a
+representative was sometimes set aside. The teacher then inquired
+regarding the men who sit in the gallery just above the Speaker's chair.
+These are the parliamentary reporters for the important daily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+newspapers throughout the Dominion. They send telegraphic despatches
+regarding the debates in the House to their respective newspapers. These
+despatches are published the following day, and the people of the
+country are thus enabled to know what is going on in Parliament. Nobody
+has any right to prevent these newspapers from publishing what they wish
+regarding the proceedings, provided, of course, the reports are not
+untruthful. These conditions prevail also in England now, but have not
+always done so.</p>
+
+<p>The work of the lesson was to see how these two conditions, freedom of
+elections and liberty of the press, have been brought about. The pupils
+were thus placed in a receptive attitude to hear the story of John
+Wilkes.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Arithmetic.</b>&mdash;A Form IV class had been studying decimals and knew
+how to read and write, add and subtract them. The teacher suggested a
+situation requiring the use of multiplication, and the pupils found
+themselves without the necessary means to meet the situation. For
+instance, "Mary's mother sent her to buy 2.25 lb. tea which cost $.375
+per lb. What would she have to pay for it?" Or, "Mr. Brown has a field
+containing 8.72 acres. Last year it yielded 21.375 bushels of wheat to
+the acre. Wheat was worth 97.5 cents per bushel. What was the crop from
+the field worth?" The pupils saw that, in order to solve these
+questions, they must know how to multiply decimals. Multiplication of
+decimals became the problem of the lesson, the goal to be attained.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Grammar.</b>&mdash;The teacher wished to show the meaning of <i>case</i> as an
+inflection of nouns and pronouns. He had written on the black-board such
+sentences as:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">I dropped my book when John pushed me.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">When the man passed, he had his dog with him.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>He asked the pupils what words in these sentences refer to the same
+person, and obtained the answer that <i>I</i>, <i>my</i>, and <i>me</i> all refer to
+one person, and <i>he</i>, <i>his</i>, and <i>him</i> to another. Then, he proposed the
+problem, "Let us find out why we have three different forms of a word
+all meaning the same person." The problem was adapted to animate the
+curiosity of the pupils and call into activity their capacity for
+perceiving relationships.</p>
+
+<p><b>D. Literature.</b>&mdash;The teacher was about to present the poem, "Hide and
+Seek," to a Form III class. He said, "You have all played 'hide and
+seek.' How do you play it? You will find on page 50 of your <i>Ontario
+Third Reader</i> a beautiful poem describing a game of 'hide and seek' that
+is rather a sad one. Let us see how the poet has described this game."
+The pupils were at once interested in what the poet had to say about
+what was to them a very familiar diversion, and, while the lesson was in
+progress, their capacity for sympathy and for artistic appreciation was
+appealed to.</p>
+
+<p><b>E. Geography.</b>&mdash;A Form III class was to study some of the more
+important commercial centres of Canada. Speaking of Montreal, the
+teacher proposed the problem, "Do you think we can find out why a city
+of half a million people has grown up at this particular point?" The
+pupils' instinct of curiosity was here appealed to and their capacity
+for perceiving relationships was challenged.</p>
+
+<p><b>F. Composition.</b>&mdash;The teacher wished to take up the writing of letters
+of application with a class of Form IV pupils. He wrote on the
+black-board an advertisement copied from a recent newspaper, for
+example, "Wanted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>&mdash;A boy about fifteen to assist in office; must be a
+good writer and accurate in figures; apply by letter to Martin &amp; Kelly,
+8 Central Chambers, City." Then he said, "Some day in the near future
+many of you will be called upon to answer such an advertisement as this.
+Now what should a letter of application in reply to this contain?" The
+class at once proceeded, with the teacher's assistance, to work out a
+satisfactory letter. Here, a purpose for the future was the principal
+need promoted.</p>
+
+<p><b>G. Nature Study.</b>&mdash;The pupils of a Form II class had been making
+observations regarding a pet rabbit that one of their number had brought
+to school. After reporting these observations, the pupils were asked,
+"What good do you think these long ears, large eyes, strong hind legs,
+split upper lip, etc., are to the rabbit?" Here the problem set was
+related to the children's instinctive interest in a living animal,
+appealed to the instinct of curiosity, and challenged their capacity to
+draw inferences.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<h2>LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY</h2>
+
+<h3>OR</h3>
+
+<h2>PROCESS OF ANALYSIS</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Knowledge Obtained Through Use of Ideas.</b>&mdash;As already noted, the
+presented problem of a lesson is neither a state of complete knowledge
+nor a state of complete ignorance. On the other hand, its function is to
+provide a starting-point and guide for the calling up of a number of
+suitable ideas which the pupil may later relate into a single
+experience, constituting the new knowledge. Take, for example, a person
+without a knowledge of fractions, who approaches for the first time the
+problem of sharing as found in such a question as:</p>
+
+<p>Divide $15 between John and William, giving John $3 as often as William
+gets $2.</p>
+
+<p>In gaining control of this situation, the pupil must select the ideas $3
+and $2, the knowledge that $3 and $2 = $5, and the further knowledge
+that $15 contains $5 three times. These various ideas will constitute
+data for organizing the new experience of $9 for John and $6 for
+William. In the same manner, when the student in grammar is first
+presented with the problem of interpreting the grammatical value of the
+word <i>driving</i> in the sentence, "The boy <i>driving</i> the horse is very
+noisy," he is compelled to apply to its interpretation the ideas noun,
+adjectival relation, and adjective, and also the ideas object, objective
+relation, and verb. In this way the child secures the mental elements
+which he may organize into the new experience,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> or knowledge
+(participle), and thus gain control of the presented word.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interpreting Ideas Already Known.</b>&mdash;It is to be noticed at the outset
+that all ideas selected to aid in the solution of the lesson problem
+have their origin in certain past experiences which have a bearing on
+the subject in hand. When presented with a strange object (guava), a
+person fixes his attention upon it, and thereupon is able, through his
+former sensation experiences, to interpret it as an unknown thing. He
+then begins to select, out of his experiences of former objects, ideas
+that bear upon the thing before him. By focusing thereon certain ideas
+with which he is perfectly familiar, as rind, flesh, seed, etc., he
+interprets the strange thing as a kind of fruit. In the same way, when
+the student is first presented in school with an example of the
+infinitive, he brings to bear upon the vague presentation various ideas
+already contained within his experience through his previous study of
+the noun and the verb. To the extent also to which he possesses and is
+able to recall these necessary old ideas, will he be able to adjust
+himself to the new and unfamiliar presented example (infinitive). It is
+evident, therefore, that a new presentation can have a meaning for us
+only as it is related to something in our past experience.</p>
+
+<p><b>Further Examples.</b>&mdash;The mind invariably tries to interpret new
+presentations in terms of old ideas. A newspaper account of a railway
+wreck will be intelligible to us only through the revival and
+reconstruction of those past experiences that are similar to the
+elements described in the account. The grief, disappointment, or
+excitement of another will be appreciated only as we have experienced
+similar feelings in the past. New ideas are interpreted by means of
+related old ideas; new feelings and acts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> are dependent upon and made
+possible by related old feelings and acts. Moreover, the meaning
+assigned to common objects varies with different persons and even with
+the same person under different circumstances. A forest would be
+regarded by the savage as a place to hide from the attacks of his
+enemies; by the hunter as a place to secure game; by the woodcutter as
+affording firewood; by the lumberman as yielding logs for lumber; by the
+naturalist as offering opportunity for observing insects and animals; by
+the artist as a place presenting beautiful combinations of colours. This
+ability of the mind to retain and use its former knowledge in meeting
+and interpreting new experiences is known in psychology as
+<i>apperception</i>. A more detailed study of apperception as a mental
+process will be made in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">Chapter XXVI</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE SELECTING PROCESS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Learner's Mind Active.</b>&mdash;A further principle of method to be deduced
+from the foregoing is, that the process of bringing ideas out of former
+experiences to bear upon a presented problem must take place within the
+mind of the learner himself. The new knowledge being an experience
+organized from elements selected out of former experiences, it follows
+that the learner will possess the new knowledge only in so far as he has
+himself gone through the process of selecting the necessary interpreting
+ideas out of his own former knowledge and finally organizing them into
+new knowledge. This need for the pupil to direct mental effort, or
+attention, upon the problem in order to bring upon it, out of his former
+knowledge, the ideas relative to the solution of the question before
+him, is one of the most important laws of method. From the standpoint of
+the teacher, this law demands that he so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> direct the process of learning
+that the pupil will clearly call up in consciousness the selected
+interpreting ideas as portions of his old knowledge, and further feel a
+connection between these and the new problem before him.</p>
+
+<p><b>Learner's Experience Analysed.</b>&mdash;The second stage of the learning
+process is found to involve also a breaking up of former experience.
+This appears in the fact that the various ideas which are necessary to
+interpret the new problem are to be selected out of larger complexes of
+past experience. For example, in a lesson whose problem is to account
+for the lack of rainfall in the Sahara desert, the pupil may have a
+complex of experiences regarding the position of the desert. Out of this
+mass of experience he must, however, select the one feature&mdash;its
+position in relation to the equator. In the same way, he may have a
+whole body of experience regarding the winds of Africa. This body must,
+however, be analysed, and the attention fixed upon the North-east
+trade-wind. Again, he may know many things about these winds, but here
+he selects out the single item of their coming from a land source.
+Again, from the complex of old knowledge which he possesses regarding
+the land area from which the wind blows, he must analyse out its
+temperature, and compare it with that of the areas toward which the wind
+is blowing. Thus it will be seen that, step by step, the special items
+of old knowledge to be used in the apperceptive process are selected out
+of larger masses of experience. For this reason this phase of the
+learning process is frequently designated as a process of analysis.</p>
+
+<p><b>Problem as Object of Analysis.</b>&mdash;Although the second step of the
+learning process has been described as a selecting of elements from past
+experience, it might be supposed that the various elements which the
+mind has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> been said to select from its former experiences to interpret
+the new problem, come in a sense from the presentation itself. Thus it
+is often said, in describing the present step in the learning process,
+that the presentation embodies a certain aggregate of experience, which
+the learner can master by analysing it into its component parts and
+recombining the analysed parts into a better known whole.</p>
+
+<p><b>Analysis Depends upon Selection.</b>&mdash;It is not in the above sense,
+however, that the term analysis is to be applied in the learning
+process. It is not true, for instance, when a person is presented with a
+strange object, say an <i>ornithorhynchus</i>, and realizes it in only a
+vague way, that any mere analysis of the object will discover for him
+the various characteristics which are to synthesize into a knowledge of
+the animal. This would imply that in analysis the mind merely breaks up
+a vaguely known whole in order to make of it a definitely known whole.
+But the learner could not discover the characteristics of such an object
+unless the mind attended to it with certain elements of its former
+experiences. Unless, for instance, the person already knew certain
+characteristics of both birds and animals, he could not interpret the
+ornithorhynchus as a bird-beaked animal. In the case of the child and
+the mud-turtle, also, there could have been no analysis of the problem
+in the way referred to, had the child not had the ideas, bug and basket,
+as elements of former experience. These characteristics, therefore,
+which enter into a definite knowledge of the object, do not come out of
+the object by a mere mechanical process of analysis, but are rather read
+into the object by the apperceptive process. That is, the learner does
+not get his new experience directly out of the presented materials, but
+builds up his new experience out of elements of his former knowledge. In
+other words, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> learner sees in the new object, or problem, only such
+characteristics as his former knowledge and interest enable him to see.
+Thus while the learner may be said from one standpoint to analyse the
+new problem, this is possible only because he is able to break up, or
+analyse, his former experience and read certain of its elements into the
+new presentation. To say that the mind analyses the unknown object, or
+topic, in any other sense, would be to confound mental interpretation
+with physical analysis.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Further Example.</b>&mdash;The following example will further show that the
+learner can analyse a presented problem only to the extent that he is
+able to put characteristics into it by this process of analysing or
+selecting from his past experience. Consider how a young child gains his
+knowledge of a triangle. At first his control of certain sensations
+enables him to read into it two ideas, three-sidedness and
+three-angledness, and only these factors, therefore, organize themselves
+into his experience triangle. Nor would any amount of mere attention
+enable him at this stage to discover another important quality in the
+thing triangle. Later, however, through the growth of his geometric
+experience, he may be able to read another quality into a triangle,
+namely two-right-angledness. This new quality will then, and only then,
+be organized with his former knowledge into a more complete knowledge of
+a triangle. Here again it is seen that analysis as a learning process is
+really reading into a new presentation something which the mind already
+possesses as an element of former experience, and not gaining something
+at first hand out of the presented problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>Problem Directs Selection.</b>&mdash;It will be well to note here also that the
+selecting of the interpreting ideas is usually controlled by the problem
+with which the mind is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> engaged. This is indicated from the various ways
+in which the same object may be interpreted as the mind is confronted
+with different problems. The round stone, for instance, when one wishes
+to crack the filbert, is viewed as a hammer; when he wishes to place his
+paper on the ground, it becomes a weight; when he is threatened by the
+strange dog, it becomes a weapon of defence. In like manner the sign <i>x</i>
+suggests an unknown quantity in relation to the algebraic problem; in
+relation to phonics it is a double sound; in relation to numeration, the
+number ten. It is evident that in all these cases, what determines the
+meaning given to the presented object is the <i>need</i>, or <i>problem</i>, that
+is at the moment predominant. In the same way, any lesson problem, in so
+far as it is felt to be of value, forms a starting-point for calling up
+other ideas, and therefore starts in the learner's mind a flow of ideas
+which is likely to furnish the solution. Moreover, the mind has the
+power to measure the suitability of various ideas and select or reject
+them as they are felt to stand related to the problem in hand. For
+example, when a pupil is engaged in a study of the grammatical value of
+the word <i>driving</i> in the sentence, "The boy driving the horse is very
+noisy," it is quite possible that he may think of the horse at his own
+home, or the shouting of his father's hired man, or even perhaps the
+form of the word <i>driving</i>, if he has just been viewing it in a writing
+lesson. The mind is able, however, to reject these irrelevant ideas, and
+select only those that seem to adjust themselves to the problem in hand.
+The cause of this lies in the fact that the problem is at the outset at
+least partly understood by the learner, which fact enables him to
+determine whether the ideas coming forward in consciousness are related
+in any way to this partially known topic. Thus in the example cited,
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> learner knows the problem sufficiently to realize that it is a
+question of grammatical function, and is able, therefore, to feel the
+value, or suitability, of any knowledge which may be applied to it, even
+before he is fully aware of its ultimate relation thereto.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LAW OF PREPARATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Control of Old Knowledge Necessary.</b>&mdash;But notwithstanding the direction
+given the apperceptive process through the aim, or problem, it is
+evident that if the pupil is to select from his former experiences the
+particular elements which bear upon the problem in hand, he must have a
+ready and intelligent control over such former knowledge. It is too
+evident, however, that pupils frequently do not possess sufficient
+control over the old knowledge which will bear upon a presented problem.
+In endeavouring, for example, to grasp the relation of the exterior
+angle to the two interior and opposite angles, the pupil may fail
+because he has not a clear knowledge of the equality of angles in
+connection with parallel lines. For this reason teachers will often find
+it necessary (before bringing old knowledge to bear upon a new problem)
+to review the old knowledge, or experience, to be used during the
+apperceptive process. Thus a lesson on the participle may begin with a
+review of the pupils' knowledge of verbs and adjectives, a lesson on the
+making of the colours orange and green for painting a pumpkin with its
+green stem may begin with a recognition of the standard colours, red,
+yellow, and blue, and the writing of a capital letter with a review of
+certain movements.</p>
+
+<p><b>Preparation Recalls Interpreting Ideas.</b>&mdash;It must be noted that this
+review of former knowledge always implies, either that the pupil is
+likely to have forgotten at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> least partially this former knowledge, or
+that without such review he is not likely to recall and apply it readily
+when the new problem is placed before him. For this reason the teacher
+is usually warned that his lesson should always begin with a review of
+such of the pupil's old knowledge as is to be used in mastering the new
+experiences.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VALUE OF PREPARATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Aids the Understanding.</b>&mdash;The main advantage of this preparatory
+work is that it brings into clear consciousness that group of ideas and
+feelings best suited to give meaning to the new presentation. Without
+it, the pupil may not understand, or only partially understand, or
+entirely misunderstand the lesson. (1) He may not understand the new
+matter at all because he does not bring any related facts from his past
+experience to bear upon it. Multiplication of decimals would in all
+probability be a merely mechanical process if the significance of
+decimals and the operation of multiplying fractions were not brought to
+bear upon it, the pupil not understanding it at all as a rational
+process. (2) He may only partially understand the new matter because he
+does not see clearly the relation between his old ideas and the new
+facts, or because he does not bring to the new facts a sufficient
+equipment of old ideas to make them meaningful. The adverbial objective
+would be imperfectly understood if it were not shown that its functions
+are exactly parallel with those of the adverb. The pupil would have only
+a partial understanding of it. (3) He may entirely misunderstand the new
+facts because he uses wrong old experiences to give them meaning. Such
+was evidently the difficulty in the case of the young pupil who, after a
+lesson on the equator, described it as a menagerie lion running around
+the earth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> Many of the absurd answers that a pupil gives are due to his
+failure to use the correct old ideas to interpret the new facts. He has
+misunderstood because his mind was not prepared by making the proper
+apperceiving ideas explicit.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Saves Time.</b>&mdash;There is the further advantage of economy of time,
+when an adequate preparation of the mind has been made. When the
+appropriate ideas are definitely in the forefront of consciousness, they
+seize upon kindred impressions as soon as these are presented and give
+them meaning. On the other hand, when sufficient preparation has not
+been made, time must be taken during the presentation of the new problem
+to go back in search of those experiences necessary to make it
+meaningful. Frequent interruptions and consequent waste of time will be
+inevitable. Time will be saved by having the apperceiving ideas ready
+and active.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Provides for Review.</b>&mdash;One of the most important values of the
+preparatory step is the opportunity given for the review of old ideas.
+These have to be revived, worked over, and reconstructed, and in
+consequence they become the permanent possessions of the mind. The
+pupil's knowledge of the functions of the adverb is reviewed when he
+learns the adverb phrase and adverb clause, and is still further
+illuminated when he comes to study the adverbial objective. Further, the
+apperceiving ideas become more interesting to the pupil, when he finds
+that he can use them in the conquest of new fields. He has a
+consciousness of power, which in itself is a source of satisfaction and
+pleasure.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PRECAUTIONS REGARDING PREPARATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Must not be too Long.</b>&mdash;Two precautions seem advisable in the
+preparatory step. The first is that too long a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> time should not be spent
+over it. There is sometimes a tendency to go back too far and drag
+forward ideas that are only remotely connected with the new ideas to be
+presented. Under such conditions much irrelevant material is likely to
+be introduced, and often a train of associations out of harmony with the
+meaning and spirit of the lesson is started. This is especially
+dangerous in lessons in literature and history. Only those experiences
+should be revived which are necessary to a clear apprehension of the
+ideas or a full appreciation of the emotions to be presented in the new
+lesson.</p>
+
+<p><b>Must Recall Vital Ideas.</b>&mdash;The most active, vivid, and powerful ideas
+in the pupil's mind are those which are closely connected with his life.
+This suggests the second precaution, namely, the use wherever possible
+of the ideas associated with his surroundings, his games, his
+occupations. When this is done, not only will the new knowledge have a
+much greater interest attached to it but it will also be much more
+vividly apprehended. This will be referred to further in connection with
+the use of illustrations in teaching.</p>
+
+
+<h3>NECESSITY OF PREPARATION</h3>
+
+<p>Teachers, however, are not always agreed as to the amount of time or
+emphasis to be given to this preparatory step. If the teacher can assure
+himself that a lesson is following in easy sequence upon something with
+which the children are undoubtedly familiar, he may, many argue, safely
+omit such preparatory work. Indeed it is evident that after leaving
+school the child will have no personal monitor to call up beforehand the
+ideas that he must apply in solving the problems continually presenting
+themselves in practical life. On the other hand, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span> it is to be
+remembered that the young child is, at the best, feeling his way in the
+process of adjusting himself to new experiences. For this reason, the
+first work for the teacher in any lesson is to ascertain whether the
+pupils are in a proper attitude for the new knowledge, and, so far as is
+necessary, prepare their minds through the recall of such knowledge as
+is related to the new experiences to be presented. Although, therefore,
+the step of preparation is not an essential part of the learning
+process, since it constitutes for the pupil merely a review of knowledge
+acquired through previous learning processes, it may be accepted as a
+step in the teacher's method of controlling the learning process.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EXAMPLES OF PREPARATION</h3>
+
+<p>The following additional examples as to the mode and form of the step of
+preparation may be considered by the student-teacher:</p>
+
+<p>In a lesson in phonic reading in a primary class, the preparation should
+consist of a review of those sounds and those words which the pupil
+already knows that are to be used in the new lesson. In a nature study
+lesson on "The Rabbit," in a Form II class, the preparation should
+include a recall of any observations the pupils may have made regarding
+the wild rabbit. They may have observed its timidity, its manner of
+running, what it feeds upon, where it makes its home, its colour during
+the winter and during the summer, the kind of tracks it makes in the
+snow, etc. All these facts will be useful in interpreting the new
+observations and in assisting the pupils to make new inferences. In a
+lesson in a Form III class on "Ottawa as a Commercial Centre," the
+preparation consists of a recall of the pupil's knowledge regarding the
+position of the city; the adjacent rivers, the Ottawa,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> Gatineau,
+Rideau, Li&egrave;vre, Madawaska; the waterfalls of the Rideau and Chaudi&egrave;re;
+the forests to the north and west, with their immense supplies of pine,
+spruce, and hemlock; and the fact that it is the Dominion capital. All
+these facts are necessary in inferring the causes of the importance of
+Ottawa. In a literature lesson in a Form III class on <i>The Charge of the
+Light Brigade</i>, the preparation would involve a recall of some deed of
+personal heroism with which the pupils are familiar, such as that of
+John Maynard, Grace Darling, or any similar one nearer home. Recall how
+such a deed is admired and praised, and the memory of the doer is
+cherished and revered. Then the teacher should tell the story of
+Balaklava with all the dramatic intensity he is master of, in order that
+the pupils may be in a proper mood to approach the study of the poem. In
+a grammar lesson on "The Adverbial Objective" the preparation should
+consist of a review of the functions of the adverb as modifying a verb,
+an adjective, and sometimes another adverb. Upon this knowledge alone
+can a rational idea of the adverbial objective be built. In an
+arithmetic lesson on "Multiplication of Decimals," in a Form IV class,
+the preparation should involve a review of the meaning of decimals, of
+the interconversion of decimals and fractions (for example, .05 = 5
+hundredths; 27 ten-thousandths = .0027, etc.); and of the multiplication
+of fractions. Unless the pupil can do these operations, it is obviously
+impossible to make his knowledge of multiplication of decimals anything
+more than a merely mechanical process.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PREPARATION MERELY AIDS SELECTION</h3>
+
+<p>Before closing our consideration of preparation as a stage of method, it
+will be well again to call attention to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> the fact that this is not one
+of the four recognized stages of the learning process, but rather a
+subsidiary feature of the second, or apperceptive stage. In other words,
+actual advance is made by the pupil toward the control of a new
+experience, not through a review of former experience, but by an active
+relating of elements selected from past experience to the interpretation
+of the new problem.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<h2>LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY</h2>
+
+<h3>OR</h3>
+
+<h2>PROCESS OF SYNTHESIS</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Learning a Unifying Process.</b>&mdash;It has been seen that the learner, in
+gaining control of new knowledge, must organize into the new experience
+elements selected from former experiences. For instance, when a person
+gains a knowledge of a new fruit (guava), he not only brings forward in
+consciousness from his former knowledge the ideas&mdash;rind, flesh, seed,
+etc.,&mdash;to interpret the strange object, but also associates these into a
+single experience, a new fruit. So long also as the person referred to
+in an earlier chapter retained in his consciousness as distinct factors
+three experiences&mdash;seeing a boy at the fence, seeing the vineyard, and
+finally, seeing the boy eating grapes&mdash;these would not, as three such
+distinct experiences, constitute a knowledge of grape-stealing. On the
+other hand, as soon as these are combined, or associated by a relating
+act of thought, the different factors are organized into a new idea
+symbolized by the expression, <i>grape-stealing</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Examples From School-room Procedure.</b>&mdash;A similar relating process is
+involved when the learner faces a definite school problem. When, for
+instance, the pupil gains a knowledge of the sign &divide;, he must not only
+bring forward in consciousness from his former knowledge distinct ideas
+of a line, of two dots, and of a certain mathematical process, but must
+also associate these into a new idea, division-sign. So also a person
+may know that air<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> takes up more moisture as it becomes warmer, that the
+north-east trade-winds blow over the Sahara from land areas, and that
+the Sahara is situated just north of the equator. But the mind must
+unify these into a single experience in order to gain a knowledge of the
+condition of the rainfall in that quarter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>NATURE OF SYNTHESIS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Deals with Former Experiences.</b>&mdash;This mental organizing, or unifying,
+of the elements of past experiences to secure control of the new
+experience, is usually spoken of as a process of synthesis. The term
+synthesis, however, must be used with the same care as was noted in
+regard to the term analysis. Synthesis does not mean that totally <i>new</i>
+elements are being unified, but merely that whatever selected elements
+of old knowledge the mind is able to read into a presented problem, are
+built, or organized, into a new system; and constitute, for the time
+being, one's knowledge and control of that problem. This is well
+exemplified by noting the growth of a person's knowledge of any object
+or topic. Thus, so long as the child is able to apperceive only the
+three sides and three angles of a triangle, his idea of triangle
+includes a synthesis of these. When later, through the building up of
+his geometric knowledge, he is able to apperceive that the interior
+angles equal two right angles, his knowledge of a triangle expands
+through the synthesis of this with the former knowledge.</p>
+
+<p><b>All Knowledge a Synthesis.</b>&mdash;The fact that all knowledge is an
+organization from earlier experiences becomes evident by looking at the
+process from the other direction. The adult who has complete knowledge
+of an orange has it as a single experience. This experience is found,
+however, to represent a co-ordination of other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> experiences, as touch,
+taste, colour, etc. Moreover, each of these separate characteristics is
+an association of simpler experiences. Experiencing the touch of the
+orange, for instance, is itself a complex made up of certain muscular,
+touch, and temperature sensations. From this it is evident that the
+knowledge of an orange, although a unity of experience in adult life, is
+really a complex, or synthesis, made up of a large number of different
+elements.</p>
+
+<p>What is true of our idea of an orange is true of every other idea.
+Whether it be the understanding of a plant, an animal, a city, a
+picture, a poem, an historical event, an arithmetical problem, or a
+scientific experiment, the process is always the same. The apperceptive
+process of interpreting the new by selecting and relating elements of
+former experience, or the process of analysis-synthesis, is universal in
+learning. Expressed in another form, what is at first indistinct and
+indefinite becomes clear and defined through attention selecting, for
+the interpretation of the new presentation, suitable old ideas and
+setting up relationships among them. Analysis, or selection, is
+incomplete without an accompanying unification, or synthesis; synthesis,
+or organization, is impossible without analysis, or selection. It is on
+account of the mind's ability to unify a number of mental factors into a
+single experience, that the process of unification, or synthesis, is
+said to imply economy within our experiences. This fact will become even
+more evident, however, when later we study such mental processes as
+sense perception and conception.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INTERACTION OF PROCESSES</h3>
+
+<p>It is to be noted, however, that the selecting and the relating of the
+different interpreting ideas during the learning process are not
+necessarily separate and distinct<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> parts of the lesson. In other words,
+the mind does not first select out of its former knowledge a whole mass
+of disconnected elements, and then later build them up into a new
+organic experience. There is, rather, in almost every case, a continual
+interplay between the selecting and relating activity, or between
+analysis and synthesis, throughout the whole learning process. As soon,
+for instance, as a certain feature, or characteristic, is noted, this
+naturally relates itself to the central problem. When later, another
+characteristic is noted, this may relate itself at once both with the
+topic and with the formerly observed characteristic into a more complete
+knowledge of the object. Thus during a lesson we find a gradual growth
+of knowledge similar to that illustrated in the case of the scholar's
+knowledge of the triangle, involving a continual interplay of analysis
+and synthesis, or of selecting and relating different groups of ideas
+relative to the topic. This would he illustrated by noting a pupil's
+study of the cat. The child may first note that the cat catches and eats
+rats and mice, and picks meat from bones. These facts will at once
+relate themselves into a certain measure of knowledge regarding the food
+of the animal. Later he may note that the cat has sharp claws, padded
+feet, long pointed canines, and a rough tongue; these facts being also
+related as knowledge concerning the mouth and feet of the animal. In
+addition to this, however, the latter facts will further relate
+themselves to the former as cases of adaptation, when the child notes
+that the teeth and tongue are suited to tearing food and cleaning it
+from the bones, and that its claws and padded feet are suited to
+surprising and seizing its living prey.</p>
+
+<p><b>Example from Study of Conjunctive Pronoun.</b>&mdash;This continuous selecting
+and relating throughout a pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>cess of learning is also well illustrated
+in the pupil's process of learning the <i>conjunctive pronoun</i>. By
+bringing his old knowledge to bear on such a sentence as "The men <i>who</i>
+brought it returned at once"; the pupil may be asked first to apperceive
+the subordinate clause, <i>who brought it</i>. This will not likely be
+connected by the pupil at first with the problem of the value of <i>who</i>.
+From this, however, he passes to a consideration of the value of the
+clause and its relation. Hereupon, these various ideas at once
+co-ordinate themselves into the larger idea that <i>who</i> is conjunctive.
+Next, he may be called upon to analyse the subordinate clause. This, at
+first, also may seem to the child a disconnected experience. From this,
+however, he passes to the idea of <i>who</i> as subject, and thence to the
+fact that it signifies man. Thereupon these ideas unify themselves with
+the word <i>who</i> under the idea <i>pronoun</i>. Thereupon a still higher
+synthesis combines these two co-ordinated systems into the more complex
+system, or idea&mdash;<i>conjunctive pronoun</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus007.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" /></p>
+
+<p>This progressive interaction of analysis and synthesis is illustrated by
+the accompanying figure, in which the word <i>who</i> represents the
+presented unknown problem; <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, and <i>c</i>, the selecting and relating
+process which results in the knowledge, <i>conjunction</i>; <i>a'</i>, <i>b'</i>, and
+<i>c'</i>, the building up of the <i>pronoun</i> notion; and the circle, the final
+organization of these two smaller systems into a single notion,
+<i>conjunctive pronoun</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The learning of any fact in history, the mastery of a poem, the study of
+a plant or animal, will furnish excellent examples of these subordinate
+stages of analysis and synthesis within a lesson. It is to be noted
+further that this feature of the learning process causes many lessons to
+fall into certain well marked sub-divisions. Each of these minor
+co-ordinations clustering around a sub-topic of the larger problem, the
+whole lesson separates itself into a number of more or less distinct
+parts. Moreover, the child's knowledge of the whole lesson will largely
+depend upon the extent to which he realizes these parts both as separate
+co-ordinations and also as related parts of the whole lesson problem.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ALL KNOWLEDGE UNIFIED</h3>
+
+<p>Nor does this relating activity of mind confine itself within the single
+lesson. As each lesson is organized, it will, if fully apprehended, be
+more or less directly related with former lessons in the same subject.
+In this way the student should discover a unity within the lessons of a
+single subject, such as arithmetic or grammar. In like manner, various
+groups of lessons organize themselves into larger divisions within the
+subject, in accordance with important relations which the pupil may read
+into their data. Thus, in grammar, one sequence of lessons is organized
+into a complete knowledge of sentences; another group, into a complete
+knowledge of inflection; a smaller group within the latter, into a
+complete knowledge of tense or mood. It is thus that the mind is able to
+construct its mass of knowledge into organized groups known as sciences,
+and the various smaller divisions into topics.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<h2>APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE</h2>
+
+<h3>OR</h3>
+
+<h2>LAW OF EXPRESSION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Practical Significance of Knowledge.</b>&mdash;In our consideration of the
+fourth phase of the learning process, or the law of expression, it is
+necessary at the outset to recall what has already been noted regarding
+the correlation of knowledge and action. In this connection it was
+learned that knowledge arises naturally as man faces a difficulty, or
+problem, and that it finds significance and value in so far as it
+enables him to meet the practical and theoretical difficulties with
+which he may be confronted. In other words, man is primarily a doer, and
+knowledge is intended to guide the conduct of the individual along
+certain recognized lines. This being the case, while instruction aims to
+control the process by which the child is to acquire valuable social
+experience, or knowledge, it is equally important that it should promote
+skill by correlating that knowledge with expression, or should strive to
+influence action while forming character. To apperceive, for instance,
+the rules of government and agreement in grammar will have a very
+limited value if the student is not able to give expression to these in
+his own conversation. It becomes imperative, therefore, that as far as
+possible, expression should enter as a factor in the learning process.</p>
+
+<p><b>Examples of Expression.</b>&mdash;Man's expressive acts are found, however, to
+differ greatly in their form. When one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> is hurt, he distorts his face
+and cries aloud; when he hears a good speech he claps his hands and
+shouts approval; when he reads an amusing story he laughs; when he
+learns of the death of a friend he sheds tears; when he is affronted his
+face grows red, his muscles tense, and he strikes a blow or breaks into
+a torrent of words; when he has seen a striking incident he tells some
+one about it or writes an account to a distant friend. When his feelings
+are stirred by a patriotic address, he springs to his feet and sings,
+"God Save the King." The desire that his team should carry the foot-ball
+to the southern goal causes the spectator to lean and push in that
+direction. When he conceives how he may launch a successful venture, the
+business man at once proceeds to carry it into effect. These are all
+examples of <i>expression</i>. Every impression, idea, or thought, tends
+sooner or later to work itself out in some form of motor expression.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TYPES OF ACTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Uncontrolled Actions.</b>&mdash;Passing to an examination of such physical,
+or motor, activities, we find that man's expressive acts fall into three
+somewhat distinct classes. A young child is found to engage in many
+movements which seem destitute of any conscious direction. Some of these
+movements, such as breathing, sneezing, winking, etc., are found to be
+useful to the child, and imply what might be termed inherited control of
+conduct, though they do not give expression to any consciously organized
+knowledge, or experience. At other times, his bodily movements seem to
+be mere random, or impulsive, actions. These latter actions at times
+arise in a spontaneous way as a result of native bodily vigour, as, for
+instance, stretching, kicking, etc., as seen in a baby. At other times
+these uncontrolled<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> acts have their origin in the various impressions
+which the child is receiving from his surroundings, or environment, as
+when the babe impulsively grasps the object coming in contact with his
+hand. Although, moreover, these instinctive movements may come in time
+under conscious control, such actions do not in themselves imply
+conscious control or give expression to organized knowledge.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Actions Subject to Intelligent Control.</b>&mdash;To a second class of
+actions belong the orderly movements which are both produced and
+directed by consciousness. When, in distinction to the movements
+referred to above, a child pries open the lid to see what is in the box,
+or waves his hand to gain the attention of a companion, a conscious aim,
+or intention, produces the act, and conscious effort sustains it until
+the aim is reached. The distinction between mere impulsive and
+instinctive actions on the one hand, and guided effort on the other,
+will be considered more fully in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">Chapter XXX</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Habitual Actions.</b>&mdash;Thirdly, as has been noted in <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II</a>, both
+consciously directed and uncontrolled action may, by repetition, become
+so fixed that it practically ceases to be directed by consciousness, or
+becomes habitual.</p>
+
+<p>Our expressive actions may be classified, therefore, into three
+important groups as follows:</p>
+
+<p>
+1. Instinctive, reflex, and impulsive action<br />
+2. Consciously controlled, or directed action<br />
+3. Habitual action.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h3>NATURE OF EXPRESSION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Implies Intelligent Control.</b>&mdash;It is evident that as a stage in the
+learning process, expression must deal pri<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>marily with the second class
+of actions, since its real purpose is to correlate the new conscious
+knowledge with action. Expression in education, therefore, must
+represent largely consciously produced and consciously directed action.</p>
+
+<p><b>Conscious Expression may Modify A. Instinctive Acts.</b>&mdash;While this is
+true, however, expression, as a stage in the educative process, will
+also have a relation to the other types of action. As previously noted,
+the expression stage of the learning process may be used as a means to
+bring instinctive and impulsive acts under conscious control. This is
+indeed an important part of a child's education. For instance, it is
+only by forming ideas of muscular movements and striving to express them
+that the child can bring his muscular movements under control. It is
+evident, therefore, that the expressive stage of the lesson can be made
+to play an important part in bringing many instinctive and impulsive
+acts under conscious direction. By expressing himself in the games of
+the kindergarten, the child's social instinct will come under conscious
+control. By directing his muscular movements in art and constructive
+work, he gains the control which will in part enable him to check the
+impulse to strike the angry blow. These points will, however, be
+considered more fully in a study of the inherited tendencies in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">Chapter
+XXI</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Habits.</b>&mdash;Further, many of our consciously directed acts are of so
+great value that they should be made more permanent through habituation.
+Expression must, therefore, in many lessons be emphasized, not merely to
+test and render clear present conscious knowledge, but also to lead to
+habitual control of action, or to create skill. This would be especially
+true in having a child practise the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span> formation of figures and letters.
+Although at the outset we must have him form the letter to see that he
+really knows the outline, the ultimate aim is to enable him to form
+these practically without conscious direction. In language work, also,
+the child must acquire many idiomatic expressions as habitual modes of
+speech.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TYPES OF EXPRESSION</h3>
+
+<p>Since the tendency to express our impressions in a motor way is a law of
+our being, it follows that the school, which is constantly seeking to
+give the pupil intelligent impressions, or valuable knowledge, should
+also provide opportunity for adequate expression of the same. The forms
+most frequently adopted in schools are speech and writing. Pupils are
+required to answer questions orally or in writing in almost every school
+subject, and in doing so they are given an opportunity for expression of
+a very valuable kind. In fact, it would often be much more economical to
+try to give pupils fewer impressions and to give them more opportunities
+for expression in language. But written or spoken language is not the
+only means of expression that the school can utilize. Pupils can
+frequently be required to express themselves by means of manual
+activity. In art, they represent objects and scenes by means of brush
+and colour, or pencil, or crayon; in manual training, they construct
+objects in cardboard and wood; in domestic science, they cook and sew.
+The primary object of these so-called "new" subjects of the school
+programme is not to make the pupils artists, carpenters, or
+house-keepers, but partly to acquaint them with typical forms of human
+activity and partly to give them means of expression having an educative
+value. In arithmetic, the pupils express numerical facts by
+manipulating<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> blocks and splints, and measure quantities, distances,
+surfaces, and solids. In geography, they draw maps of countries, model
+them in sand or clay, and make collections to illustrate manufactures at
+various stages of the process. In literature, they dramatize stories and
+illustrate scenes and situations by a sketch with pencil or brush. In
+nature study, they illustrate by drawings and make mounted collections
+of plants and insects.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VALUE OF EXPRESSION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Influences Conduct.</b>&mdash;In nature study, history, and literature, the
+most valuable kind of expression is that which comes through some
+modification of future conduct. That pupil has studied the birds and
+animals to little purpose who needlessly destroys their lives or causes
+them pain. He has studied the reign of King John to little purpose if he
+is not more considerate of the rights of others on the playground. He
+has gained little from the life of Robert Bruce, Columbus, or La Salle,
+if he does not manfully attack difficulties again and again until he has
+overcome them. He has not read <i>The Heroine of Verch&egrave;res</i>, or <i>The
+Little Hero of Haarlem</i> aright, if he does not act promptly in a
+situation demanding courage. He has learned little from the story of
+Damon and Pythias if he is not true to his friends under trying
+circumstances, and he has not imbibed the spirit of <i>The Christmas
+Carol</i> if he is not sympathetic and kindly toward those less fortunate
+than himself. From the standpoint of the moral life, therefore, right
+knowledge is valuable only as it expresses itself in right action.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Aids Impression.</b>&mdash;Apart from the fact that it satisfies a demand of
+our being, expression is most important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> in that it tests the clearness
+of the applied knowledge. We often think that our impression is clear,
+only to discover its vagueness when we attempt to express it in some
+form. People often say that they understand a fact thoroughly, but they
+cannot exactly express it. Such a statement is usually incorrect. If the
+impression were clear, the expression under ordinary circumstances would
+also be clear. In this connection a danger should be pointed out. Pupils
+sometimes express themselves in language with apparent clearness, when
+in reality they are merely repeating words that they have memorized and
+that are quite meaningless to them. The alert teacher can, however, by
+judicious questioning, avoid being deceived in this regard.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Adds to Clearness of Knowledge.</b>&mdash;Not only does expression test the
+clearness of the apperceived new knowledge, but at the same time it
+gives the knowledge greater clearness. We learn to know by doing. A
+pupil realizes a story more fully when he has reproduced it for somebody
+else. He images a scene described in a poem more clearly when he has
+drawn it. He has a clearer idea of the volume of a cord when he has
+actually measured out a cord of wood. He has a more accurate conception
+of the difficulties attending the discoveries of La Salle when he has
+drawn a map and traced the routes of his various expeditions. There is
+much truth in the statement that one never fully knows some things until
+he has taught them to somebody else. The teacher in grammar and
+geography will often have occasion to realize this. Greater clearness of
+impression means, of course, greater permanence. We remember best those
+facts of which our impression was most vivid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>DANGERS OF OMITTING EXPRESSION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Knowledge not Practical.</b>&mdash;It is apparent, then, that if the pupil
+is not given opportunity for expression, his ideas are vague and
+evanescent. Further than this, his capacities for <i>knowing</i> will be
+developed but his capacities for <i>doing</i> ignored. His <i>intellectual</i>
+powers will be exercised and his <i>volitional</i> powers neglected. The
+pupil is thus likely to develop into a mere <i>theorist</i>; and as the
+tendencies of childhood are accentuated in later life, he becomes an
+<i>impractical</i> man. There are many men in the world who apparently know a
+great deal, but who, through inability to make practical application of
+their knowledge, are unsuccessful in life. It is, however, seriously to
+be doubted whether knowledge is ever <i>real</i> until it has been worked out
+in practice and conduct. To avoid the danger of becoming impractical, a
+pupil should have every opportunity for expression.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Feelings Weakened.</b>&mdash;A second serious danger of neglecting
+expression lies in the field of the emotions. To have generous emotions
+continually aroused and never to act upon them, to have one's sympathies
+frequently stirred and never to perform a kindly act, to experience
+feelings of love and never to express them in acts of service, is to
+cultivate a weakness of character. A classic instance of this is that of
+the lady who wept bitterly over the imaginary sorrows of the heroine in
+the play while her coachman was freezing to death outside the theatre.
+If worthy emotions are ever to be of the slightest moral value to us,
+they must be expressed in action. The pupil frequently has his emotions
+stirred in the lessons in literature, history, and nature study, and
+there are situations constantly arising in the school room, on the
+playground, on the street, and in the home, that afford opportunity for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+expression. To give a single instance, there is a story in the <i>Ontario
+Third Reader</i> by Elizabeth Phelps Ward, called "Mary Elizabeth." No
+pupil could read that story without being stirred with a deep pity and
+yet profound admiration for the pathetic figure of poor little Mary
+Elizabeth. The natural expression for such emotions would be a more
+kindly and sympathetic attitude towards some unfortunate child in the
+school.</p>
+
+
+<h3>RELATION OF EXPRESSION TO IMPRESSION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Knowledge Tends Toward Expression.</b>&mdash;On account of the evident
+connection between knowledge and action, the law of expression has
+formulated itself into a well-known pedagogical law of method&mdash;no
+impression without expression. Like many other educational maxims,
+however, this law may be interpreted in too wide a sense. The law of
+expression in education claims only that valuable experiences, or
+valuable forms of new knowledge, should not be built up in the child's
+mind without adequate accompanying expression. In the first case, as
+already seen, many impressions come to us which are never seized upon
+sufficiently by our consciousness to become intelligent rules for
+conduct, or action. It is true, of course that, so far as such
+impressions stimulate us, they tend toward expression, and to that
+extent the maxim is true. For instance, when a child is impressed, say,
+by a sudden strange sound, he has a tendency to express himself by
+straining his attention, and when the man imagines an enemy is before
+him, he finds his arms and fists assuming the fighting attitude.</p>
+
+<p><b>Expression at Times Inhibited.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted that the child
+should early learn to form intelligent plans of action and postpone or
+even condemn them as forms of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> expression. In other words, a child
+should early learn to select and co-ordinate ideas into an orderly
+system independently of their actual expression in physical action.
+Without this power to suppress, or inhibit, expression, the child would
+be unable adequately to weigh and compare alternative courses of action
+and suppress such as seem undesirable. Such indeed is the weakness of
+the man who possesses an impulsive nature. Although, therefore, it is
+true that all knowledge is intended to serve in meeting actual needs, or
+to function in the control of expression, it is equally true that not
+every organized experience should find expression in action. Part at
+least of man's efficiency must consist in his ability to organize a new
+experience in an indirect way and condemn it as a rule of action. While,
+therefore, we emphasize the importance, under ordinary conditions, of
+having the child's knowledge function as directly as possible in some
+form of actual expression, it is equally important to recognize that in
+actual life many organized plans should not find expression in outer
+physical action. This being the case, the divorce between organized
+experience, or knowledge, and practical expression, which at times takes
+place in school work, is not necessarily unsound, since it tends to make
+the child proficient in separating the mental organizing of experience
+from its immediate expression, and must, therefore, tend to make him
+more capable of weighing plans before putting them into execution. This
+will in turn habituate the child to taking the necessary time for
+reflection between "the acting of a thing and the first purpose." This
+question will be considered more fully in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">Chapter XXX</a>, which treats of
+the development of voluntary control.</p>
+
+<p>It should be noted in conclusion that the law of expression as a fourth
+stage of the learning process differs<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> in purpose from the use of
+physical action as a means of creating interest in the problem, as
+referred to on page <a href="#Page_62">62</a>. When, for instance, we set a pupil who has no
+knowledge of long measure to use the inch in interpreting the yard
+stick, expressive action is merely a means of putting the problem before
+the child in an interesting form on account of his liking for physical
+action. When, on the other hand, the child later uses the foot or yard
+as a unit to measure the perimeter of the school-room, he is applying
+his knowledge of long measure, which has been acquired previously to
+this expressive act.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+
+<h2>FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>The chief office of the teacher, in controlling the pupils' process of
+learning, being to direct their self-activity in making a selection of
+ideas from their former knowledge which shall stand in vital connection
+with the problem, and lead finally to its solution, the question arises
+in what form the teacher is to conduct the process in order to obtain
+this desired result. Three different modes of directing the selecting
+activity of the student are recognized and more or less practised by
+teachers. These are usually designated the lecture method, the text-book
+method, and the developing method.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE LECTURE METHOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>Example of Lecture Method.</b>&mdash;In the lecture method so-called, the
+teacher tells the students in direct words the facts involved in the new
+problem, and expects these words to enable the pupils to call up from
+their old knowledge the ideas which will give the teacher's words
+meaning, and thus lead to a solution of the problem. For example, in
+teaching the meaning of alluvial fans in geography, a teacher might seek
+to awaken the interpreting ideas by merely stating in words the
+characteristic of a fan. This would involve telling the pupils that an
+alluvial fan is a formation on the floor of a main river valley,
+resulting from the depositing of detritus carried down the steep side of
+the valley by a tributary stream and deposited in the form of a fan,
+when the force of the water is weakened<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> as it enters the more level
+floor of the valley. To interpret this verbal description, however, the
+pupil must first interpret the words of the teacher as sounds, and then
+convert these into ideas by bringing his former knowledge to bear upon
+the word symbols. If we could take it for granted that the pupil will
+readily grasp the ideas here signified by such words as, formation, main
+river valley, depositing, detritus, steep side, etc., and at once feel
+the relation of these several ideas to the more or less unknown
+object&mdash;alluvial fan&mdash;this method would undoubtedly give the pupil the
+knowledge required.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Method Difficult.</b>&mdash;To expect of young children a ready ability in
+thus interpreting words would, however, be an evident mistake. To
+translate such sound symbols into ideas, and immediately adjust them to
+the problem, demands a power of language interpretation and of
+reflection not usually found in school children. The purely lecture
+method, therefore, has very small place with young children, whatever
+may be its value with advanced students. Pupils in the primary grades
+have not sufficient power of attention to listen to a long lecture on
+any subject, and no teacher should think of conducting a lesson by that
+method alone. The purpose of the lecture is merely to give information,
+and that is seldom the sole purpose of a lesson in elementary classes.
+There the more important purposes are to train pupils to acquire
+knowledge by thinking for themselves, and to express themselves, both of
+which are well-nigh impossible if the purely lecture method is followed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Does not Insure Selection.</b>&mdash;The weakness of such a method is well
+illustrated in the case of the young teacher who, in giving her class a
+conception of the equator, followed the above method, and carefully
+explained to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> pupils that the equator is an imaginary line running
+around the earth equally distant from the two poles. When the teacher
+came later to review the work with the class, one bright lad described
+the equator as a menagerie lion running around the earth. Here evidently
+the child, true to the law of apperception, had interpreted, or rather
+misinterpreted, the words of the teacher, by means of the only ideas in
+his possession which seemed to fit the uttered sounds. It is evident,
+therefore, that too often in this method the pupils will either thus
+misinterpret the meaning of the teacher's words, or else fail to
+interpret them at all, because they are not able to call up any definite
+images from what the teacher may be telling them.</p>
+
+<p><b>When to be Used.</b>&mdash;It may be noted, however, that there is some place
+for the method in teaching. For example, when young children are
+presented with a suitable story, they will usually have no difficulty in
+fitting ideas to words, and thus building up the story. It requires, in
+fact, the continuity found in the telling method to keep the children's
+attention on the story, the tone of voice and gesture of the reciter
+going a long way in helping the child to call up the ideas which enable
+him to construct the story plot. Moreover, some telling must be done by
+the teacher in every lesson. Everything cannot be discovered by the
+pupils themselves. Even if it were possible, it would often be
+undesirable. Some facts are relatively unimportant, and it is much
+better to tell these outright than to spend a long time in trying to
+lead pupils to discover them. The lecture method, or telling method,
+should be used, then, to supply pupils with information they could not
+find out for themselves, or which they could find out only by spending
+an amount of time disproportionate to the importance of the facts. The
+teacher must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> use good judgment in discriminating between those facts
+which the pupils may reasonably be expected to find out for themselves
+and those facts which had better be told. Many teachers tell too much
+and do not throw the pupils sufficiently on their own resources. On the
+other hand, many teachers tell too little and waste valuable time in
+trying to "draw" from the pupils what they do not know, with the result
+that the pupils fall back upon the pernicious practice of guessing. The
+teacher needs to be on his guard against "the toil of dropping buckets
+into empty wells, and growing old in drawing nothing up."</p>
+
+<p>It may be added further that, in practical life, man is constantly
+required to interpret through spoken language. For this reason,
+therefore, all children should become proficient in securing knowledge
+through spoken language, that is, by means of the lecture, or telling,
+method.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Text-book Method.</b>&mdash;In the text-book method, in place of
+listening to the words of the teacher, the pupil is expected to read in
+a text-book, in connection with each lesson problem, a series of facts
+which will aid him in calling up, or selecting, the ideas essential to
+the mastery of the new knowledge. This method is similar, therefore, in
+a general way, to the lecture method; since it implies ability in the
+pupil to interpret language, and thus recall the ideas bearing upon the
+topic being presented. Although the text-book method lacks the
+interpretation which may come through gesture and tone of voice, it
+nevertheless gives the pupil abundance of time for reflecting upon the
+meaning of the language without the danger of losing the succeeding
+context, as would be almost sure to happen in the lecture method.
+Moreover,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> the language and mode of presentation of the writer of the
+text-book is likely to be more effective in awakening the necessary old
+knowledge, than would be the less perfect descriptions of the ordinary
+teacher. On the whole, therefore, the text-book seems more likely to
+meet the conditions of the laws of apperception and self-activity, than
+would the lecture method.</p>
+
+<p><b>Method Difficult for Young Children.</b>&mdash;The words of the text-book,
+however, like the words of the teacher, are often open to
+misinterpretation, especially in the case of young pupils. This may be
+illustrated by the case of the student, who upon reading in her history
+of the mettle of the defenders of Lacolle Mill, interpreted it as the
+possession on their part of superior arms. An amusing illustration of
+the same tendency to misinterpret printed language, in spite of the time
+and opportunity for studying the text, is seen in the case of the
+student who, after reading the song entitled "The Old Oaken Bucket," was
+called upon to illustrate in a drawing his interpretation of the scene.
+His picture displayed three buckets arranged in a row. On being called
+upon for an explanation, he stated that the first represented "The old
+oaken bucket"; the second, "The iron-bound bucket"; and the third, "The
+moss-covered bucket." Another student, when called upon to express in
+art his conception of the well-known lines:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">All at once I saw a crowd,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A host of golden daffodils;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Beside the lake, beneath the trees,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fluttering and dancing in the breeze;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>represented on his paper a bed of daffodils blooming in front of a
+platform, upon which a number of female figures were actively engaged in
+the terpsichorean art.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Pupil's Mind Often Passive.</b>&mdash;As in the lecture method, also, the pupil
+may often go over the language of the text in a passive way without
+attempting actively to call up old knowledge and relate it to the
+problem before him. It is evident, therefore, that without further aid
+from a teacher, the text-book could not be depended upon to guide the
+pupil in selecting the necessary interpreting ideas. As with the lecture
+method, however, it is to be recognized that, both in the school and in
+after life, the student must secure much information by reading, and
+that he should at some time gain the power of gathering information from
+books. The use of the text-book in school should assist in the
+acquisition of this power. The teacher must, therefore, distinguish
+between the proper <i>use</i> of the text-book and the <i>abuse</i> of it. There
+are several ways in which the text-book may be effectively used.</p>
+
+
+<h3>USES OF TEXT-BOOK</h3>
+
+<p>1. After a lesson has been taught, the pupils may be required by way of
+review to read the matter covered by the lesson as stated by the
+text-book. This plan is particularly useful in history and geography
+lessons. The text-book strengthens and clarifies the impression made by
+the lesson.</p>
+
+<p>2. Before assigning the portion to be read in the text-book, the teacher
+may prepare the way by presenting or reviewing any matter upon which the
+interpretation of the text depends. This preparatory work should be just
+sufficient to put the pupils in a position to read intelligently the
+portion assigned, and to give them a zest for the reading. Sometimes in
+this assignment, it is well to indicate definitely what facts are
+sufficiently important to be learned, and where these are discussed in
+the text-book.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. The mastery of the text by the pupils may sometimes be aided by a
+series of questions for which answers are to be found by a careful
+reading. Such questions give the pupils a definite purpose. They
+constitute a set of problems which are to be solved. They are likely to
+be interesting, because problems within the range of the pupils'
+capacity are a challenge to their intelligence. Further, these questions
+will emphasize the things that are essential, and the pupils will be
+enabled to grasp the main points of the lesson assigned. Occasionally,
+to avoid monotony, the pupils should be required, as a variation of this
+plan, to make such a series of questions themselves. In these cases, the
+pupil with the best list might be permitted, as a reward for his effort,
+to "put" his questions to the class.</p>
+
+<p>4. In the more advanced classes, the pupils should frequently be
+required to make a topical outline of a section or chapter of the
+text-book. This demands considerable analytic power, and the pupil who
+can do it successfully has mastered the art of reading. The ability is
+acquired slowly, and the teacher must use discretion in what he exacts
+from the pupil in this regard. If the plan were followed persistently,
+there would be less time wasted in cursory reading, the results of which
+are fleeting. What is read in this careful way will become the real
+possession of the mind and, even if less material is read, more will be
+permanently retained.</p>
+
+<p>The facts thus learned from the text-book should be discussed by the
+teacher and pupils in a subsequent recitation period. This may be done
+by the question and answer method, the teacher asking questions to which
+the pupils give brief answers; or by the topical recitation method, the
+pupils reporting in connected form the facts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> under topics suggested by
+the teacher. The teacher has thus an opportunity of emphasizing the
+important facts, of correcting misconceptions, and of amplifying and
+illustrating the facts given in the text-book. Further, the pupils are
+given an opportunity of expressing themselves, and have thus an exercise
+in language which is a valuable means of clarifying their impressions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ABUSE OF TEXT-BOOK</h3>
+
+<p>As instances of the abuse of the text-book, the following might be
+cited:</p>
+
+<p>1. The memorization by the pupils of the words of the text-book without
+any understanding of the meaning.</p>
+
+<p>2. The assignment of a certain number of pages or sections to be learned
+by the pupils without any preliminary preparation for the study.</p>
+
+<p>3. The employment of the text-book by the teacher during the recitation
+as a means of guiding him in the questions he is to ask&mdash;a confession
+that he does not know what he requires the pupils to know.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limitation of Text-book.</b>&mdash;The chief limitation of the text-book method
+of teaching is that the pupil makes few discoveries on his own account,
+and is, therefore, not trained to think for himself. The problems being
+largely solved for him by the writer, the knowledge is not valued as
+highly as it would be if it came as an original discovery. We always
+place a higher estimation on that knowledge which we discover for
+ourselves than on that which somebody else gives us.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE DEVELOPING METHOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the Method.</b>&mdash;The third, or developing, method of
+directing the selecting activity of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> the learner, is so called because
+in this method the teacher as an instructor aims to keep the child's
+mind actively engaged throughout each step of the learning process. He
+sees, in other words, that step by step the pupil brings forward
+whatever old knowledge is necessary to the problem, and that he relates
+it in a definite way to this problem. Instead of telling the pupils
+directly, for instance, the teacher may question them upon certain known
+facts in such a way that they are able themselves to discover the new
+truth. In teaching alluvial fans, for example, the teacher would begin
+questioning the pupil regarding his knowledge of river valleys,
+tributary streams, the relation of the force of the tributary water to
+the steepness of the side of the river valley, the presence of detritus,
+etc., and thus lead the pupil to form his own conclusion as to the
+collecting of detritus at the entrance to the level valley and the
+probable shape of the deposit. So also in teaching the conjunctive
+pronoun from such an example as:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He gave it to a boy <i>who</i> stood near him;</p></div>
+
+<p>the teacher brings forward, one by one, the elements of old knowledge
+necessary to a full understanding of the new word, and tests at each
+step whether the pupil is himself apprehending the new presentation in
+terms of his former grammatical knowledge. Beginning with the clause
+"who stood near him," the teacher may, by question and answer, assure
+himself that the pupil, through his former knowledge of subordinate
+clauses, apprehends that the clause is joined adjectively to <i>boy</i>, by
+the word <i>who</i>. Next, he assures himself that the pupil, through his
+former knowledge of the conjunction, apprehends clearly the consequent
+<i>conjunctive</i> force of the word <i>who</i>. Finally, by means of the pupil's
+former knowledge of the subjective and pronoun functions, the teacher
+assures himself that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> pupil appreciates clearly the <i>pronoun</i>
+function of the word <i>who</i>. Thus, step by step, throughout the learning
+process, the teacher makes certain that he has awakened in the mind of
+the learner the exact old knowledge which will unify into a clearly
+understood and adequately controlled new experience, as signified by the
+term <i>conjunctive pronoun</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Question and Answer.</b>&mdash;On account of the large use of questioning as a
+means of directing and testing the pupils' selecting of old knowledge,
+or interpreting ideas, the developing method is often identified with
+the question and answer method. But the real mark of the developing
+method of teaching is the effort of an instructor to assure himself
+that, step by step, throughout the learning process, the pupil himself
+is actively apprehending the significance of the new problem by a use of
+his own previous experience. It is true, however, that the method of
+interrogation is the most universal, and perhaps the most effective,
+mode by which a teacher is able to assure himself that the learner's
+mind is really active throughout each step of the learning process.
+Moreover, as will be seen later, the other subsidiary methods of the
+developing method usually involve an accompanying use of question and
+answer for their successful operation. It is for this reason that the
+question is sometimes termed the teacher's best instrument of
+instruction. For the same reason, also, the young teacher should early
+aim to secure facility in the art of questioning. An outline of the
+leading principles of questioning will, therefore, be given in <a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">Chapter
+XVIII</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Other Forms of Development.</b>&mdash;Notwithstanding the large part played by
+question and answer in the developing method, it must be observed that
+there are other important means which the teacher at times may use in
+the learning process in order to awaken clear interpreting ideas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> in the
+mind of the learner. In so far, moreover, as any such methods on the
+part of the teacher quicken the apperceptive process in the child, or
+cause him to apply his former knowledge in a more active and definite
+way to the problem in hand, they must be classified as phases of the
+developing method. Two of these subsidiary methods will now be
+considered.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE OBJECTIVE METHOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the Objective Method.</b>&mdash;One important sub-section of
+the developing method is known as the objective method. In this method
+the teacher seeks, as far as possible, (1) to present the lesson problem
+through the use of concrete materials, and (2) to have the child
+interpret the problem by examining this concrete material. A child's
+interest and knowledge being largely centred in objects and their
+qualities and uses, many truths can best be presented to children
+through the medium of objective teaching. For example, in arithmetic,
+weights and measures should be taught by actually handling weights and
+measures and building up the various tables by experiment. Tables of
+lengths, areas, and volumes may be taught by measurements of lines,
+surfaces, and solids. Geographical facts are taught by actual contact
+with the neighbouring hills, streams, and ponds; and by visits to
+markets and manufacturing plants. In nature study, plants and animals
+are studied in their natural habitat or by bringing them into the
+class-room.</p>
+
+<p><b>Advantages of the Objective Method.</b>&mdash;The advantages of this method in
+such cases are readily manifest. Although, for instance, the pupil who
+knows in a general way an inch space and the numbers 144, 9, 30-1/4, 40,
+and 4, might be supposed to be able to organize out of his former<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span>
+experiences a perfect knowledge of surface measure, yet it will be found
+that compared with that of the pupil who has worked out the measure
+concretely in the school garden, the control of the former student over
+this knowledge will be very weak indeed. In like manner, when a student
+gains from a verbal description a knowledge of a plant or an animal, not
+only does he find it much more difficult to apply his old knowledge in
+interpreting the word description than he would in interpreting a
+concrete example, but his knowledge of the plant or animal is likely to
+be imperfect. Objective teaching is important, therefore, for two
+reasons:</p>
+
+<p>1. It makes an appeal to the mind through the senses, the avenue through
+which the most vivid images come. Frequently several senses are brought
+to bear and the impressions thereby multiplied.</p>
+
+<p>2. On account of his interest in objects, the young child's store of old
+experiences is mainly of objects and of their sensuous qualities and
+uses. To teach the abstract and unfamiliar through these, therefore, is
+an application of the law of apperception, since the object makes it
+easier for the child's former knowledge to be related to the presented
+problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limitations of Objective Method.</b>&mdash;It must be recognized, however, that
+objective teaching is only a means to a higher end. The concrete is
+valuable very often only as a means of grasping the abstract. The
+progress of humanity has ever been from the sensuous and concrete to the
+ideal and abstract. Not the objects themselves, but what the objects
+symbolize is the important thing. It would be a pedagogical mistake,
+then, to make instruction begin, continue, and end in the concrete. It
+is evident, moreover, that no progress could be made through
+object-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span>teaching, unless the question and answer method is used in
+conjunction.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD</h3>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of the Illustrative Method.</b>&mdash;In many cases it is
+impossible or impracticable to bring the concrete object into the
+school-room, or to take the pupils to see it outside. In such cases,
+somewhat the same result may be obtained by means of some form of
+graphic illustration of the object, as a picture, sketch, diagram, map,
+model, lantern slide, etc. The graphic representation of an object may
+present to the eye most of the characteristics that the actual object
+would. For this reason pictures are being more and more used in
+teaching, though it is a question whether teachers make as good use of
+the pictures of the text-book, in geography for instance, as might be
+made.</p>
+
+<p><b>Illustrative Method Involves Imagination.</b>&mdash;In the illustrative method,
+however, the pupil, instead of being able to apply directly former
+knowledge obtained through the senses, in interpreting the actual
+object, must make use of his imagination to bridge over the gulf between
+the actual object and the representation. When, for example, the child
+is called upon to form his conception of the earth with its two
+hemispheres through its representation on a globe, the knowledge will
+become adequate only as the child's imagination is able to picture in
+his mind the actual object out of his own experience of land, water,
+form, and space, in harmony with the mere suggestions offered by the
+model. It is evident, for the above reason, that the illustrative method
+often demands more from the pupil than does the more concrete objective
+method. For instance, the child who is able to see an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> actual mountain,
+lake, canal, etc., is far more likely to obtain an accurate idea of
+these, than the student who learns them by means of illustrations. The
+cause for this lies mainly in the failure of the child to form a perfect
+image of the real object through the exercise of his imagination. In
+fact it sometimes happens that he makes very little use of his
+imagination, his mental picture of the real object differing little from
+the model placed before him. The writer was informed of a case in which
+a teacher endeavoured to give some young pupils a knowledge of the earth
+by means of a large school globe. When later the children were
+questioned thereon, it was discovered that their earth corresponded in
+almost every particular with the large globe in the school. The
+successful use of the illustrative method, therefore, demands from the
+teacher a careful test by the question and answer method, to see that
+the learner has properly bridged over, through his imagination, the gulf
+separating the actual object from its illustration. For this reason an
+acquaintance with the mental process of imagination is of great value to
+the teacher. The leading facts connected with this process will be set
+forth in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">Chapter XXVII</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF MATERIALS</h3>
+
+<p>In the use of objective and illustrative materials the following
+precautions are advisable:</p>
+
+<p>1. Their use in the lesson should not be continued too long. It should
+be remembered that their office is illustrative, and the aim of the
+teacher should be to have the pupils think in the abstract as soon as
+possible. To make pupils constantly dependent on the concrete is to make
+their thinking weak.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. The pupils must be mentally active while the concrete object or
+illustrative material is being used, and not merely gaze in a passive
+way upon the objects. It requires mental activity to grasp the abstract
+facts that the objects or illustrations typify. A tellurion will not
+teach the changes of the seasons; bundles of splints, notation; nor
+black-board examples, the law of agreement; unless these are brought
+under the child's mental apprehension. The sole purpose of such
+materials is, therefore, to start a flow of imagery or ideas which bear
+upon the presented problem.</p>
+
+<p>3. The objects should not be so intrinsically interesting that they
+distract the attention from what they are intended to illustrate. It
+would be injudicious to use candies or other inherently attractive
+objects to illustrate number facts in primary arithmetic. The objects,
+not the number facts, would be of supreme interest. The teacher who used
+a heap of sand and some gunpowder to teach what a volcano is, found his
+pupils anxious for "fireworks" in subsequent geography classes. The
+science teacher may make his experiments so interesting that his
+students neglect to grasp what the experiments illustrate. The preacher
+who uses a large number of anecdotes to illustrate the points of his
+sermon, would be probably disappointed to know that the only part of his
+discourse remembered by the majority of his hearers was these very
+anecdotes. In his enthusiasm for objective teaching, the teacher may
+easily make the objects so attractive that the pupils fail altogether to
+grasp what they signify.</p>
+
+<p>4. In the case of pictures, maps, and sketches, it is well to present
+those that are not too detailed. A map drawn on the black-board by the
+teacher is usually better for purposes of illustration than a printed
+wall map. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> latter shows so many details that it is often difficult
+for the pupil to single out those required in the lesson. The
+black-board map, on the other hand, will emphasize just those details
+that are necessary. For the same reason the sketch is often better than
+the printed picture or photograph. Any one who can sketch rapidly and
+accurately has at his disposal a valuable means of communicating
+knowledge, and every teacher should strive to cultivate this power.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MODES OF PRESENTATION COMPARED</h3>
+
+<p>The relative clearness of different modes of presenting knowledge may be
+seen from the following:</p>
+
+<p>If a teacher stated to his pupils that he saw a guava yesterday,
+possibly no information would be conveyed to them other than that some
+unknown object has been referred to. Merely to name any object of
+thought, therefore, does not guarantee any real understanding in the
+mind of the pupil. If the teacher describes the object as a fruit,
+fragrant, yellow, fleshy, and pear-shaped, the mental picture of the
+pupil is likely to be much more definite. If, on the other hand, a
+picture of the fruit is shown, it is likely that the pupil will more
+fully realize at least some of the features of the fruit. If the pupil
+is given the object and allowed to bring all his senses to bear upon it,
+his knowledge will become both more full and more definite. If he were
+allowed to express himself through drawing and modelling, his knowledge
+would become still more thorough, while if he grew, marketed, and
+manufactured the fruit into jelly, his knowledge of the fruit might be
+considered complete.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2>
+
+<h2>CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE</h2>
+
+
+<p>Before passing to a consideration of the various types or classes into
+which school lessons may be divided, it is necessary to note a certain
+distinction in the way the mind thinks of objects, or two classes into
+which our experiences are said to divide themselves. When the mind
+experiences, or is conscious of, this particular chair on the platform,
+that tree outside the window, the size of this piece of stone, or the
+colour and shape of this bonnet, it is said to be occupied with a
+particular experience, or to be gaining particular knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ACQUISITION OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Through the Senses.</b>&mdash;These particular experiences may arise through
+the actual presentation of a thing to the senses. I <i>see</i> this chair;
+<i>taste</i> this sugar; <i>smell</i> this rose; <i>hear</i> this bell; etc. As will be
+seen later, the senses provide the primary conditions for revealing to
+the mind the presence of particular things, that is, for building up
+particular ideas, or, as they are frequently called, particular notions.
+Neither does a particular experience, or notion, necessarily represent a
+particular concrete object. It may be an idea of some particular state
+of anger or joy being experienced by an individual of the beauty
+embodied in this particular painting, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Through the Imagination.</b>&mdash;Secondly, by an act of constructive
+imagination, one may image a picture of a particular object as present
+here and now. Although<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> never having had the actual particular
+experience, a person can, with the eye of the imagination, picture as
+now present before him any particular object or event, real or
+imaginary, such as King Arthur's round table; the death scene of Sir
+Isaac Brock or Captain Scott; the sinking of the <i>Titanic</i>; the Heroine
+of Verch&egrave;res; or the many-headed Hydra.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. By Inference, or Deduction.</b>&mdash;Again, knowledge about a particular
+individual, or particular knowledge, may be gained in what seems a yet
+more indirect way. For instance, instead of standing beside Socrates and
+seeing him drink the hemlock and die, and thus, by actual sense
+observation, learn that Socrates is mortal; we may, by a previous series
+of experiences, have gained the knowledge that all men are mortal. For
+that reason, even while he yet lives, we may know the particular fact
+that Socrates, being a man, is also mortal. In this process the person
+is supposed to start with the known general truth, "All men are mortal";
+next, to call to mind the fact that Socrates is a man; and finally, by a
+comparison of these statements or thoughts, reason out, or deduce, the
+inference that therefore Socrates is mortal. This process is, therefore,
+usually illustrated in what is called the syllogistic form, thus:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">All men are mortal.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Socrates is a man.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Socrates is mortal.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>When particular knowledge about an individual thing or event is thus
+inferred by comparing two known statements, it is said to be secured by
+a process of <i>deduction</i>, or by inference.</p>
+
+
+<h3>GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</h3>
+
+<p>In all of the above examples, whether experienced through the senses,
+built up by an act of imagination, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> gained by inference, the
+knowledge is of a single thing, fact, organism, or unity, possessing a
+real or imaginary existence. In addition to possessing its own
+individual unity, however, a thing will stand in a more or less close
+relation with many other things. Various individuals, therefore, enter
+into larger relations constituting groups, or classes, of objects. In
+addition, therefore, to recognizing the object as a particular
+experience, the mind is able, by examining certain individuals, to
+select and relate the common characteristics of such classes, or groups,
+and build up a general, or class, idea, which is representative of any
+member of the class. Thus arise such general ideas as book, man, island,
+county, etc. These are known as universal, or class, notions. Moreover,
+such rules, or definitions, as, "A noun is the name of anything"; "A
+fraction is a number which expresses one or more equal parts of a
+whole," are general truths, because they express in the form of a
+statement the general qualities which have been read into the ideas,
+noun and fraction. When the mind, from a study of particulars, thus
+either forms a class notion as noun, triangle, hepatica, etc., or draws
+a general conclusion as, "Air has weight," "Any two sides of a triangle
+are together greater than the third side," it is said to gain general
+knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ACQUISITION OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Conception.</b>&mdash;In describing the method of attaining general
+knowledge, it is customary to divide such knowledge into two slightly
+different types, or classes, and also to distinguish between the
+processes by which each type is attained. When the mind, through having
+experienced particular dogs, cows, chairs, books, etc., is able to form
+such a general, or class, idea as, dog, cow, chair, or book, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> is said
+to gain a class notion, or concept; and the method by which these ideas
+are gained is called <i>conception</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Induction.</b>&mdash;When the mind, on the basis of particular experiences,
+arrives at some general law, or truth, as, "Any two sides of a triangle
+are together greater than the third side"; "Air has weight"; "Man is
+mortal"; "Honesty is the best policy"; etc., it is said to form a
+universal judgment, and the process by which the judgment is formed is
+called a process of <i>induction</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Examples of General and Particular Knowledge.</b>&mdash;When a pupil learns the
+St. Lawrence River system as such, he gains a particular experience, or
+notion; when he learns of river basins, he obtains a general notion. In
+like manner, for the child to realize that here are eight blocks
+containing two groups of four blocks, is a particular experience; but
+that 4 + 4 = 8, is a general, or universal, truth. To notice this water
+rising in a tube as heat is being applied, is a particular experience;
+to know that liquids are expanded by heat is a general truth. <i>The air
+above this radiator is rising</i> is a particular truth, but <i>heated air
+rises</i> is a general truth. <i>The English people plunged into excesses in
+Charles II's reign after the removal of the stern Puritan rule</i> is
+particular, but a <i>period of license follows a period of repression</i> is
+general.</p>
+
+<p><b>Distinction is in Ideas, not Things.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted further that
+the same object may be treated at one time as a particular individual,
+at another time as a member of a class, and at still another time as a
+part of a larger individual. Thus the large peninsula on the east of
+North America may be thought of now, as the individual, Nova Scotia; at
+another time, as a member of the class, province; and at still another
+time, as a part of the larger particular individual, Canada.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Only Two Types of Knowledge.</b>&mdash;It is evident from the foregoing that no
+matter what subject is being taught, so far as any person may aim <i>to
+develop a new experience</i> in the mind of the pupil, that experience will
+be one or other of the two classes mentioned above. If the aim of our
+lesson is to have the pupils know the facts of the War of 1812-14, to
+study the rainfall of British Columbia, to master the spelling of a
+particular word, or to image the pictures contained in the story <i>Mary
+Elizabeth</i>, then it aims primarily to have pupils come into possession
+of a particular fact, or a number of particular facts. On the other
+hand, if the lesson aims to teach the pupils the nature of an
+infinitive, the rule for extracting square root, the law of gravity, the
+classes of nouns, etc., then the aim of the lesson is to convey some
+general idea or truth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>APPLIED KNOWLEDGE GENERAL</h3>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to a special consideration of such type lessons, it
+will be well to note that the mind always applies general knowledge in
+the learning process. That is, the application of old knowledge to the
+new presentation is possible only because this knowledge has taken on a
+general character, or has become a general way of thinking. The tendency
+for every new experience, whether particular or general, to pass into a
+general attitude, or to become a standard for interpreting other
+presentations, is always present, at least after the very early
+impressions of infancy. When, for instance, a child observes a strange
+object, dog, and perceives its four feet, this idea does not remain
+wholly confined to the particular object, but tends to take on a general
+character. This consists in the fact that the characteristic perceived
+is vaguely thought of as a quality distinct from the dog. This quality,
+<i>four-footedness</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> therefore, is at least in some measure recognized as
+a quality that may occur in other objects. In other words, it takes on a
+general character, and will likely be applied in interpreting the next
+four-footed object which comes under the child's attention. So also when
+an adult first meets a strange fruit, guava, he observes perhaps that it
+is <i>pear-shaped, yellow-skinned, soft-pulped</i>, of <i>sweet taste</i>, and
+<i>aromatic flavour</i>. All such quality ideas as pear-shaped, yellow, soft,
+etc., as here applied, are general ideas of quality taken on from
+earlier experiences. Even in interpreting the qualities of particular
+objects, therefore, as this rose, this machine, or this animal, we apply
+to its interpretation general ideas, or general forms of thought, taken
+on from earlier experiences.</p>
+
+<p>The same fact is even more evident when the mind attempts to build up
+the idea of a particular object by an act of imagination. One may
+conceive as present, a sphere, red in colour, with smooth surface, and
+two feet in diameter. Now this particular object is defined through the
+qualities spherical, red, smooth, etc. But these notions of quality are
+all general, although here applied to building up the image of a
+particular thing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PROCESSES OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE SIMILAR</h3>
+
+<p>If what has already been noted concerning the law of universal method is
+correct, and if all learning is a process of building up a new
+experience in accordance with the law of apperception, then all of the
+above modes of gaining either particular or general knowledge must
+ultimately conform to the laws of general method. Keeping in view the
+fact that applied knowledge is always general in character, it will not
+be difficult to demonstrate that these various processes do not differ
+in their essential characteristics;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> but that any process of acquiring
+either particular or general knowledge conforms to the method of
+selection and relation, or of analysis-synthesis, as already described
+in our study of the learning process. To demonstrate this, however, it
+will be necessary to examine and illustrate the different modes of
+learning in the light of the principles of general method already laid
+down in the text.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2>
+
+<h2>MODES OF LEARNING</h2>
+
+
+<h3>DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE</h3>
+
+<h3>A. LEARNING THROUGH THE SENSES</h3>
+
+<p>In many lessons in nature study, elementary science, etc., pupils are
+led to acquire new knowledge by having placed before them some
+particular object which they may examine through the senses. The
+knowledge thus gained through the direct observation of some individual
+thing, since it is primarily knowledge about a particular individual, is
+to be classified as particular knowledge. As an example of the process
+by which a pupil may gain particular knowledge through the senses, a
+nature lesson may be taken in which he would, by actual observation,
+become acquainted with one of the constellations, say the Great Dipper.
+Here the learner first receives through his senses certain impressions
+of colour and form. Next he proceeds to read into these impressions
+definite meanings, as stars, four, corners, bowl, three, curve, handle,
+etc. In such a process of acquiring knowledge about a particular thing,
+it is to be noted that the acquisition depends upon two important
+conditions:</p>
+
+<p>1. The senses receive impressions from a particular thing.</p>
+
+<p>2. The mind reacts upon these impressions with certain phases of its old
+knowledge, here represented by such words as four, corner, bowl, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Analysis of Process.</b>&mdash;When the mind thus gains knowledge of a
+particular object through sense perception,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> the process is found to
+conform exactly to the general method already laid down; for there is
+involved:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Motive.</i>&mdash;To read meaning into the strange thing which is placed
+before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses.</p>
+
+<p><i>2. Selection, or Analysis.</i>&mdash;Bringing selected elements of former
+knowledge to interpret the unknown impressions, the elements of his
+former knowledge being represented in the above example by such words
+as, four, bowl, curve, handle, etc.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Unification, or Synthesis.</i>&mdash;A continuous relating of these
+interpreting factors into the unity of a newly interpreted object, the
+Dipper.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SENSE PERCEPTION IN EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Gives Knowledge of Things.</b>&mdash;In many lessons in biology, botany,
+etc., although the chief aim of the lesson is to acquire a correct class
+notion, yet the learning process is in large part the gaining of
+particular knowledge through the senses. In a nature lesson, for
+instance, the pupil may be presented with an insect which he has never
+previously met. When the pupil interprets the object as six-legged, with
+hard shell-like wing covers, under wings membranous, etc., he is able to
+gain knowledge about this particular thing:</p>
+
+<p>1. Because the thing manifests itself to him through the senses of sight
+and touch.</p>
+
+<p>2. Because he is able to bring to bear upon these sense impressions his
+old knowledge, represented by such words as six, wing, shell, hard,
+membranous, etc. So far, therefore, as the process ends with knowledge
+of the particular object presented, the learning process conforms
+exactly to that laid down above, for there is involved:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Motive.</i>&mdash;To read meaning into the new thing which is placed
+before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Selection, or Analysis.</i>&mdash;Bringing selected elements of former
+knowledge to interpret the unknown problem, the elements of his former
+knowledge being represented above by such words as six, leg, wing, hard,
+shell, membranous, etc.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Unification, or Synthesis.</i>&mdash;A continuous relating of these
+interpreting factors into the unity of a better known object, the
+insect.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Is a Basis for Generalization.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted, however, that in
+any such lesson, although the pupil gains through his senses a knowledge
+of a particular individual only, yet he may at once accept this
+individual as a sign, or type, of a class of objects, and can readily
+apply the new knowledge in interpreting other similar things. Although,
+for example, the pupil has experienced but one such object, he does not
+necessarily think of it as a mere individual&mdash;this thing&mdash;but as a
+representative of a possible class of objects, a beetle. In other words
+the new particular notion tends to pass directly into a general, or
+class, notion.</p>
+
+
+<h3>B. LEARNING THROUGH IMAGINATION</h3>
+
+<p>As an example of a lesson in which the pupil secures knowledge through
+the use of his imagination, may be taken first the case of one called
+upon to image some single object of which he may have had no actual
+experience, as a desert, London Tower, the sphinx, etc. Taking the last
+named as an example, the learner must select certain characteristics as,
+woman, head, lion, body, etc., all of which are qualities which have
+been learned in other past experiences.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> Moreover, the mind must
+organize these several qualities into the representation of a single
+object, the sphinx. Here, evidently, the pupil follows fully the normal
+process of learning.</p>
+
+<p>1. The term&mdash;the sphinx&mdash;suggests a problem, or felt need, namely, to
+read meaning into the vaguely realized term.</p>
+
+<p>2. Under the direction of the instructor or the text-book, the pupil
+selects, or analyses out of past experience, such ideas as, woman, head,
+body, lion, which are felt to have a value in interpreting the present
+problem.</p>
+
+<p>3. A synthetic, or relating, activity of mind unifies the selected ideas
+into an ideally constructed object which is accepted by the learner as a
+particular object, although never directly known through the senses.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the method different in more complex imagination processes. In
+literary interpretation, for instance, when the reader meets such
+expressions as:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The ploughman homeward plods his weary way<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And leaves the world to darkness and to me;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>the words of the author suggest a problem to the mind of the reader.
+This problem then calls up in the mind of the student a set of images
+out of earlier experience, as bell, evening, herd, ploughman, lea, etc.,
+which the mind unifies into the representation of the particular scene
+depicted in the lines. It is in this way that much of our knowledge of
+various objects and scenes in nature, of historical events and
+characters, and of spiritual beings is obtained.</p>
+
+<p><b>Imagination Gives Basis for Generalization.</b>&mdash;It should be noted by the
+student-teacher that in many lessons we aim to give the child a notion
+of a class of objects,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> though he may in actual experience never have
+met any representatives of the class. In geography, for instance, the
+child learns of deserts, volcanoes, etc., without having experienced
+these objects through the senses. It has been seen, however, that our
+general knowledge always develops from particular experience. For this
+reason the pupil who has never seen a volcano, in order to gain a
+general notion of a volcano, must first, by an act of constructive
+imagination, image a definite picture of a particular volcano. The
+importance of using in such a lesson a picture or a representation on a
+sand-board, lies in the fact that this furnishes the necessary stimulus
+to the child's imagination, which will cause him to image a particular
+individual as a basis for the required general, or class, notion. Too
+often, however, the child is expected in such lessons to form the class
+notion directly, that is, without the intervention of a particular
+experience. This question will be considered more fully in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">Chapter
+XXVII</a>, which treats of the process of imagination.</p>
+
+
+<h3>C. LEARNING BY INFERENCE, OR DEDUCTION</h3>
+
+<p>Instead of placing himself in British Columbia, and noting by actual
+experience that there is a large rainfall there, a person may discover
+the same by what is called a process of inference. For example, one may
+have learned from an examination of other particular instances that air
+takes up moisture in passing over water; that warm air absorbs large
+quantities of moisture; that air becomes cool as it rises; and that
+warm, moist air deposits its moisture as rain when it is cooled. Knowing
+this and knowing a number of particular facts about British Columbia,
+namely that warm winds pass over it from the Pacific and must rise owing
+to the presence of mountains, we may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> infer of British Columbia that it
+has an abundant rainfall. When we thus discover a truth in relation to
+any particular thing by inference, we are said to go through a process
+of deduction. A more particular study of this process will be made in
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">Chapter XXVIII</a>, but certain facts may here be noted in reference to the
+process as a mode of acquiring knowledge. An examination will show that
+the deductive process follows the ordinary process of learning, or of
+selecting certain elements of old knowledge, and organizing them into a
+new particular experience in order to meet a certain problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deduction as Formal Reasoning.</b>&mdash;It is usually stated by psychologists
+and logicians that in this process the person starts with the general
+truth and ends with the particular inference, or conclusion, for
+example:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Winds coming from the ocean are saturated with moisture.</p>
+
+<p>The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore these winds are saturated with moisture.</p>
+
+<p>All winds become colder as they rise.</p>
+
+<p>The winds of British Columbia rise as they go inland.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, the winds (atmosphere) in British Columbia become colder
+as they go inland.</p>
+
+<p>The atmosphere gives out moisture as it becomes colder.</p>
+
+<p>The atmosphere in British Columbia becomes colder as it goes
+inland.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, the atmosphere gives out moisture in British Columbia.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Steps in Process.</b>&mdash;The various elements involved in a deductive
+process are often analysed into four parts in the following order:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Principles.</i> The general laws which are to be applied in the
+solution of the problem. These, in the above deductions, constitute the
+first sentence in each, as,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The air becomes colder as it rises.</p>
+
+<p>Air gives out its moisture as it becomes colder, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Data.</i> This includes the particular facts already known relative to
+the problem. In this lesson, the data are set forth in the second
+sentences, as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific; the
+wind rises as it goes inland, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. <i>Inferences.</i> These are the conclusions arrived at as a result of
+noting relations between data and principles. In the above lesson, the
+inferences are:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The atmosphere, or trade-winds, coming from the Pacific rise,
+become colder, and give out much moisture.</p></div>
+
+<p>4. <i>Verification.</i> In some cases at least the learner may use other
+means to verify his conclusions. In the above lesson, for example, he
+may look it up in the geography or ask some one who has had actual
+experience.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deduction Involves a Problem.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted, however, that in a
+deductive learning process, the young child does not really begin with
+the general principle. On the contrary, as noted in the study of the
+learning process, the child always begins with a particular unsolved
+problem. In the case just cited, for instance, the child starts with the
+problem, "What is the condition of the rainfall in British Columbia?" It
+is owing to the presence of this problem, moreover, that the mind calls
+up the principles and data. These, of course, are already possessed as
+old knowledge, and are called up because the mind feels a connection
+between them and the problem with which it is confronted. The principles
+and data are thus both involved in the selecting process, or step of
+analysis. What the learner really does, therefore, in a deductive
+lesson<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> is to interpret a new problem by selecting as interpreting ideas
+the principles and data. The third division, inference, is in reality
+the third step of our learning process, since the inference is a new
+experience organized out of the selected principles and data. Moreover,
+the verification is often found to take the form of ordinary expression.
+As a process of learning, therefore, deduction does not exactly follow
+the formal outline of the psychologists and logicians of (1) principles,
+(2) data, (3) inference, and (<i>4</i>) verification; but rather that of the
+learning process, namely, (1) problem, (2) selecting activity, including
+principles and data, (3) relating activity=inference, (4)
+expression=verification.</p>
+
+<p><b>Example of Deduction as Learning Process.</b>&mdash;A simple and interesting
+lesson, showing how the pupil actually goes through the deductive
+process, is found in paper cutting of forms balanced about a centre, say
+the letter X.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Problem.</i> The pupil starts with the problem of discovering a way of
+cutting this letter by balancing about a centre.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Selection.</i> Principles and Data. The pupil calls up as data what he
+knows of this letter, and as principles, the laws of balance he has
+learned from such letters as, A, B, etc.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Organization or Inference.</i> The pupil infers from the principle
+involved in cutting the letter A, that the letter X (Fig. A) may be
+balanced about a vertical diameter, as in Fig. B.</p>
+
+<p>Repeating the process, he infers further from the principle involved in
+cutting the letter B, that this result may again be balanced about a
+horizontal diameter, as in Fig. C.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus008.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" /></p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Expression or Verification.</i> By cutting Figure D and unfolding
+Figures E and F, he is able to verify his conclusion by noting the shape
+of the form as it unfolds, thus:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus009.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" /></p>
+
+
+<h3>FURTHER EXAMPLES FOR STUDY</h3>
+
+<p>The following are given as further examples of deductive processes.</p>
+
+<p>The materials are here arranged in the formal or logical way. The
+student-teacher should rearrange them as they would occur in the child's
+learning process.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>I. DIVISION OF DECIMALS</b></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Principles</i>:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Multiplying the dividend and divisor by the same number does not
+alter the quotient.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) To multiply a decimal by 10, 100, 1000, etc., move the decimal
+point 1, 2, 3, etc., places respectively to the right.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Data</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Present knowledge of facts contained in such an example as .0027 divided
+by .05.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Inferences</i>:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The divisor (.05) may be converted into a whole number by
+multiplying it by 100.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) If the divisor is multiplied by 100, the dividend must also be
+multiplied by 100 if the quotient is to be unchanged.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The problem thus becomes .27 divided by 5, for which the answer is
+.054.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Verification</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Check the work to see that no mistakes have been made in the
+calculation. Multiply the quotient by the divisor to see if the result
+is equal to the dividend.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>II. TRADE-WINDS</b></p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Principles</i>:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Heated air expands, becomes lighter, and is pushed upward by
+cooler and heavier currents of air.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Air currents travelling towards a region of more rapid motion have
+a tendency to "lag behind," and so appear to travel in a direction
+opposite to that of the earth's rotation.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Data</i>:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The most heated portion of the earth is the tropical region.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) The rapidity of the earth's motion is greatest at the equator and
+least at the poles.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) The earth rotates on its axis from west to east.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Inferences</i>:</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The heated air in equatorial regions will be constantly rising.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) It will be pushed upward by colder and heavier currents of air
+from the north and south.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) If the earth did not rotate, there would be constant winds towards
+the south, north of the equator; and towards the north, south of the
+equator.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) These currents of air are travelling from a region of less motion
+to a region of greater motion, and have a tendency to lag behind the
+earth's motion as they approach the equator.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Hence they will seem to blow in a direction contrary to the
+earth's rotation, namely, towards the west.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) These two movements, towards the equator and towards the west,
+combine to give the currents of air a direction towards the south-west
+north of the equator, and towards the north-west south of the equator.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Verification</i>:</p>
+
+<p>Read the geography text to see if our inferences are correct.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Conceptual Lesson.</b>&mdash;As an example of a lesson involving a process
+of conception, or classification, may be taken one in which the pupil
+might gain the class notion <i>noun</i>. The pupil would first be presented
+with particular examples through sentences containing such words as
+John, Mary, Toronto, desk, boy, etc. Thereupon the pupil is led to
+examine these in order, noting certain characteristics in each.
+Examining the word <i>John</i>, for instance, he notes that it is a word;
+that it is used to name and also, perhaps, that it names a person, and
+is written with a capital letter. Of the word <i>Toronto</i>, he may note
+much the same except that it names a place; of the word <i>desk</i>, he may
+note especially that it is used to name a thing and is written without a
+capital letter. By comparing any and all the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> qualities thus noted, he
+is supposed, finally, by noting what characteristics are common to all,
+to form a notion of a class of words used to name.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Inductive Lesson.</b>&mdash;To exemplify an inductive lesson, there may be
+noted the process of learning the rule that to multiply the numerator
+and denominator of any fraction by the same number does not alter the
+value of the fraction.</p>
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>Conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different
+denominators</i></p>
+
+<p>The teacher draws on the black-board a series of squares, each
+representing a square foot. These are divided by vertical lines into a
+number of equal parts. One or more of these parts are shaded, and pupils
+are asked to state what fraction of the whole square has been shaded.
+The same squares are then further divided into smaller equal parts by
+horizontal lines, and the pupils are led to discover how many of the
+smaller equal parts are contained in the shaded parts.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus010.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" /></p>
+
+<p>Examine these equations one by one, treating each after some such manner
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>How might we obtain the numerator 18 from the numerator 3? (Multiply by
+6.)</p>
+
+<p>The denominator 30 from the denominator 5? (Multiply by 6.)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus010a.png"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" /></p>
+
+<p>If we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction
+3/5 by 6, what will be the effect upon the value of the fraction? (It
+will be unchanged.)</p>
+
+<p>What have we done with the numerator and denominator in every case? How
+has the fraction been affected? What rule may we infer from these
+examples? (Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number
+does not alter the value of the fraction.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE FORMAL STEPS</h3>
+
+<p>In describing the process of acquiring either a general notion or a
+general truth, the psychologist and logician usually divide it into four
+parts as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. The person is said to analyse a number of particular cases. In the
+above examples this would mean, in the conceptual lesson, noting the
+various characteristics of the several words, John, Toronto, desk, etc.;
+and in the second lesson, noting the facts involved in the several cases
+of shading.</p>
+
+<p>2. The mind is said to compare the characteristics of the several
+particular cases, noting any likenesses and unlikenesses.</p>
+
+<p>3. The mind is said to pick out, or abstract, any quality or quantities
+common to all the particular cases.</p>
+
+<p>4. Finally the mind is supposed to synthesise these common
+characteristics into a general notion, or concept, in the conceptual
+process, and into a general truth if the process is inductive.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the conceptual and inductive processes are both said to involve the
+same four steps of:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Analysis.</i>&mdash;Interpreting a number of individual cases.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Comparison.</i>&mdash;Noting likenesses and differences between the several
+individual examples.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Abstraction.</i>&mdash;Selecting the common characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Generalization.</i>&mdash;Synthesis of common characteristics into a general
+truth or a general notion, as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p><b>Criticism.</b>&mdash;Here again it will be found, however, that the steps of
+the logician do not fully represent what takes place in the pupil's mind
+as he goes through the learning process in a conceptual or inductive
+lesson. It is to be noted first that the above outline does not signify
+the presence of any problem to cause the child to proceed with the
+analysis of the several particular cases. Assuming the existence of the
+problem, unless this problem involves all the particular examples, the
+question arises whether the learner will suspend coming to any
+conclusion until he has analysed and compared all the particular cases
+before him. It is here that the actual learning process is found to vary
+somewhat from the outline of the psychologist and logician. As will be
+seen below, the child really finds his problem in the first particular
+case presented to him. Moreover, as he analyses out the characteristics
+of this case, he does not really suspend fully the generalizing process
+until he has examined a number of other cases, but, as the teacher is
+fully aware, is much more likely to jump at once to a more or less
+correct conclusion from the one example. It is true, of course, that it
+is only by going on to compare this with other cases that he assures
+himself that this first conclusion is correct. This slight variation of
+the actual learning process from the formal outline will become evident
+if one considers how a child builds up any general notion in ordinary
+life.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CONCEPTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. In Ordinary Life.</b>&mdash;Suppose a young child has received a vague
+impression of a cow from meeting a first and only example; we find that
+by accepting this as a problem and by applying to it such experience as
+he then possesses, he is able to read some meaning into it, for
+instance, that it is a brown, four-footed, hairy object. This idea, once
+formed, does not remain a mere particular idea, but becomes a general
+means for interpreting other experiences. At first, indeed, the idea may
+serve to read meaning, not only into another cow, but also into a horse
+or a buffalo. In course of time, however, as this first imperfect
+concept of the animal is used in interpreting cows and perhaps other
+animals, the first crude concept may in time, by comparison, develop
+into a relatively true, or logical, concept, applicable to only the
+actual members of the class. Now here, the child did not wait to
+generalize until such time as the several really essential
+characteristics were decided upon, but in each succeeding case applied
+his present knowledge to the particular thing presented. It was, in
+other words, by a series of regular selecting and relating processes,
+that his general notion was finally clarified.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. In the School.</b>&mdash;Practically the same conditions are noted in the
+child's study of particular examples in an inductive or conceptual
+lesson in the school, although the process is much more rapid on account
+of its being controlled by the teacher. In the lesson outlined above,
+the pupil finds a problem in the very first word <i>John</i>, and adjusts
+himself thereto in a more or less perfect way by an apperceptive process
+involving both a selecting and a relating of ideas. With this first more
+or less perfect notion as a working hypothesis, the pupil goes on to
+exam<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span>ine the next word. If he gains the true notion from the first
+example, he merely verifies this through the other particular examples.
+If his first notion is not correct, however, he is able to correct it by
+a further process of analysis and synthesis in connection with other
+examples. Throughout the formal stages, therefore, the pupil is merely
+applying his growing general knowledge in a selective, or analytic, way
+to the interpreting of several particular examples, until such time as a
+perfect general, or class, notion is obtained and verified. It is,
+indeed, on account of this immediate tendency of the mind to generalize,
+that care must be taken to present the children with typical examples.
+To make them examine a sufficient number of examples is to ensure the
+correcting of crude notions that may be formed by any of the pupils
+through their generalizing perhaps from a single particular.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INDUCTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS</h3>
+
+<p>In like manner, in an inductive lesson, although the results of the
+process of the development of a general principle may for convenience be
+arranged logically under the above four heads, it is evident that the
+child could not wholly suspend his conclusions until a number of
+particular cases had been examined and compared. In the lesson on the
+rule for conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different
+denominators, the pupils could not possibly apperceive, or analyse, the
+examples as suggested under the head of selection, or analysis, without
+at the same time implicitly abstracting and generalizing. Also in the
+lesson below on the predicate adjective, the pupils could not note, in
+all the examples, all the features given under analysis and fail at the
+same time to abstract and generalize. The fact is that in such lessons,
+if the selection, or analysis, is completed in only one example,
+abstraction and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> generalization implicitly unfold themselves at the same
+time and constitute a relating, or synthetic, act of the mind. The
+fourfold arrangement of the matter, however, may let the teacher see
+more fully the children's mental attitude, and thus enable him to direct
+them intelligently through the apperceptive process. It will undoubtedly
+also impress on the teacher's mind the need of having the pupils compare
+particular cases until a correct notion is fully organized in
+experience.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TWO PROCESSES SIMILAR</h3>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the distinction drawn by psychologists between
+conception as a process of gaining a general notion, and induction as a
+process of arriving at a general truth, it is evident from the above
+that the two processes have much in common. In the development of many
+lesson topics, in fact, the lesson may be viewed as involving both a
+conceptual and an inductive process. In the subject of grammar, for
+instance, a first lesson on the pronoun may be viewed as a conceptual
+lesson, since the child gains an idea of a class of words, as indicated
+by the new general term pronoun, this term representing the result of a
+conceptual process. It may equally be viewed as an inductive lesson,
+since the child gains from the lesson a general truth, or judgment, as
+expressed in his new definition&mdash;"A pronoun is a word that represents an
+object without naming it," the definition representing the result of an
+inductive process. This fact will be considered more fully, however, in
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">Chapter XXVIII</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FURTHER EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LESSONS</h3>
+
+<p>As further illustrations of an inductive process, the following outlines
+of lessons might be noted. The processes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> are outlined according to the
+formal steps. The student-teacher should consider how the children are
+to approach each problem and to what extent they are likely to
+generalize as the various examples are being interpreted during the
+analytic stage.</p>
+
+
+<p>1. THE SUBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE</p>
+
+<p><i>Analysis, or selection:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate:</p>
+
+<p>The man was old.</p>
+
+<p>The weather turned cold.</p>
+
+<p>The day grew stormy.</p>
+
+<p>The boy became ill.</p>
+
+<p>The concert proved successful.</p>
+
+<p>What kind of man is referred to in the first sentence? What part of
+speech is "old"? What part of the sentence does it modify? In what
+part of the sentence does it stand? Could it be omitted? What then
+is its duty with reference to the verb? What are its two duties?
+(It completes the verb "was" and modifies the subject "man.")</p></div>
+
+<p>Lead the pupils to deal similarly with "cold," "stormy," "ill,"
+"successful."</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>What two duties has each of these italicized words? Each is called
+a "Subjective Predicate Adjective." What is a Subjective Predicate
+Adjective? (A Subjective Predicate Adjective is an adjective that
+completes the verb and modifies the subject.)</p></div>
+
+
+<p>2. CONDENSATION OF VAPOUR</p>
+
+<p><i>Analysis, or selection:</i></p>
+
+<p>The pupils should be asked to report observations they have made
+concerning some familiar occurrences like the following:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) Breathe upon a cold glass and upon a warm glass. What do you
+notice in each case? Where must the drops of water have come from?
+Can you see this water ordinarily? In what form must the water have
+been before it formed in drops on the cold glass?</p>
+
+<p>(2) What have you often noticed on the window of the kitchen on
+cool days? From where did these drops of water come? Could you see
+the vapour in the air? How did the temperature of the window panes
+compare with the temperature of the room?</p>
+
+<p>(3) When the water in a tea-kettle is boiling rapidly, what do you
+see between the mouth of the spout and the cloud of steam? What
+must have come through that clear space? Is the steam then at first
+visible or invisible?</p></div>
+
+<p>The pupils should be further asked to report observations and make
+correct inferences concerning such things as:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(4) The deposit of moisture on the outside surface of a pitcher of
+ice-water on a warm summer day.</p>
+
+<p>(5) The clouded condition of one's eye-glasses on coming from the
+cold outside air into a warm room.</p></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In all these cases you have reported what there has been in the
+air. Was this vapour visible or invisible? Under what condition did
+it become visible?</p></div>
+
+<p>The pupils should be led to sum up their observations in some such way
+as the following:</p>
+
+<p>Air often contains much water vapour. When this comes in contact with
+cooler bodies, it condenses into minute particles of water. In other
+words, the two conditions of condensation are (1) a considerable
+quantity of water vapour in the air, and (2) contact with cooler
+bodies.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It must be borne in mind that in a conceptual or an inductive lesson
+care is to be taken by the teacher to see that the particulars are
+sufficient in number and representative in character. As already pointed
+out, crude notions often arise through generalizing from too few
+particulars or from particulars that are not typical of the whole class.
+Induction can be most frequently employed in elementary school work in
+the subjects of grammar, arithmetic, and nature study.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INDUCTIVE-DEDUCTIVE LESSONS</h3>
+
+<p>Before we leave this division of general method, it should be noted that
+many lessons combine in a somewhat formal way two or more of the
+foregoing lesson types.</p>
+
+<p>In many inductive lessons the step of application really involves a
+process of deduction. For example, after teaching the definition of a
+noun by a process of induction as outlined above, we may, in the same
+lesson, seek to have the pupil use his new knowledge in pointing out
+particular nouns in a set of given sentences. Here, however, the pupil
+is evidently called upon to discover the value of particular words by
+the use of the newly learned general principle. When, therefore, he
+discovers the grammatical value of the particular word "Provender" in
+the sentence "Provender is dear," the pupil's process of learning can be
+represented in the deductive form as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">All naming words are nouns.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Provender</i> is a naming word.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>Provender</i> is a noun.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Although in these exercises the real aim is not to have the pupil learn
+the value of the individual word, but to test his mastery of the general
+principle, such application<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> undoubtedly corresponds with the deductive
+learning process previously outlined. Any inductive lesson, therefore,
+which includes the above type of application may rightly be described as
+an inductive-deductive lesson. A great many lessons in grammar and
+arithmetic are of this type.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2>
+
+<h2>THE LESSON UNIT</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>What Constitutes a Lesson Problem.</b>&mdash;The foregoing analysis and
+description of the learning process has shown that the ordinary school
+lesson is designed to lead the pupil to build up, or organize, a new
+experience, or, as it is sometimes expressed, to gain control of a unit
+of valuable knowledge, presented as a single problem. From what has been
+learned concerning the relating activity of mind, however, it is evident
+that the teacher may face a difficulty when he is called upon to decide
+what extent of knowledge, or experience, is to be accepted as a
+knowledge unit. It was noted, for example, that many topics regularly
+treated in a single lesson fall into quite distinct sub-divisions, each
+of which represents to a certain extent a separate group of related
+ideas and, therefore, a single problem. On the other hand, many
+different lesson experiences, or topics, although taught as separate
+units, are seen to stand so closely related, that in the end they
+naturally organize themselves into a larger single unit of knowledge,
+representing a division, of the subject of study. From this it is
+evident that situations may arise, as in teaching the classes of
+sentences in grammar, in which the teacher must ask himself whether it
+will be possible to take up the whole topic with its important
+sub-divisions in a single lesson, or whether each sub-division should be
+treated in a single lesson.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to Approach Associated Problems.</b>&mdash;Even when it is realized that
+the related matter is too large for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> a single lesson, it must be decided
+whether it will be better to bring on each sub-division as a separate
+topic, and later let these sub-divisions synthesise into a new unity; or
+whether the larger topic should be taken up first in a general way, and
+the sub-divisions made topics of succeeding lessons. In the study of
+mood in grammar, for example, shall we introduce each mood separately,
+and finally have the child synthesise the separate facts; or shall we
+begin with a lesson on mood in general, and follow this with a study of
+the separate moods? In like manner, in the study of winds in geography,
+shall we study in order land and sea breezes, trade-winds, and monsoons,
+and have the child synthesise these facts at the end of the series; or
+shall we begin with a study of winds in general, and follow this with a
+more detailed study of the three classes of winds?</p>
+
+
+<h3>WHOLE TO PARTS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Advantages.</b>&mdash;The second of these methods, which is often called the
+method of proceeding from whole to parts, should, whenever possible, be
+followed. For instance, in a study of such a lesson as <i>Dickens in the
+Camp</i>, the detailed study of the various stanzas should be preceded by
+an introductory lesson, bringing out the leading thought of the poem,
+and noting the sub-topics. When, in an introductory lesson, the pupil is
+able to gain control of a large topic, and see the relation to it of a
+given number of sub-topics, he is selecting and relating the parts of
+the whole topic by the normal analytic-synthetic method. Moreover, in
+the following lessons, he is much more likely to appreciate the relation
+of the various sub-topics to the central topic, and the inter-relations
+between these various sub-topics. For this reason, in such subjects as
+history, litera<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span>ture, geography, etc., pupils are often introduced to
+these large divisions, or complex lesson units, and given a vague
+knowledge of the whole topic, the detailed study of the parts being made
+in subsequent lessons.</p>
+
+<p><b>Examples.</b>&mdash;The following outlines will further illustrate how a series
+of lessons (numbered I, II, III, etc.) may thus proceed from a first
+study of the larger whole to a more detailed study of a number of
+subordinate parts.</p>
+
+
+<p>THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER SYSTEM</p>
+
+<p><i>I. Topic.&mdash;The St. Lawrence River:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Position, size, extent of system, other characteristics.
+Importance&mdash;historical, commercial, industrial.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>II. Sub-topic 1.&mdash;Importance historically:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Open mouth to Europe; Open door to continent; Cartier, Champlain.
+System of lakes and rivers large and small gave lines of
+communication, inviting discovery and subsequent development and
+settlement.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>III. Sub-topic 2.&mdash;Importance commercially:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Large tracts of valuable land, timber, etc., made available.
+Highway&mdash;need of such between East and West. Difficulties to be
+overcome, canal, ships. Competition of railways, How? Classes of
+goods back and forth. Avenue to and from the wheat land.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>IV. Sub-topic 3.&mdash;Importance industrially:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Great commercial centres&mdash;where located and why? Water powers,
+elevators, manufacturing of raw materials made available in the
+large areas; Immigration; Fishing.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>STUDY OF BACTERIA</p>
+
+<p><i>I. Topic.&mdash;Bacteria:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>What they are; relations, comparisons; other plants in same class,
+or those of higher orders; size, shape; where found; conditions of
+growth; propagation; modes of distribution; etc.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>II. Sub-topic 1.&mdash;Our interest in bacteria, arising out of the injury
+or good they do:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) Injury: Decay of fruits, trees, tissues, etc.,
+diseases&mdash;diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis; how developed,
+conditions, favourable toxins.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Benefits: In soil, cheese, butter, etc.; chemical action,
+building new compounds and breaking up other compounds.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>III. Sub-topic 2.&mdash;Our interest in controlling them; the methods based
+on mode and conditions of growth, etc.:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) Prevention: Eliminating favourable conditions; low
+temperature, high temperatures, cleanliness; sewerage disposal;
+clean cow-stables, cellars, kitchens, etc.; antiseptics&mdash;carbolic,
+formalin, sugar for fruit, sealing up; quarantine, vaccination,
+antitoxin.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Cultures,&mdash;alfalfa, cheese, butter, under control.</p></div>
+
+
+<p>GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE</p>
+
+<p><i>I. Topic.&mdash;Europe:</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>What interest to us; why we study it; position, latitude, near
+water, boundaries, size; Surface features&mdash;highlands, lowlands,
+drainage rivers, coast-line, etc. Climate&mdash;temperature (means,
+Jan., July), wind, moisture.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>II. Sub-topic 1.&mdash;Products (based on above conditions):</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Vegetation, animal, mineral; vary over area according to physical
+climatic, and geological conditions; Kinds of products of each
+class, in each area, etc.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>III. Sub-topic 2.&mdash;Occupations (based on Lesson II):</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Study of operations and conditions favourable and unfavourable
+under which each product is produced, gathered, and manufactured.
+Industries, arising from work on the raw materials.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>IV. Sub-topic 3.&mdash;Trade and Commerce (based on Lessons II and III):</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Transportation, producers selling and manufacturers buying raw
+material, distributed to homes in country and city, to factories
+within the region itself, to regions beyond, across oceans, etc.
+Manufactured products sent out, exports and imports.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>V. Sub-topic 4.&mdash;Civil advantages (based on Lessons I, III, and IV):</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Conditions of living&mdash;homes, dress, work and pleasure; trades,
+education, government, social, religious, etc.</p></div>
+
+
+<h3>PARTS TO WHOLE</h3>
+
+<p>The method of whole to parts cannot be followed in all cases even where
+a number of lesson units may possess important points of inter-relation.
+Although, for instance, simple and compound addition and addition of
+fractions are only different phases of one process, no one would
+advocate the combining of these into such a unified lesson series. In
+Canadian History, also, although the conditions of the Quebec Act, the
+coming of the United Empire Loyalists, and the passing of the
+Constitutional Act, have definite points of inter-relation, it would
+nevertheless be unwise to attempt to evolve these out of a single
+complex lesson unit. In such cases, therefore, the synthesis of the
+various parts must be made as the lessons proceed. Moreover, it is well
+to ensure the complete organization of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> elements by means of an
+outline review at the end of the lesson series. The student-teacher will
+meet an example of this process under the topical lesson in <a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">Chapter
+XVII</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PRECAUTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>It is evident from the above considerations, that certain precautions
+should be observed in deciding upon the particular subject-matter to be
+included in each lesson topic.</p>
+
+<p>1. A just balance should be maintained between the difficulty of each
+lesson unit and the ability of the class. Matter that is too easy
+requires no effort in its mastery and hence is uninteresting. Matter
+that is too difficult discourages effort, and is, therefore, equally
+uninteresting. It should be sufficiently easy for every pupil to master,
+and sufficiently difficult to require real effort.</p>
+
+<p>2. The amount of matter included should be carefully adjusted to the
+length of time taken for the lesson and to the attainments of the class.
+If too much is attempted, there will be insufficient time for adequate
+drill and review, and hence there will be lack of thoroughness. If too
+little is attempted, time will be wasted in needless repetition.</p>
+
+<p>3. Each unit of instruction in any subject should, in general, grow out
+of the preceding unit taken in that subject, and be closely connected
+with it. It is in this way that a pupil's interest is aroused for the
+new problem and his knowledge becomes organized. Neglect in this regard
+results in the possession of disconnected and unsystematized facts.</p>
+
+<p>Each lesson should contain one or more central facts around which the
+other facts are grouped. This permits easy organization of the material
+of the lesson, and ensures its retention by the pupils. Further, the
+pupils are by this means trained to discriminate between the essential
+and the non-essential.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2>
+
+<h2>LESSON TYPES</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>The Developing Lesson.</b>&mdash;In the various lesson plans already
+considered, the aim has always appeared as an attempt to direct the
+learning process so that the pupil may both build up a new experience
+and also gain such control over it as will enable him to turn it to
+practical use. Because in all such lessons the teacher is supposed to
+direct the pupils through the four steps of the learning process in such
+a way that they discover for themselves some important new experience,
+or develop it out of their own present knowledge, the lessons are spoken
+of as developing lessons. Moreover, the two parts of the lesson in which
+the new experience is especially gained by the pupils, namely the
+selecting and relating processes, are often spoken of as a single step
+and called the step of <i>development,</i> the lesson then being treated
+under four heads: Problem, preparation, development, and application.</p>
+
+<p><b>Auxiliary Lessons.</b>&mdash;It is evident, however, that there may be lessons
+in which this direct attempt to have the pupils build up some wholly new
+experience through a regularly controlled learning process, will not
+appear as the chief purpose of the lesson. In the previous consideration
+of the deductive lesson, it was pointed out that this type may be used
+to give a further mastery of general rules previously learned, rather
+than a knowledge of particular examples. Such would be the case in an
+ordinary parsing and analysis lesson in grammar. Here the primary
+purpose is, evidently, not to give the pupils a grammatical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> knowledge
+of the particular words and sentences which are being parsed and
+analysed, but rather to give them better control of certain general
+rules of language which they have partially mastered in previous
+lessons. So also a lesson in writing may seek, not to teach the form of
+some new letter, but to give skill in writing a letter form which the
+pupils have already learned. In an exercise in addition of fractions,
+also, the aim is not so much to have the pupil know these particular
+questions, as to have him gain a more complete control of the previously
+learned rule. In other lessons the pupils may be left to secure new
+knowledge largely for themselves, and the recitation be devoted to
+testing whether they have been able to accomplish this successfully. In
+still other lessons the teacher may merely outline a certain topic or
+certain topics, preparatory to such independent study by the pupils.</p>
+
+<p>The following outlines will explain and exemplify these auxiliary lesson
+types.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE STUDY LESSON</h3>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of Study Lesson.</b>&mdash;The purpose of the Study Lesson is the
+mastery by the pupils of a stated portion of the text-book. Ultimately,
+however it is the cultivation of the power of gleaning information from
+the printed page, of selecting essential features, and of arranging
+these in their proper relationships.</p>
+
+<p>The main difficulty in connection with the study lesson is the
+adaptation of the matter to the interests of the pupils. This difficulty
+is sometimes due to their inability to interpret the language of the
+book, and to the difficulty of their distinguishing the salient features
+from the non-essential. The trouble in this regard is accentuated when
+they approach the lesson with an inadequate preparation of mind.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The study lesson falls naturally into two parts, the assignment and the
+seat work.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Assignment.</b>&mdash;The object of the assignment is to put the pupils in
+an attitude of inquiry toward the new matter. It corresponds to the
+conception of the problem and the step of preparation in the development
+lesson. The most successful assignment is one in which the interest of
+the pupils is aroused to such a pitch that they are anxious to read more
+about the subject. In general it will consist of a recall of those
+ideas, or a statement of those facts upon which the interpretation of
+the new matter depends. Most of the unsuccessful study lessons are due
+to insufficient care in the assignment. Often pupils are told to read so
+many pages of the book, without any preliminary preparation and without
+any idea of what facts they are to learn. Under such conditions, the
+result is usually a very slight interest in the lesson, and consequently
+an unsatisfactory grasp of it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Examples of Assignment.</b>&mdash;A few examples will serve to illustrate what
+is meant by an adequate assignment. When a new reading lesson is to be
+prepared, the assignment should include the pronunciation and meaning of
+the different words, and a general understanding of the passage to be
+read. For a new spelling lesson, the assignment should include the
+pronunciation and meaning of the words, and any special difficulties
+that may appear in them. In assigning a history lesson on, say, the
+Capture of Quebec, the teacher should discuss with the class the
+position of Quebec, the difficulties that would present themselves to a
+besieging army, the character and personal appearance of Wolfe (making
+him stand out as vividly as possible), and the position seized by the
+British army, illustrating as far as possible by maps and diagrams.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span>
+Then the class will be in a mental attitude to read with interest the
+dramatic story of the taking of the fortress. If the pupils were about
+to study the geography of British Columbia, the teacher might, in the
+assignment, ask them to note from the map of Canada the position of the
+province and the direction of the mountain ranges; to infer the
+character and direction of the rivers and their value for navigation; to
+infer the nature of the climate, knowing the direction of the prevailing
+winds; to infer the character of the chief industries, knowing the
+physical features and climate. With these facts in mind the class will
+be able to read intelligently what the text-book says about British
+Columbia.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Seat Work.</b>&mdash;However good the assignment may be, there is always a
+danger that there will be much waste of time in connection with the seat
+work. The tendency to mind-wandering is always so great that the time
+devoted to the preparation of lessons at seats may to a large extent be
+lost, unless special precautions are taken in that regard. Unfortunately
+every lesson cannot be made so enthralling that the pupil's mind is kept
+upon it in spite of distractions. To prevent this possible waste of
+time, suggestions have already been made in another connection (page <a href="#Page_112">112</a>
+above). These will bear repetition here. Questions upon the matter to be
+studied might be placed on the black-board and pupils asked to prepare
+answers for these. The difficulty with this plan is, that, unless the
+questions are carefully thought out by the teacher, the pupils may get
+from their reading only a few disconnected facts instead of organized
+knowledge. The pupils might be asked to prepare lists of questions for
+themselves, and the one who had the best list might be permitted to put
+his questions to the rest of the class. The difficulty here is that
+most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span> pupils have a tendency to question about what is unimportant and
+to neglect the important. In the higher classes, the pupils might be
+required to make a topical outline of the lesson studied. This requires
+considerable analytic ability, and the results at first are likely to be
+disappointing. However, it is an ability worth striving for. The
+individual who can readily outline what he has read has mastered the art
+of reading.</p>
+
+<p><b>Use of Study Lessons.</b>&mdash;There is a danger that the study lesson may be
+used too much or too little. In an ungraded school containing many
+classes, the teacher may be tempted to rely solely upon the study lesson
+as a means of intellectual advancement. Used exclusively it becomes
+monotonous, and the pupils grow weary of the constant effort required.
+On the other hand, in the graded school, where a teacher has charge of
+only one class, there will be a tendency to depend entirely on the oral
+presentation of lessons, to the exclusion of the text-book altogether.
+The result is that pupils do not cultivate the power to obtain knowledge
+from books. The study lesson should alternate with the oral lesson, so
+that monotony may be avoided, and the pupils will reap the undoubted
+benefits of both methods.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE RECITATION LESSON</h3>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of the Recitation Lesson.</b>&mdash;The recitation lesson is the
+complement of the study lesson. Its purpose is to test the pupil's grasp
+of the facts he has read during the study period. Incidentally the
+teacher clears up difficulties and corrects misconceptions on the part
+of the pupil. The facts of the text-book may be amplified from the
+teacher's stock of information. Abstract facts may be illustrated in a
+concrete way. The important facts may be emphasized and the unimportant
+ones lightly passed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> over. The ultimate aim of the recitation lesson is
+to add something to the pupil's power of interpreting and organizing
+facts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Precautions.</b>&mdash;Some precautions are to be noted in connection with the
+recitation lesson. (1) Care must be exercised that the pupils are not
+reciting mere words that have no solid basis of ideas. Young children
+are particularly expert at verbalizing. (2) Care must also be taken that
+the pupils have not merely scrappy information, but have the ideas
+thoroughly organized. (3) The teacher must know the facts to be recited
+well enough to be independent of the text-book during the recitation. To
+conduct the lesson with an open book before him is a confession of
+weakness on the part of the teacher.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONDUCTING THE RECITATION LESSON</h3>
+
+<p>There are two methods of conducting the recitation lesson, namely, the
+question and answer method and the topical method.</p>
+
+<p><b>A. The Question and Answer Method.</b>&mdash;This is the easier method for the
+pupil, as he is called upon to answer only in a brief form detailed
+questions asked by the teacher. The onus of the analysis of the lesson
+rests largely upon the teacher. He must ask the questions in a proper
+sequence so that, if the answers of the pupils were written out, they
+would form a connected account of the matter. He must be able to detect
+from the pupils' answers whether they have real knowledge or are merely
+masquerading with words. To be able to question well is one of the most
+valuable accomplishments that a teacher can possess. The whole problem
+of the art of questioning will be considered in the next Chapter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>B. The Topical Method.</b>&mdash;The topical recitation consists in the pupil's
+reporting the facts of the study lesson with a minimum of questioning on
+the part of the teacher. Two advantages are apparent: (1) It gives the
+pupil an excellent training in organizing his materials, and (2) it
+develops his language power. It is to be feared that the topical
+recitation is not so frequently used as its value warrants. The reason
+is probably that it is a difficult method to follow. Poor results are
+usually secured at first, teachers grow discouraged, they stop trying
+it, and thereafter put their whole faith in the question and answer
+recitation. This is unfortunate, for however good the latter may be, it
+is greatly inferior to the topical recitation in helping the pupil to
+institute relations among his facts, and in improving his power to use
+his mother-tongue effectively. Successful topical recitations can be
+secured only at the price of long, patient, and persistent effort. The
+teacher can gradually work towards them from detailed questions to
+questions requiring the combination of a few sentences in answer, and
+thence to the complete outline. In almost every lesson the pupils may be
+called upon to summarize some topic after it has been gone over by means
+of detailed questions. In such answers the pupils may reasonably be
+expected to state the facts in their proper connection and in good
+language form. In reviews, also, in such subjects as history and
+geography, the pupils should be frequently called upon to recite
+topically.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE DRILL LESSON</h3>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of Drill Lesson.</b>&mdash;The Drill Lesson involves the repetition of
+matter in the same form as it was originally learned, in order to fix it
+in the mind so firmly that its recall will eventually become automatic.
+In other words,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> the function of this type of lesson is habit-formation.
+It is necessary in those subjects that are more or less mechanical in
+nature, and that can be reduced to the plane of habit. The field of the
+drill lesson will, therefore, be largely restricted to spelling,
+writing, language, and the mechanical phases of art and arithmetic.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Method.</b>&mdash;As the purpose of the drill lesson is the formation of
+habit, the method will involve the application of the principles that
+lie at the basis of habit-formation. These are, (1) attention to the
+thing to be done so as to obtain a vivid picture or a clear
+understanding of it, and (2) repetition with attention. For instance, if
+the writing lesson is the formation of the capital E, the class will
+examine carefully a model form, note the parts of which it is composed,
+the relative size and position of the parts, how they are connected,
+etc. Then will follow the repetition of the form by the pupils, each
+time with careful attention to the method of making it, comparison with
+the model, and the noting of defects in their work. This will continue
+until the letter can be made correctly without attention, that is, until
+the method of making it has been reduced to a habit. If the lesson is on
+the spelling of difficult words, the first step will be to observe the
+pronunciation of each, the division into syllables, the difficult part
+of the word, and the order of the letters. Then the word will be
+repeated attentively until it can be spelled without effort. In a
+language lesson on the correct use, say, of "lie" and "lay," the pupils
+will first be called upon to observe the forms of each, "lie, lay, lain,
+lying," and "lay, laid, laying"&mdash;as used in sentences on the
+black-board, and the meaning of each group&mdash;"lie" meaning "to recline"
+and "lay" meaning "to place." The pupils will then repeat attentively
+the correct forms of the words<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> in sentences, until they finally reach
+the stage when they unconsciously use the words correctly, or as habits
+of speech. The same principles apply in learning the addition and
+multiplication tables, and the tables of weights and measures in
+arithmetic; in the memorization of gems of poetry and prose; in the
+learning of dates, lists of events, and important provisions of acts in
+history; and in the memorization of lists of places and products in
+geography, where this is desirable. In all the cases mentioned, it must
+not be supposed that a single drill lesson will be sufficient for the
+fixing of the desired knowledge or skill. Before instant and unconscious
+reaction can be depended upon, repetition will be needed at intervals
+for some time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Danger in Mere Repetition.</b>&mdash;In connection with the repetition
+necessary in the second stage of the drill lesson, an important
+precaution should be noted. It is impossible for anybody to repeat
+anything <i>attentively</i> many times in succession unless there is some new
+element noted in each repetition. When there is no longer a new element,
+the repetition becomes mechanical, and hence comparatively useless so
+far as acquisition of knowledge or even habit is concerned. To ask a
+pupil who has difficulty with a combination in addition, or a product in
+multiplication, or the spelling of a word, to repeat it many times in
+succession, may be not only waste of time, but even worse, because a
+tendency toward mind-wandering may be encouraged. The practice of
+requiring pupils to write out new words, or words that have been
+mis-spelled in the dictation lesson, five, ten, or twenty times
+successively, cannot be too strongly condemned. The attention cannot
+possibly be concentrated upon the work beyond two or three repetitions,
+and the fact that pupils frequently make mistakes two or three words
+down the column and repeat this mis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span>take to the end, is sufficient proof
+of the mechanical nature of the process. The little boy who had
+difficulty with the use of "went" and "gone," and was commanded by his
+teacher to write "I have gone" a hundred times on his slate, illustrates
+this principle exactly. He had been left to finish his task alone and,
+after writing "I have gone" faithfully forty or fifty times, grew tired
+of the monotony of the process. Turning the slate over, he wrote on the
+other side, "I have went home" and left it on the desk for the teacher's
+approval.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to Overcome Dangers.</b>&mdash;To avoid this difficulty, some device must
+be adopted to secure attention to each repetition until the knowledge is
+firmly fixed. For instance, instead of asking the pupil many times one
+after the other, what seven times six are, it would be better to
+introduce other combinations and come back frequently to seven times
+six. In that way the pupil would have to attend to it every time it came
+up. Similarly, in learning to spell a troublesome word like "separate,"
+the best plan would be to mix it up with other words and come back to it
+often. Repetition is always necessary in the drill lesson, but it should
+always be <i>repetition with attention</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE REVIEW LESSON</h3>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of Review Lesson.</b>&mdash;As the name implies, a review is a new view
+of old knowledge. While the drill lesson repeats the matter in the same
+form as it was originally learned, the review lesson repeats the matter
+from another standpoint or in new relations. The function of the review
+lesson is the organization of the material of a series of lessons into
+an inter-connected whole, and incidentally the fixing of these facts in
+the mind by the additional repetitions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Kinds of Review.</b>&mdash;Almost every lesson gives opportunities for
+incidental reviews. The step of preparation recalls old ideas in new
+connections, and may be properly considered a review. A lesson on the
+"gerund" in grammar would require a recall of the various relations in
+which a noun may stand, and the various ways in which a verb may be
+completed. It is quite probable that the pupils have never before
+brought these facts together in an organized way. Similarly, the step of
+expression affords opportunity for review. The solution of problems in
+simple interest confronts the pupils with new situations in which this
+principle can be applied. The reproduction of the matter of the history
+lesson requires the selection of the important facts from the mass of
+details given and the placing of these in their proper relationship to
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>But besides the incidental reviews which form a part of nearly all
+lessons, there must be lessons which are purely reviews. Without these,
+the pupil, because of insufficient repetition, would rapidly forget the
+facts he had once learned or would never really know the facts at all,
+because he had not seen them in all their connections. There are two
+methods of conducting these reviews: (1) by means of the topical
+outline, (2) by means of the method of comparison.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE TOPICAL REVIEW</h3>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of Topical Outlines.</b>&mdash;By this method the pupil gets a
+bird's-eye view of a whole field. In learning the matter originally, his
+attention was largely concentrated upon the individual facts, and it is
+quite probable that he has since lost sight of some of the threads of
+unity running through them. The topical outline will bring these into
+prominence. It will enable the pupil to keep in his mind the most
+important headings of a subject, the sub-headings,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> and the individual
+facts coming under these. Whatever may be said against the practice of
+memorizing topical outlines, it must be acknowledged that unless it is
+done the pupil's knowledge of the subject is likely to be very hazy,
+indefinite, and disconnected.</p>
+
+<p><b>Illustrations from History.</b>&mdash;As an illustration of the review lesson
+by means of the topical outline, take the history of the Hudson's Bay
+Company. If the pupil has followed the order of the text-book, he has
+probably learned this subject in pieces&mdash;a bit here, another some pages
+later, and still another a few chapters farther on. In the multiplicity
+of other events, he has probably missed the connections among the facts,
+and a topical review will be necessary to establish these. He may be
+required to go through his history text-book, reading all the parts
+relating to the Hudson's Bay Company. He will thus get a grasp of the
+relationships among the facts, and this will be made firmer if an
+outline such as the following is worked out with the assistance of the
+teacher.</p>
+
+
+<p>THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY</p>
+
+<p>I. <span class="smcap">Early History</span>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Groseilliers and Radisson interest Prince Rupert in
+possibilities of trade in North-Western Canada. Two vessels fitted
+out for Hudson's Bay. Report favourable.</p>
+
+<p>2. Charter granted Hudson's Bay Company by Charles II, 1670.</p>
+
+<p>3. Forts Nelson, Albany, Rupert, and Hayes attacked and captured by
+DeTroyes and D'Iberville, 1686. Restored by Treaty of Utrecht,
+1713.</p></div>
+
+<p>II. <span class="smcap">Nature of Fur-trade</span>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Furs gathered by Indians in winter.</p>
+
+<p>2. Conveyed to forts in summer, after incredible difficulties.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Ceremonies on arrival of Indians at forts.</p>
+
+<p>4. Articles exchanged for furs at first showy and worthless, but
+later more useful and valuable, for example, guns, hatchets,
+powder, shot, blankets, etc.</p></div>
+
+<p>III. <span class="smcap">Rivals of Hudson's Bay Company</span>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Coureurs-de-bois.</p>
+
+<p>2. Scottish traders&mdash;ranged from Michilimackinac to Saskatchewan.
+H.B. Co. built Cumberland House on Saskatchewan to compete for
+interior trade.</p>
+
+<p>3. North-West Company, 1783-4&mdash;at first friendly to H.B. Co., but
+later bitter enemies.</p></div>
+
+<p>IV. <span class="smcap">The Selkirk Settlement</span>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>Establishment.</i>&mdash;Lord Selkirk, a Scottish philanthropist, and a
+shareholder in the Hudson's Bay Co., purchased from the Company
+70,000 square miles of land around Red River for Scotch colonies,
+1811. About three hundred settlers came within three years. Miles
+Macdonell at head of the colony.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Trouble with North-West Company.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) Suspicion of N.W. Co. that colony was established by H.B. Co.
+to compete for fur trade.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Proclamation of Macdonell that food should not be taken out
+of settlement. Attack on colony by Metis Indians encouraged by N.W.
+Co. Withdrawal of colonists to Lake Winnipeg.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Return with reinforcements under Semple. Skirmish at Seven
+Oaks, 1816. Semple with twenty others killed.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Selkirk's descent upon Fort William. Arrest of several
+Nor'Westers. Colony at Red River restored.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Nor'Westers acquitted of murder of Semple. Selkirk convicted
+and heavily fined for acts of violence. Selkirk withdrew from
+Canada in disappointment and disgust.</p></div>
+
+<p>3. <i>Later Progress.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) Hardships of pioneer life like those of Ontario.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) A series of disasters&mdash;grasshoppers, floods.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Prosperity finally came.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Government at first administered by governor of H.B. Co.,
+later assisted by Council of fourteen members.</p></div></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>V. <span class="smcap">Amalgamation of Rival Companies</span>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. <i>Union.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>After withdrawal of Selkirk, the H.B. Co. and the N.W. Co. united
+in 1821, under name of former.</p></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>2. <i>Subsequent Progress.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Governor Sir George Simpson extended posts westward to
+Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Through his energy Britain was able to retain possession of
+Western Canada in spite of aggression of United States and Russia.</p></div></div>
+
+<p>VI. <span class="smcap">Relinquishment of Administrative Powers</span>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Canadian Government claimed that the rule of the Company
+hindered development of Western Canada because it was interested
+only in trade.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Agreement with Canadian Government.</i>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) Company sold Prince Rupert's Land and gave up its trade
+monopoly.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) In return.&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(i) Received &pound;300,000.</p>
+
+<p>(ii) Retained one twentieth of land south of the Saskatchewan.</p>
+
+<p>(iii) Retained its posts and trading privileges.</p></div></div>
+
+<p>3. Company still exists as a trading organization with many posts in the
+West and large stores in many cities.</p></div>
+
+<p>VII. <span class="smcap">Services of H.B. Co. to Canada and the Empire</span>:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Opened up a valuable trade in Western Canada.</p>
+
+<p>2. Explored and opened up the West for settlement.</p>
+
+<p>3. Retained for Britain the territory west of Rockies when it was
+in danger of falling into other hands.</p></div>
+
+<p>The subjects of the Public and Separate School Course where topical
+reviews are most necessary are history and geography.</p>
+
+<h3>THE COMPARATIVE REVIEW</h3>
+
+<p>A thing always stands out most vividly in the mind when the relations of
+similarity and difference are per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span>ceived between it and other things.
+When we compare and contrast two things, certain features of each that
+would otherwise escape our attention are brought to light. We get a
+clearer idea of both the rabbit and the squirrel when we compare their
+various characteristics. Great Britain and Germany are each better
+understood geographically, when we set up comparisons between them; Pitt
+and Walpole stand out more clearly as statesmen when we compare and
+contrast them. One of the most effective forms of review is that in
+which the relations of likeness and difference are set up between
+subjects that have already been studied. For instance, the geographical
+features of Manitoba and British Columbia may be effectively reviewed by
+instituting comparisons between them in regard to (1) position and size,
+(2) physical features, (3) climate, (4) industries, (5) products, (6)
+commercial centres. The careers of Walpole and Pitt might be reviewed by
+comparing and contrasting them with regard to (1) circumstances under
+which each became Prime Minister, (2) domestic policy, (3) foreign
+policy, (4) circumstances surrounding the resignation of each, (5)
+personal character.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever form the review lesson may take, the teacher should always keep
+in mind its two main purposes, namely, (1) the organization of knowledge
+which comes through the apprehension of new relationships, and (2) the
+deeper impression of facts on the mind which comes through attentive
+repetition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2>
+
+<h2>QUESTIONING</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Importance.</b>&mdash;As a teaching device, questioning must always occupy a
+place of the highest importance. While it may not be always true that
+good questioning is synonymous with good teaching, there can be no doubt
+that the good teacher must have, as one of his qualifications, the
+ability to question well. A good question is a problem to solve. A
+stimulating problem arouses and directs mental activity. Well-directed
+mental activity is the prime requisite of all learning and one of the
+ends which all effective teaching endeavours to realize. Questioning is
+one of the best means of securing that desirable activity of mind
+without which intellectual progress is impossible. The teacher who would
+master the technique of his art must study to attain skill in
+questioning.</p>
+
+
+<h3>QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GOOD QUESTIONER</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Knowledge of Subject and of Mind.</b>&mdash;The most obvious essentials are
+familiarity with the subject-matter and a knowledge of the mental
+processes of the child. Without the first, the questions will be
+pointless, haphazard, and unsystematic; without the second, they will be
+ill-adjusted to the interests and attainments of the pupils. A thorough
+knowledge of the facts of the lesson and a keen insight into the
+workings of the child mind are indispensable.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Analytic Ability.</b>&mdash;As an accompaniment of the first of these
+qualifications, the good questioner must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> have analytic ability. The
+material of the lesson must be analysed into its elements and the
+relations of these must be clearly perceived if it is to be effectively
+presented to the pupils. The teacher must further have the power to
+discriminate between the important and the unimportant. The ability to
+seize upon the essential features and to give due prominence to these is
+one of the most valuable accomplishments a teacher can have.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Knowledge of Pupils' Experiences.</b>&mdash;As an accompaniment of the
+second qualification, the good questioner must have a knowledge of the
+previous experience and of the capacities of the pupils. Good teaching
+consists largely in the skilful adjustment of the new to the old. The
+teacher must ascertain what the pupils already know, what their
+interests are, and what matter they may reasonably be expected to
+apprehend, if he is to have them assimilate properly the facts of the
+lesson. He must further show sympathy and tact in order to inspire the
+pupils to their best effort. He must be able to detect unerringly the
+symptoms of inattention, listlessness, and misbehaviour, and by a
+well-directed question to bring back the wandering attention to the
+subject in hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>Faults in Questioning.</b>&mdash;There are two serious weaknesses that many
+young teachers exhibit, namely, questioning when they ought to tell and
+telling when they ought to question. To tell pupils what they might
+easily discover for themselves is to deprive them of the joy of conquest
+and to miss an opportunity of exercising and strengthening their mental
+powers. On the other hand, to question upon matter which the pupils
+cannot reasonably be expected to know or discover is to discourage
+effort and encourage guessing. To know just when to question and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> when
+to tell requires considerable discrimination and insight on the part of
+the teacher.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PURPOSES OF QUESTIONING</h3>
+
+<p>Questioning has three main purposes, namely:</p>
+
+<p>1. To determine the limits of the pupil's present knowledge in order
+that the teacher may have a definite basis upon which to build the new
+material;</p>
+
+<p>2. To direct the pupil's thought along a prescribed channel to a
+definite end, to lead him to make discoveries and form conclusions on
+his own account;</p>
+
+<p>3. To ascertain how far he has grasped the meaning of the new material
+that has been presented.</p>
+
+<p><b>A. Preparatory.</b>&mdash;The first of these purposes may be designated as
+preparatory. Here the teacher clears the ground for the presentation of
+the new matter by recalling the old related facts necessary to the
+interpretation of the new. In thus sounding the depths of the pupil's
+previous knowledge, the teacher should usually ask questions that demand
+fairly long answers instead of those which may be answered briefly. The
+onus of the recall should be placed largely upon the pupil. The teacher
+will do comparatively little talking; the pupil will do much.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Developing.</b>&mdash;The second purpose may be described as developing. The
+pupil is led step by step to a conclusion. Each question grows naturally
+out of the preceding question, the responsibility for this logical
+connection falling upon the teacher. The pupil has before him a certain
+set of conditions, and he is asked to infer the logical result of such
+conditions. He forms inferences, makes new discoveries, sets up new
+relationships, and formulates definitions and laws. It should be noted
+that this form of questioning gives no entirely new information<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span> to the
+pupil. It merely classifies and organizes what is already in his mind in
+a more or less indistinct and nebulous form. New information cannot be
+questioned out of a pupil; it must be given to him directly.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Recapitulation.</b>&mdash;The third purpose of questioning may be described
+as recapitulatory. The pupil is asked to reproduce what he has learned
+during the progress of the lesson. At convenient intervals during the
+presentation and at the close, he should be asked to summarize in a
+connected manner the main points already covered. Thus the teacher tests
+the pupil's comprehension of the facts of the lesson. The pupil, on his
+side, as a result of such reproduction, has the facts more clearly fixed
+in his mind. As in the first stage of the lesson, the answers should be
+of considerable length, logically connected, and expressed in good
+language. The responsibility for this is again thrown largely upon the
+pupil. He does most of the talking; the teacher does little.</p>
+
+<p><b>How Employed in Lesson.</b>&mdash;It will thus be recognized that questioning
+is employed for different purposes at the three different stages of the
+lesson. At the opening of the lesson it prepares the mind of the pupil
+for what is to follow. During the presentation it leads the pupil to
+form his own inferences. At the close of the lesson it tests his grasp
+of the facts and gives these greater clearness and fixity in his mind.
+The first and third might both be designated as <i>testing</i> purposes, and
+the second <i>training</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SOCRATIC QUESTIONING</h3>
+
+<p><b>Its Characteristics.</b>&mdash;Developing, or training, questions, are
+sometimes referred to as Socratic questions. The terms are, however, not
+altogether synonymous. The method of Socrates had two divisions, known
+as <i>irony</i> and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> <i>maieutics</i>. The former consisted in leading the pupil
+to express an opinion on some subject of current interest, an opinion
+that was apparently accepted by Socrates. Then, by a series of questions
+adroitly put, he drove his pupil into a contradiction or an absurd
+position, thus revealing the inadequacy of the answer. This phase of the
+Socratic method is rarely applicable with young children. Occasionally,
+in grammar or arithmetic, for instance, an incorrect answer may properly
+be followed up so as to lead the pupil into a contradiction, but it is
+usually not desirable to embarrass him unnecessarily. It is never
+agreeable to be covered with the confusion which such a situation
+usually brings about. The other phase of the Socratic method, the
+<i>maieutics</i>, consisted in leading the pupil, by a further series of
+questions, to formulate the correct opinion of which the first
+hastily-given answer was only a fragment. This coincides with the
+developing method and may sometimes be profitably employed with young
+children.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Example of Socratic Questioning</span>.&mdash;As an example of Socratic
+questioning may be noted the following taken from Plato's <i>Minos</i>.
+Socrates has questioned his companion concerning the nature of Law and
+has received the answer, "Law is the decree of the city." To show his
+companion the inadequacy of this definition, Socrates engages with him
+in the following dialogue:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Socrates</i>: Justice and law, are highly honourable; injustice and
+lawlessness, highly dishonourable; the former preserves cities, the
+latter ruins them?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Yes, it does.</p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: Well, then! we must consider law as something
+honourable; and seek after it, under the assumption that it is a
+good thing. You defined law to be the decree of the city: Are not
+some decrees good, others evil?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Unquestionably.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: But we have already said that law is not evil?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: I admit it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: It is incorrect therefore to answer, as you did
+broadly, that law is the decree of the city. An evil decree cannot
+be law.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: I see that it is incorrect.</p></div>
+
+<p>Having shown his pupil the fallacy of his first definition, Socrates
+proceeds to teach him that only what is right is lawful. This part of
+the dialogue proceeds as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Socrates</i>: Those who know, must of necessity hold the same opinion
+with each other, on matters which they know: always and everywhere?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Yes&mdash;always and everywhere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: Physicians write respecting matters of health what they
+account to be true, and these writings of theirs are the medical
+laws?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Certainly they are.</p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: The like is true respecting the laws of farming, the
+laws of gardening, the laws of cookery. All these are the writings
+of persons, knowing in each of the respective pursuits?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Yes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: In like manner, what are the laws respecting the
+government of a city? Are they not the writings of those who know
+how to govern&mdash;kings, statesmen, and men of superior excellence?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Truly so.</p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: Knowing men like these will not write differently from
+each other about the same things, nor change what they have once
+written. If, then, we see some doing this, are we to declare them
+knowing or ignorant?</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Ignorant, undoubtedly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Socrates</i>: Whatever is right, therefore, we may pronounce to be
+lawful in medicine, gardening, or cookery; whatever is not right,
+not to be lawful but lawless. And the like in treatises respecting
+just and unjust, prescribing how the city is to be administered.
+That which is right, is the regal law;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> that which is not right, is
+not so, but only seems to be law in the eyes of the ignorant, being
+in truth lawless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pupil</i>: Yes.</p></div>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the above examples, that much of the Socratic
+questioning is really explanatory; the questions, though interrogative
+in form, being often rhetorical, and therefore assertive in value.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE QUESTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of a Good Question.</b>&mdash;Good questions should seize upon
+the important features and emphasize these. Unimportant details, though
+useful in giving vividness to a narrative and enabling the pupil to
+build up a clear picture of the scene or incident, may well be ignored
+in questioning. The teacher must see that the pupil grasps the
+essentials and must direct his questions towards the attainment of that
+end. The questions should be arranged in logical sequence, so that the
+answers, if written out in the order given, would form a connected
+account of the topic under discussion. Further, the questions should
+require the expression of a judgment on the part of the pupil. In the
+main they should not be answerable by a single word or a brief phrase.
+One of the greatest weaknesses in the answers of pupils is the tendency
+<i>to</i> extreme brevity. As a result, it is difficult to get pupils to give
+a connected and continuous narration, description, or exposition in any
+subject. The remedy for this defect is to ask questions which demand
+answers of considerable length, and to avoid those which require only a
+scrappy answer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Form of the Question.</b>&mdash;It should ever be borne in mind that the
+teacher's language influences the language habits of his pupils.
+Carelessly worded, poorly constructed questions are likely to result in
+answers having similar characteristics. On the other hand, correctness
+in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span> form of the questions asked, accuracy in the use of words,
+simple, straightforward statements of the thing wanted, will be
+reflected, dimly perhaps, in the form of the pupils' answers. Care must,
+therefore, be exercised as to the form in which questions are asked.
+They should be stripped of all superfluous introductory words, such as,
+"Who can tell?" "How many of you know?" etc. Such prefaces are not only
+useless and a waste of time, but they also put before pupils a bad model
+if we are to expect concise and direct statements from them. The
+questions should be so clear and definite in meaning as to admit of only
+one interpretation. Questions such as, "What happened after this?" "What
+did Cromwell become?" "What about the rivers of Germany?" "What might we
+say of this word?" are objectionable on the score of indefiniteness.
+Many correct answers might be given for each and the pupils can only
+guess at what is required. If the question cannot be so stated as to
+make what is desired unmistakable, the information had better be given
+outright. Questions should be brief and usually deal with only one
+point, except, perhaps in asking for summaries of what has been covered
+in the lesson. In the latter case it is frequently desirable to put a
+question involving several points in order to ensure definiteness,
+conciseness, and connectedness in the answer; for example, "For what is
+Alexander Mackenzie noted? State his great aim and describe his two most
+important undertakings connected therewith." But in dealing with matter
+taken up for the first time or involving original thought, this type of
+question, demanding as it does attention to several points, would put
+too great a demand upon the powers of young children. Under such
+conditions it is best to ask questions requiring only one point in
+answer.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE ANSWER</h3>
+
+<p><b>Form of Answers.</b>&mdash;The possibility of improving the pupil's language
+power through his answers has already been referred to. To secure the
+best results in this regard, the teacher should insist on answers that
+are grammatically correct and, usually, in complete sentences. It would
+be pedantic, however, to insist always upon the latter condition. For
+such questions as, "What British officer was killed at Queenston
+Heights?" or "What province lies west of Manitoba?" the natural answers
+are "General Brock," or "Saskatchewan." To require pupils to say, "The
+British officer killed at Queenston Heights was General Brock," or "The
+province west of Manitoba is Saskatchewan," would be to make the
+recitation unnatural and formal. When answers are a mere echo of the
+question, with some slight inversion or addition, they become
+exceedingly mechanical, and useless from the point of view of language
+training. While it is desirable to avoid, as far as possible, questions
+that admit of answers of a single word or short phrase, such questions
+are sometimes necessary and are not objectionable. Questions should not
+be thrown into the form of an elliptical statement in which the pupil
+merely fills a blank, for example, "The capital of Ontario is...?" "The
+first English parliament was called by...?" Nor should they be given in
+inverted form, as, "Montreal is situated where?" "The Great Charter was
+signed by what king?" Alternative questions such as, "Is this a noun or
+an adjective?" "Was Charles I willing or unwilling to sign the Petition
+of Right?" as well as those questions that are answerable by "Yes" or
+"No," require little thought to answer and should be avoided if
+possible. When they are used, the pupil should at once be required to
+give reasons for his answer. Neither the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span> form of the question nor the
+teacher's tone of voice or manner should afford any inkling as to the
+answer expected.</p>
+
+<p><b>Calling for Answers.</b>&mdash;In order that the attention of the whole class
+may be maintained, the question should be proposed before the pupil who
+is to answer is indicated. No fixed order in calling upon the pupils
+should be adopted. If the pupils are never certain beforehand who is to
+be named to answer the question, they are more likely to be kept
+constantly on the alert. The questions should be carefully distributed
+among the class, the duller pupils being given rather more and easier
+questions than the brighter ones. One of the temptations that the
+teacher has to overcome is that of giving the clever and willing pupils
+the majority of the questions. The question should seldom be repeated
+unless the first wording is so unfortunate that the meaning is not clear
+and it is found necessary to recast it. To repeat questions habitually
+is to put a premium on inattention on the part of the pupils. A bad
+habit often noted among teachers is that of wording the question in
+several ways before any one is asked to answer it.</p>
+
+<p><b>Methods of Dealing with Answers.</b>&mdash;As has been already indicated in
+another connection, the answers of the pupils should be generally in
+complete sentences and frequently should be in the form of a continuous
+paragraph or series of paragraphs, especially in summaries and reviews.
+The continuous answer should be cultivated much more than it is, as a
+means of training pupils to organize their information and to express
+themselves in clear and connected discourse. On the other hand, however,
+children should be discouraged from giving more information than is
+demanded by the question. While it is desirable that the correctness of
+an answer should be indicated in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> some way, the teacher should guard
+against forming the habit of indicating every correct answer by a
+stereotyped word or phrase, such as, "Yes" or "That's right." Answers
+should seldom be repeated by the teacher, unless it is desirable to
+re-word them for purposes of emphasis. Repetition of answers encourages
+careless articulation on the part of the pupil answering and inattention
+on the part of the others. One of the worst habits a teacher can
+contract is the "gramophonic" repetition of pupils' answers. The answers
+given by the pupils should almost invariably be individual, not
+collective. Simultaneous answering makes a noisy class-room, cultivates
+a monotonous and measured method of speaking, and encourages the habit
+of relying on others. There are always a few leaders in the class that
+are willing to take the initiative in answering, and the others merely
+chime in with them. The method is not suitable for the expression of
+individual opinion, for all pupils must answer alike. There is, further,
+the possibility that absurd blunders may pass uncorrected, because in
+the general repetition the teacher cannot detect them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LIMITATIONS</h3>
+
+<p>Though questioning is the most valuable of teaching devices, it is quite
+susceptible of being overworked. There is quite as much danger of using
+it too extensively as there is of using it too little. Frequently,
+teachers try to question from pupils what they could not be expected to
+know. Further, it is possible by too much questioning to cover up the
+point of the lesson rather than reveal it, and to mystify the pupils
+rather than clarify their ideas. These are the two main abuses of the
+device. After all, it should be remembered that, important as good
+questioning undoubtedly is, it is not the only thing in lesson
+technique. In teaching, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> elsewhere, variety is the spice of life.
+Sympathy, sincerity, enthusiasm in the teacher will do more to secure
+mental activity in the pupils than mere excellence in questioning. The
+energetic, enthusiastic, sympathetic teacher may secure better results
+than the teacher whose ability in questioning is well-nigh perfect, but
+who lacks these other qualities. If, however, to these qualities he adds
+a high degree of efficiency in questioning, his success in teaching is
+so much the more assured.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PART_III_EDUCATIONAL_PSYCHOLOGY" id="PART_III_EDUCATIONAL_PSYCHOLOGY"></a>PART III. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2>
+
+<h2>CONSCIOUSNESS</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Data of Psychology.</b>&mdash;Throughout the earlier parts of the text,
+occasional reference has been made to various classes of mental states,
+and to psychology, as the science which treats of these mental states,
+under the assumption that such references would be understood in a
+general way by the student-teacher. At the outset of a study of
+psychology as the science of mind, however, it becomes necessary to
+inquire somewhat more fully into the nature of the data with which the
+science is to deal. Mind is usually defined either by contrasting it
+with the concrete world of matter, or by describing its activities. It
+is said, for instance, that mind is that which feels and knows, which
+hopes, fears, determines, etc. By some, indeed, mind is described as
+merely the sum of these states of knowing and feeling and willing. The
+practical man says, however, <i>I</i> know and feel so-and-so, and <i>my</i> wish
+is so-and-so. Here an evident distinction is drawn between the knower,
+or conscious self, and his conscious activities. While, however, we may
+agree with the practical man that there is a mind, or self, that knows
+and wills and feels; yet it is evident that the self, or knower, can
+know himself only through his conscious states. It must be understood,
+therefore, that mind in its ultimate sense cannot be studied directly,
+but only the conscious states, or conditions of mind. Thus psychology
+becomes a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> study of mental states, or states of consciousness; and it
+is, in fact, frequently described as the science of consciousness.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Consciousness.</b>&mdash;Our previous study of the nature of
+experience has shown that various kinds of conscious states may arise in
+the mind, now the smell of burning cloth, now the sound of a ringing
+bell, now the feeling of bodily pain, now a remembered joy, now a future
+expectation or a resolution. Such a conscious state was seen, moreover,
+to represent on the part of the mind, not a mere passive impression
+coming from some external source, but an active attitude resulting in
+definite experience. It signifies, in other words, a power to react in a
+fixed way toward impressions, and direct our conduct in accordance with
+the resulting states of consciousness. Consciousness in the individual
+implies, therefore, that he is aware of phenomena as they are
+experienced, and is able to modify his behaviour accordingly.</p>
+
+<p><b>Types of Consciousness.</b>&mdash;Although allowable, from the standpoint of
+the learning process, to describe a conscious state as an attitude of
+awareness in which the individual grasps the significance of an
+experience in relation to his own needs; it must be recognized that not
+all consciousness manifests this meaningful quality, or this relation to
+a felt aim, or end. While lying, for instance, in a vague, half-awake
+state, although one is conscious, the mental condition is quite devoid
+of the meaningful quality referred to, and entirely lacks the feeling of
+reaction, or of mental effort. In this case there is no distinct
+reference to the needs of the self, and a lack of that focusing of
+attention necessary to give the consciousness a meaning and purpose in
+the life of the individual. All such passive, or effortless, states of
+consciousness, which make up those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> portions of mental existence in
+which no definite presentation seems to hold the attention, although
+falling within the sphere of the scientific psychologist, may
+nevertheless be left out of consideration in a study of educational
+psychology. Learning involves apperception, and apperception is always
+giving a meaning to new presentations by actively bringing old knowledge
+to bear upon them. For the educator, therefore, psychology may be
+limited to a study of the definite states of consciousness which arise
+through an apperceiving act of attention, that is, to our states of
+experience and the processes connected therewith. For this reason,
+psychology is by some appropriately enough defined as the science of
+experience.</p>
+
+<p><b>Consciousness a Stream.</b>&mdash;Although we describe the data of psychology
+as facts, or states, of consciousness, a moment's reflection will show
+that our conscious life is not made up of a number of mental states, or
+experiences, completely separated one from the other. Our consciousness
+is rather a unified whole, in which seemingly disconnected states blend
+into one continuous flow of conscious life. For this reason,
+consciousness is frequently compared to a stream, or river, moving
+onward in an unbroken course. This stream of consciousness appears as
+disjointed mental states, simply because the attention discriminates
+within this stream, and thus in a sense detaches different portions one
+from the other, or, as sometimes figuratively put, it creates successive
+waves on the stream of consciousness. A mental state, or experience,
+so-called, is such a discriminated portion of this stream of
+consciousness, and is, therefore, itself a process, the different
+processes blending in a continuous succession or relation to make up the
+unbroken flow of conscious life. For this reason psychology is
+frequently described as a study of conscious processes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY</h3>
+
+<p>Within the school the child secures a control of experience only by
+passing through a process of mental reconstruction, or of changes in
+consciousness. Moreover, to bring about these mental changes, it is
+found necessary for the teacher's effort to conform as far as possible
+to the interests and tendencies of the child. So far, therefore, as the
+teacher's office is to direct and control the children's effort during
+the learning process, he must approach them primarily as mental, or
+conscious, beings. For this reason the educator should at least not
+violate the general principles governing all mental activity. By giving
+him an insight into the general principles underlying conscious
+processes, psychology should aid the teacher to control the learning
+process in the child.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LIMITATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY</h3>
+
+<p><b>Psychology Cannot Give: A. Knowledge of Subject-matter.</b>&mdash;It must not
+be assumed, however, that knowledge of psychology will necessarily imply
+a corresponding ability to teach. Psychology, for instance, cannot
+decide what should be taught to the child. This, as we have seen, is a
+problem of social experience, and must be decided by considering the
+types of experience which will add to the social efficiency of the
+individual, or which will enable him best to do his duty to himself and
+to others. All, therefore, that psychology can do here is to explain the
+process by which experience is acquired, leaving to social ethics the
+problem of deciding what knowledge is of most worth.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Love for Children.</b>&mdash;Again, psychology will not necessarily furnish
+that largeness of heart and sympathy for childhood, without which no
+teacher can be successful.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> Indeed, it is felt by many that making
+children objects of psychological analysis will rather tend to destroy
+that more spiritual conception of their personality which should
+constitute the teacher's attitude toward his pupils. While this is no
+doubt true of the teacher who looks upon children merely as subjects for
+psychological analysis and experimentation, it is equally true that a
+knowledge of psychology will enable even the sympathetic teacher to
+realize more fully and deal more successfully with the difficulties of
+the pupil.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Acquaintance with the Individual Child.</b>&mdash;Again, the teacher's
+problem in dealing with the mental attitude of the particular child
+cannot always be interpreted through general principles. The general
+principle would be supposed to have an application to every child in a
+large class. It is often found, however, that the character and
+disposition of the particular child demands, not general, but special
+treatment. Here, what is termed the knack of the sympathetic teacher is
+often more effective than the general principle of the psychologist.
+Admitting so much, however, it yet may be argued that a knowledge of
+psychology will not hinder, but rather assist the sympathetic teacher in
+dealing even with special cases.</p>
+
+
+<h3>METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Introspection.</b>&mdash;A unique characteristic of mind is its ability to
+turn attention inward and make an object of study of its own states, or
+processes. For instance, the mind is able to make its present sensation,
+its remembered state of anger, its idea of a triangle, etc., stand out
+in consciousness as a subject of study for conscious attention. On
+account of this ability to give attention to his own<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> states of
+consciousness, man is said both to know and to know that he knows. This
+reflective method of studying our own mental states is known as the
+method of <i>Introspection</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Objective Method.</b>&mdash;Facts of mind may, however, be examined
+objectively. As previously noted, man, by his words, acts, and works,
+gives expression to his conscious states. These different forms of
+expression are accepted, therefore, as external indications of
+corresponding states of mind, and afford the psychologist certain data
+for developing his science. One of the most important of these objective
+methods is known as Child Study. Here, by the method of observing the
+acts and language of very young children, data are obtained concerning
+the native instincts of the child, concerning the genesis and
+development of the different mental processes, and the relation of these
+to physical development. A brief statement of the leading principles of
+Child Study will be found in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI">Chapter XXXI</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Experimental Method.</b>&mdash;A third method of studying mind is known as
+the <i>Experimental</i> method. Here, as in the case of the ordinary physical
+experimenter, the psychologist seeks to control certain mental processes
+by isolating them and regulating their action. This may be effectively
+done in the study of certain processes. For instance, by passing the two
+points of a pair of compasses over different parts of the body, the
+tactile sensibility of the skin may be compared at these different
+parts. By this means it may be shown that the tip of the finger can
+detect the two points when only one twelfth of an inch apart, while on
+the middle of the back they may require to be two and a half inches
+apart to give a double impression.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span> The experimental method is often
+used in connection with the objective method in Child Study.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PHASES OF CONSCIOUSNESS</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Knowledge.</b>&mdash;Although, as previously stated, the stream of
+consciousness must at all times be looked upon as a unity, it will be
+found upon analysis to present three more or less distinct phases. A
+state of consciousness implies, in the first place, being aware of
+something as an object of attention. In other words, something is seized
+upon by consciousness as a presentation, and to the extent to which one
+is aware of this object of consciousness, he is said to recognize, or to
+know it. A state of consciousness is always, therefore, a state of
+knowledge, or of intelligence. Thus, whether we perceive this chair,
+imagine a mermaid, recall the looks of an absent friend, experience the
+toothache, judge the weight of this book, or become angry, our conscious
+state is a state of <i>knowledge</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Feeling.</b>&mdash;A conscious state is also a state of feeling. Every
+conscious state has its feeling side, since it is a personal state, or
+since the mind itself is affected toward its own state. Two men, for
+instance, may know equally well the taste of a particular food, but the
+taste may affect each one quite differently. To one the experience is
+pleasant, to the other it may be even painful. Two boys may know equally
+that a point has been scored by the visiting team, but the personal
+attitude of each toward the experience may be quite different. The one
+finds in it a quality of joy; the other a quality of sorrow. In the same
+way the mind always feels more or less pleased or displeased in its
+present state of consciousness. To speak of any particular experience as
+painful, joyous, sorrowful, etc., is, therefore, to refer to it as a
+state of <i>feeling</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>C. Will.</b>&mdash;Consciousness is a state of effort, or will. It was
+especially pointed out above, that the purposeful consciousness always
+implies a straining or focusing of consciousness in order to attain a
+fuller control of the experience. This element of exertion manifest in
+consciousness may appear as a directing of attention, as the making of a
+choice, as determining upon a certain action, etc. This aspect of any
+conscious state is spoken of as a state of <i>will</i>, or volition.</p>
+
+<p>In the unity of the conscious life, therefore, there are three attitudes
+from which consciousness may be viewed:</p>
+
+<p>1. It is a state of Knowledge, or of Intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>2. It is a state of Feeling.</p>
+
+<p>3. It is a state of Will.</p>
+
+<p>On account of this threefold aspect of mental states, consciousness has
+been represented in the following form:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus011.jpg"
+alt="Knowledge, Feeling, Consciousness, Will"
+title="Knowledge, Feeling, Consciousness, Will" /></p>
+
+<p>The significance of comparing the threefold aspect of consciousness to
+the three sides of a triangle consists in the fact that if any side of a
+triangle is removed no triangle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span> remains. In like manner, none of the
+three attributes of consciousness could be wanting without the conscious
+state ceasing to exist as such. No one, for instance, could feel the
+pressure of a tight shoe without at the same time knowing it, and fixing
+his attention upon it. Neither could a person at any particular time
+know that the shoe was pinching him unless he was also attending to and
+feeling the experience.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2>
+
+<h2>MIND AND BODY</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Relation of Mind to Bodily Organism.</b>&mdash;Notwithstanding the antithesis
+which has been affirmed to exist between mind and matter, yet a very
+close relation exists between mind and the material organism known as
+the body. There are many ways in which this intimate connection
+manifests itself. Mental excitement is always accompanied with agitation
+of the body and a disturbance of such bodily processes as breathing, the
+beating of the heart, digestion, etc. Such mental processes as seeing,
+hearing, tasting, etc., are found also to depend upon the use of a
+bodily organ, as the eye, the ear, the tongue, without which it is quite
+impossible for the mind to come into relation with outside things.
+Moreover, disease or injury, especially to the organs of sense or to the
+brain, weakens or destroys mental power. The size of the brain, also, is
+found to bear a certain relation to mental capacity; the weight of the
+average brain being about 48 ounces, while the brain of an idiot often
+weighs only from 20 to 30 ounces.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE NERVOUS SYSTEM</h3>
+
+<p class="figright"><img src="./images/illus012.jpg"
+alt="Brain and Spinal Cord"
+title="Brain and Spinal Cord" /><br />
+<b>Brain and Spinal Cord</b>
+</p>
+
+<p><b>Divisions of Nervous System.</b>&mdash;This intimate connection between mind
+and body is provided for through the existence of that part of the
+bodily organism known as the nervous system, and it is this part,
+together with its associated organs of sense, that chiefly interests the
+student of psychology. A study of the character and functions of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> the
+various parts of the nervous system, and of the nervous substance of
+which these parts are composed, belongs to physiology rather than to
+psychology. As the student-teacher is given a general knowledge of the
+structure of the nervous system in his study of physiology, a brief
+description will suffice for the present purpose. The nervous system
+consists of two parts, (1) the central part, or cerebro-spinal centre,
+and (2) an outer part&mdash;the spinal nerves. The central part, or
+cerebro-spinal centre, includes the spinal cord, passing upward through
+the vertebrae of the spinal column and the brain. The brain consists of
+three parts: The cerebrum, or great brain, consisting of two
+hemispheres, which, though connected, are divided in great part by a
+longitudinal fissure; the cerebellum, or little brain; and the medulla
+oblongata, or bulb. The spinal nerves consist of thirty-one pairs, which
+branch out from the spinal cord. Each pair of nerves contains a right
+and left member, distributed to the right and the left side of the body
+respectively.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> These nerves are of two kinds, sensory, or afferent,
+(in-carrying) nerves, which carry inward impressions from the outside
+world, and motor, or efferent, (out-carrying) nerves, which convey
+impulses outward to the muscles and cause them to contract. There are
+also twelve pairs of nerves connected with the eye, ear, nose, tongue,
+and face, which, instead of projecting from the spinal cord, proceed at
+once from the brain through openings in the cranium. These are,
+therefore, known as cerebral nerves. In their general character,
+however, they do not differ from the projection fibres.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus013.jpg"
+alt="Pair of Spinal Nerves"
+title="Pair of Spinal Nerves" />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">Pair of Spinal Nerves</p>
+
+<p><b>Nervous Substance.</b>&mdash;Nervous substance is divided into two kinds&mdash;grey,
+or cellular, substance and white, or fibrous, substance. The greater
+part of the grey matter is situated as a layer on the outside of the
+cerebrum, or great brain, where it forms a rind from one twelfth to one
+eighth of an inch in thickness, known as the cortex. It is also found on
+the surface of the cerebellum. Diffuse masses of grey matter are
+likewise met in the other parts of the brain, and extending downward
+through the centre of the spinal cord. The function of the grey matter
+is to form centres to which the nerve fibres tend and carry in
+stimulations, or from which they commence and carry out impulses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>The Neuron.</b>&mdash;The centres of grey matter are composed of aggregations,
+or masses, of very small nerve cells called neurons. A neuron may range
+from 1/300 to 1/3000 of an inch in diameter, and there are several
+thousand millions of these cells in the nervous system. A developed
+neuron consists of a cell body with numerous prolongations in the form
+of white, thread-like fibres. The neuron with its outgoing fibres is the
+unit of the nervous system. Neurons are supposed to be of three classes,
+sensory to receive stimulations, motor to send out impulses to the
+muscles, and association to connect sensory and motor centres.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus014.jpg"
+alt="A Neuron in Stages of Development"
+title="A Neuron in Stages of Development" />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">A Neuron in Stages of Development</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These neurons, as already noted, are collected into centres, and the
+outgoing fibres give connection to the cells, the number of connections
+for each neuron depending upon its outgoing fibres. Some of these
+connections are already established within the system at birth, while
+others, as we shall see more fully later, are formed whenever the
+organism is brought into action in our thinking and doing. To speak of
+such connections being formed between nerve centres by means of their
+outgoing fibres does not necessarily mean a direct connection, but may
+imply only that the fibres of one cell approach nearly enough to those
+of another to admit of a nervous impulse passing from the one cell to
+the other. This is often spoken of as the establishment of a path
+between the centres.</p>
+
+<p class="figright"><img src="./images/illus015.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" />
+</p>
+
+<p><b>The Nerve Fibres.</b>&mdash;The nerve fibres which transmit impressions to and
+from the centres of grey matter average about 1/6000 of an inch in
+thickness, but are often of great length, some extending perhaps half
+the length of the body. Large numbers of these fibres unite into a
+sheath or single nerve. It is estimated that the number of fibres in a
+single nerve number in most cases several thousand, those in the nerve
+of sight being estimated at about one hundred thousand. The fibres in
+the white substance of the brain are estimated at several hundred
+million.</p>
+
+<p><b>Classes of Fibres.</b>&mdash;These fibres are supposed to be of four classes,
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Sensory Cerebral and Spinal Fibres</i></p>
+
+<p>These have already been referred to as spreading outward from the brain
+and spinal cord to different parts of the body. Their office is,
+therefore, to carry inward to the centres of grey matter impressions
+received from the outside world, thus setting up a connection between
+the various senses and the cortex of the brain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Motor Cerebral and Spinal Fibres</i></p>
+
+<p>These fibres connect the centres of grey matter directly with the
+muscles, and thus provide a means of communication between these muscles
+and the cortex of the brain.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Association Fibres</i></p>
+
+<p>These connect one part of the cortex with another within the same
+hemisphere.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Commissural Fibres</i></p>
+
+<p>These connect corresponding centres of the two hemispheres of the
+cerebrum.</p>
+
+<p><b>Function of Parts.</b>&mdash;Because the various cells are thus brought into
+relation, the whole nervous system combines into a single organism,
+which is able to receive impressions and provides conditions for the
+mind to interpret these impressions and, if necessary, react thereon.
+When, for instance, a stimulus is received by an end organ (the eye), it
+will be transmitted by a sensory nerve directly inward to a sensory
+centre, or cell, in the cortex of the brain. In such a case it may be
+interpreted by the mind and a line of action decided upon. Then by means
+of associating cells and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span> fibres a motor centre may be stimulated and an
+impulse transmitted along an outgoing motor nerve to a muscle, whereupon
+the necessary motor reaction will take place. A pupil may, for instance,
+receive the impression of a word through the ear or through the eye and
+thereupon make a motor response by writing the word. The arrows in the
+accompanying figure indicate the course of the stimulus and the response
+in such cases.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE CORTEX</h3>
+
+<p><b>Cortex the Seat of Consciousness.</b>&mdash;Experiments in connection with the
+different nerve cords and centres have demonstrated that intelligent
+consciousness depends upon the nerve centres situated in the cortex of
+the cerebrum. For instance, a sensory impulse may be carried inward to
+the cells of the spinal cord and upward to the cerebellum without any
+resulting consciousness. When, however, the stimulus reaches a higher
+centre in the cortex of the brain, the mind becomes conscious, or
+interprets the impression, and any resulting action will be controlled
+by consciousness, through impulses given to the motor nerves. It is for
+this reason that the cortex is called the seat of consciousness, and
+that mind is said to reside in the brain.</p>
+
+<p><b>Localization of Function.</b>&mdash;In addition, however, to placing the seat
+of consciousness in the cortex of the brain, psychologists also claim
+that different parts of the cortex are involved in different types of
+conscious activity. Sensations of sight, for instance, involve certain
+centres in the cortex, sensations of sound other centres, the movements
+of the organs of speech still other centres. Some go so far as to claim
+that each one of the higher intellectual processes, as memory,
+imagination, judgment, reasoning, love, anger, etc., involves neural
+activity in its own special sec<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span>tion of the cortex. There seems no good
+evidence, however, to support this view. The fact seems rather that in
+all these higher processes, quite numerous centres of the cortex may be
+involved. The following figure indicates the main conclusions of the
+psychologists in reference to the localization of certain important
+functions in distinct areas of the cortex.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus016.jpg"
+alt="REFLEX ACTS"
+title="REFLEX ACTS" />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">REFLEX ACTS</p>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Reflex Action.</b>&mdash;While a lower nerve centre is not a seat for
+purposeful consciousness, these centres may, in addition to serving as
+transmission points<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span> for cortical messages, perform a special function
+by immediately receiving sensory impressions and transmitting motor
+impulses. A person, for instance, whose mind is occupied with a problem,
+may move a limb to relieve a cramp, wink the eye, etc., without any
+conscious control of the action. In such a case the sensory impression
+was reported to a lower sensory centre, directly carried to a lower
+motor centre, and the motor impulse given to perform the movement. In
+the same way, after one has acquired the habit of walking, although it
+usually requires conscious effort to initiate the movements, yet the
+person may continue walking in an almost unconscious manner, his mind
+being fully occupied with other matters. Here, also, the complex actions
+involved in walking are controlled and regulated by lower centres
+situated in the cerebellum. In like manner a person will unconsciously
+close the eyelid under the stimulus of strong light. Here the impression
+caused by the light stimulus, upon reaching the medulla along an
+afferent nerve, is deflected to a motor nerve and, without any conscious
+control of the movements, the muscles of the eyelid receive the
+necessary impulse to close. Actions which are thus directed from a lower
+centre without conscious control, are usually spoken of as reflex acts.
+Acts directed by consciousness are, on the other hand,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span> known as
+voluntary acts. The difference in the working of the nervous mechanism
+in consciously controlled and in reflex action may be illustrated by
+means of the accompanying figures.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus017.jpg"
+alt="Fig 1, Fig 2"
+title="Fig 1, Fig 2" />
+</p>
+
+
+<p>The heavy lines in Figure 1 on the opposite page show that the
+sensory-motor arc is made through the cortex, and that the mind is,
+therefore, conscious both of the sense stimulus and also of the
+resulting action. Figure 2 shows the same arc through a lower centre, in
+which case the mind is not directly attending to the impression or the
+resulting action.</p>
+
+<p><b>Function of Consciousness.</b>&mdash;The facts set forth above serve further to
+illustrate the purposeful character of consciousness as man interprets
+and adjusts himself to his surroundings. So long, for instance, as the
+individual walks onward without disturbance, his mind is free to dwell
+upon other matters, cortical activity not being necessary to control the
+process of walking. If, however, he steps upon anything which perhaps
+threatens him with a fall, the rhythmic interplay between sensory and
+motor activity going on in the lower centres is at once disturbed, and a
+message is flashed along the sensory nerve to the higher, or cortical,
+centres. This at once arouses consciousness, and the disturbing factor
+becomes an object of attention. Consciousness thus appears as a means of
+adaptation to the new and varying conditions with which the organism is
+confronted.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS MATTER</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Plasticity.</b>&mdash;One striking characteristic of nervous matter is its
+plasticity. The nature of the connections within the nervous system have
+already been referred to. Mention has also been made of the fact that
+numerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> connections are established within the nervous system as a
+result of movements taking place within the organism during life. In
+other words, the movements within the nervous system which accompany
+stimulations and responses bring about changes in the structure of the
+organism. The cause for these changes seems to be that the neurons which
+chance to work together during any experience form connections with one
+another by means of their outgrowing fibres. By this means, traces of
+past experiences are in a sense stored up within the organism, and it is
+for this reason that our experiences are said to be recorded within the
+nervous system.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Retentiveness.</b>&mdash;A second characteristic of nervous matter is its
+retentive power. In other words, the modifications which accompany any
+experience, besides taking on the permanent character referred to above,
+pre-dispose the system to transmit impulses again through the same
+centres. Moreover, with each repetition of the nervous activity, there
+develops a still greater tendency for the movements to re-establish
+themselves. This power possessed by nervous tissue to establish certain
+modes of action carries with it also an increase in the ease and
+accuracy with which the movements are performed. For example, the
+impressions and impulses involved in the first attempts of the child to
+control the clasping of an object, are performed with effort and in an
+ineffective manner. The cause for this seems to be largely the absence
+of proper connections between the centres involved, as referred to
+above. This absence causes a certain resistance within the system to the
+nervous movements. When, however, the various centres involved in the
+movements establish the proper connections with one another, the act
+will be performed in a much more effective and easy manner. From<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> this
+it is evident that the nervous system, as the result of former
+experiences, always retains a certain potential, or power, to repeat the
+act with greater ease, and thus improve conduct, or behaviour. This
+property of nervous matter will hereafter be referred to as its power of
+retention.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Energy.</b>&mdash;Another quality of nervous matter is its energy. By this
+is meant that the cells are endowed with a certain potential, or power,
+which enables them to transmit impressions and impulses and overcome any
+resistance offered. Different explanations are given as to the nature of
+this energy, or force, with which nervous matter is endowed, but any
+study of these theories is unnecessary here.</p>
+
+<p><b>D. Resistance.</b>&mdash;A fourth characteristic to be noted regarding nervous
+matter is that a nervous impulse, or current, as it is transmitted
+through the system, encounters <i>resistance</i>, or consumes an amount of
+nervous energy. Moreover, when the nervous current, whether sensory or
+motor, involves the establishment of new connections between cells, as
+when one first learns combinations of numbers or the movements involved
+in forming a new letter, a relatively greater amount of resistance is
+met or, in other words, a greater amount of nervous energy is expended.
+On the other hand, when an impulse has been transmitted a number of
+times through a given arc, the resistance is greatly lessened, or less
+energy is expended; as indicated by the ease with which an habitual act
+is performed.</p>
+
+<p><b>Education and Nervous Energy.</b>&mdash;It is evident from the foregoing, that
+the forming of new ideas or of new modes of action tends to use up a
+large share of nervous energy. For this reason, the learning of new and
+difficult<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span> things should not be undertaken when the body is in a tired
+or exhausted condition; for the resistance which must be overcome, and
+the changes which must take place in the nervous tissue during the
+learning process, are not likely to be effectively accomplished under
+such conditions. Moreover, the energy thus lost must be restored through
+the blood, and therefore demands proper food, rest, and sleep on the
+part of the individual. It should be noted further that nervous tissue
+is more plastic during the early years of life. This renders it
+imperative, therefore, that knowledge and skill should be gained, as far
+as possible, during the plastic years. The person who wishes to become a
+great violinist must acquire skill to finger and handle the bow early in
+life. The person who desires to become a great linguist, if he allows
+his early years to pass without acquiring the necessary skill, cannot
+expect in middle life to train his vocal organs to articulate a number
+of different languages.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cortical Habit.</b>&mdash;In the light of what has been seen regarding the
+character and function of the nervous system, it will now be possible to
+understand more fully two important forms of adjustment already referred
+to. When nervous movements are transmitted to the cortex of the brain,
+they not only awaken consciousness, or make the individual aware of
+something, but the present impression also leaves certain permanent
+effects in the nervous tissue of the cortex itself. Since, however,
+cortical activity implies consciousness, the retention of such a
+tendency within the cortical centres will imply, not an habitual act in
+the ordinary sense, but a tendency on the part of a conscious experience
+to repeat itself. This at once implies an ability to retain and recall
+past experiences, or endows the individual with power of memory.
+Cortical habit, therefore,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> or the establishment of permanent
+connections within the cortical centres, with their accompanying dynamic
+tendency to repeat themselves, will furnish the physiological conditions
+for a revival of former experience in memory, or will enable the
+individual to turn the past to the service of the present.</p>
+
+<p><b>Physical Habits.</b>&mdash;The basis for the formation of physical habits
+appears also in this retentive power of nervous tissue. When the young
+boy, for instance, first mounts his new bicycle, he is unable, except
+with the most attentive effort and in a most laboured and awkward
+manner, either to keep his feet on the pedals, or make the handle-bars
+respond to the balancing of the wheel. In a short time, however, all
+these movements take place in an effective and graceful manner without
+any apparent attention being given to them. This efficiency is
+conditioned by the fact that all these movements have become habitual,
+or take place largely as reflex acts.</p>
+
+<p>In school also, when the child learns to perform such an act as making
+the figure 2, the same changes take place. Here an impression must first
+proceed from the given copy to a sensory centre in the cortex. As yet,
+however, there is no vital connection established between the sensory
+centres and the motor centres which must direct the muscles in making
+the movement. As the movement is attempted, however, faint connections
+are set up between different centres. With each repetition the
+connection is made stronger, and the formation of the figure rendered
+less difficult. So long, however, as the connection is established
+within the cortex, the movement will not take place except under
+conscious direction. Ultimately, however, similar connections between
+sensory and motor neurons may be established in lower centres, whereupon
+the action will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> performed as a reflex act, or without the
+intervention of a directing act of consciousness. This evidently takes
+place when a student, in working a problem, can form the figures, while
+his consciousness is fully occupied with the thought phases of the
+problem. Thus the neural condition of physical habit is the
+establishment of easy passages between sensory and motor nerves in
+centres lower than the cortex.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2>
+
+<h2>INSTINCT</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Definition of Instinct.</b>&mdash;In a foregoing section, it was seen that our
+bodily movements divide into different classes according to their
+source, or origin. Among them were noted certain inherited spontaneous,
+but useful, complex movements which follow, in a more or less uniform
+way, definite types of stimuli presented to the organism. Such an
+inherited tendency on the part of an organism to react in an effective
+manner, but without any definite purpose in view, whenever a particular
+stimulus presents itself, is known as instinct, and the resulting action
+is described as an instinctive act. As an example of purely instinctive
+action may be taken the maternal instinct of insects whose larv&aelig; require
+live prey when they are born. To provide this the mother administers
+sufficient poison to a spider or a caterpillar to stupefy it, and then
+bears it to her nest. Placing the victim close to her eggs, she incloses
+the two together, thus providing food for her future offspring. This
+complex series of acts, so essential to the continuance of the species,
+and seemingly so full of purpose, is nevertheless conducted throughout
+without reference to past experience, and without any future end in
+view. Instinct may, therefore, be defined as the ability of an organism
+to react upon a particular situation so as to gain a desirable end, yet
+without any purpose in view or any previous training.</p>
+
+<p><b>Characteristics of Instinct.</b>&mdash;An instinctive act, it may be noted, is
+distinguished by certain well marked characteristics:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>1. The action is not brought about by experience or guided by
+intelligence, but is a direct reaction on the part of the organism to
+definite stimulation.</p>
+
+<p>2. Although not the result of reason, instinctive action is purposeful
+to the extent that it shows a predisposition on the part of the organism
+to react in an effective manner to a particular situation.</p>
+
+<p>3. An instinctive movement is a response in which the whole organism is
+concerned. It is the discomfort of the whole organism, for instance,
+that causes the bird to migrate or the child to seek food. In this
+respect it differs from a mere reflex action such as the winking of the
+eye, breathing, coughing, etc., which involves only some particular part
+of the organism.</p>
+
+<p>4. Although not a consciously purposed action, instinct nevertheless
+involves consciousness. In sucking, for instance, sensation accompanies
+both the discomfort of the organism giving rise to the movements and
+also the instinctive act itself. In this respect it differs from such
+automatic actions as breathing, the circulation of the blood, and the
+beating of the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>Origin of Instinct.</b>&mdash;The various instinctive movements with which an
+organism is endowed, not being a result of experience or education, a
+question at once arises as to their source, or origin. Instinct has its
+origin in the fact that certain movements which have proved beneficial
+in the ancestral experience of the race have become established as
+permanent modes of reaction, and are transmitted to each succeeding
+generation. The explanation of this transmission of tendencies is, that
+beneficial movements are retained as permanent modifications of the
+nervous system of the animal, and are transmitted to the offspring as a
+<i>reactive tendency</i> toward definite stimuli. The partridge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span> family, for
+instance, has preserved its offspring from the attacks of foxes, dogs,
+and other enemies only by the male taking flight and dragging itself
+along the ground, thus attracting the enemy away from the direction of
+the nest. The complex movements involved in such an act, becoming
+established as permanent motor connections within the system, are
+transmitted to the offspring as predispositions. Instinct would thus
+seem a physiological habit, or hereditary tendency, within the nervous
+system to react in a fixed manner under certain conditions. In many
+respects, however, instincts seem to depend more largely upon bodily
+development than upon nervous structure. While the babe will at first
+instinctively suck; yet as soon as teeth appear, the sucking at once
+gives way to the biting instinct. The sucking instinct then disappears
+so completely that only a process of education will re-establish it
+later. Birds also show no instinctive tendency to fly until their wings
+are developed, while the young of even the fiercest animals will flee
+from danger, until such time as their bodily organism is properly
+developed for attack. From this it would seem that instinctive action
+depends even more upon general bodily structure and development than
+upon fixed co-ordinations within the nervous system.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HUMAN INSTINCTS</h3>
+
+<p>On account of the apparently intelligent character of human actions, it
+is often stated that man is a creature largely devoid of instincts. The
+fact is, however, that he is endowed with a large number of impulsive or
+instinctive tendencies to act in definite ways, when in particular
+situations. Man has a tendency, under the proper conditions, to be
+fearful, bashful, angry, curious, sympathetic, grasping, etc. It is
+only, moreover, because experience<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> finally gives man ideas of these
+instinctive movements, that they may in time be controlled by reason,
+and developed into orderly habits.</p>
+
+<p><b>Classification of Human Instincts.</b>&mdash;Various attempts have been made to
+classify human instincts. For educational purposes, perhaps the most
+satisfactory method is that which classifies them according to their
+relation to the direct welfare of the individual organism. Being
+inherited tendencies on the part of the organism to react in definite
+ways to definite stimuli, all instinctive acts should naturally tend to
+promote the good of the particular individual. Different instincts will
+be found to differ, however, in the degree in which they involve the
+immediate good of the individual organism. On this basis the various
+human instincts may be divided into the following classes:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Individualistic Instincts.</i>&mdash;Some instincts gain their significance
+because they tend solely to meet the needs of the individual. Examples
+of these would be the instincts involved in securing food, as biting,
+chewing, carrying objects to the mouth; such instinctive expressions as
+crying, smiling, and uttering articulate sounds; rhythmical bodily
+movements; bodily expression of fear, etc.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Racial Instincts.</i>&mdash;These include such instinctive acts as make for
+the preservation of the species, as the sexual and parental instincts,
+jealousy, etc. The constructive instinct in man, also, may be considered
+parallel to the nesting instinct in birds and animals.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Social Instincts.</i>&mdash;Among these are placed such instinctive
+tendencies as bashfulness, sympathy, the gregarious instinct, or love of
+companionship, anger, self-assertion, combativeness, etc.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Instincts of Adjustment.</i>&mdash;Included among man's native tendencies
+are a number of complex responses which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> manifest themselves in his
+efforts to adjust himself to his surroundings. These may be called
+instinctive so far as concerns their mere impulsive tendency, which is
+no doubt inherited. In the operation of these so-called instincts,
+however, there is not seen that definite mode of response to a
+particular stimulus which is found in a pure instinct. Since, however,
+these are important human tendencies, and since they deal specifically
+with the child's attitude in adapting himself to his environment, they
+rank from an educational standpoint among the most important of human
+instincts. These include such tendencies as curiosity, imitation, play,
+constructiveness and acquisitiveness.</p>
+
+<p><b>Human Instincts Modified by Experience.</b>&mdash;Although instinctive acts are
+performed without forethought or conscious purpose, yet in man they may
+be modified by experience. This is true to a degree even in the case of
+the instincts of the lower animals. Young spiders, for instance,
+construct their webs in a manner inferior to that of their elders. In
+the case of birds, also, the first nest is usually inferior in structure
+to those of later date. In certain cases, indeed, if accounts are to be
+accepted, animals are able to vary considerably their instinctive
+movements according to the particular conditions. It is reported that a
+swallow had selected a place for her nest between two walls, the
+surfaces of which were so smooth that she could find no foundation for
+her nest. Thereupon she fixed a bit of clay to each wall, laid a piece
+of light wood upon the clay supports, and with the stick as a foundation
+proceeded to construct her nest. On the whole, however, there seems
+little variation in animal instincts. The fish will come a second time
+to take food off the hook, the moth will fly again into the flame, and
+the spider will again and again build his web over the opening, only to
+have it again and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span> again torn away. But whatever may be the amount of
+variation within the instincts of the lower animals, in the case of man
+instinctive action is so modified by experience that his instincts soon
+develop into personal habits. The reason for this is quite evident. As
+previously pointed out, an instinctive act, though not originally
+purposeful, is in man accompanied with a consciousness of both the
+bodily discomfort and the resulting movements. Although, therefore, the
+child instinctively sucks, grasps at objects, or is convulsed with fear,
+these acts cannot take place without his gradually understanding their
+significance as states of experience. In this way he soon learns that
+the indiscriminate performance of an instinctive act may give quite
+different results, some being much more valuable to the individual than
+others. The young child, for instance, may instinctively bite whatever
+enters his mouth, but the older child has learned that this is not
+always desirable, and therefore exercises a voluntary control over the
+movement.</p>
+
+<p><b>Instincts Differ in Value.</b>&mdash;The fact that man's instinctive tendencies
+thus come within the range of experience, not only renders them amenable
+to reason, but also leaves the question of their ultimate outcome
+extremely indefinite. For this reason many instincts may appear in man
+in forms that seem undesirable. The instinct to seek food is a natural
+one, yet will be condemned when it causes the child to take fruit from
+the neighbour's garden. In like manner, the instinct to know his
+surroundings is natural to man, but will be condemned when it causes him
+to place his ear to the keyhole. The tendency to imitate is not in
+itself evil, yet the child must learn to weigh the value of what he
+imitates. One important reason, therefore, why the teacher should
+understand the native tendencies of the child is that he may direct
+their development<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span> into moral habits and suppress any tendencies which
+are socially undesirable.</p>
+
+<p><b>Education of Instincts.</b>&mdash;In dealing with the moral aspects of the
+child's instinctive tendencies, the educator must bear in mind that one
+tendency may come in conflict with another. The individualistic instinct
+of feeding or ownership may conflict with the social instinct of
+companionship; the instinct of egoism, with that of imitation; and the
+instinct of fear, with that of curiosity. To establish satisfactory
+moral habits on the basis of instinct, therefore, it is often possible
+to proceed by a method of substitution. The child who shows a tendency
+to destroy school furniture can best be cured by having constructive
+exercises. The boy who shows a natural tendency to destroy animal life
+may have the same arrested by being given the care of animals and thus
+having his sympathy developed. In other cases, the removal of stimuli,
+or conditions, for awaking the instinctive tendency will be found
+effective in checking the development of an undesirable instinct into a
+habit. The boy who shows a spirit of combativeness may be cured by
+having a generous and congenial boy as his chum. The pupil whose social
+tendencies are so strong that he cannot refrain from talking may be
+cured by isolation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Instincts May Disappear.</b>&mdash;In dealing with the instinctive tendencies
+of the child, it is important for the educator to remember that many of
+these are transitory in character and, if not utilized at the proper
+time, will perish for want of exercise. Even in the case of animals,
+natural instincts will not develop unless the opportunity for exercise
+is provided at the time. Birds shut up in a cage lose the instinct to
+fly; while ducks, after being kept a certain time from water, will not
+readily acquire the habit of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> swimming. In the same way, the child who
+is not given opportunity to associate with others will likely grow up a
+recluse. All work for a few years, and it will be impossible for Jack to
+learn later how to play. The girl who during her childhood has no
+opportunity to display any pride through neatness in dress will grow up
+untidy and careless as to her personal appearance. In like manner, it is
+only the child whose constructive tendency is early given an opportunity
+to express itself who is likely to develop into an expert workman; while
+one who has no opportunity to give expression to his &aelig;sthetic instinct
+in early life will not later develop into an artist.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CURIOSITY</h3>
+
+<p><b>Curiosity as Motive.</b>&mdash;An important bearing of instinct upon the work
+of education is found in the fact that an instinctive tendency may add
+much to the force of the motive, or end, in any educative process. This
+is especially true in the case of such adaptive instincts as curiosity,
+imitation, and play. Curiosity is the inquisitive attitude, or appetite,
+of the mind which causes it to seek out what is strange in its
+surroundings and make it an object of attention. As an instinctive
+tendency, its significance consists in the fact that it leads the
+individual to interpret his surroundings. A creature devoid of
+curiosity, therefore, would not discover either the benefits to be
+derived from his surroundings or the dangers to be avoided. In addition
+to its direct practical value in leading the individual to study his
+environment in order to meet actual needs, curiosity often seeks a more
+theoretic end, appearing merely as a feeling of wonder or a thirst for
+knowledge.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Use and Abuse of Curiosity.</b>&mdash;While curiosity is needful for the
+welfare of the individual, an inordinate development of this instinct is
+both intellectually and morally undesirable. Since curiosity directs
+attention to the novel in our surroundings, over-curiosity is likely to
+keep the mind wandering from one novelty to another, and thus interfere
+with the fixing of attention for a sufficient time to give definiteness
+to particular impressions. The virtue of curiosity is, therefore, to
+direct attention to the novel until it is made familiar. There is a type
+of curiosity, however, which craves for mere astonishment and not for
+understanding. It is such curiosity that causes children to pry into
+other people's belongings, and men into other people's affairs.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sensuous and Apperceptive Curiosity.</b>&mdash;Curiosity may be considered of
+two kinds also from the standpoint of its origin. In early life,
+curiosity must rest largely upon sense perception, being essentially an
+appetite of the senses to meet and interpret the objective surroundings.
+A bright light, a loud noise, a moving object, at once awakens
+curiosity. At this stage, curiosity serves as a counteracting influence
+to the instinct of fear, the one leading the child to use his senses
+upon his surroundings, and the other causing him to use them in a
+careful and judicious manner. As the child grows in experience, however,
+his curiosity limits itself more and more in accordance with the law of
+apperception. Here the object attracts attention not merely because of
+its sensuous properties, but because it suggests novel relations within
+the elements of past experience. The young child's curiosity, for
+instance, is aroused toward a strange plant simply because of its form
+and colour, that of the student of botany, because the plant presents
+features that do not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> relate themselves at once to his botanical
+experience. The first curiosity may be called objective, or sensuous,
+the second subjective, or apperceptive.</p>
+
+<p><b>Relation of Two Types.</b>&mdash;The distinction between sensuous and
+apperceptive curiosity is, of course, one of degree rather than one of
+kind. A novel object could not be an object of attention unless it bore
+some relation to the present mental content. The young child, however,
+seeks mainly to give meaning to novel sense impressions, and is not
+attracted to the more hidden relations in which objects may stand one to
+another. He is attracted, for instance, to the colour, scent, and
+general form of the flower, rather than to its structure. On the other
+hand, it is found that at a later stage curiosity is usually aroused
+toward a novel problem, to the extent to which the problem finds a
+setting in previous experience. This is seen in the fact that the young
+child takes no interest in having lessons grow out of each other in a
+connected manner, but must have his curiosity aroused to the present
+situation through its own intrinsic appeal. For this reason, young
+children are mainly interested in a lesson which deals with particular
+elements in a concrete manner, such as coloured blocks, bright pictures,
+and stories of action; while the older pupil seeks out the new problem
+because it stands in definite relation to what is already known.</p>
+
+<p><b>Importance of Apperceptive Curiosity.</b>&mdash;Since curiosity depends upon
+novelty, it is evident that sensuous should ultimately give place to
+apperceptive curiosity. Although objects first impress the senses with a
+degree of freshness and vigour, this freshness must disappear as the
+novelty of the impression wears off. When sensuous curiosity thus
+disappears, it is only by seeing in the world of sensuous objects other
+relations with their larger meaning,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> that healthy curiosity is likely
+to be maintained. Thus it is that the curiosity of the student is
+attracted to the more hidden qualities of objects, to the tracing of
+cause and effect, and to the discovery of scientific truth in general.</p>
+
+<p><b>Novelty versus Variety.</b>&mdash;While the familiar must lose something of its
+freshness through its very familiarity, it is to be noted that to remit
+any experience for a time will add something to the freshness of its
+revival. Persons and places, for instance, when revisited after a period
+of absence, gain something of the charm of novelty. Variety is,
+therefore, a means by which the effect of curiosity may be sustained,
+even after the original novelty has disappeared. This fact should be
+especially remembered in dealing with the studies of young children.
+Without being constantly fed upon the novel, the child may yet avoid
+monotony by having a measure of variety within a reasonable number of
+interests. It is in this way, in fact, that permanent centres of
+interest can best be established. To keep a child's attention
+continually upon one line of experiences would destroy both curiosity
+and interest. To keep him ever attending to the novel would prevent the
+building up of any centres of interest. By variety within a reasonable
+number of subjects, both depth of interest and reasonable variety in
+interests will be obtained. This is, therefore, another reason why the
+school curriculum should show a reasonable number of subjects and
+reasonable variety in the presentation of these subjects.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IMITATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Imitation.</b>&mdash;In our study of the nervous system, attention
+was called to the close connection existing between sensory impulse and
+action. It may be noted further that, whenever the young child gains an
+idea of an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> action, he tends at once to express that idea in action. On
+account of this immediate connection between thought and expression, due
+to an inability to inhibit the motor discharge, a child, as soon as he
+is able to form ideas of the acts of others, must necessarily show a
+tendency to repeat, or reproduce, such acts. Granting that this
+immediate connection between sensory impulse and motor response is an
+inherited capacity, the tendency of the young child to imitate the acts
+of others may be classified as an instinct.</p>
+
+<p><b>Imitation a Complex.</b>&mdash;On closer examination, however, it will be found
+that imitation is really a complex of several tendencies. The nervous
+organism of the healthy young child is usually supercharged with nervous
+energy. This energy, like a swollen stream, seems ever striving to sweep
+away any resistance to the motor discharge of sensory impulses, and must
+necessarily reinforce the natural tendency to give immediate expression
+to ideas of action. Moreover, the social instincts of the child, his
+sympathy, etc., give him a special interest in human beings and in their
+acts. These tendencies, therefore, focus his attention upon human
+action, and cause his ideas of such acts to become more vivid and
+interesting. For this reason, observation of human acts is more likely
+to lead to motor expression. That the social instincts of the child
+reinforce the tendency to imitate is indicated by the fact that his
+early imitations are of human acts especially, as yawning, smiling,
+crying, etc. The same is further evidenced in that, at a later stage,
+when ordinary objects enter into his imitative acts, the imitation is
+largely symbolic, and objects are endowed with living attributes. Here
+blocks become men; sticks, horses, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Kinds of. A. Spontaneous Imitation.</b>&mdash;In its simplest form, imitation
+seems to follow directly upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span> the perception of a given act. As the
+child attends, now to the nod of the head, now to the shaking of the
+rattle, now to an uttered sound, he spontaneously reproduces these
+perceived acts. Because in such cases the imitative act follows directly
+upon the perception of the copy, without the intervention of any
+determination to imitate, it is termed spontaneous, or unconscious,
+imitation. It is by spontaneous imitation that the child gains so much
+knowledge of the world about him, and so much power over the movements
+of his own body. The occupations and language of the home, the
+operations of the workman, the movements and gestures of the older
+children in their games, all these are spontaneously reproduced through
+imitation. This enables the child to participate largely in the social
+life about him. It is for this reason that he should observe only good
+models of language and conduct during his early years.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Symbolic Imitation.</b>&mdash;If we note the imitative acts of a child of
+from four to six years of age, we may find that a new factor is often
+entering into the process. At this stage the child, instead of merely
+copying the acts of others, further clothes objects and persons with
+fancied attributes through a process of imagination. By this means, the
+little child becomes a mother and the doll a baby; one boy becomes a
+teacher or captain, the others become pupils or soldiers. This form has
+already been referred to as symbolic imitation. Frequent use is made of
+this type of imitation in education, especially in the kindergarten.
+Through the gifts, plays, etc., of the kindergarten, the child in
+imagination exemplifies numberless relations and processes of the home
+and community life. The educative value of this type consists in the
+fact that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> the child, by acting out in a symbolic, or make-believe, way
+valuable social processes, though doing them only in an imaginative way,
+comes to know them better by the doing.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Voluntary Imitation.</b>&mdash;As the child's increasing power of attention
+gives him larger control of his experiences, he becomes able, not only
+to distinguish between the idea of an action and its reproduction by
+imitation, but also to associate some further end, or purpose, with the
+imitative process. The little child imitates the language of his fellows
+spontaneously; the mimic, for the purpose of bringing out certain
+peculiarities in their speech. When first imitating his elder painting
+with a brush, the child imitates merely in a spontaneous or unconscious
+way the act of brushing. When later, however, he tries to secure the
+delicate touch of his art teacher, he will imitate the teacher's
+movements for the definite purpose of adding to his own skill. Because
+in this type the imitator first conceives in idea the particular act to
+be imitated, and then consciously strives to reproduce the act in like
+manner, it is classified as conscious, or voluntary, imitation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Use of Voluntary Imitation.</b>&mdash;Teachers differ widely concerning the
+educational value of voluntary imitation. It is evident, however, that
+in certain cases, as learning correct forms of speech, in physical and
+manual exercises, in conduct and manners, etc., good models for
+imitation count for more than rules and precepts. On the other hand, to
+endeavour to teach a child by imitation to read intelligently could only
+result in failure. In such a case, the pupil, by attempting to analyse
+out and set up as models the different features of the teachers reading,
+would have his attention directed from the thought of the sentence. But
+without grasping the meaning, the pupil cannot make his reading
+intelligent. In like manner, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span> have a child learn a rule in arithmetic
+by merely imitating the process from type examples worked by the
+teacher, would be worse than useless, since it would prevent independent
+thinking on the child's part. The purpose here is not to gain skill in a
+mechanical process, but to gain knowledge of an intelligent principle.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PLAY</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Play Impulse.</b>&mdash;Another tendency of early childhood utilized
+by the modern educator is the so-called instinct of play. According to
+some, the impulse to play represents merely the tendency of the surplus
+energy stored up within the nervous organism to express itself in
+physical action. According to this view, play would represent, not any
+inherited tendency, but a condition of the nervous organism. It is to be
+noted, however, that this activity spends itself largely in what seems
+instinctive tendencies. The boy, in playing hide-and-seek, in chasing,
+and the like, seems to express the hunting and fleeing instincts of his
+ancestors. Playing with the doll is evidently suggested and influenced
+by the parental instinct, while in all games, the activity is evidently
+determined largely by social instincts. Like imitation, therefore, play
+seems a complex, involving a number of instinctive tendencies.</p>
+
+<p><b>Play versus Work.</b>&mdash;An essential characteristic of the play impulse is
+its freedom. By this is meant that the acts are performed, not to gain
+some further end, but merely for the sake of the activity itself. The
+impulse to play, therefore, must find its initiative within the child,
+and must give expression merely to some inner tendency. So long, for
+example, as the boy shovels the sand or piles the stones merely to
+exercise his physical powers, or to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> satisfy an inner tendency to
+imitate the actions of others, the operation is one of play. When, on
+the other hand, these acts are performed in order to clean up the yard,
+or because they have been ordered to be done by a parent, the process is
+one of work, for the impulse to act now lies in something outside the
+act itself. To compel a child to play, therefore, would be to compel him
+to work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Value of Play: A. Physical.</b>&mdash;Play is one of the most effective means
+for promoting the physical development of the child. This result follows
+naturally from the free character of the play activity. Since the
+impulse to act is found in the activity itself, the child always has a
+strong motive for carrying on the activity. On the other hand, when
+somewhat similar activities are carried on as a task set by others, the
+end is too remote from the child's present interests and tendencies to
+supply him with an immediate motive for the activity. Play, therefore,
+causes the young child to express himself physically to a degree that
+tasks set by others can never do, and thus aids him largely in securing
+control of bodily movements.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Intellectual and Moral.</b>&mdash;In play, however, the child not only
+secures physical development and a control of bodily movements, but also
+exercises and develops other tendencies and powers. Many plays and
+games, for instance, involve the use of the senses. Whether the young
+child is shaking his rattle, rolling the ball, pounding with the spoon,
+piling up blocks and knocking them over, or playing his regular guessing
+games in the kindergarten, he is constantly stimulating his senses, and
+giving his sensory nerves their needed development. As imitation and
+imagination, by their co-operation, later enable the child to symbolize
+his play, such games as keeping store, playing carpenter, farmer, baker,
+etc., both enlarge the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> child's knowledge of his surroundings, and also
+awaken his interest and sympathy toward these occupations. Other games,
+such as beans-in-the-bag, involve counting, and thus furnish the child
+incidental lessons in number under most interesting conditions. In games
+involving co-operation and competition, as the bowing game, the
+windmill, fill the gap, chase ball in ring, etc., the social tendencies
+of the child are developed, and such individual instincts as rivalry,
+emulation, and combativeness are brought under proper control.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PLAY IN EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Assigning Play.</b>&mdash;In adapting play to the formal education of the
+child, a difficulty seems at once to present itself. If the teacher
+endeavours to provide the child with games that possess an educative
+value, physical, intellectual, or moral, how can she give such games to
+the children, and at the same time avoid setting the game as a task?
+That such a result might follow is evident from our ordinary observation
+of young children. To the boy interested in a game of ball, the request
+to come and join his sister in playing housekeeping would, more than
+likely, be positive drudgery. May it not follow therefore, that a trade
+or guessing game given by the kindergarten director will fail to call
+forth the free activity of the child? One of the arguments of the
+advocates of the Montessori Method in favour of that system is, that the
+specially prepared apparatus of that system is itself suggestive of play
+exercises; and that, by having access to the apparatus, the child may
+choose the particular exercise which appeals to his free activity at the
+moment. This supposed superiority of the Montessori apparatus over the
+kindergarten games is, however, more apparent than real. What the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span>
+skilful kindergarten teacher does is, through her knowledge of the
+interests and tendencies of the children, to suggest games that will be
+likely to appeal to their free activity, and at the same time have
+educative value along physical, intellectual, and moral lines. In this
+way, she does no more than children do among themselves, when one
+suggests a suitable game to his companions. In such a case, no one would
+argue, surely, that the leader is the only child to show free activity
+in the play.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stages in Play.</b>&mdash;In the selecting of games, plays, etc., it is to be
+noted that these may be divided into at least three classes, according
+as they appeal to children at different ages. The very young child
+prefers merely to play with somewhat simple objects that can make an
+appeal to his senses, as the rattle, the doll, the pail and shovel,
+hammer, crayon, etc. This preference depends, on the one hand, upon his
+early individualistic nature, which would object to share the play with
+another; and, on the other hand, upon the natural hunger of his senses
+for varied stimulations. At about five years of age, owing to the growth
+of the child's imagination, symbolism begins to enter largely into his
+games. At this age the children love to play church, school, soldier,
+scavenger man, hen and chickens, keeping store, etc. At from ten to
+twelve years of age, co-operative and competitive games are preferred;
+and with boys, those games especially which demand an amount of strength
+and skill. This preference is to be accounted for through the marked
+development of the social instincts at this age and, in the case of
+boys, through increase in strength and will power.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limitations of Play.</b>&mdash;Notwithstanding the value of play as an agent in
+education, it is evident that its application in the school-room is
+limited. Social efficiency de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span>mands that the child shall learn to
+appreciate the joy of work even more than the joy of play. Moreover, as
+noted in the early part of our work, the acquisition of race experience
+demands that its problems be presented to the child in definite and
+logical order. This can be accomplished only by having them presented to
+the pupil by an educative agent and therefore set as a problem or a task
+to be mastered. This, of course, does not deny that the teacher should
+strive to have the pupil express himself as freely as possible as he
+works at his school problem. It does necessitate, however, that the
+child should find in his lesson some conscious end, or aim, to be
+reached beyond the mere activity of the learning process. This in itself
+stamps the ordinary learning process of the school as more than mere
+play.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII</h2>
+
+<h2>HABIT</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Nature of Habit.</b>&mdash;When an action, whether performed under the full
+direction, or control, of attention and with a sense of effort, or
+merely as an instinctive or impulsive act, comes by repetition to be
+performed with such ease that consciousness may be largely diverted from
+the act itself and given to other matters, the action is said to have
+become habitual. For example, if a person attempts a new manner of
+putting on a tie, it is first necessary for him to stand before a glass
+and follow attentively every movement. In a short time, however, he
+finds himself able to perform the act easily and skilfully both without
+the use of a glass and almost without conscious direction. Moreover if
+the person should chance in his first efforts to hold his arms and head
+in a certain way in order to watch the process more easily in the glass,
+it is found that when later he does the act even without the use of a
+glass, he must still hold his arms and head in this manner.</p>
+
+<p><b>Basis of Habits.</b>&mdash;The ability of the organism to habituate an action,
+or make it a reflex is found to depend upon certain properties of
+nervous matter which have already been considered.</p>
+
+<p>These facts are:</p>
+
+<p>1. Nervous matter is composed of countless numbers of individual cells
+brought into relation with one another through their outgoing fibres.</p>
+
+<p>2. This tissue is so plastic that whenever it reacts upon an impression
+a permanent modification is made in its structure.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. Not only are such modifications retained permanently, but they give a
+tendency to repeat the act in the same way; while every such repetition
+makes the structural modification stronger, and this renders further
+repetition of the act both easier and more effective.</p>
+
+<p>4. The connections between the various nervous centres thus become so
+permanent that the action may run its course with a minimum of
+resistance within the nervous system.</p>
+
+<p>5. In time the movements are so fixed within the system that connections
+are formed between sensory and motor centres at points lower than the
+cortex&mdash;that is, the stimulus and response become reflex.</p>
+
+<p><b>An Example.</b>&mdash;When a child strives to acquire the movements necessary
+in making a new capital letter, his eye receives an impression of the
+letter which passes along the sensory system to the cortex and, usually
+with much effort, finds an outlet in a motor attempt to form the letter.
+Thus a permanent trace, or course, is established in the nervous system,
+which will be somewhat more easily taken on a future occasion. After a
+number of repetitions, the child, by giving his attention fully to the
+act, is able to form the letter with relative ease. As these movements
+are repeated, however, the nervous system, as already noted, may shorten
+the circuit between the point of sensory impression and motor discharge
+by establishing associations in centres lower than those situated in the
+cortex. Whenever any act is repeated a great number of times, therefore,
+these lower associations are established with a resulting diminution of
+the impression upward through the cortex of the brain. This results also
+in a lessening of the amount of attention given the movement,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span> until
+finally the act can be performed in a perfectly regular way with
+practically no conscious, or attentive, effort.</p>
+
+<p><b>Habit and Consciousness.</b>&mdash;While saying that such habitual action may
+be performed with facility in the absence of conscious direction, it
+must not be understood that conscious attention is necessarily entirely
+absent during the performance of an habitual act. In many of these acts,
+as for instance, lacing and tieing a shoe, signing one's name, etc.,
+conscious effort usually gives the first impulse to perform the act.
+There may be cases, however, in which one finds himself engaged in some
+customary act without any seeming initial conscious suggestion. This
+would be noted, for instance, where a person starts for the customary
+clothes closet, perhaps to obtain something from a pocket, and suddenly
+finds himself hanging on a hook the coat he has unconsciously removed
+from his shoulders. Here the initial movement for removing the coat may
+have been suggested by the sight of the customary closet, or by the
+movement involved in opening the closet door, these impressions being
+closely co-ordinated through past experiences with those of removing the
+coat. When, also, a woman is sewing or kneading bread, although she
+seems to be able to give her attention fully to the conversation in
+which she may be engaged, yet no doubt a slight trace of conscious
+control is still exercised over the other movements. This is seen in the
+fact that, whenever the conversation becomes so absorbing that it takes
+a very strong hold on the attention, the habitual movements may cease
+without the person being at first aware that she has ceased working.</p>
+
+<p><b>Habit and Nervous Action.</b>&mdash;The general flow of the nervous energy
+during such processes as the above, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span> which there is an interchange
+between conscious and habitual control, may be illustrated by the
+following figures. In these figures the heavy lines indicate the process
+actually going on, while the broken lines indicate that although such
+nerve courses are established, they are not being brought into active
+operation in the particular case.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus018.jpg"
+alt="FIG 1, FIG 2, FIG 3"
+title="FIG 1, FIG 2, FIG 3" />
+</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="caption">
+<tr><td align='left'><b>A. Sensory Stimulus</b></td><td align='left'><b>A' Higher Motor Centre</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>B. Lower Sensory Centre</b></td><td align='left'><b>B' Lower Motor Centre</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>C. Higher Sensory Centre</b></td><td align='left'><b>C' Motor Response</b></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<p>The arrows in Figure 1 indicate the course of sensory stimulation and
+motor response during the first efforts to acquire skill in any
+movement. No connections are yet set up between lower centres and the
+acts are under conscious control.</p>
+
+<p>The arrows in Figure 2 indicate the course of sensory stimulus and motor
+response in an ordinary habitual act, as when an expert fingers the
+piano keys or controls a bicycle while his mind is occupied with other
+matters.</p>
+
+<p>The arrows in Figure 3 indicate how, even in performing what is
+ordinarily an habitual act, the mind may at any time assume control of
+the movement. This is illustrated in the case of a person who, when
+unconsciously directing his bicycle along the road, comes to a narrow
+plank over a culvert. Hereupon full attention may be given to the
+movements, that is, the acts may come under conscious control.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>FORMATION OF HABITS</h3>
+
+<p>It is evident from the nature of the structure and properties of the
+nervous system, that man cannot possibly avoid the formation of habits.
+Any act once performed will not only leave an indelible trace within the
+nervous system, but will also set up in the system a tendency to repeat
+the act. It is this fact that always makes the first false step
+exceedingly dangerous. Moreover, every repetition further breaks down
+the present resistance and, therefore, in a sense further enslaves the
+individual to that mode of action. The word poorly articulated for the
+first time, the letter incorrectly formed, the impatient shrug of the
+shoulder&mdash;these set up their various tracks, create a tendency, and
+soon, through the establishment of lower connections, become unconscious
+habits. Thus it is that every one soon becomes a bundle of habits.</p>
+
+<p><b>Precautions to be Taken.</b>&mdash;A most important problem in relation to the
+life of the young child is that he should at the outset form right
+habits. This includes not only doing the right thing, but also doing it
+in the right way. For this he must have the right impression, make the
+right response, and continue this response until the proper paths are
+established in the nervous system, or, in other words, until practically
+all resistance within the system is overcome. It is here that teachers
+are often very lax in dealing with the pupil in his various forms of
+expressive work. They may indeed give the child the proper impression,
+for example, the correct form of the letter, the correct pronunciation
+of the new word, the correct position for the pen and the body, but too
+often they do not exercise the vigilance necessary to have the first
+responses develop into well-fixed habits. But it must be remembered that
+the child's first response is necessarily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span> crude; for as already seen,
+there is always at first a certain resistance to the co-ordinated
+movements, on account of the tracks within the nervous system not yet
+being surely established. The result is that during the time this
+resistance is being overcome, there is constant danger of variations
+creeping into the child's responses. Unless, therefore, he is constantly
+watched during this practice period, his response may fall much below
+the model, or standard, set by the teacher. Take, for instance, the
+child's mode of forming a letter. At the outset he is given the correct
+forms for <i>g</i> and <i>m</i>, but on account of the resistance met in
+performing these movements he may, if left without proper supervision,
+soon fall into such movements as [symbol] and [symbol]. The chief value
+of the Montessori sandpaper letters consists in the fact that they
+enable the child to continue a correct movement without variation until
+all resistance within the nervous organism has been overcome. Two facts
+should, therefore, be kept prominently in view by the teacher concerning
+the child's efforts to secure skill. First, the learner's early attempts
+must be necessarily crude, both through the resistance at first offered
+by the nervous system on account of the proper paths not being laid in
+the system, and also through the image of the movement not being clearly
+conceived. Secondly, there is constant danger of variations from the
+proper standard establishing themselves during this period of
+resistance.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VALUE OF HABITS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Habits Promote Efficiency.</b>&mdash;But notwithstanding the dangers which seem
+to attend the formation of habits, it is only through this inevitable
+reduction of his more customary acts to unconscious habit that man
+attains to proficiency. Only by relieving conscious attention from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span> the
+ordinary mechanical processes in any occupation, is the artist able to
+attend to the special features of the work. Unless, for instance, the
+scholar possesses as an unconscious habit the ability to hold the pen
+and form and join the various letters, he could never devote his
+attention to evolving the thoughts composing his essay. In like manner,
+without an habitual control of the chisel, the carver could not possibly
+give an absorbing attention to the delicate outlines of the particular
+model. It is only because the rider has habituated himself to the
+control of the handles, etc., that he can give his attention to the
+street traffic before him and guide the bicycle or automobile through
+the ever varying passages. The first condition of efficiency, therefore,
+in any pursuit, is to reduce any general movements involved in the
+process to unconscious habits, and thus leave the conscious judgment
+free to deal with the changeable features of the work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Habit Conserves Energy.</b>&mdash;Another advantage of habit is that it adds to
+the individual's capacity for work. When any movements are novel and
+require our full attention, a greater nervous resistance is met on
+account of the laying down of new paths in the nerve centres. Moreover
+longer nervous currents are produced through the cortex of the brain,
+because conscious attention is being called into play. These conditions
+necessarily consume a greater amount of nerve energy. The result is that
+man is able to continue for a longer time with less nervous exhaustion
+any series of activities after they have developed into habits. This can
+be seen by noting the ease with which one can perform any physical
+exercise after habituating himself to the movements, compared with the
+evident strain experienced when the exercise is first undertaken.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Makes the Disagreeable Easy.</b>&mdash;Another, though more incidental,
+advantage of the formation of habits, is that occupations in themselves
+uninteresting or even distasteful may, through habit, be performed at
+least without mental revulsion. This results largely from the fact that
+the growth of habit decreases the resistance, and thus lessens or
+destroys the disagreeable feeling. Moreover, when such acts are reduced
+to mechanical habits, the mind is largely free to consider other things.
+In this way the individual, even in the midst of his drudgery, may enjoy
+the pleasures of memory or imagination. Although, therefore, in going
+through some customary act, one may still dislike the occupation, the
+fact that he can do much of it habitually, leaves him free to enjoy a
+certain amount of mental pleasure in other ways.</p>
+
+<p><b>Aids Morality.</b>&mdash;The formation of habits also has an important bearing
+on the moral life. By habituating ourselves to right forms of action, we
+no doubt make in a sense moral machines of ourselves, since the right
+action is the one that will meet the least nervous resistance, while the
+doing of the wrong action would necessitate the establishing of new
+co-ordinations in the nervous system. It is no doubt partly owing to
+this, that one whose habits are formed can so easily resist temptations;
+for to ask him to act other than in the old way is to ask him to make,
+not the easy, but the hard reaction. While this is true, however, it
+must not be supposed that in such cases the choice of the right thing
+involves only a question of customary nervous reaction. When we choose
+to do our duty, we make a conscious choice, and although earlier right
+action has set up certain nerve co-ordinations which render it now easy
+to choose the right, yet it must be remembered that <i>conscious judgment</i>
+is also involved. In such cases man does<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> the right mainly because his
+judgment tells him that it is right. If, therefore, he is in a situation
+where he must act in a totally different way from what is customary, as
+when a quiet, peace-loving man sees a ruffian assaulting a helpless
+person, a moral man does not hesitate to change his habitual modes of
+physical action.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IMPROVEMENT OF HABITUAL REACTIONS</h3>
+
+<p><b>To Eliminate a Habit.</b>&mdash;From what has been learned concerning the
+permanency of our habits, it is evident that only special effort will
+enable us to make any change in an habitual mode of reaction. In at
+least two cases, however, changes may be necessary. The fact that many
+of our early habits are formed either unconsciously, or in ignorance of
+their evil character, finds us, perhaps, as we come to years of
+discretion, in possession of certain habits from which we would gladly
+be freed. Such habits may range from relatively unimportant personal
+peculiarities to impolite and even immoral modes of conduct. In
+attempting to free ourselves from such acts, we must bear in mind what
+has been noted concerning the basis of retention. To repeat an act at
+frequent intervals is an important condition of retaining it as a habit.
+On the other hand, the absence of such repetition is almost sure, in due
+time, to obliterate the nervous tendency to repeat the act. To free
+one's self from an undesirable habit, therefore, the great essential is
+to avoid resolutely, for a reasonable time, any recurrence of the banned
+habit. While this can be accomplished only by conscious effort and
+watchfulness, yet each day passed without the repetition of the act
+weakens by so much the old nerve co-ordinations. To attempt to break an
+old habit, gradually, however, as some would prefer, can result only in
+still keeping the habitual tendency relatively strong.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>To Modify a Habit.</b>&mdash;At other times, however, we may desire not to
+eliminate an habitual co-ordination <i>in toto</i>, but rather to modify only
+certain phases of the reaction. In writing, for instance, a pupil may be
+holding his pen correctly and also using the proper muscular movements,
+but may have developed a habit of forming certain letters incorrectly,
+as [symbol] and [symbol]. In any attempt to correct such forms, a
+special difficulty is met in the fact that the incorrect movements are
+now closely co-ordinated with a number of correct movements, which must
+necessarily be retained while the other portions of the process are
+being modified. To effect such a modification, it is necessary for
+attention to focus itself upon the incorrect elements, and form a clear
+idea of the changes desired. With this idea as a conscious aim, the
+pupil must have abundant practice in writing the new forms, and avoid
+any recurrence of the old incorrect movements. This fact emphasizes the
+importance of attending to the beginning of any habit. In teaching
+writing, for instance, the teacher might first give attention only to
+the form of the letter and then later seek to have the child acquire the
+muscular movement. In the meantime, however, the child, while learning
+to form the letters, may have been allowed to acquire the finger
+movement, and to break this habit both teacher and pupil find much
+difficulty. By limiting the child to the use of a black-board or a large
+pencil and tablet, and having him make only relatively large letters
+while he is learning to form them, the teacher could have the pupil
+avoid this early formation of the habit of writing with the finger
+movement.</p>
+
+<p><b>Limitations of Habit.</b>&mdash;From what has here been learned concerning the
+formation of physical habits, it becomes evident that there are
+limitations to these as forms<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> of reaction. Since any habit is largely
+an unconscious reaction to a particular situation, its value will be
+conditional upon the nature of the circumstances which call forth the
+reaction. These circumstances must occur quite often under almost
+identical conditions, otherwise the habit can have no value in directing
+our social conduct. On the contrary, it may seriously interfere with
+successful effort. For the player to habituate his hands to fingering
+the violin is very important, because this is a case where such constant
+conditions are to be met. For a salesman to habituate himself to one
+mode of presenting goods to his customers would be fatal, since both the
+character and the needs of the customers are so varied that no permanent
+form of approach could be effective in all cases. To habituate ourselves
+to some narrow automatic line of action and follow it even under varying
+circumstances, therefore, might prevent the mind from properly weighing
+these varying conditions, and thus deaden initiative. It is for this
+reason that experience is so valuable in directing life action. By the
+use of past experience, the mind is able to analyse each situation
+calling for reaction and, by noting any unusual circumstances it
+presents, may adapt even our habitual reactions to the particular
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of habit to interest and attention is treated in <a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">Chapter
+XXIV</a>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII</h2>
+
+<h2>ATTENTION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Nature of Attention.</b>&mdash;In our study of the principles of general
+method, it was noted that the mind is able to set up and hold before
+itself as a problem any partially realized experience. From what has
+been said concerning nervous stimulation and the passing inward of
+sensuous impression, it might be thought that the mind is for the most
+part a somewhat passive recipient of conscious states as they chance to
+arise through the stimulations of the particular moment. Further
+consideration will show, however, that, at least after very early
+childhood, the mind usually exercises a strong selective control over
+what shall occupy consciousness at any particular time. In the case of a
+student striving to unravel the mazes of his mathematical problem,
+countless impressions of sight, sound, touch, etc., may be stimulating
+him from all sides, yet he refuses in a sense to attend to any of them.
+The singing of the maid, the chilliness of the room as the fire dies
+out, even the pain in the limb, all fail to make themselves known in
+consciousness, until such time as the successful solution causes the
+person to direct his attention from the work in hand. In like manner,
+the traveller at the busy station, when intent upon catching his train,
+is perhaps totally unconscious of the impressions being received from
+the passing throngs, the calling newsboys, the shunting engines, and the
+malodorous cattle cars. This ability of the mind to focus itself upon
+certain experiences to the exclusion of other possible experiences is
+known as <i>attention</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Degree of Attention.</b>&mdash;Mention has already been made of states of
+consciousness in which the mind seems in a passive state of reverie.
+Although the mind, even in such sub-conscious states, would seem to
+exercise some slight attention, it is yet evident that it does not
+exercise a definite selective control during such passive states of
+consciousness. Attention proper, on the other hand, may be described as
+a state in which the mind focuses itself upon some particular
+impression, and thus makes it stand out more clearly in consciousness as
+a definite experience. From this standpoint it may be assumed that, in a
+state of waking reverie, the attention is so scattered that no
+impression is made to stand out clearly in consciousness. On the other
+hand, as soon as the mind focuses itself on a certain impression, for
+example, the report of a gun, the relation of two angles, or the image
+of a centaur, this stands out so clearly that it occupies the whole
+foreground of consciousness, while all other impressions hide themselves
+in the background. This single focal state of consciousness is,
+therefore, pre-eminently a state of attention while the former state of
+reverie, on account of its diffuse character, may be said to be
+relatively devoid of attention.</p>
+
+<p><b>Physical Illustrations of Attention.</b>&mdash;To furnish a physical
+illustration of the working of attention, some writers describe the
+stream of our conscious life as presenting a series of waves, the
+successive waves representing the impressions or ideas upon which
+attention is focused at successive moments. When attention is in a
+diffuse state, consciousness is likened to a comparatively level stream.
+The focusing of attention upon particular impressions and thus making
+them stand out as distinct states of consciousness is said to break the
+surface of the stream into waves. This may be illustrated as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus019.jpg"
+alt="FIG 1, FIG 2"
+title="FIG 1, FIG 2" />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 1&mdash;Consciousness in a state of passive
+reverie</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption"><span class="smcap">Fig</span>. 2&mdash;Active consciousness. Attention focussed on the
+definite experiences <i>a, b, c, d, e, f, g</i>.</p>
+
+<p>By others, consciousness is described as a field of vision, in which the
+centre of vision represents the focal point of attention. For instance,
+if the student intent upon his problem in analysis does not notice the
+flickering light, the playing of the piano, or the smell of the burning
+meat breaking in upon him, it is because this problem occupies the
+centre of the attentive field. The other impressions, on the contrary,
+lie so far on the outside of the field that they fail to stand out in
+consciousness. This may be represented by the following diagram:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus020.jpg"
+alt="diagram"
+title="diagram" />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">P represents the problem on which attention is fixed. A,
+B, C, D, E, represent impressions which, though stimulating the
+organism, do not attract definite attention.</p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It must be understood, however, that these are merely mechanical devices
+to illustrate the fact that when the mind selects, or attends to, any
+impression, this impression is made to stand out clearly as an object in
+consciousness; or, in other words, the particular impression becomes a
+clear-cut and definite experience.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus021.jpg"
+alt="Probable adjusting of nerve ends during active attention"
+title="Probable adjusting of nerve ends during active attention" />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">Probable adjusting of nerve ends during active attention</p>
+
+<p><b>Neural Basis of Attention.</b>&mdash;The neural conditions under which the mind
+exercises such active attention seem to be that during the attentive
+state the nervous energy concentrates itself upon the paths and centres
+involved in the particular experience, the resistance being decreased in
+the paths connecting the cells traversed by the impulse. Moreover, any
+nervous energy tending to escape in other channels is checked and the
+movements hindered, thus shutting off attention from other possible
+experiences. For instance, a person with little interest in horticulture
+might pass a flowering shrub, the colour, form, and scent making only a
+faint impression upon him. If, however, his companion should say, "What
+a lovely colour," his attention will direct itself to this quality, with
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> result that the colour stands out much more clearly in
+consciousness, and the other features practically escape his notice.
+Here the suggestion of the companion focuses attention upon the colour,
+this being accompanied with a lessening of the resistance between the
+centres involved in interpreting the colour sensations. At the same time
+resistance in the arcs involving form and smell is increased, and the
+energy diverted from these arcs into that of colour.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ATTENTION SELECTIVE</h3>
+
+<p><b>Attention and Interest.</b>&mdash;At this point a question naturally arises why
+the mind, since it is continually subject to the influence of
+impressions from without and of reviving ideas from within, should
+select and focus attention upon certain of these to the exclusion of
+others. The answer usually given is that the mind feels in each case, at
+least vaguely, a personal interest in some change or adjustment to be
+wrought either in or through the impression which it makes an object of
+attention. When, for instance, the reader diverts his attention from the
+interesting story to the loud talking outside the window, he evidently
+desires to adjust his understanding more fully to the new and strange
+impression. So, also, when the spectator rivets his attention upon the
+flying ball, it is because he associates with this the interesting
+possibility of a change in the score. In like manner, the student in
+geometry fixes his attention upon the line joining the points of
+bisection of the sides, because he desires to change his present mental
+state of uncertainty as to its parallelism with the base into one of
+certainty. He further fixes his attention upon the qualities of certain
+bases and triangles, because through attending to these, he hopes to
+gain the desired experience concerning the parallelism of the two
+lines.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Attention and the Question.</b>&mdash;The general conditions for determining
+the course of attention will be further understood by a reference to two
+facts already established in connection with general method. It has been
+seen that the question and answer method is usually a successful mode of
+conducting the learning process. The reason for this is that the
+question is a most effective means of directing a selective act of
+attention. For instance, in an elementary science lesson on the candle
+flame, although the child, if left to himself, might observe the flame,
+he would not, in all probability, notice particularly the luminous part.
+Or again, if a dry glass is simply held over the flame and then removed
+by the demonstrator, although the pupil may have watched the experiment
+in a general way, it is doubtful whether he would notice particularly
+the moisture deposited upon the glass. A question from the demonstrator,
+however, awakens interest, causes the mind to focus in a special
+direction, and banishes from consciousness features which might
+otherwise occupy attention. This is because the question suggests a
+problem, and thus awakens an expectant or unsatisfied state of mind,
+which is likely to be satisfied only by attending to what the question
+suggests as an object of attention.</p>
+
+<p><b>Attention and Motive.</b>&mdash;It has already been noted that any process of
+learning is likely to be more effective when the child realizes a
+distinct problem, or aim, in the lesson, or feels a need for going
+through the learning process. The cause of this is that the aim, by
+awaking curiosity, etc., is an effective means of securing attention.
+When, for example, the pupil, in learning that 3 &times; 4 = 12, begins with
+the problem of finding out how many threes are contained in his twelve
+blocks, his curiosity can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span> satisfied only by grasping certain
+significant relations. In approaching the lesson, therefore, with such
+an actual problem before him, the child feels a desire to change, or
+alter, his present mental relation to the problem. In other words, he
+wishes to gain something involved in the problem which he does not now
+know or is not yet able to do. His desire to bring about this change or
+to reach this end not only holds his attention upon the problem, but
+also adjusts it to whatever ideas are likely to assist in solving the
+problem. When, therefore, pupils approach a lesson with an interesting
+problem in mind, the teacher finds it much easier to centre their
+attention upon those factors which make for the acquisition of the new
+experience.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INVOLUNTARY ATTENTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Involuntary Attention.</b>&mdash;Attention is met in its simplest
+form when the mind spontaneously focuses itself upon any strong stimulus
+received through the senses, as a flashing light, a loud crash, a bitter
+taste, or a violent pressure. As already noted, the significance of this
+type of attention lies in the fact that the mind seeks to adjust itself
+intelligently to a new condition in its surroundings which has been
+suggested to it through the violent stimulus. The ability to attend to
+such stimuli is evidently an inherited capacity, and is possessed by
+animals as well as by children. It is also the only form of attention
+exercised by very young children, and for some time the child seems to
+have little choice but to attend to the ever varying stimuli, the
+attention being drawn now to a bright light, now to a loud voice,
+according to the violence of the impressions. On account of the apparent
+lack of control over the direction of attention, this type is spoken of
+as spontaneous, or involuntary, attention.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Place and Value.</b>&mdash;It is only, however, during his very early years
+that man lacks a reasonable control even over relatively strong
+stimulations. As noted above, the mind acquires an ability to
+concentrate itself upon a single problem in the midst of relatively
+violent stimulations. Moreover, in the midst of various strong
+stimulations, it is able to select the one which it desires, to the
+exclusion of all others. At a relatively early age, for instance, the
+youth is able, in his games, to focus his attention upon the ball, and
+pays little attention to the shouts and movements of the spectators. On
+the other hand, however, it is also true that man never loses this
+characteristic of attending in an involuntary, or reflex, way to any
+strong stimulus. Indeed, without the possession of this hereditary
+tendency, it is hard to see how he could escape any dangers with which
+his body might be threatened while his attention is strongly engaged an
+another problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>Educational Precautions.</b>&mdash;That young children naturally tend to give
+their attention to strong stimuli, is a matter of considerable moment to
+the primary teacher. It is for this cause, among others, that reasonable
+quiet and order should prevail in the class-room during the recitation.
+When the pupil is endeavouring to fix his attention upon a selected
+problem, say the relation of the square foot to the square yard, any
+undue stimulation of his senses from the school-room environment could
+not fail to distract his attention from the problem before him. For the
+same reason, the external conditions should be such as are not likely to
+furnish unusual stimulations, as will be the case if the class-room is
+on a busy street and must be ventilated by means of open windows.
+Finally, in the use of illustrative materials, the teacher should see
+that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> concrete matter will not stimulate the child unduly in ways
+foreign to the lesson topic. For example, in teaching a nature lesson on
+the crow, the teacher would find great difficulty in keeping the
+children's attention on the various topics of the lesson, if he had
+before the class a live crow that kept cawing throughout the whole
+lesson period. Nor would it seem a very effective method of attracting
+attention to the problem of a lesson, if the teacher were continually
+shouting and waving his arms at the pupils.</p>
+
+
+<h3>NON-VOLUNTARY ATTENTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Non-voluntary Attention.</b>&mdash;On account of the part played by
+interest in the focusing of attention, it is possible to distinguish a
+second type of spontaneous attention in which the mind seems directly
+attracted to an object of thought because of a natural satisfaction
+gained from contemplating the subject. The lover, apparently without any
+determination, and without any external stimulus to suggest the topic,
+finds his attention ever centring itself upon the image of his fair
+lady. The young lad, also, without any apparent cause, turns his
+thoughts constantly to his favourite game. Here the impulse to attend is
+evidently from within, rather than from without, and arises from the
+interest that the mind has in the particular experience. This type of
+attention is especially manifest when trains of ideas pass through the
+mind without any apparent end in view, one idea suggesting another in
+accordance with the prevailing mood. The mind, in a half passive state,
+thinks of last evening, then of the house of a friend, then of the
+persons met there, then of the game played, etc. In the same way the
+attention of the student turns without effort to his favourite school
+subject, and its various aspects may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> pass in view before him without
+any effort or determination on his part. Because in this type of
+attention the different thoughts stand out in consciousness without any
+apparent choice, or selection, on the part of the mind, it is described
+as non-voluntary attention.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VOLUNTARY ATTENTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Voluntary Attention.</b>&mdash;The most important form of attention,
+however, is that in which the mind focuses itself upon an idea, not as a
+result of outside stimulation, but with some further purpose in view.
+For instance, when a person enters a room in which a strange object
+seems to be giving out musical notes automatically, he may at first give
+spontaneous attention to the sounds coming from the instrument. When,
+however, he approaches the object later with a desire to discover the
+nature of its mechanism, his attention is focused upon the object with a
+more remote aim, or end, in view, to discover where the music comes
+from. So also, when the lad mentioned in <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II</a> fixed his attention
+on the lost coin, he set this object before his attention with a further
+end in view&mdash;how to regain it. Because the person here <i>determines</i> to
+attend to, or think about, a certain problem, in order that he may reach
+a certain consciously set end, this form of attention is described as
+voluntary, or active, attention.</p>
+
+<p><b>Near and Remote Ends.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted, however, that the
+interesting end toward which the mind strives in voluntary attention may
+be relatively near or remote. A child examining an automatic toy does it
+for the sake of discovering what is in the toy itself; an adult in order
+to see whether it is likely to interest his child. A student gives
+attention to the problem of the length of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> hypotenuse because he is
+interested in the mathematical problem itself, the contractor because he
+desires to know how much material will be necessary for the roof of the
+building. One child may apply himself to mastering a reading lesson
+because the subject itself is interesting to him, another because he
+desires to take home a perfect report at the end of the week, and a
+third because a sense of obligation tells him that teacher and parents
+will expect him to study it.</p>
+
+<p><b>How we Attend to a Problem.</b>&mdash;Since voluntary attention implies mental
+movement directed to the attainment of some end, the mind does not
+simply keep itself focused on the particular problem. For instance, in
+attempting to solve the problem that the exterior angle of a triangle
+equals the sum of the two interior and opposite angles, no progress
+toward the attainment of the end in view could be made by merely holding
+before the mind the idea of their equality. It is, in fact, impossible
+for the attention to be held for any length of time on a single topic.
+This will be readily seen if one tries to hold his attention
+continuously upon, say, the tip of a pencil. When this is attempted,
+other ideas constantly crowd out the selected idea. The only sense,
+therefore, in which one holds his attention upon the problem in an act
+of voluntary attention is, that his attention passes forward and back
+between the problem and ideas felt to be associated with it. Voluntary
+attention is, therefore, a mental process in which the mind shifts from
+one idea to another in attaining to a desired end, or problem. In this
+shifting, or movement, of voluntary attention, however, two significant
+features manifest themselves. First, in working forward and back from
+the problem as a controlling centre, attention brings into consciousness
+ideas more or less relevant to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> problem. Secondly, it selects and
+adjusts to the problem those that actually make for its solution, and
+banishes from consciousness whatever is felt to be foreign to obtaining
+the desired end.</p>
+
+<p><b>Example of Controlled Attention.</b>&mdash;To exemplify a process of voluntary
+attention we may notice the action of the mind in solving such a problem
+as:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Two trains started at the same moment from Toronto and Hamilton
+respectively, one going at the rate of thirty miles an hour and the
+other at the rate of forty miles an hour. Supposing the distance
+between Toronto and Hamilton to be forty miles, in how many minutes
+will the trains meet?</p></div>
+
+<p>Here the pupil must first fix his attention upon the problem&mdash;the number
+of minutes before the trains will meet. This at once forms both a centre
+and a standard for measuring other related ideas. In this way his
+attention passes to the respective rates of the two trains, thirty and
+forty miles per hour. Then perhaps he fixes attention on the thought
+that one goes a mile in two minutes and the other a mile in 1-1/2
+minutes. But as he recognizes that this is leading him away from the
+problem, resistance is offered to the flow of attention in this
+direction, and he passes to the thought that in a <i>minute</i> the former
+goes 1/2 mile and the later 2/3 of a mile. From this he passes to the
+thought that in one minute they together go 1-1/6 miles. Hereupon
+perhaps the idea comes to his mind to see how many miles they would go
+in an hour. This, however, is soon felt to be foreign to the problem,
+and resistance being set up in this direction, the attention turns to
+consider in what time the two together cover 40 miles. Now by dividing
+40 miles by 1-1/6, he obtains the number 34-2/7 and is satisfied that
+his answer is 34-2/7 minutes. The process by which the attention here
+selected and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> adjusted the proper ideas to the problem might be
+illustrated by the following Figure:</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus022.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" />
+</p>
+
+<p>Here "P" represents the problem; a, b, c, d, and e, ideas accepted as
+relevant to the problem; and b', d' ideas suggested by b and d, but
+rejected as not adjustable to the problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>Factors in Process.</b>&mdash;The above facts demonstrate, however, that the
+mind can take this attitude toward any problem only if it has a certain
+store of old knowledge relative to it. Two important conditions of
+voluntary attention are therefore, first, that the mind should have the
+necessary ideas, or knowledge, with which to attend and, secondly, that
+it would select and adjust these to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> purpose in view. Here the
+intimate connection of voluntary attention to the normal learning
+process is apparent. The step of preparation, for instance, is merely
+putting the mind in the proper attitude to attend voluntarily to an end
+in view, namely the lesson problem; while the so-called
+analytic-synthetic process of learning involves the selecting and
+adjusting movements of voluntary attention.</p>
+
+<p><b>Spontaneous and Voluntary Attention Distinguished.</b>&mdash;In describing
+voluntary attention as an active form of attention, psychologists assume
+that since the mind here wills, or resolves, to attend, in order to gain
+a certain end in view; therefore voluntary attention must imply a much
+greater degree of effort, or strain, than other types. That such is
+always the case, however, is at times not very apparent. If one may
+judge by the straining of eye or ear, the poise of the body, the holding
+of the breath, etc., when a person gives involuntary attention to any
+sudden impression, as a strange noise at night, it is evident that the
+difference of effort, or strain, in attending to this and some selected
+problem may not, during the time it continues, be very marked.</p>
+
+<p>It is of course true that in voluntary attention the mind must choose
+its own object of attention as an end, or aim, while in the involuntary
+type the problem seems thrust upon us. This certainly does imply a
+deliberate choice in the former, and to that extent may be said to
+involve an effort not found in the latter. In like manner, when seeking
+to attain the end which has been set up, the mind must select the
+related ideas which will solve its problem. This in turn may demand the
+grasping of a number of complex relations. To say, however, that all
+striving to attain an end is lacking in a case of involuntary attention
+would evidently be fallacious. When the mind is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span> startled by a strange
+noise, the mind evidently does go out, though in a less formal way, to
+interpret a problem involuntarily thrust upon it. When, for instance, we
+receive the violent impression, the mind may be said to ask itself,
+"What strange impression is this?" and to that extent, even here, faces
+a selected problem. The distinguishing feature of voluntary attention,
+therefore, is the presence of a consciously conceived end, or aim, upon
+which the mind deliberately sets its attention as something to be
+thought <i>about</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ATTENTION IN EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Voluntary Attention and Learning.</b>&mdash;From what has been seen, it is
+evident that, when a pupil in his school approaches any particular
+problem, the learning process will represent a process of voluntary
+attention. This form of attention is, therefore, one of special
+significance to the teacher, since a knowledge of the process will cast
+additional light upon the learning process. The first condition of
+voluntary attention is the power to select some idea as an end, or
+problem, for attention. It was seen, however, that the focusing of
+attention upon any problem depends upon some form of desirable change to
+be effected in and through the set problem. For instance, unless the
+recovery of the coin is conceived as producing a desirable change, it
+would not become a deliberately set problem for attention. It is
+essential, therefore, that the end which the child is to choose as an
+object of attention should be one conceived as demanding a desired
+change, or adjustment. For instance, to ask a child to focus his
+attention upon two pieces of wood merely as pieces of wood is not likely
+to call forth an active effort of attention. To direct his attention to
+them to find out how many times the one is contained in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> the other, on
+the other hand, focuses his attention more strongly upon them; since the
+end to be reached will awaken his curiosity and set an interesting
+problem.</p>
+
+<p><b>Non-voluntary Attention in Education.</b>&mdash;On account of the ease with
+which attention seems to centre itself upon its object in non-voluntary
+attention, it is sometimes erroneously claimed that this is the type of
+attention to be aimed at in the educative process, especially with young
+children. Such a view is, however, a fallacious one, and results from a
+false notion of the real character of both non-voluntary and voluntary
+attention. In a clear example of non-voluntary attention, the mind
+dwells upon the ideas merely on account of their inherent
+attractiveness, and passes from one idea to its associated idea without
+any purposeful end in view. This at once shows its ineffectiveness as a
+process of learning. When the young lover's thoughts revert in a
+non-voluntary way to the fair one, he perhaps passes into a state of
+mere reminiscence, or at best of idle fancy. Even the student whose
+thoughts run on in a purposeless manner over his favourite subject, will
+merely revive old associations, or at best make a chance discovery of
+some new knowledge. In the same way, the child who delights in musical
+sounds may be satisfied to drum the piano by the hour, but this is
+likely to give little real advance, unless definite problems are set up
+and their attainment striven for in a purposeful way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Voluntary Attention and Interest.</b>&mdash;A corollary of the fallacy
+mentioned above is the assumption that voluntary attention necessarily
+implies some conflict with the mind's present desire or interest. It is
+sometimes said, for instance, that in voluntary attention, we compel our
+mind to attend, while our interest would naturally direct our attention
+elsewhere. But without a desire to effect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> some change in or through the
+problem being attended to, the mind would not voluntarily make it an
+object of attention. The misconception as to the relation of voluntary
+attention to interest is seen in an illustration often given as an
+example of non-voluntary attention. It is said, rightly enough, that if
+a child is reading an interesting story, and is just at the point where
+the plot is about to unravel itself, there will be difficulty in
+diverting his attention to other matters. This, it is claimed, furnishes
+a good example of the power of non-voluntary attention. But quite the
+opposite may be the case. When called upon, say by his parent, to lay
+aside the book and attend to some other problem, the child, it is true,
+shows a desire to continue reading. But this may be because he has a
+definite aim of his own in view&mdash;to find out the fate of his hero. This
+is a strongly felt need on his part, and his mind refuses to be
+satisfied until, by further attention to the problem before him, he has
+attained to this end. The only element of truth in the illustration is
+that the child's attention is strongly reinforced through the intense
+feeling tone associated with the selected, or determined, aim&mdash;the fate
+of his hero. The fact is, therefore, that a process of voluntary
+attention may have associated with its problem as strong an interest as
+is found in the non-voluntary type.</p>
+
+<p><b>Voluntary Attention Depends on Problem.</b>&mdash;It is evident from the
+foregoing that the characteristic of voluntary attention is not the
+absence or the presence of any special degree of interest, but rather
+the conception of some end, or purpose, to be reached in and through the
+attentive process. In other words, voluntary attention is a state of
+mind in which the mental movements are not drifting without a chart, but
+are seeking to reach a set<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span> haven. A person who is greatly interested in
+automobiles, for instance, on seeing a new machine, may allow his
+attention to run now to this part of the machine, now to that, as each
+attracts him in turn. Here no fixed purpose is being served by the
+attentive process, and attention may pass from part to part in a
+non-voluntary way, the person's general interest in automobiles being
+sufficient to keep the attention upon the subject. Suddenly, however, he
+may notice something apparently new in the mechanism of the machine, and
+a desire arises to understand its significance. This at once becomes an
+end to which the mind desires to attain, and voluntary attention
+proceeds to direct the mental movements toward its attainment. To
+suppose, however, that the interest, manifest in the former mental
+movements, is now absent, would evidently be fallacious. The difference
+lies in this, that at first the attention seemed fixed on the object
+through a general interest only, and drifted from point to point in a
+purposeless way, while in the second case an interesting end, or
+purpose, controlled the mental movements, and therefore made each
+movement significant in relation to the whole conscious process.</p>
+
+<p><b>Attention and Knowledge.</b>&mdash;Mention has already been made of the
+relation of attention to interest. It should be noted, further, that the
+difference in our attention under different circumstances is largely
+dependent upon our knowledge. The stonecutter, as he passes the fine
+mansion, gives attention to the fretted cornice; the glazier, to the
+beautiful windows; the gardener, to the well-kept lawn and beds. Even
+the present content of the mind has its influence upon attention. The
+student on his way to school, if busy with his spelling lesson, is
+attracted to the words and letters on posters and signs.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span> If he is
+reviewing his botany, he notes especially the weeds along the walk; if
+carrying to his art teacher, with a feeling of pride, the finished
+landscape drawing, his attention goes out to the shade and colour of
+field and sky. That such a connection must exist between knowledge and
+attention is apparent from what has been already noted concerning the
+working of the law of apperception.</p>
+
+<p><b>Physical Conditions of Attention.</b>&mdash;From what was learned above
+regarding the relation of nervous energy to active attention, it is
+evident that the ability to attend to a problem at any given time will
+depend in part upon the physical condition of the organism. If,
+therefore, the nervous energy is lowered through fatigue or sickness,
+the attention will be weakened. For this reason the teaching of
+subjects, such as arithmetic, grammar, etc., which present difficult
+problems, and therefore make large demands upon the attention of the
+scholars, should not be undertaken when the pupils' energy is likely to
+be at a minimum. Similarly, unsatisfactory conditions in the
+school-room, such as poor ventilation, uncomfortable seats, excessive
+heat or cold, all tend to lower the nervous energy and thus prevent a
+proper concentration of attention upon the regular school work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Precautions Relating to Voluntary Attention.</b>&mdash;Although voluntary
+attention is evidently the form of attention possessing real educational
+value, certain precautions would seem necessary concerning its use. With
+very young children the aim for attending should evidently not be too
+remote. In other words, the problem should involve matter in which the
+children have a direct interest. For this reason it is sometimes said
+that young children should set their own problems. This is of course a
+paradox so far as the regular school work is concerned,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> though it does
+apply to the pre-school period, and also justifies the claim that with
+young children the lesson problem should be closely connected with some
+vital interest. It would be useless, for instance, to try to interest
+young children in the British North America Act by telling them that the
+knowledge will be useful when they come to write on their entrance
+examinations. The story of Sir Isaac Brock, on the other hand, wins
+attention for itself through the child's patriotism and love of story.
+Again, the problem demanding attention should not, in the case of young
+children, be too long or complex. For example, a young child might
+easily attend to the separate problems of finding out, (1) how many
+marbles he must have to give four to James and three to William; (2) how
+many times seven can be taken from twenty-eight; (3) how many marbles
+James would have if he received four marbles four times; and (4) how
+many James would have if he received three marbles three times. But if
+given the problem "to divide twenty-eight marbles between James and
+William, giving James four every time he gives William three," the
+problem may be too complex for his present power of attention. A young
+child has not the control over his knowledge necessary to continue any
+long process of selecting attention. A relatively short period of
+attention to any problem, therefore, exhausts the nervous energy in the
+centres connected with a particular set of experiences. It is for this
+reason that the lessons in primary classes should be short and varied.
+One of the objections, therefore, to a narrow curriculum is that
+attention would not obtain needed variety, and that a narrowness in
+interest and application may result. On the other hand, it is well to
+note that the child must in time learn to concentrate his attention for
+longer periods and upon topics possessing only remote, or indirect,
+interest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV</h2>
+
+<h2>THE FEELING OF INTEREST</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Nature of Feeling.</b>&mdash;Feeling has already been described (<a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">Chapter XIX</a>)
+as the pleasurable or painful side of any state of consciousness. We
+may recall how it was there found that any conscious state, or
+experience, for instance, being conscious of the prick of a pin, of
+success at an examination, or of the loss of a friend, is not merely a
+state of knowledge, or awareness, but is also a state of feeling. It is
+a state of feeling because it <i>affects</i> us, that is, because being a
+state of <i>our</i> consciousness, it appeals to us pleasurably or painfully
+in a way that it can to no one else.</p>
+
+<p><b>Neural Conditions of Feeling.</b>&mdash;It has been seen that every conscious
+state, or experience, has its affective, or feeling, tone, and also that
+every experience involves the transmission of nervous energy through a
+number of connected brain cells. On this basis it is thought that the
+feeling side of any conscious state is conditioned by the degree of the
+resistance encountered as the nervous energy is transmitted. If the
+centres involved in the experience are not yet properly organized, or if
+the stimulation is strong, the resistance is greater and the feeling
+more intense. A new movement of the limbs in physical training, for
+example, may at first prove intensely painful, because the centres
+involved in the exercise are not yet organized. So also, because a very
+bright light stimulates the nerves violently, it causes a painful
+feeling. That morphine deadens pain is to be explained on the
+assump<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span>tion that it decreases nervous energy, and thus lessens the
+resistance being encountered between the nervous centres affected at the
+time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Feeling and Habit.</b>&mdash;That the intensity of a feeling is conditioned by
+the amount of the resistance seems evident, if we note the relation of
+feeling to habit. The first time the nurse-in-training attends a wounded
+patient, the experience is marked by intense feeling. After a number of
+such experiences, however, this feeling becomes much less. In like
+manner, the child who at first finds the physical exercise painful, as
+he becomes accustomed to the movements, finds the pain becoming less and
+less intense. In such cases it is evident that practice, by organizing
+the centres involved in the experience, decreases the resistance between
+them, and thus gradually decreases the intensity of the feeling. When
+finally the act becomes habitual, the nervous impulse traverses only
+lower centres, and therefore all feeling and indeed all consciousness
+will disappear, as happens in the habitual movements of the limbs in
+walking and of the arms during walking.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CLASSES OF FEELINGS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Sensuous Feeling.</b>&mdash;As already noted, while feelings vary in intensity
+according to the strength of the resistance, they also differ in kind
+according to the arcs traversed by the impulse. Experiencing a burn on
+the hand would involve nervous impulses, or currents, other than those
+involved in hearing of the death of a friend. The one experience also
+differs in feeling from the other. Our feeling states are thus able to
+be divided into certain important classes with more or less distinct
+characteristics for each. In one class are placed those feelings which
+accompany sensory impulses. The sensations arising from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> the
+stimulations of the sense organs, as a sweet or bitter taste, a strong
+smell, the touch of a hot, sharp, rough, or smooth object, etc., all
+present an affective, or feeling, side. So also feeling enters into the
+general or organic sensations arising from the conditions of the bodily
+organs; as breathing, the circulation of the blood, digestion, the
+tension of the muscles, hunger, thirst, etc. The feeling which thus
+enters as a factor into any sensation is known as sensuous feeling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ideal Feeling.</b>&mdash;Other feelings enter into our ideas and thoughts. The
+perception or imagination of an accident is accompanied with a painful
+feeling, the memory or anticipation of success with a feeling of joy,
+the thought of some particular person with a thrill of love. Such
+feelings are known as ideal feelings. When a child tears his flesh on a
+nail, he experiences sensuous feeling, when he shrinks away, as he
+perceives the teeth of a snarling dog, he experiences an ideal feeling,
+known as the emotion of fear.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interest.</b>&mdash;A third type of feeling especially accompanies an active
+process of attention. In our study of attention, it was seen that any
+process of attention is accompanied by a concentration of nervous energy
+upon the paths or centres involved in the experience, thus organizing
+the paths more completely and thereby decreasing the resistance. The
+impulse to attend to any experience is, therefore, accompanied with a
+desirable feeling, because a new adjustment between nerve centres is
+taking place and resistance being overcome. This affective, or feeling,
+tone which accompanies a process of attention is known as the feeling of
+interest.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interest and Attention.</b>&mdash;In discussions upon educational method, it is
+usually affirmed that the attention<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> will focus upon a problem to the
+extent to which the mind is interested. While this statement may be
+accepted in ordinary language, it is not psychologically true that I
+first become interested in a strange presentation, and then attend to it
+afterwards. In such a case it is no more true to say that I attend
+because I am interested, than to say that I am interested because I
+attend. In other words, interest and attention are not successive but
+simultaneous, or, as sometimes stated, they are back and front of the
+same mental state. This becomes evident by noting the nervous conditions
+which must accompany interest and attention. When one is attending to
+any strange phenomenon, say a botanist to the structure of a rare plant,
+it is evident that there are not only new groupings of ideas in the
+mind, but also new adjustments being set up between the brain centres.
+This implies in turn a lessening of resistance between the cells, and
+therefore the presence of the feeling tone known as interest.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interest, Attention, and Habit.</b>&mdash;Since the impulse to attend to a
+presentation is conditioned by a process of adjustment, or organization,
+between brain centres, it is evident that, while the novel presentations
+call forth interest and attention, repetition, by habituating the
+nervous arcs, will tend to deaden interest and attention. For this
+reason the story, first heard with interest and attention, becomes stale
+by too much repetition. The new toy fails to interest the child after
+the novelty has worn off. It must be noted, however, that while
+repetition usually lessens interest, yet when any set of experiences are
+repeated many times, instead of lessening interest the repetition may
+develop a new interest known as the interest of custom. Thus it is that
+by repeating the experience the man is finally compelled to visit his
+club every even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span>ing, and the boy to play his favourite game every day.
+This secondary interest of custom arises because repetition has finally
+established such strong associations within the nervous system that they
+now have become a part of our nature and are thus able to make a new
+demand upon interest and attention.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INTEREST IN EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Uses of Term: A. Subjective; B. Objective.</b>&mdash;That the educator
+describes interest as something that causes the mind to give attention
+to what is before it, when in fact interest and attention are
+psychologically merely two sides of a single process, is accounted for
+by the fact that the term "interest" may be used with two quite
+different meanings. Psychologically, interest is evidently a feeling
+state, that is, it represents a phase of consciousness. My <i>interest</i> in
+football, for instance, represents the <i>feeling</i> of worth which
+accompanies attention to such experiences. In this sense interest and
+attention are but two sides of the single experience, interest
+representing the feeling, and attention the effort side of the
+experience. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be used
+subjectively. More, often, however, the term is applied rather to the
+thing toward which the mind directs its attention, the object being said
+to possess interest for the person. In this sense the rattle is said to
+have interest for the babe; baseball, for the young boy; and the latest
+fashions, for the young lady. Since the interest is here assumed to
+reside in the object, it seems reasonable to say that our attention is
+attracted through interest, that is, through an interesting
+presentation. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be used
+objectively.</p>
+
+<p><b>Types of Objective Interest.</b>&mdash;The interest which various objects and
+occupations thus possess for the mind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span> may be of two somewhat different
+types. In some cases the object possesses a direct, or intrinsic,
+interest for the mind. The young child, for instance, is spontaneously
+attracted to bright colours, the boy to stories of adventure, and the
+sentimental youth or maiden to the romance. In the case of any such
+direct interests, however, the feeling with which the mind contemplates
+the object may transfer itself at least partly to other objects
+associated more or less closely with the direct object of interest. It
+is thus that the child becomes interested in the cup from which his food
+is taken, and the lover in the lap dog which his fair one fondles. As
+opposed to the <i>direct interest</i> which an object may have for the mind,
+this transferred type is known as <i>indirect interest</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Importance of Transference of Interest.</b>&mdash;The ability of the mind thus
+to transfer its interests to associated objects is often of great
+pedagogical value. Abstract forms of knowledge become more interesting
+to young children through being associated with something possessing
+natural interest. A pupil who seems to take little interest in
+arithmetic may take great delight in manual training. By associating
+various mathematical problems with his constructive exercises, the
+teacher can frequently cause the pupil to transfer in some degree his
+primary interest in manual training to the associated work in
+arithmetic. In the same way the child in the primary grade may take more
+delight in the alphabet when he is able to make the letters in sand or
+by stick-laying. It may be said, in fact, that much of man's effort is a
+result of indirect interest. What is called doing a thing from a sense
+of duty is often a case of applying ourselves to a certain thing because
+we are interested in avoiding the disapproval of others. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> child also
+often applies himself to his tasks, not so much because he takes a
+direct interest in them, but because he wishes to gain the approval and
+avoid the censure of teacher and parents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Native and Acquired Interest.</b>&mdash;Interest may also be distinguished on
+the basis of its origin. As noted above, certain impressions seem to
+demand a spontaneous interest from the individual. For this cause the
+child finds his attention going out immediately to bright colours, to
+objects which give pleasure, such as candy, etc., or to that which
+causes personal pain. On the other hand, objects and occupations which
+at first seem devoid of interest may, after a certain amount of
+experience has been gained, become important centres of interest. A
+young child may at first show no interest in insects unless it be a
+feeling of revulsion. Through the visit of an entomologist to his home,
+however, he may gain some knowledge of insects. This knowledge, by
+arousing an apperceptive tendency in the direction of insect study,
+gradually develops in him a new interest which lasts throughout his
+whole life. It is in this way that the various school subjects widen the
+narrow interests of the child. By giving him an insight into various
+phases of his social environment, the school curriculum awakens in him
+different centres of interest, and thus causes him to become in the
+truest sense a part of the social life about him. This fact is one of
+the strongest arguments, also, against a narrow public school course of
+study in a society which is itself a complex of diversified interests.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interest versus Interests.</b>&mdash;On account of the evident connection of
+interest and attention, the teacher may easily err in dealing with the
+young pupil. It is allowable, as pointed out above, that the teacher
+should take advan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span>tage of any native interest to secure the attention
+and effort of the child in his school work. This does not mean, however,
+that children are to be given only problems in which they are naturally
+interested. It must be remembered, as seen in a former paragraph, that,
+according to the interest of custom, any line of school work, when
+intelligently followed, may soon build up a centre of interest for
+itself. For this reason a proper study of arithmetic should develop an
+interest in arithmetic; a study of history, an interest in history; and
+a study of geography, an interest in geography. The saying that school
+work should follow a child's interest might, therefore, be better
+expressed by saying that the child's interests should follow the school
+work. It is only, in fact, as any one becomes directly interested in his
+pursuits, that the highest achievement can be reached. It is not the
+workman who is always looking forward to pay-day, who develops into an
+artist, or the teacher who is waiting for the summer holiday, who is a
+real inspiration to her pupils. In like manner, it is only as the child
+forms centres of interest in connection with his school work, that his
+life and character are likely to be affected permanently thereby.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of Interests.</b>&mdash;The problem for the educator is, therefore,
+not so much to follow the interest of the child, as it is to develop in
+him permanent centres of interest. For this reason the following facts
+concerning the origin and development of interests should be understood
+by the practical educator. First among these is the fact that certain
+instinctive tendencies of early childhood may be made a starting-point
+for the development of permanent valuable interest. The young child has
+a tendency to collect or an instinct of ownership, which may be taken
+advantage of in directing him to make collections<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> of insects, plants,
+coins, stamps, and thus prove of permanent educative value. His
+constructive tendencies, or desire to do with what comes into his hand,
+as well as his imitative instincts, may be turned to account in building
+up an interest in various occupations. His social instinct, also,
+provides a means for developing permanent emotional interests as
+sympathy, etc. In like manner, the character of the child's surroundings
+tends to create in him various centres of interest. The young child, for
+instance, who is surrounded with beautiful objects, is almost sure to
+develop an interest in works of art, while the child who is early
+provided with fable and story will develop an interest in history.</p>
+
+<p><b>When to Develop Interests.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted further concerning many
+of these forms of interest, that youth is the special period for their
+development. The child who does not, during his early years, have an
+opportunity to develop his social tendencies, is not likely later in
+life to acquire an interest in his fellow-men. In the same manner, if
+youth is spent in surroundings void of &aelig;sthetic elements, manhood will
+be lacking in artistic interests. It is in youth also that our
+intellectual interests, such as love of reading, of the study of nature,
+of mathematics, must be laid.</p>
+
+<p><b>Interests Must be Limited.</b>&mdash;While emphasizing the importance of
+establishing a wide range of interests when educating a child, the
+teacher must remember that there is danger in a child acquiring too wide
+a range. This can result only in a dissipation of effort over many
+fields. While this prevents narrowness of vision and gives versatility
+of disposition, it may prevent the attainment of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span> efficiency in any
+department, and make of the youth the proverbial "Jack-of-all-trades."</p>
+
+<p>A study of the feeling of interest has been made at this stage on
+account of its close connection with the problem of attention, and in
+fact with the whole learning process. An examination of the other
+classes of feeling will be made at a later stage in the course.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV</h2>
+
+<h2>SENSE PERCEPTION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Sensation and Perception Distinguished.</b>&mdash;Sensation and perception are
+two terms applied usually without much distinction of meaning to our
+recognition of the world of objects. When, for instance, a man draws
+near to a stove, he may say that it gives him a <i>sensation</i> of heat, or
+perhaps that he <i>perceives</i> it to be hot. In psychology, however, the
+term sensation has been used in two somewhat different meanings. By some
+the term is used to signify a state of consciousness conditioned merely
+upon the stimulation of a sense organ, as the eye, ear, etc., by its
+appropriate stimulus. To others, however, sensation signifies rather a
+mental image experienced by the mind as it reacts upon and interprets
+any sensory impression. Perception, on the other hand, signifies the
+recognition of an external object as presented to the mind here and now.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sensation Implies Externality.</b>&mdash;When, however, a sensory image, such
+as smooth, yellow, cold, etc., arises in consciousness as a result of
+the mind reacting when an external stimulus is applied to some sense
+organ, it is evident that, at least after very early infancy, one never
+has the image without at once referring it to some external cause. If,
+for instance, a person is but half awake and receives a sound sensation,
+he does not ask himself, "What mental state is <i>this</i>?" but rather,
+"What is <i>that</i>?" This shows an evident tendency to refer our sensations
+at once to an external cause, or indicates that our sensations always
+carry with them an implicit reference to an external object.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> Leaving,
+therefore, to the scientific psychologist to consider whether it is
+possible to have a pure sensation, we shall treat sensation as the
+recognition of a quality which is at least vaguely referred to an
+external object. In other words, sensation is a medium by which we are
+brought into relation with real things existing independently of our
+sensations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Perception Involves Sensation Element.</b>&mdash;Moreover, an object is
+perceived as present here and now only because it is revealed to us
+through one or more of the senses. When, for instance, I reach out my
+hand in the dark room and receive a sensation of touch, I perceive the
+table as present before me. When I receive a sensation of sound as I
+pass by the church, I perceive that the organ is being played. When I
+receive a colour sensation from the store window, I say that I perceive
+oranges. Perception, therefore, involves the referring of the sensuous
+state, or image, to an external thing, while in adult life sensation is
+never accepted by our attention as satisfactory unless it is referred to
+something we regard as immediately presenting itself to us by means of
+the sensation. It is on account of this evident interrelation of the two
+that we speak of a process of sense perception.</p>
+
+<p><b>Perception an Acquired Power.</b>&mdash;On the other hand, however,
+investigation will show that this power to recognize explicitly the
+existence of an external object through the presentation of a sensation,
+was not at first possessed by the mind. The ability thus to perceive
+objects represents, therefore, an acquirement on the part of the
+individual. If a person, although receiving merely sensations of colour
+and light, is able to say, "Yonder is an orange," he is evidently
+interpreting, or giving meaning to, the present sensations largely
+through past experience; for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span> images of colour and light are
+accepted by the mind as an indication of the presence of an external
+thing from which could be derived other images of taste, smell, etc.,
+all of which go to make up the idea "orange." An ordinary act of
+perception, therefore, must involve not merely sensation, but also an
+interpretation of sensation through past experience. It is, in fact,
+because the recognition of an external object involves this conscious
+interpretation of the sensuous impressions, that people often suffer
+delusion. When the traveller passing by a lone graveyard interprets the
+tall and slender shrub laden with white blossoms as a swaying ghost, the
+misconception does not arise from any fault of mere vision, but from the
+type of former knowledge which the other surroundings of the moment call
+up, these evidently giving the mind a certain bias in its interpretation
+of the sensuous, or colour, impressions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Perception in Adult Life.</b>&mdash;In our study of general method, sense
+perception was referred to as the most common mode of acquiring
+particular knowledge. A description of the development of this power to
+perceive objects through the senses should, therefore, prove of
+pedagogical value. But to understand how an individual acquires the
+ability to perceive objects, it is well to notice first what takes place
+in an ordinary adult act of perception, as for instance, when a man
+receives and interprets a colour stimulus and says that he perceives an
+orange. If we analyse the person's idea of an orange we find that it is
+made up of a number of different quality images&mdash;colour, taste, smell,
+touch, etc., organized into a single experience, or idea, and accepted
+as a mental representation of an object existing in space. When,
+therefore, the person referred to above says that he perceives an
+orange, what really happens is that he accepts the immediate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span> colour and
+light sensation as a sign of the whole group of qualities which make up
+his notion of the external object, orange, the other qualities essential
+to the notion coming back from past experience to unite with the
+presented qualities. Owing to this fact, any ordinary act of perception
+is said to contain both presentative and representative elements. In the
+above example, for instance, the colour would be spoken of as a
+presentative element, because it is immediately presented to the mind in
+sensuous terms, or through the senses. Anything beyond this which goes
+to make up the individual's notion orange, and is revived from past
+experience, is spoken of as representative. For the same reason, the
+sensuous elements involved in an ordinary act of perception are often
+spoken of as immediate, and the others as mediate elements of knowledge.</p>
+
+<p><b>Genesis of Perception.</b>&mdash;To trace the development of this ability to
+mingle both presentative and representative elements of knowledge into a
+mental representation, or idea, of an external object, it is necessary
+to recall what has been noted regarding the relation of the nervous
+system to our conscious acts. When the young child first comes in
+contact with the world of strange objects with which he is surrounded,
+the impressions he receives therefrom will not at first have either the
+definite quality or the relation to an external thing which they later
+secure. As a being, however, whose first tendencies are those of
+movement, he grasps, bites, strokes, smells, etc., and thus goes out to
+meet whatever his surroundings thrust upon him. Gradually he finds
+himself expand to take in the existence of a something external to
+himself, and is finally able, as the necessary paths are laid down in
+his nervous system, to differentiate various quality images one from the
+other; as, touch, weight, temperature, light, sound, etc. This will at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span>
+once involve, however, a corresponding relating, or synthetic, attitude
+of mind, in which different quality images, when experienced together as
+qualities of some vaguely felt thing, will be organized into a more or
+less definite knowledge, or idea, of that object, as illustrated in the
+figure below. As the child in time gains the ability to <i>attend</i> to the
+sensuous presentations which come to him, and to discriminate one
+sensation from another, he discovers in the vaguely known thing the
+images of touch, colour, taste, smell, etc., and finally associates them
+into the idea of a better known object, orange.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus023.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" />
+</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter caption">A. Unknown thing. B. Sensory stimuli. C. Sensory images.
+D. Idea of object.</p>
+
+<p><b>Control of Sensory Image as Sign.</b>&mdash;Since the various sense impressions
+are carried to the higher centres of the brain, they will not only be
+interpreted as sensory images and organized into a knowledge of external
+objects, but, owing to the retentive power of the nervous tissue, will
+also be subject to recall. As the child thus gains more and more the
+ability to organize and relate various sensory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span> images into mental
+representations, or ideas, of external objects, he soon acquires such
+control over these organized groups, that when any particular sensation
+image out of a group is presented to the mind, it will be sufficient to
+call up the other qualities, or will be accepted as a sign of the
+presence of the object. When this stage of perceptual power is reached,
+an odour coming from the oven enables a person to perceive that a
+certain kind of meat is within, or a noise proceeding from the tower is
+sufficient to make known the presence of a bell. To possess the ability
+thus to refer one's sensations to an external object is to be able to
+perceive objects.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fulness of Perception Based on Sensation.</b>&mdash;From the foregoing account
+of the development of our perception of the external world, it becomes
+evident that our immediate knowledge, or idea, of an individual object
+will consist only of the images our senses have been able to discover
+either in that or other similar objects. To the person born without the
+sense of sight, for instance, the flower-bed can never be known as an
+object of tints and colours. To the person born deaf, the violin cannot
+really be known as a <i>musical</i> instrument. Moreover, only the person
+whose senses distinguish adequately variations in colour, sound, form,
+etc., is able to perceive fully the objects which present themselves to
+his senses. Even when the physical senses seem equally perfect, one man,
+through greater power of discrimination, perceives in the world of
+objects much that totally escapes the observation of another. The result
+is that few of us enter as fully as we might into the rich world of
+sights, sounds, etc., with which we are surrounded, because we fail to
+gain the abundant images that we might through certain of our senses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>FACTORS INVOLVED IN SENSATION</h3>
+
+<p>Passing to a consideration of the senses as organs through which the
+mind is made aware of the concrete world, it is to be noted that a
+number of factors precede the image, or mental interpretation, of the
+impression. When, for instance, the mind becomes cognizant of a musical
+note, an analysis of the whole process reveals the following factors:</p>
+
+<p>1. The concrete object, as the vibrating string of a violin.</p>
+
+<p>2. Sound waves proceeding from the vibrating object to the sense organ.</p>
+
+<p>3. The organ of sense&mdash;the ear.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus024.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>4. The nerves&mdash;cells and fibres involved in receiving and conveying the
+sense stimulus.</p>
+
+<p>5. The interpreting cells.</p>
+
+<p>6. The reacting mind, which interprets the impression as an image of
+sound.</p>
+
+<p>The different factors are somewhat arbitrarily illustrated in the
+accompanying diagram, the arrows indicating the physical stimulation and
+the conscious response:</p>
+
+<p>Of the six factors involved in the sensation, 1 and 2 are purely
+physical and belong to the science of acoustics; 3, 4, and 5 are
+physiological; 6 is conscious, or psychological. It is because they
+always involve the immediate presence of some physical object, that the
+sensation elements involved in ordinary perception are spoken of as
+immediate, or presentative, elements of knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS</h3>
+
+<p>Our various sensations are usually divided into three classes as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>1. Sensations of the special senses, including: sight, sound, touch
+(including temperature), taste, and smell.</p>
+
+<p>2. Motor, or muscular, sensations.</p>
+
+<p>3. Organic sensations.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sensations of the Special Senses.</b>&mdash;As a study of the five special
+senses has been made by the student-teacher under the heading of
+physiology, no attempt will be made to explain the structure of these
+organs. It must be noted, however, that not all senses are equally
+capable of distinguishing differences in quality. For example, it seems
+quite beyond our power to recall the tastes and odours of the various
+dishes of which we may have partaken at a banquet, while on the other
+hand we may recall distinctly the visual appearance of the room and the
+table. It is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span> worthy of note, also, that in the case of smell, animals
+are usually much more discriminative than man. Certain of our senses
+are, therefore, much more intellectual than others. By this is meant
+that for purposes of distinguishing the objects themselves, and for
+providing the mind with available images as materials for further
+thought, our senses are by no means equally effective. Under this
+heading the special senses are classified as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Higher Intellectual Senses: sight, hearing, touch.</p>
+
+<p>Lower Intellectual Senses: taste and smell.</p>
+
+<p><b>Muscular Sensations.</b>&mdash;Under motor, or muscular, sensations are
+included the feelings which accompany consciousness of muscular
+exertion, or movement. In distinction from the other sense organs, the
+muscles are stimulated by having nervous energy pass outward over the
+motor nerves to the muscles. As the muscles are thus stimulated to
+movement, sensory nerves in turn convey inward from the muscles sensory
+impressions resulting from these movements. The important sensations
+connected with muscular action are those of strain, force, and
+resistance, as in lifting or pushing. By means of these motor
+sensations, joined with the sense of touch, the individual is able to
+distinguish especially weight, position, and change of position. In
+connection with the muscular sense, may be recalled that portion of the
+Montessori apparatus known as the weight tablets. These wooden tablets,
+it will be noted, are designed to educate the muscular sense to
+distinguish slight differences in weight. The muscular sense is chiefly
+important, however, in that delicate distinctions of pressure, movement,
+and resistance must be made in many forms of manual expression. The
+interrelation between sensory impression and motor impulse within the
+nervous system, as illustrated in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> figures on page <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, is already
+understood by the reader. For an adequate conscious control of
+movements, especially when one is engaged in delicate handwork, as
+painting, modelling, wood-work, etc., there must be an ability to
+perceive slight differences in strain, pressure, and movement. Moreover,
+the most effective means for developing the muscular sense is through
+the expressive exercises referred to above.</p>
+
+<p><b>Organic Sensations.</b>&mdash;The organic sensations are those states of
+consciousness that arise in connection with the processes going on
+within the organism, as circulation of the blood, digestion; breathing,
+or respiration; hunger; thirst; etc. The significance of these
+sensations lies in the fact that they reveal to consciousness any
+disturbances in connection with the vital processes, and thus enable the
+individual to provide for the preservation of the organism.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EDUCATION OF THE SENSES</h3>
+
+<p><b>Importance.</b>&mdash;When it is considered that our general knowledge must be
+based on a knowledge of individuals, it becomes apparent that children
+should, through sense observation, learn as fully as possible the
+various qualities of the concrete world. Only on this basis can they
+build their more general and abstract forms of knowledge. For this
+reason the child in his study of objects should, so far as safety
+permits, bring all of his senses to bear upon them and distinguish as
+clearly as possible all their properties. By this means only can he
+really know the attributes of the objects constituting his environment.
+Moreover, without such a full knowledge of the various properties and
+qualities of concrete objects, he is not in a position to turn them
+fully to his own service. It is by distinguishing the feeling of the
+flour, that the cook discovers whether it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> suited for bread-making or
+pastry. It is by noting the texture of the wood, that the artisan can
+decide its suitability for the work in hand. In fine, it was only by
+noting the properties of various natural objects that man discovered
+their social uses.</p>
+
+<p><b>How to be Effected.</b>&mdash;One of the chief defects of primary education in
+the past has been a tendency to overlook the importance of giving the
+child an opportunity to exercise his senses in discovering the
+properties of the objects constituting his environment. The introduction
+of the kindergarten, objective methods of teaching, nature study, school
+gardening, and constructive occupations have done much, however, to
+remedy this defect. One of the chief claims in favour of the so-called
+Montessori Method is that it provides especially for an education of the
+senses. In doing this, however, it makes use of arbitrarily prepared
+materials instead of the ordinary objects constituting the child's
+natural environment. The one advantage in this is that it enables the
+teacher to grade the stimulations and thus exercise the child in making
+series of discriminations, for instance, a series of colours, sounds,
+weights, sizes, etc. Notwithstanding this advantage, however, it seems
+more pedagogical that the child should receive this needful exercise of
+the senses by being brought into contact with the actual objects
+constituting his environment, as is done in nature study, constructive
+exercises, art, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dangers of Neglecting the Senses.</b>&mdash;The former neglect of an adequate
+exercise of the senses during the early education of the child was
+evidently unpedagogical for various reasons. As already noted, other
+forms of acquiring knowledge, such as constructive imagination,
+induction, and deduction, must rest primarily upon the acquisitions of
+sense perception. Moreover, it is during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> the early years of life that
+the plasticity and retentive power of the nervous system will enable the
+various sense impressions to be recorded for the future use of the mind.
+Further, the senses themselves during these early years show what may be
+termed a hunger for contact with the world of concrete objects, and a
+corresponding distaste for more abstract types of experience.</p>
+
+<p><b>Learning Through all the Senses.</b>&mdash;In recognizing that the process of
+sense perception constitutes a learning process, or is one of the modes
+by which man enters into new experience, the teacher should further
+understand that the same object may be interpreted through different
+senses. For example, when a child studies a new bird, he may note its
+form and colour through the eye, he may recognize the feeling and the
+outline through muscular and touch sensations, he may discover its song
+through the ear, and may give muscular expression to its form in
+painting or modelling. In the same way, in learning a figure or letter,
+he may see its form through the eye, hear its sound through the ear,
+make the sound and trace the form by calling various muscles into play,
+and thus secure a number of muscular sensations relative to the figure
+or letter. Since all these various experiences will be co-ordinated and
+retained within the nervous system, the child will not only know the
+object better, but will also be able to recall more easily any items of
+knowledge concerning it, on account of the larger number of connections
+established within the nervous system. One chief fact to be kept in mind
+by the teacher, therefore, in using the method of sense perception, is
+to have the pupil study the object through as many different senses as
+possible, and especially through those senses in which his power of
+discrimination and recall seems greatest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Use of Different Images in Teaching.</b>&mdash;The importance to the teacher of
+an intimate knowledge of different types of imagery and of a further
+acquaintance with the more prevailing images of particular pupils, is
+evident in various ways. In the first place, different school subjects
+may appeal more especially to different types of imagery. Thus a study
+of plants especially involves visual, or sight, images; a study of
+birds, visual and auditory images; oral reading and music, auditory
+images; physical training, motor images; constructive work, visual,
+tactile, and motor images; a knowledge of weights and measures, tactile
+and motor images. On account of a native difference in forming images,
+also, one pupil may best learn through the eye, another through the ear,
+a third through the muscles, etc. In learning the spelling of words, for
+example, one pupil may require especially to visualize the word, another
+to hear the letters repeated in their order, and a third to articulate
+the letters by the movement of the organs of speech, or to trace them in
+writing. In choosing illustrations, also, the teacher will find that one
+pupil best appreciates a visual illustration, a second an auditory
+illustration, etc. Some young pupils, for instance, might best
+appreciate a pathetic situation through an appeal to such sensory images
+as hunger and thirst.</p>
+
+<p><b>An Illustration.</b>&mdash;The wide difference in people's ability to interpret
+sensuous impressions is well exemplified in the case of sound stimuli.
+Every one whose ear is physically perfect seems able to interpret a
+sound so far as its mere quality and quantity are concerned. In the case
+of musical notes, however, the very greatest difference is found in the
+ability of different individuals to distinguish pitch. So also the
+distinguishing of distance and direction in relation to sound is an
+acquired ability, in which different<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span> people will greatly differ.
+Finally, to interpret the external relations involved in the sound, that
+is, whether the cry is that of an insect or a bird, or, if it is the
+former, from what kind of bird the sound is proceeding, this evidently
+is a phase of sense interpretation in which individuals differ very
+greatly. Yet an adequate development of the sense of hearing might be
+supposed to give the individual an ability to interpret his surroundings
+in all these ways.</p>
+
+<p><b>Power of Sense Perception Limited: A. By Interest.</b>&mdash;It should be
+noted, however, that so far as our actual life needs are concerned,
+there is no large demand for an all-round ability to interpret sensuous
+impressions. For practical purposes, men are interested in different
+objects in quite different ways. One is interested in the colour of a
+certain wood, another in its smoothness, a third in its ability to
+withstand strain, while a fourth may even be interested in more hidden
+relations, not visible to the ordinary sense. This will justify one in
+ignoring entirely qualities in the object which are of the utmost
+importance to others. From such a practical standpoint, it is evidently
+a decided gain that a person is not compelled to see everything in an
+object which its sensuous attributes might permit one to discover in it.
+In the case of the man with the so-called untrained sense, therefore, it
+is questionable whether the failure to see, hear, etc., is in many cases
+so much a lack of ability to use the particular sense, as it is a lack
+of practical interest in this phase of the objective world. In such
+processes as induction and deduction, also, it is often the external
+relations of objects rather than their sensory qualities that chiefly
+interest us. Indeed, it is sometimes claimed that an excessive amount of
+mere training in sense discrimination might interfere with a proper
+development of the higher mental processes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>B. By Knowledge.</b>&mdash;From what has been discovered regarding the learning
+process, it is evident that the development of any sense, as sight,
+sound, touch, etc., is not brought about merely by exercising the
+particular organ. It has been learned, for instance, that the person who
+is able to observe readily the plant and animal life as he walks through
+the forest, possesses this skill, not because his physical eye, but
+because his mind, has been prepared to see these objects. In other
+words, it is because his knowledge is active along such lines that his
+eye beholds these particular things. The chief reason, therefore, why
+the exercise of any sense organ develops a power to perceive through
+that sense, is that the exercise tends to develop in the individual the
+knowledge and interest which will cause the mind to react easily and
+effectively on that particular class of impressions. A sense may be
+considered trained, therefore, to the extent to which the mind acquires
+knowledge of, and interest in, the objective elements.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI</h2>
+
+<h2>MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Nature of Memory.</b>&mdash;Mention has been made of the retentive power of the
+nervous system, and of a consequent tendency for mental images to
+revive, or <i>re-present</i>, themselves in consciousness. It must now be
+noted that such a re-presentation of former experiences is frequently
+accompanied with a distinct recognition that the present image or images
+have a definite reference to past time. In other words, the present
+mental fact is able to be placed in the midst of other events believed
+to make up some portion of our past experience. Such an ideal revival of
+a past experience, together with a recognition of the fact that it
+formerly occurred within our experience, is known as an act of memory.</p>
+
+<p><b>Neural Conditions of Memory.</b>&mdash;When any experience is thus reproduced,
+and recognized as a reproduction of a previous experience, there is
+physiologically a transmission of nervous energy through the same brain
+centres as were involved in the original experience. The mental
+reproduction of any image is conditioned, therefore, by the physical
+reproduction of a nervous impulse through a formerly established path.
+That this is possible is owing to the susceptibility of nervous tissue
+to take on habit, or to retain as permanent modifications, all
+impressions received. From this it is evident that when we say we retain
+certain facts in our mind, the statement is not in a sense true; for
+there is no knowledge stored up in consciousness as so many ideas. The
+statement is true, therefore, only<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span> in the sense that the mind is able
+to bring into consciousness a former experience by reinstating the
+necessary nervous impulses through the proper nervous arcs. What is
+actually retained, however, is the tendency to reinstate nervous
+movements through the same paths as were involved in the original
+experience. Although, therefore, retention is usually treated as a
+factor in memory, its basis is, in reality, physiological.</p>
+
+<p><b>Memory Distinguished from Apperception.</b>&mdash;The distinguishing
+characteristics of memory as a re-presentation in the mind of a former
+experience is evidently the mental attitude known as recognition.
+Memory, in other words, always implies a belief that the present mental
+state really represents a fact, or event, which formed a part of our
+past experience. In the apperceptive process as seen in an ordinary
+process of learning, on the other hand, although it seems to involve a
+re-presentation of former mental images in consciousness, this distinct
+reference of the revived imagery to past time is evidently wanting.
+When, for instance, the mind interprets a strange object as a
+pear-shaped, thin-rinded, many-seeded fruit, all these interpreting
+ideas are, in a sense, revivals of past experience; yet none carry with
+them any distinct reference to past time. In like manner, when I look at
+an object of a certain form and colour and say that it is a sweet apple,
+it is evidently owing to past experience that I can declare that
+particular object to be sweet. It is quite clear, however, that in such
+a case there is no distinct reference of the revived image of sweetness
+to any definite occurrence in one's former experience. Such an
+apperceptive revival, or re-presentation of past experience, because it
+includes merely a representation of mental images, but fails to relate
+them to the past, cannot be classed as an act of memory.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>But Involves Apperceptive Process.</b>&mdash;While, however, the mere revival
+of old knowledge in the apperceptive process does not constitute an act
+of memory, memory is itself only a special phase of the apperceptive
+process. When I think of a particular anecdote to-day, and say I
+remember having the same experience on Sunday evening last, the present
+mental images cannot be the very same images as were then experienced.
+The former images belonged to the past, while those at present in
+consciousness are a new creation, although dependent, as we have seen,
+upon certain physiological conditions established in the past. In an act
+of memory, therefore, the new presentation, like all new presentations,
+must be interpreted in terms of past experience, or by an apperceiving
+act of attention. Whenever in this apperceptive act there is, in
+addition to the interpretation, a further feeling, or sense, of
+familiarity, the presentation is accepted by the mind as a reproduction
+from past experience, or is recognized as belonging to the past. When,
+on the way down the street, for instance, impressions are received from
+a passing form, and a resulting act of apperceiving attention, besides
+reading meaning into them, awakens a sense of familiarity, the face is
+recognized as one seen on a former occasion. Memory, therefore, is a
+special mode of the apperceptive process of learning, and includes, in
+addition to the interpreting of the new through the old, a belief that
+there is an identity between the old and the new.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FACTORS OF MEMORY</h3>
+
+<p>In a complete example of memory the following factors may be noted:</p>
+
+<p>1. The original presentation&mdash;as the first perception of an object or
+scene, the reading of a new story, the hearing of a particular voice,
+etc.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[285]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. Retention&mdash;this involves the permanent changes wrought in the nervous
+tissue as a result of the presentation or learning process and, as
+mentioned above, is really physiological.</p>
+
+<p>3. Recall&mdash;this implies the re-establishment of the nervous movements
+involved in the original experiences and an accompanying revival of the
+mental imagery.</p>
+
+<p>4. Recognition&mdash;under this heading is included the sense of familiarity
+experienced in consciousness, and the consequent belief that the present
+experience actually occurred at some certain time as an element in our
+past experience.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONDITIONS OF MEMORY</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Physical Conditions.</b>&mdash;One of the first conditions for an effective
+recollection of any particular experience will be, evidently, the
+strength of the co-ordinations set up in the nervous system during the
+learning process. The permanent changes brought about in the nervous
+tissue as a result of conscious experience is often spoken of as the
+physical basis of memory. The first consideration, therefore, relative
+to the memorizing of knowledge is to decide the conditions favourable to
+establishing such nervous paths during the learning process. First among
+these may be mentioned the condition of the nervous tissue itself. As
+already seen, the more plastic and active the condition of this tissue,
+the more susceptible it is to receive and retain impressions. For this
+reason anything studied when the body is tired and the mind exhausted is
+not likely to be remembered. It is for the same reason, also, that
+knowledge acquired in youth is much more likely to be remembered than
+things learned late in life. The intensity and the clearness of the
+presentation also cause it to make a stronger impression upon the system
+and thus render its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[286]</a></span> retention more permanent. This demands in turn that
+attention should be strongly focused upon the presentations during any
+learning process. By adding to the clearness and intensity of any
+impressions, attention adds to the likelihood of their retention. The
+evident cause of the scholar's ability to learn even relatively late in
+life is the fact that he brings a much greater concentration of
+attention to the process than is usually found in others. Repetition
+also, since it tends to break down any resistance to the paths which are
+being established in the nervous system during the learning process, is
+a distinct aid to retention. For this reason any knowledge acquired
+should be revived at intervals. This is especially true of the school
+knowledge being acquired by young children, and their acquisitions must
+be occasionally reviewed and used in various ways, if the knowledge is
+to become a permanent possession. A special application of the law of
+repetition may be noted in the fact that we remember better any topic
+learned, say, in four half-hours put upon it at different intervals,
+than we should by spending the whole two hours upon it at one time.</p>
+
+<p>Another condition favourable to recall is the recency of the original
+experience. Anything is more easily recalled, the more recently it has
+been learned. The physiological cause for this seems to be that the
+nervous co-ordinations being recent, they are much more likely to
+re-establish themselves, not having yet been effaced or weakened through
+the lapse of time.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Mental Conditions.</b>&mdash;It must be noted, however, that although there
+is evidently the above neural concomitant of recall, yet it is not the
+nervous system, but the mind, that actually recalls and remembers. The
+real condition of recall, therefore, is mental, and depends largely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[287]</a></span>
+upon the number of associations formed between the ideas themselves in
+the original presentation. According to the law of association,
+different ideas arise in the mind in virtue of certain connections
+existing between the ideas themselves. It would be quite foreign to our
+present purpose to examine the theories held among philosophic
+psychologists regarding the principle of the association of ideas. It is
+evident, however, that ideas often come to our minds in consequence of
+the presence in consciousness of a prior idea. When we see the name
+"Queenston Heights," it suggests to us Sir Isaac Brock; when we see a
+certain house, it calls to mind the pleasant evening spent there; and
+when we hear the strains of solemn music, it brings to mind the memories
+of the dead. Equally evident is the fact that anything experienced in
+isolation is much harder to remember than one experienced in such a way
+that it may enter into a larger train of ideas. If, for instance, any
+one is told to call up in half an hour telephone 3827, it is more than
+likely that the number will be forgotten, if the person goes on with
+other work and depends only on the mere impression to recall the number
+at the proper time. This would be the case also in spite of the most
+vivid presentation of the number by the one giving the order or the
+repetition of it by the person himself. If, however, the person says,
+even in a casual way, "Call up 1867," and the person addressed
+associates the number with the Confederation of the Dominion, there is
+practically no possibility of the number going out of his mind. An
+important mental condition for recall, therefore, is that ideas should
+be learned in as large associations, or groups, as possible. It is for
+the above reason that the logical and orderly presentation of the topics
+in any subject and their thorough understanding by the pupil give more
+complete<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[288]</a></span> control over the subject-matter. When each lesson is taught as
+a disconnected item of knowledge, there seems nothing to which the ideas
+are anchored, and recall is relatively difficult. When, on the other
+hand, points of connection are established between succeeding lessons,
+and the pupil understands these, one topic suggests another, and the
+mind finds it relatively easy to recall any particular part of the
+related ideas.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TYPES OF RECALL</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Involuntary.</b>&mdash;In connection with the working of the principle of
+association, it is interesting to note that practically two types of
+recall manifest themselves. As a result of their suggestive tendency,
+the ideas before consciousness at any particular time have a tendency to
+revive old experiences which the mind may recognize as such. Here there
+is no effort on the part of the voluntary attention to recall the
+experience from the past, the operation of the law of association being,
+as it were, sufficient to thrust the revived image into the centre of
+the field of consciousness, as when the sight of a train recalls a
+recent trip.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Voluntary.</b>&mdash;At times the mind may set out with the deliberate aim,
+or purpose, of reviving some forgotten experience. This is because
+attention is at the time engaged upon a definite problem, as when the
+student writing on his examination paper strives to recall the
+conditions of the Constitutional Act. This type is known as voluntary
+memory. Such a voluntary attempt at recall is, however, of the same
+character as the involuntary type in that both involve association. What
+the mind really strives for is to start a train of ideas which shall
+suggest the illusive ideas involved in the desired answer. Such a
+process of recall might be illustrated as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[289]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter"><img src="./images/illus025.jpg"
+alt="figure"
+title="figure" />
+</p>
+
+<p>Here a, b, c, d, e represent the forgotten series of ideas to be
+recalled. A, B, C, D, E represent other better known ideas, some of
+which are associated with the desired ones. By having the mind course
+over the better known facts&mdash;A, B, C, D, E, attention may finally focus
+upon the relation A, a, B, and thus start up the necessary revival of a,
+b, c, d, e.</p>
+
+<p><b>Attention May Hinder Memory.</b>&mdash;While active attention is thus able
+under proper conditions to reinforce memory, yet occasionally attention
+seems detrimental to memory. That such is the case will become evident
+from the preceding figure. If the experience a, b, c, d, e, is directly
+associated only with A, B, but the mind believes the association to
+centre in C, D, E, attention is certain to keep focused upon the
+sub-group&mdash;C, D, E. At an examination in history, for example, we may
+desire to recall the circumstances associated with the topic, "The Grand
+Remonstrance," and feel vaguely that this is connected with a
+revolutionary movement. This may cause us, however, to fix attention,
+not upon the civil war, but upon the revolution of 1688. In this case,
+instead of forcing a nervous impulse into the proper centres, attention
+is in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[290]</a></span> reality diverting it into other channels. When, a few minutes
+later, we have perhaps ceased our effort to remember, the impulse seems
+of itself to stimulate the proper centres, and the necessary facts come
+to us apparently without any attentive effort.</p>
+
+
+<h3>LOCALIZATION IN TIME</h3>
+
+<p>It has been pointed out that in an act of memory there must be a
+recognition of the present experience as one which has occurred in a
+series of past events. The definite reference of a memory image to a
+past series is sometimes spoken of as localization. The degree to which
+a memory image is localized in the past differs greatly, however, in
+different cases. Your recollection of some interesting personal event in
+your past school history may be very definitely located as to time,
+image after image reinstating themselves in memory in the order of their
+actual occurrence. Such a similar series of events must have taken place
+when, by means of handling a number of objects, you learned different
+number and quantity relations or, by drawing certain figures, discovered
+certain geometrical relations. At the present time, however, although
+you remember clearly the general relations, you are utterly unable to
+recall the more incidental facts connected with their original
+presentation, or even localize the remembered knowledge at all
+definitely in past time. Nothing, in fact, remains as a permanent
+possession except the general, or scientific, truth involved in the
+experience.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORIES</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Mechanical.</b>&mdash;The above facts would indicate that in many cases the
+mind would find it more effective to omit from conscious recall what may
+appear irrelevant in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[291]</a></span> the original presentation, and fix attention upon
+only the essential features. From this standpoint, two somewhat
+different types of memory are to be found among individuals. With many
+people, it seems as if a past experience must be revived in every
+detail. If such a one sets out to report a simple experience, such as
+seeing a policeman arrest a man on the street, he must bring in every
+collateral circumstance, no matter how foreign to the incident. He must
+mention, for example, that he himself had on a new straw hat, that his
+companion was smoking a cigar, was accompanied by his dog, and was
+talking about his crops, at the time they observed the arrest. This type
+is known as a mechanical memory. Very good examples of such will be seen
+in the persons of "Farmer Philip" in Tennyson's <i>Brook</i> and the
+"landlady" in Shakespeare's <i>King Henry IV</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Logical.</b>&mdash;In another type of memory, the mind does not thus
+associate into the memory experience every little detail of the original
+experience. The outstanding facts, especially those which are bound by
+some logical sequence, are the only ones which enter into permanent
+association. Such a type of mind, therefore, in recalling the past,
+selects out of the mass of experiences the incidents which will
+constitute a logical revival, and leaves out the trivial and incidental.
+This type is usually spoken of as a logical memory. This type of memory
+would, in the above incident, recall only the essential facts connected
+with the arrest, as the cause, the incidents, and the result.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MEMORY IN EDUCATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Value of Memory.</b>&mdash;It is evident that without the ability to reinstate
+past experiences in our conscious life, such experiences could not serve
+as intelligent guides for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[292]</a></span> our present conduct. Each day, in fact, we
+should begin life anew so far as concerns intelligent adaptation, our
+acquired aptitude being at best only physical. It will be understood,
+therefore, why the ability to recall past experiences is accepted as an
+essential factor in the educative process. It will be noted, indeed, in
+our study of the history of education, that, at certain periods, the
+whole problem of education seemed to be to memorize knowledge so
+thoroughly that it might readily be reinstated in consciousness. Modern
+education, however, has thrown emphasis upon two additional facts
+regarding knowledge. These are, first, that the ability to use past
+knowledge, and not the mere ability to recall it, is the mark of a truly
+educated man. The second fact is that, when any experience is clearly
+understood at the time of its presentation, the problem of remembering
+it will largely take care of itself. For these reasons, modern education
+emphasizes clearness of presentation and ability to apply, rather than
+the mere memorizing of knowledge. It is a question, however, whether the
+modern educator may not often be too negligent concerning the direct
+problem of the ability to recall knowledge. For this reason, the
+student-teacher may profitably make himself acquainted with the main
+conditions of retention and recall.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Training of Memory.</b>&mdash;An important problem for the educator is to
+ascertain whether it is possible to develop in the pupil a general power
+of memory. In other words, will the memorizing of any set of facts
+strengthen the mind to remember more easily any other facts whatsoever?
+From what has been noted regarding memory, it is evident that, leaving
+out of consideration the physical condition of the organism, the most
+important conditions for memory at the time are attention to, and a
+thorough<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[293]</a></span> understanding of, the facts to be remembered. From this it
+must appear that a person's ability to remember any facts depends
+primarily, not upon the mere amount of memorizing he has done in the
+past, but upon the extent to which his interests and old knowledge cause
+him to attend to, understand, and associate the facts to be remembered.
+There seems no justification, therefore, for the method of the teacher
+who expected to strengthen the memories of her pupils for their school
+work by having them walk quickly past the store windows and then attempt
+to recall at school what they had seen. In such cases the boys are found
+to remember certain objects, because their interests and knowledge
+enable them to notice these more distinctly at the time of the
+presentation. The girls, on the other hand, remember other objects,
+because their interests and knowledge cause them to apprehend these
+rather than the others.</p>
+
+
+<h3>APPERCEPTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Apperception a Law of Learning.</b>&mdash;In the study of the lesson process,
+<a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III</a>, attention was called to the fact that the interpretation
+which the mind places upon any presentation depends in large measure
+upon the mind's present content and interest. It is an essential
+characteristic of mind that it always attempts to give meaning to any
+new impression, no matter how strange that impression may be. This end
+is reached, however, only as the mind is able to apply to the
+presentation certain elements of former experience. Even in earliest
+infancy, impressions do not come to the organism as total strangers; for
+the organism is already endowed with instinctive tendencies to react in
+a definite manner to certain stimuli. As these reactions continue to
+repeat themselves, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[294]</a></span> permanent modifications, as previously
+noted, are established in the nervous system, including both sensory and
+motor adjustments. Since, moreover, these sensory and motor adjustments
+give rise to ideas, they result in corresponding associations of mental
+imagery. As these neural and mental elements are thus organized into
+more and more complex masses, the recurrence of any element within an
+associated mass is able to reinstate the other elements. The result is
+that when a certain sensation is received, as, for instance, a sound
+stimulus, it reinstates sensory impressions and motor reactions together
+with their associated mental images, thus enabling the mind to assert
+that a dog is barking in the distance. In such a case, the present
+impression is evidently joined with, and interpreted through, what has
+already formed a part of our experience. What is true of this particular
+case is true of all cases. New presentations are always met and
+interpreted by some complex experiences with which they have something
+in common, otherwise the stimuli could not be attended to at all. This
+ability of the mind to interpret new presentations in terms of old
+knowledge on account of some connection they bear to that content, is
+known as <i>apperception</i>. In other words, apperception is the law of the
+mind to attend to such elements in a new presentation as possess some
+degree of <i>familiarity</i> with the already assimilated experience,
+although there may be no distinct recognition of this familiarity.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONDITIONS OF APPERCEPTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Present Knowledge.</b>&mdash;Since the mind can apperceive only that for
+which it is prepared through former experience, the interpretation of
+the same presentations will be likely to differ greatly in different
+individuals. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[295]</a></span> book lying before him is to the young child a place in
+which to find pictures, to the ignorant man a source of mysterious
+information, and to the scholar a symbolic representation of certain
+mathematical knowledge. In the same manner, the object outside the
+window is a noxious weed to the farmer, a flower to the naturalist, and
+a medicinal plant to the physician or the druggist. From this it is
+clear that the interpretation of the impressions must differ according
+to the character of our present knowledge. In other words, the more
+important the aspects read into any presentation, the more valuable will
+be the present experience. Although when the child apperceives a stick
+as a horse, and the mechanic apperceives it as a lever, each
+interpretation is valuable within its own sphere, yet there is evidently
+a marked difference in the ultimate significance of the two
+interpretations. Education is especially valuable, in fact, in that it
+so adds to the experience of the child that he may more fully apperceive
+his surroundings.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Present Interests and Needs.</b>&mdash;But apperception is not solely
+dependent upon present knowledge. The interests and needs of the
+individual reflect themselves largely in his apperceptive tendencies.
+While the boy sees a tent in the folded paper, the girl is more likely
+to find in it a screen. To the little boy the lath is a horse, to the
+older boy it becomes a sword. Feelings and interest, therefore, as well
+as knowledge, dominate the apperceptive process. Nor should this fact be
+overlooked by the teacher. The study of a poem would be very incomplete
+and unsatisfactory if it stopped with the apprehension of the ideas.
+There must be emotional appreciation as well; otherwise the study will
+result in entire indifference to it. In introducing, for instance, the
+sonnet, "Mysterious Night" (page<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[296]</a></span> 394, <i>Ontario Reader, Book IV</i>), the
+teacher might ask: "Why can we not see the stars during the day?" The
+answer to this question would put the pupils in the proper intellectual
+attitude to interpret the ideas of the poem, but that is not enough. A
+recall of such an experience as his contemplation of the starry sky on a
+clear night will put the pupil in a suitable emotional attitude. He is a
+rare pupil who has not at some time gazed in wonder at the immense
+number and magnificence of the stars, or who has not thought with awe
+and reverence of the infinite power of the Creator of "such countless
+orbs." A recall of these feelings of wonder, awe, and reverence will
+place the pupil in a suitable mood for the emotional appreciation of the
+poem. It is in the teaching of literature that the importance of a
+proper feeling attitude on the part of the pupil is particularly great.
+Without it the pupil is coldly indifferent toward literature and will
+never cultivate an enthusiasm for it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FACTORS IN APPERCEPTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Retention and Recall.</b>&mdash;The facts already noted make it plain that
+apperception involves two important factors. First, apperception implies
+retention and recall. Unless our various experiences left behind them
+the permanent effects already noted in describing the retentive power of
+the nervous organism and the consequent possibility of recall, there
+could be no adjustment to new impressions on the basis of earlier
+experiences.</p>
+
+<p><b>Attention.</b>&mdash;Secondly, apperception involves attention. Since to
+apperceive is to bring the results of earlier experience to bear
+actively upon the new impression, it must involve a reactive, or
+attentive, state of consciousness; for, as noted in our study of the
+learning process, it is only by selecting elements out of former
+experience that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[297]</a></span> the new impression is given definite meaning in
+consciousness. For the child to apperceive the strange object as a
+"bug-in-a-basket," demands from him therefore a process of attention in
+which the ideas "bug" and "basket" are selected from former experience
+and read into the new impression, thereby giving it a meaning in
+consciousness. A reference to any of the lesson topics previously
+considered will provide further examples of these apperceptive factors.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[298]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII</h2>
+
+<h2>IMAGINATION</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Nature of.</b>&mdash;In our study of the various modes of acquiring individual
+notions, attention was called to the fact that knowledge of a particular
+object may be gained through a process of imagination. Like memory,
+imagination is a process of re-presentation, though differing from it in
+certain important regards.</p>
+
+<p>1. Although imagination depends on past experiences for its images,
+these images are used to build up ideal representations of objects
+without any reference to past time.</p>
+
+<p>2. In imagination the associated elements of past experience may be
+completely dissociated. Thus a bird may be imagined without wings, or a
+stone column without weight.</p>
+
+<p>3. The dissociated elements may be re-combined in various ways to
+represent objects never actually experienced, as a man with wings, or a
+horse with a man's head.</p>
+
+<p>Imagination is thus an apperceptive process by which we construct a
+mental representation of an object without any necessary reference to
+its actual existence in time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Product of Imagination, Particular.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted that in a
+process of imagination the mind always constructs in idea a
+representation of a <i>particular</i> object or individual. For instance, the
+ideal picture of the house I imagine situated on the hill before me is
+that of a particular house, possessing definite qualities as to height,
+size, colour, etc. In like manner, the future visit to To<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[299]</a></span>ronto, as it
+is being run over ideally, is constructed of particular persons, places,
+and events. So also when reading such a stanza as:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The milk-white blossoms of the thorn<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Are waving o'er the pool,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Moved by the wind that breathes along,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">So sweetly and so cool;<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>if the mind is able to combine into a definite outline of a particular
+situation the various elements depicted, then the mental process of the
+reader is one of imagination. It is not true, of course, that the
+particular elements which enter into such an ideal representation are
+always equally vivid. Yet one test of a person's power of imagination is
+the definiteness with which the mind makes an ideal representation stand
+out in consciousness as a distinct individual.</p>
+
+
+<h3>TYPES OF IMAGINATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Passive.</b>&mdash;In dissociating the elements of past experience and
+combining them into new particular forms, the mind may proceed in two
+quite different ways. In some cases the mind seemingly allows itself to
+drift without purpose and almost without sense, building up fantastic
+representations of imaginary objects or events. This happens especially
+in our periods of day-dreaming. Here various images, evidently drawn
+from past experience, come before consciousness in a spontaneous way and
+enter into most unusual forms of combination, with little regard even to
+probability. In these moods the timid lad becomes a strong hero, and his
+rustic Audrey, a fair lady, for whose sake he is ever performing untold
+feats of valour. Here the ideas, instead of being selected and combined
+for a definite purpose through an act of voluntary attention, are
+suggested one after the other by the mere law of association.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[300]</a></span> Because
+in such fantastic products of the imagination the various images appear
+in consciousness and combine themselves without any apparent control or
+purpose, the process is known as passive imagination, or phantasy. Such
+a type, it is evident, will have little significance as an actual
+process of learning.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Active, or Constructive.</b>&mdash;Opposed to the above type is that form of
+imagination in which the mind proceeds to build up a particular ideal
+representation with some definite purpose, or end, in view. A student,
+for example, who has never seen an aeroplane and has no direct knowledge
+of the course to be traversed, may be called upon in his composition
+work to describe an imaginary voyage through the air from Toronto to
+Winnipeg. In such an act of imagination, the selecting of elements to
+enter into the ideal picture must be chosen with an eye to their
+suitability to the end in view. When also a child is called upon in
+school to form an ideal representation of some object of which he has
+had no direct experience, as for instance, a mental picture of a
+volcano, he must in the same way, under the guidance of the teacher,
+select and combine elements of his actual experience which are adapted
+to the building up of a correct mental representation of an actual
+volcano. This type of imagination is known as active, or constructive,
+imagination.</p>
+
+<p><b>Factors in Constructive Imagination.</b>&mdash;In such a purposeful, or active,
+process of imagination the following factors may be noticed:</p>
+
+<p>1. The purpose, end, or problem calling for the exercise of the
+imagination.</p>
+
+<p>2. A selective act of attention, in which the fitness or unfitness of
+elements of past experience, or their adaptability to the ideal
+creation, is realized.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[301]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>3. A relating, or synthetic, activity combining the selected elements
+into a new ideal representation.</p>
+
+
+<h3>USES OF IMAGINATION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Imagination in Education.</b>&mdash;One important application of imagination in
+school work is found in connection with the various forms of
+constructive occupation. In such exercises, it is possible to have the
+child first build up ideally the picture of a particular object and then
+have him produce it through actual expression. For example, a class
+which has been taught certain principles of cutting may be called upon
+to conceive an original design for some object, say a valentine. Here
+the child, before proceeding to produce the actual object, must select
+from his knowledge of valentines certain elements and interpret them in
+relation to his principles of cutting. This ideal representation of the
+intended object is, therefore, a process of active, or constructive,
+imagination. In composition, also, the various events and situations
+depicted may be ideal creations to which the child gives expression in
+language. In geography and nature study likewise, constant use must be
+made of the imagination in gaining a knowledge of objects which have
+never come within the actual experience of the child. In science there
+is a further appeal to the child's imagination. When, for instance, he
+studies such topics as the law of gravity, chemical affinity, etc., the
+imagination must fill in much that falls outside the sphere of actual
+observation. In history and literature, also, the student can enter into
+the life and action of the various scenes and events only by building up
+ideal representations of what is depicted through the words of the
+author.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[302]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Imagination in Practical Life.</b>&mdash;In addition to the large use of
+constructive imagination in school work, this process will be found
+equally important in the after affairs of life. It is by use of the
+imagination that the workman is able to see the changes we desire made
+in the decoration of the room or in the shape of the flower-beds. It is
+by the use of imagination, also, that the general is able to outline the
+plan of campaign that shall lead his army to victory. Without
+imagination, therefore, the mind could not set up those practical aims
+toward the attainment of which most of life's effort is directed. In the
+dominion of conduct, also, imagination has its important part to play.
+It is by viewing in his imagination the effect of the one course of
+action as compared with the other, that man finally decides what
+constitutes the proper line of conduct. Even when indifferent as to his
+moral conduct, man pictures to himself what his friends may say and
+think of certain lines of action. For the enjoyment of life, also, the
+exercise of imagination has a place. It is by filling up the present
+with ideals and hopeful anticipations for the future, that much of the
+monotony of our work-a-day hours is relieved.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of Imagination.</b>&mdash;A prime condition of a creative
+imagination is evidently the possession of an abundance of mental
+materials which may be dissociated and re-combined into new mental
+products. These materials, of course, consist of the images and ideas
+retained by the mind from former experiences. One important result,
+therefore, of providing the young child with a rich store of images of
+sight, sound, touch, movement, etc., is that it provides his developing
+imagination with necessary materials. But the mere possession of
+abundant materials in the form of past images will not in itself develop
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[303]</a></span> imagination. Here, as elsewhere, it is only by exercising
+imagination that ability to imagine can be developed. Opportunity for
+such an exercise of the imagination, moreover, may be given the child in
+various ways. As already noted, a chief function of play is that it
+stimulates the child to use his imagination in reconstructing the
+objects about him and clothing them with many fancied attributes. In
+supplementary reading and story work, also, the imagination is actively
+exercised in constructing the ideal situations, as they are being
+presented in words by the book or the teacher. Nature study, likewise,
+by bringing before the child the secret processes of nature, as noting,
+for instance, the life history of the butterfly, the germination of
+seeds, etc., will call upon him to use his imagination in various ways.
+On the other hand, to deprive a young child of all such opportunities
+will usually result in preventing a proper development of the
+imagination.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[304]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a>CHAPTER XXVIII</h2>
+
+<h2>THINKING</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Nature of Thinking.</b>&mdash;In the study of general method, as well as in
+that of the foregoing mental processes, it has been taken for granted
+that our minds are capable of identifying different objects on the basis
+of some common feature or features. This tendency of the mind to
+identify objects and group individual things into classes, depends upon
+its capacity to detect similarity and difference, or to make
+comparisons. When the mind, in identifying objects, events, qualities,
+etc., discovers certain relations between its various states, the
+process is especially known as that of thinking. In its technical sense,
+therefore, thought implies a more or less explicit apprehension of
+relation.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thinking Involved in all Conscious States.</b>&mdash;It is evident, however,
+that every mental process must involve thinking, or a grasping of
+relations. When, by my merely touching an object, my mind perceives it
+is an apple, this act of perception, as already seen, takes place
+because elements of former experience come back as associated factors.
+This implies, evidently, that the mind is here relating elements of its
+past experience with the present touch sensation. Perception of external
+objects, therefore, implies a grasping of relations. In the same way,
+if, in having an experience to-day, one recognizes it as identical with
+a former experience, he is equally grasping a relation. Every act of
+memory, therefore, implies thinking. Thus in all forms of knowledge the
+mind is apprehending relations;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[305]</a></span> for no experience could have meaning
+for the mind except as it is discriminated from other experiences. In
+treating thinking as a distinct mental process, however, it is assumed
+that the objects of sense perception, memory, etc., are known as such,
+and that the mind here deals more directly with the relations in which
+ideas stand one to another. As a mental process, thinking appears in
+three somewhat distinct forms, known as conception, judgment, and
+reasoning.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONCEPTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Abstract Notion.</b>&mdash;It was seen that at least in adult life, the
+perception of any object, as this particular orange, horse, cow, etc.,
+really includes a number of distinct images of quality synthesised into
+the unity of a particular idea or experience. Because of this union of a
+number of different sensible qualities in the notion of a single
+individual, the mind may limit its attention upon a particular quality,
+or characteristic, possessed by an object, and make this a distinct
+problem of attention. Thus the mind is able to form such notions as
+length, roundness, sweetness, heaviness, four-footedness, etc. When such
+an attribute is thought of as something distinct from the object, the
+mental image is especially known as an abstract idea, or notion, and the
+process as one of abstraction.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Class Notion.</b>&mdash;One or more of such abstracted qualities may,
+moreover, be recognized as common to an indefinite number of objects.
+For instance, in addition to its ability to abstract from the perception
+of a dog, the abstract notions four-footedness, hairy, barking, etc.,
+the mind further gives them a general character by thinking of them as
+qualities common to an indefinite number of other possible individuals,
+namely, the class four-footed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[306]</a></span> hairy, barking objects. Because the idea
+representing the quality or qualities is here accepted by the mind as a
+means of identifying a number of objects, the idea is spoken of as a
+class notion, and the process as one of classification, or
+generalization. Thus it appears that, through its ability to detect
+sameness and difference, or discover relations, the mind is able to form
+two somewhat different notions. By mentally abstracting any quality and
+regarding it as something distinct from the object, it obtains an
+abstract notion, as sweetness, bravery, hardness, etc.; by synthesising
+and symbolizing the images of certain qualities recognized in objects,
+it obtains a general, or class, notion by which it may represent an
+indefinite number of individual things as, triangle, horse, desert, etc.
+Thus abstract notions are supposed to represent qualities; class
+notions, things. Because of its reference to a number of objects, the
+class notion is spoken of especially as a general notion, and the
+process of forming the notion as one of generalization. These two types
+of notions are technically known as concepts, and the process of their
+formation as one of conception.</p>
+
+<p><b>Formal Analysis of Process.</b>&mdash;At this point may be recalled what was
+stated in <a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Chapter XV</a> concerning the development of a class notion.
+Mention was there made of the theory that in the formation of such
+concepts, or class notions, as cow, dog, desk, chair, adjective, etc.,
+the mind must proceed through certain set stages as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Comparison: The examination of a certain number of particular
+individuals in order to discover points of similarity and
+difference.</p>
+
+<p>2. Abstraction: The distinguishing of certain characteristics
+common to the objects.</p>
+
+<p>3. Generalization: The mental unification, or synthesis, of these
+common characteristics noted in different individuals into a class
+notion represented by a name, or general term.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[307]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>But Conception is Involved in Perception.</b>&mdash;From what has been seen,
+however, it is evident that the development of our concepts does not
+proceed in any such formal way. If the mind perceives an individual
+object with any degree of clearness, it must recognize the object as
+possessing certain qualities. If, therefore, the child can perceive such
+an object as a dog, it implies that he recognizes it, say, as a hairy,
+four-footed creature. To recognize these qualities, however, signifies
+that the mind is able to think of them as something apart from the
+object, and the child thus has in a sense a general notion even while
+perceiving the particular dog. Whenever he passes to the perception of
+another dog, he undoubtedly interprets this with the general ideas
+already obtained from this earlier percept of a dog. To say, therefore,
+that to gain a concept he compares the qualities found in several
+individual things is not strictly true, for if his first percept becomes
+a type by which he interprets other dogs, his first experience is
+already a concept. What happens is that as this concept is used to
+interpret other individuals, the person becomes more conscious of the
+fact that his early experience is applicable to an indefinite number of
+objects. So also, when an adult first perceives an individual thing, say
+the fruit of the guava, he must apprehend certain qualities in relation
+to the individual thing. Thereupon his idea of this particular object
+becomes in itself a copy for identifying other objects, or a symbol by
+which similar future impressions may be given meaning. In this sense the
+individual idea, or percept, will serve to identify other particular
+experiences. Such being the case, this early concept of the guava has
+evidently required no abstraction of qualities beyond apprehending them
+while perceiving the one example of the fruit. This, however, is but to
+say that the perception of the guava really implied conception.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[308]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>Comparison of Individuals Necessary for Correct Concepts.</b>&mdash;It is, of
+course, true that the correctness of the idea as a class symbol can be
+verified only as we apply it in interpreting a number of such individual
+things. As the person meets a further number of individuals, he may even
+discover the presence of qualities not previously recognized. A child,
+for instance, may have a notion of the class triangle long before he
+discovers that all triangles have the property of containing two right
+angles. When this happens, he will later modify his first concept by
+synthesising into it the newly discovered quality. Moreover, if certain
+features supposed to be common are later found to be accidental, if, for
+instance, a child's concept of the class fish includes the quality
+<i>always living in water</i>, his meeting with a flying fish will not result
+in an utterly new concept, but rather in a modification of the present
+one. Thus the young child, who on seeing the Chinese diplomat, wished to
+know where he had his laundry, was not without a class concept, although
+that concept was imperfect in at least one respect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Concept and Term.</b>&mdash;A point often discussed in connection with
+conception is whether a general notion can be formed without language.
+By some it is argued that no concept could exist in the mind without the
+name, or general term. It was seen, however, that our first perception
+of any object becomes a sort of standard by which other similar
+experiences are intercepted, and is, therefore, general in character.
+From this it is evident that a rudimentary type of conception exists
+prior to language. In the case of the young child, as he gains a mental
+image of his father, the experience evidently serves as a centre for
+interpreting other similar individuals. We may notice that as soon as he
+gains control of language, other men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[309]</a></span> are called by the term papa. This
+does not imply an actual confusion in identity, but his use of the term
+shows that the child interprets the new object through a crude concept
+denoted by the word papa. It is more than probable, moreover, that this
+crude concept developed as he became able to recognize his father, and
+had been used in interpreting other men before he obtained the term,
+papa. On the other hand, it is certain that the term, or class name, is
+necessary to give the notion a definite place in consciousness.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FACTORS INVOLVED IN CONCEPT</h3>
+
+<p>It will appear from the foregoing that a concept presents the following
+factors for consideration:</p>
+
+<p>1. The essential quality or qualities found in the individual things,
+and supposed to be abstracted sooner or later from the individuals.</p>
+
+<p>2. The concept itself, the mental image or idea representative of the
+abstracted quality; or the unification of a number of abstracted
+qualities, when the general notion implies a synthesis of different
+qualities.</p>
+
+<p>3. The general term, or name.</p>
+
+<p>4. The objects themselves, which the mind can organize into a class,
+because they are identified as possessing common characteristics. When,
+however, a single abstracted quality is taken as a symbol of a class of
+objects, for example, when the quality bitterness becomes the symbol for
+the class of bitter things, there can be no real distinction between the
+abstracted quality and the class concept. In other words, to fix
+attention upon the quality bitterness as a quality distinct from the
+object in which it is found, is at the same time to give it a general
+character, recognizing it as something which may be found in a number of
+objects&mdash;the class bitter things. Here the abstract term is in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[310]</a></span> sense
+a general notion representative of a whole class of objects which agree
+in the possession of the quality.</p>
+
+<p><b>Intension of Concepts.</b>&mdash;Certain of our general notions are, however,
+much more complex than others. When a single attribute such as
+four-footedness is generalized to represent the class four-footed
+objects, the notion itself is relatively simple. In other words, a
+single property is representative of the objects, and in apprehending
+the members of the class all other properties they chance to possess may
+be left out of account. In many cases, however, the class notion will
+evidently be much more complex. The notion dog, for instance, in
+addition to implying the characteristic four-footedness, may include
+such qualities as hairy, barking, watchful, fearless, etc. This greater
+or less degree of complexity of a general notion is spoken of as its
+intensity. The notion dog, for instance, is more intensive than the
+notion four-footed animals; the notion lawyer, than the notion man.</p>
+
+<p><b>Extension of Concepts.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted further that as a notion
+increases in intension it becomes limited to a smaller class of objects.
+From this standpoint, notions are said to differ in extension. The class
+lawyer, for instance, is not so extensive as the class man; nor the
+class dog, as the class four-footed objects. It will appear from the
+above that an abstract notion viewed as a sign of a class of objects is
+distinguished by its extension, while a class notion, so far as it
+implies a synthesis of several abstracted qualities, is marked rather by
+its intension.</p>
+
+
+<h3>AIMS OF CONCEPTUAL LESSONS</h3>
+
+<p>So far as school lessons aim to establish and develop correct class
+notions in the minds of the pupils, three somewhat distinct types of
+work may be noted:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[311]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>1. TO DEFINE CLASSES</b></p>
+
+<p>In some lessons no attempt is made to develop an utterly new class
+notion, or concept; the pupils in fact may already know the class of
+objects in a general way and be acquainted with many of their
+characteristics. The object of the lesson is, therefore, to render the
+concept more scientific by having it include the qualities which
+essentially mark it as a class and especially separate it from other
+co-ordinate classes. In studying the grasshopper; for instance, in
+entomology, the purpose is not to give the child a notion of the insect
+in the ordinary sense of the term. This the pupil may already have. The
+purpose is rather to enable him to decide just what general
+characteristics distinguish this from other insects. The lesson may,
+therefore, leave out of consideration features which are common to all
+grasshoppers, simply because they do not enter into a scientific
+differentiation of the class.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>2. TO ENLARGE A CONCEPT</b></p>
+
+<p>In many lessons the aim seems to be chiefly to enlarge certain concepts
+by adding to their intensiveness. The pupil, for instance, has a
+scientific concept of a triangle, that is, one which enables him to
+distinguish a triangle from any other geometrical figure. He may,
+however, be led to see further that the three angles of every triangle
+equal two right angles. This is really having him discover a further
+attribute in relation to triangles, although this knowledge is not
+essential to the concept as a symbol of the members of the class. In the
+same way, in grammar the pupil is taught certain attributes common to
+verbs, as mood and tense, although these are not essential attributes
+from the standpoint of distinguishing the verb as a special class of
+words.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[312]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>3. TO BUILD UP NEW CONCEPTS</b></p>
+
+<p><b>A. Presentation of Unknown Individuals.</b>&mdash;In many lessons the chief
+object seems to be, however, to build up a new concept in the mind of
+the child. This would be the case when the pupil is presented with a
+totally unknown object, say a platypus, and called upon to examine its
+characteristics. In such lessons two important facts should be noticed.
+First, the child finds seemingly little difficulty in accepting a single
+individual as a type of a class, and is able to carry away from the
+lesson a fairly scientific class notion through a study of the one
+individual. In this regard the pupil but illustrates what has been said
+of the ability of the child to use his early percepts as standards to
+interpret other individuals. The pupil is able the more easily to form
+this accurate notion, because he no doubt has already a store of
+abstract notions with which to interpret the presentation, and also
+because his interest and attention is directed into the proper channels
+by the teacher.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Division of Known Classes.</b>&mdash;A second common mode of developing new
+concepts in school work is in breaking up larger classes into
+co-ordinate sub-classes. This, of course, involves the developing of new
+concepts to cover these sub-classes. In such cases, however, the new
+notions are merely modified forms of the higher class notion. When, for
+example, the pupil gains general notions representative of the classes,
+proper noun and common noun, the new terms merely add something to the
+intension of the more extensive term noun. This will be evident by
+considering the difference between the notions noun and proper noun.
+Both agree in possessing the attribute <i>used to name</i>. The latter is
+more intensive, however, because it signifies <i>used to name a particular
+object</i>. Although in such cases the lesson seems in a sense to develop
+new gen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[313]</a></span>eral notions, they represent merely an adding to the intension
+of a notion already possessed by the child.</p>
+
+<p><b>Use of the Term.</b>&mdash;A further problem regarding the process of
+conception concerns the question of the significance of a name. When a
+person uses such a term as dog, whale, hepatica, guava, etc., to name a
+certain object, what is the exact sense, or meaning, in which the name
+is to be applied? A class name, when applied scientifically to an
+object, is evidently supposed to denote the presence in it of certain
+essential characteristics which belong to the class. It is clear,
+however, that the ordinary man rarely uses these names with any
+scientific precision. A man can point to an object and say that it is a
+horse, and yet be ignorant of many of the essential features of a horse.
+In such cases, therefore, the use of the name merely shows that the
+person considers the object to belong to a certain class, but is no
+guarantee that he is thinking of the essential qualities of the class.
+It might be said, therefore, that a class term is used for two somewhat
+different purposes, either to denote the object merely, or to signify
+scientifically the attributes possessed by the object. It is in the
+second respect that danger of error in reasoning arises. So far as a
+name represents the attributes of a class, it will signify for us just
+those attributes which we associate with that class. So long, therefore,
+as the word fish means to us an animal living in the water, we will
+include in the class the whale, which really does not belong to the
+class, and perhaps exclude from the class the flying fish, although it
+is scientifically a member of the class.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE DEFINITION</h3>
+
+<p>It has been noted that, when man discovers common characteristics in a
+number of objects, he tends on this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[314]</a></span> basis to unite such objects into a
+class. It is to be noted in addition, however, that in the same manner
+he is also able, by examining the characteristics of a large class of
+objects, to divide these into smaller sub-classes. Although, for
+example, we may place all three-sided figures into one class and call
+them triangles, we are further able to divide these into three
+sub-classes owing to certain differences that may be noted among them.
+Thus an important fact regarding classification is that while a class
+may possess some common quality or qualities, yet its members may be
+further divided into sub-classes and each of these smaller classes
+distinguished from the others by points of difference. Owing to this
+fact, there are two important elements entering into a scientific
+knowledge of any class, first, to know of what larger class it forms a
+part, and secondly, to know what characteristics distinguish it from the
+other classes which go with it to make up this larger class. To know the
+class equilateral triangle, for instance, we must know, first, that it
+belongs to the larger class triangle, and secondly, that it differs from
+other classes of triangles by having its three sides equal. For this
+reason a person is able to know a class scientifically without knowing
+all of its common characteristics. For instance, the large class of
+objects known as words is subdivided into smaller classes known as parts
+of speech. Taking one of these classes, the verb, we find that all verbs
+agree in possessing at least three common characteristics, they have
+power to assert, to denote manner, and to express time. To distinguish
+the verb, however, it is necessary to note only that it is a word used
+to assert, since this is the only characteristic which distinguishes it
+from the other classes of words. When, therefore, we describe any class
+of objects by first naming the larger class to which it belongs, and
+then stating the char<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[315]</a></span>acteristics which distinguish it from the other
+co-ordinate classes, we are said to give a definition of the class, or
+to define it. The statement, "A trimeter is a verse of three measures,"
+is a definition because it gives, first, the larger class (verse) to
+which the trimeters belong, and secondly, the difference (of three
+measures) which distinguishes the trimeter from all other verses. The
+statement, "A binomial is an algebraic expression consisting of two
+terms," is a definition, because it gives, first, the larger class
+(algebraic expression) to which binomials belong, and secondly, the
+difference (consisting of two terms) which distinguishes binomials from
+other algebraic expressions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>JUDGMENT</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Judgment.</b>&mdash;A second form, or mode, of thinking is known as
+judgment. Our different concepts were seen to vary in their intension,
+or meaning, according to the number of attributes suggested by each. My
+notion <i>triangle</i> may denote the attributes three-sided and
+three-angled; my notion <i>isosceles triangle</i> will in that case include
+at least these two qualities plus equality of two of the sides. This
+indicates that various relations exist between our ideas and may be
+apprehended by the mind. When a relation between two concepts is
+distinctly apprehended in thought, or, in other words, when there is a
+mental assertion of a union between two ideas, or objects of thought,
+the process is known as <i>judgment</i>. Judgment may be defined, therefore,
+as the apprehension, or mental affirmation, of a relation between two
+ideas. If the idea, or concept, <i>heaviness</i> enters as a mental element
+into my idea <i>stone</i>, then the mind is able to affirm a relation between
+these concepts in the form, "Stone is heavy." In like manner when the
+mind asserts, "Glass is transparent"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[316]</a></span> or "Horses are animals," there is
+a distinct apprehension of a relation between the concepts involved.</p>
+
+<p><b>Judgment Distinguished from Statement.</b>&mdash;It should be noted that
+judgment is the mental apprehension of a relation between ideas. When
+this relation is expressed in actual words, it is spoken of as a
+proposition, or a predication. A proposition is, therefore, the
+statement of a judgment. The proposition is composed of two terms and
+the copula, one term constituting the subject of the proposition and the
+other the predicate. Although a judgment may often be expressed in some
+other form, it can usually be converted into the above form. The
+proposition, "Horses eat oats," may be expressed in the form, "Horses
+are oat-eaters"; the proposition, "The sun melts the snow," into the
+form, "The sun is a-thing-which-melts-snow."</p>
+
+<p><b>Relation of Judgment to Conception.</b>&mdash;It would appear from the above
+examples that a judgment expresses in an explicit form the relations
+involved within the concept, and is, therefore, merely a direct way of
+indicating the state of development of any idea. If my concept of a dog,
+for example, is a synthesis of the qualities four-footed, hairy, fierce,
+and barking, then an analysis of the concept will furnish the following
+judgments:</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="judgements">
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{ A four-footed thing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{ A hairy thing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>A dog is</td><td align='left'>{ A fierce thing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>{ A barking thing.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Because in these cases a concept seems necessary for an act of judgment,
+it is said that judgment is a more advanced form of thinking than
+conception. On the other hand, however, judgment is implied in the
+formation of a concept. When the child apprehends the dog as a
+four-footed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[317]</a></span> object, his mind has grasped four-footedness as a quality
+pertaining to the strange object, and has, in a sense, brought the two
+ideas into relation. But while judgment is implied in the formation of
+the concept, the concept does not bring explicitly to the mind the
+judgments it implies. The concept snow, for instance, implies the
+property of whiteness, but whiteness must be apprehended as a distinct
+idea and related mentally with the idea snow before we can be said to
+have formed, or thought, the judgment, "Snow is white." Judgment is a
+form of thinking separate from conception, therefore, because it does
+thus bring into definite relief relations only implied in our general
+notions, or concepts. One value of judgment is, in fact, that it enables
+us to analyse our concepts, and thus note more explicitly the relations
+included in them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Universal and Particular Judgments.</b>&mdash;Judgments are found to differ
+also as to the universality of their affirmation. In such a judgment as
+"Man is mortal," since mortality is viewed as a quality always joined to
+manhood, the affirmation is accepted as a universal judgment. In such a
+judgment as "Men strive to subdue the air," the two objects of thought
+are not considered as always and necessarily joined together. The
+judgment is therefore particular in character. All of our laws of
+nature, as "Air has weight," "Pressure on liquids is transmitted in
+every direction," or "Heat is conducted by metals," are accepted as
+universal judgments.</p>
+
+<p><b>Errors in Judgment due to: A. Faulty Concepts.</b>&mdash;It may be seen from
+the foregoing that our judgments, when explicitly grasped by the mind
+and predicated in language, reflect the accuracy or inaccuracy of our
+concepts. Whatever relations are, as it were, wrapped up in a concept
+may merge at any time in the form of explicit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[318]</a></span> judgments. If the fact
+that the only Chinamen seen by a child are engaged in laundry work
+causes this attribute to enter into his concept Chinaman, this will lead
+him to affirm that the restaurant keeper, Wan Lee, is a laundry-man. The
+republican who finds two or three cases of corruption among democrats,
+may conceive corruption as a quality common to democrats and affirm that
+honest John Smith is corrupt. Faulty concepts, therefore, are very
+likely to lead to faulty judgments. A first duty in education is
+evidently to see that children are forming correct class concepts. For
+this it must be seen that they always distinguish the essential features
+of the class of objects they are studying. They must learn, also, not to
+conclude on account of superficial likeness that really unlike objects
+belong to the same class. The child, for instance, in parsing the
+sentence, "The swing broke down," must be taught to look for essential
+characteristics, and not call the word <i>swing</i> a gerund because it ends
+in "ing"; which, though a common characteristic of gerunds, does not
+differentiate it from other classes of words. So, also, when the young
+nature student notes that the head of the spider is somewhat separated
+from the abdomen, he must not falsely conclude that the spider belongs
+to the class insects. In like manner, the pupil must not imagine, on
+account of superficial differences, that objects really the same belong
+to different classes, as for example, that a certain object is not a
+fish, but a bird, because it is flying through the air; or that a whale
+is a fish and not an animal, because it lives in water. The pupil must
+also learn to distinguish carefully between the particular and universal
+judgment. To affirm that "Men strive to subdue the air," does not imply
+that "John Smith strives to subdue the air." The importance of this
+distinction will be considered more fully in our next section.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[319]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><b>B. Feeling.</b>&mdash;Faulty concepts are not, however, the only causes for
+wrong judgments. It has been noted already that feeling enters largely
+as a factor in our conscious life. Man, therefore, in forming his
+judgments, is always in danger of being swayed by his feelings. Our
+likes and dislikes, in other words, interfere with our thinking, and
+prevent us from analysing our knowledge as we should. Instead,
+therefore, of striving to develop true concepts concerning men and
+events and basing our judgments upon these, we are inclined in many
+cases to allow our judgments to be swayed by mere feeling.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Laziness.</b>&mdash;Indifference is likewise a common source of faulty
+judgments. To attend to the concept and discover its intension as a
+means for correct judgment evidently demands mental effort. Many people,
+however, prefer either to jump at conclusions or let others do their
+judging for them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sound Judgments Based on Scientific Concepts.</b>&mdash;To be able to form
+correct judgments regarding the members of any class, however, the child
+should know, not only its common characteristics, but also the essential
+features which distinguish its members from those of co-ordinate
+classes. To know adequately the equilateral triangle, for instance, the
+pupil must know both the features which distinguish it from other
+triangles and also those in which it agrees with all triangles. To know
+fully the mentha family of plants, he must know both the characteristic
+qualities of the family and also those of the larger genus labiatae.
+From this it will be seen that a large share of school work must be
+devoted to building up scientific class notions in the minds of the
+pupils. Without this, many of their judgments must necessarily be
+faulty. To form such scientific concepts, however, it is necessary to
+relate one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[320]</a></span> concept with another in more indirect ways than is done
+through the formation of judgments. This brings us to a consideration of
+<i>reasoning</i>, the third and last form of thinking.</p>
+
+
+<h3>REASONING</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Reasoning.</b>&mdash;Reasoning is defined as a mental process in
+which the mind arrives at a new judgment by comparing other judgments.
+The mind, for instance, is in possession of the two judgments, "Stones
+are heavy" and "Flint is a stone." By bringing these two judgments under
+the eye of attention and comparing them, the mind is able to arrive at
+the new judgment, "Flint is heavy." Here the new judgment, expressing a
+relation between the notions, <i>flint</i> and <i>heavy</i>, is supposed to be
+arrived at, neither by direct experience, nor by an immediate analysis
+of the concept <i>flint</i>, but more indirectly by comparing the other
+judgments. The judgment, or conclusion, is said, therefore, to be
+arrived at mediately, or by a process of reasoning. Reasoning is of two
+forms, deductive, or syllogistic, reasoning, and inductive reasoning.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DEDUCTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Deduction.</b>&mdash;In deduction the mind is said to start with a
+general truth, or judgment, and by a process of reasoning to arrive at a
+more particular truth, or judgment, thus:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Stone is heavy;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Flint is a stone;</span><br />
+&there4; Flint is heavy.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>Expressed in this form, the reasoning process, as already mentioned, is
+known as a syllogism. The whole syllogism is made up of three parts,
+major premise, minor premise,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[321]</a></span> and conclusion. The three concepts
+involved in the syllogism are known as the major, the minor, and the
+middle term. In the above syllogism, <i>heavy</i>, the predicate of the major
+premise, is the major term; <i>flint</i>, the subject of the minor premise,
+is the minor term; and <i>stone</i>, to which the other two are related in
+the premises, is known as the middle term. Because of this previous
+comparison of the major and the minor terms with the middle term,
+deduction is sometimes said to be a process by which the mind discovers
+a relation between two concepts by comparing them each with a third
+concept.</p>
+
+<p><b>Purpose of Deduction.</b>&mdash;It is to be noted, however, as pointed out in
+<a href="#CHAPTER_XV">Chapter XV</a>, that deductive reasoning takes place normally only when the
+mind is faced with a difficulty which demands solution. Take the case of
+the boy and his lost coin referred to in <a href="#CHAPTER_II">Chapter II</a>. As he faces the
+problem, different methods of solution may present themselves. It may
+enter his mind, for instance, to tear up the grate, but this is rejected
+on account of possible damage to the brickwork. Finally he thinks of the
+tar and resorts to this method of recovery. In both of the above cases
+the boy based his conclusions upon known principles. As he considered
+the question of tearing up the grate, the thought came to his mind,
+"Lifting-a-grate is a-thing-which-may-cause-damage." As he considered
+the use of the tar, he had in mind the judgment, "Adhesion is a property
+of tar," and at once inferred that tar would solve his problem. In such
+practical cases, however, the mind seems to go directly from the problem
+in hand to a conclusion by means of a general principle. When a woman
+wishes to remove a stain, she at once says, "Gasoline will remove it."
+Here the mind, in arriving at its conclusion, seems to apply the
+principle, "Gasoline<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[322]</a></span> removes spots," directly to the particular
+problem. Thus the reasoning might seem to run as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Problem: What will remove this stain?</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Principle: Gasoline will remove stains.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Conclusion: Gasoline will remove this stain.</span><br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>Here the middle term of the syllogism seems to disappear. It is to be
+noted, however, that our thought changes from the universal idea
+"stains," mentioned in the statement of the principle, to the particular
+idea "this stain" mentioned in the problem and in the conclusion. But
+this implies a middle term, which could be expressed thus:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gasoline will remove stains;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">This is a stain;</span><br />
+&there4; Gasoline will remove <i>this</i>.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p>The syllogism is valuable, therefore, because it displays fully and
+clearly each element in the reasoning process, and thus assures the
+validity of the conclusion.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deduction in School Recitation.</b>&mdash;It will be recalled from what was
+noted in our study of general method, that deduction usually plays an
+important part during an ordinary developing lesson. In the step of
+preparation, when the pupil is given a particular example in order to
+recall old knowledge, the example suggests a problem which is intended
+to call up certain principles which are designed to be used during the
+presentation. In a lesson on the "Conjunctive Pronoun," for instance, if
+we have the pupil recall his knowledge of the conjunction by examining
+the particular word "if" in such a sentence as, "I shall go if they
+come," he interprets the word as a conjunction simply because he
+possesses a general rule applicable to it, or is able to go through a
+process of deduction. In the presentation also, when the pupil is called
+on to examine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[323]</a></span> the word <i>who</i> in such a sentence as, "The man who met us
+is very old," and decides that it is both a conjunction and a pronoun,
+he is again making deductions, since it is by his general knowledge of
+conjunctions and pronouns that he is able to interpret the two functions
+of the particular word <i>who</i>. Finally, as already noted, the application
+of an ordinary recitation frequently involves deductive processes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INDUCTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Induction.</b>&mdash;Induction is described as a process of reasoning
+in which the mind arrives at a conclusion by an examination of
+particular cases, or judgments. A further distinguishing feature of the
+inductive process is that, while the known judgments are particular in
+character, the conclusion is accepted as a general law, or truth. As in
+deduction, the reasoning process arises on account of some difficulty,
+or problem, presented to the mind, as for example:</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">What is the effect of heat upon air?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Will glass conduct electricity?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Why do certain bodies refract light?<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>To satisfy itself upon the problem, the mind appeals to actual
+experience either by ordinary observation or through experimentation.
+These observations or experiments, which necessarily deal with
+particular instances, are supposed to provide a number of particular
+judgments, by examining which a satisfactory conclusion is ultimately
+reached.</p>
+
+<p><b>Example of Induction.</b>&mdash;As an example of induction, may be taken the
+solution of such a problem as, "Does air exert pressure?" To meet this
+hypothesis we must evidently do more than merely abstract the manifest
+properties of an object, as is done in ordinary conception, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[324]</a></span> appeal
+directly to some known general principle, as is done in deduction. The
+work of induction demands rather to examine the two at present known but
+disconnected things, <i>air</i> and <i>pressure</i>, and by scientific observation
+seek to discover a relation between them. For this purpose the
+investigator may place a card over a glass filled with water, and on
+inverting it find that the card is held to the glass. Taking a glass
+tube and putting one end in water, he may place his finger over the
+other end and, on raising the tube, find that water remains in the tube.
+Soaking a heavy piece of leather in water and pressing it upon the
+smooth surface of a stone or other object, he finds the stone can be
+lifted by means of the leather. Reflecting upon each of these
+circumstances the mind comes to the following conclusions:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Air pressure holds this card to the glass,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Air pressure keeps the water in the tube,</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Air pressure holds together the leather and the stone,</span><br />
+&there4; Air exerts pressure.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<p><b>How Distinguished from, A. Deduction, and B. Conception.</b>&mdash;Such a
+process as the above constitutes a process of reasoning, first, because
+the conclusion gives a new affirmation, or judgment, "Air exerts
+pressure," and secondly, because the judgment is supposed to be arrived
+at by comparing other judgments. As a process of reasoning, however, it
+differs from deduction in that the final judgment is a general judgment,
+or truth, which seems to be based upon a number of particular judgments
+obtained from actual experience, while in deduction the conclusion was
+particular and the major premise general. It is for this reason that
+induction is defined as a process of going from the particular to the
+general. Moreover, since induction leads to the formation of a universal
+judgment, or general truth, it differs from the generalizing process
+known as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[325]</a></span> conception, which leads to the formation of a concept, or
+general idea. It is evident, however, that the process will enrich the
+concept involved in the new judgment. When the mind is able to affirm
+that air exerts pressure, the property, exerting-pressure, is at once
+synthesised into the notion air. This point will again be referred to in
+comparing induction and conception as generalizing processes.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of induction as a process of going from the particular to
+the general, this does not signify that the process deals with
+individual notions. The particulars in an inductive process are
+particular cases giving rise to particular judgments, and judgments
+involve concepts, or general ideas. When, in the inductive process, it
+is asserted that air holds the card to the glass, the mind is seeking to
+establish a relation between the notions air and pressure, and is,
+therefore, thinking in concepts. For this reason, it is usually said
+that induction takes for granted ordinary relations as involved in our
+everyday concepts, and concerns itself only with the more hidden
+relations of things. The significance of induction as a process of going
+from the particular to the general, therefore, consists in the fact that
+the conclusion is held to be a wider judgment than is contained in any
+of the premises.</p>
+
+<p><b>Particular Truth Implies the General.</b>&mdash;Describing the premises of an
+inductive process as particular truths, and the conclusion as a
+universal truth, however, involves the same fiction as was noted in
+separating the percept and the concept into two distinct types of
+notions. In the first place, my particular judgment, that air presses
+the card against the glass, is itself a deduction resting upon other
+general principles. Secondly, if the judgment that air presses the card
+against the glass contains no element of universal truth, then a
+thousand such judgments could<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[326]</a></span> give no universal truth. Moreover, if the
+mind approaches a process of induction with a problem, or hypothesis,
+before it, the general truth is already apprehended hypothetically in
+thought even before the particular instances are examined. When we set
+out, for instance, to investigate whether the line joining the bisecting
+points of the sides of a triangle is parallel with the base, we have
+accepted hypothetically the general principle that such lines are
+parallel with the base. The fact is, therefore, that when the mind
+examines the particular case and finds it to agree with the hypothesis,
+so far as it accepts this case as a truth, it also accepts it as a
+universal truth. Although, therefore, induction may involve going from
+one particular experiment or observation to another, it is in a sense a
+process of going from the general to the general.</p>
+
+<p>That accepting the truth of a particular judgment may imply a universal
+judgment is very evident in the case of geometrical demonstrations. When
+it is shown, for instance, that in the case of the particular isosceles
+triangle ABC, the angles at the base are equal, the mind does not
+require to examine other particular triangles for verification, but at
+once asserts that in every isosceles triangle the angles at the base are
+equal.</p>
+
+<p><b>Induction and Conception Interrelated.</b>&mdash;Although as a process,
+induction is to be distinguished from conception, it either leads to an
+enriching of some concept, or may in fact be the only means by which
+certain scientific concepts are formed. While the images obtained by
+ordinary sense perception will enable a child to gain a notion of water,
+to add to the notion the property, boiling-at-a-certain-temperature, or
+able-to-be-converted-into-two-parts-hydrogen-and-one-part-oxygen, will
+demand a process of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[327]</a></span> induction. The development of such scientific
+notions as oxide, equation, predicate adjective, etc., is also dependent
+upon a regular inductive process. For this reason many lessons may be
+viewed both as conceptual and as inductive lessons. To teach the adverb
+implies a conceptual process, because the child must synthesise certain
+attributes into his notion adverb. It is also an inductive lesson,
+because these attributes being formulated as definite judgments are,
+therefore, obtained inductively. The double character of such a lesson
+is fully indicated by the two results obtained. The lesson ends with the
+acquisition of a new term, adverb, which represents the result of the
+conceptual process. It also ends with the definition: "An adverb is a
+word which modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb," which indicates
+the general truth or truths resulting from the inductive process.</p>
+
+<p><b>Deduction and Induction Interrelated.</b>&mdash;In our actual teaching
+processes there is a very close inter-relation between the two processes
+of reasoning. We have already noted on page <a href="#Page_322">322</a> that, in such inductive
+lessons as teaching the definition of a noun or the rule for the
+addition of fractions, both the preparatory step and the application
+involve deduction. It is to be noted further, however, that even in the
+development of an inductive lesson there is a continual interplay
+between induction and deduction. This will be readily seen in the case
+of a pupil seeking to discover the rule for determining the number of
+repeaters in the addition of recurring decimals. When he notes that
+adding three numbers with one, one, and two repeaters respectively,
+gives him two repeaters in his answer, he is more than likely to infer
+that the rule is to have in the answer the highest number found among
+the addenda. So far as he makes this inference, he undoubtedly will
+apply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[328]</a></span> it in interpreting the next problem, and if the next numbers have
+one, one, and three repeaters respectively, he will likely be quite
+convinced that his former inference is correct. When, however, he meets
+a question with one, two, and three repeaters respectively, he finds his
+former inference is incorrect, and may, thereupon, draw a new inference,
+which he will now proceed to apply to further examples. The general fact
+to be noted here, however, is that, so far as the mind during the
+examination of the particular examples reaches any conclusion in an
+inductive lesson, it evidently applies this conclusion to some degree in
+the study of the further examples, or thinks deductively, even during
+the inductive process.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of Reasoning Power.</b>&mdash;Since reasoning is essentially a
+purposive form of thinking, it is evident that any reasoning process
+will depend largely upon the presence of some problem which shall
+stimulate the mind to seek out relations necessary to its solution.
+Power to reason, therefore, is conditioned by the ability to attend
+voluntarily to the problem and discover the necessary relations. It is
+further evident that the accuracy of any reasoning process must be
+dependent upon the accuracy of the judgments upon which the conclusions
+are based. But these judgments in turn depend for their accuracy upon
+the accuracy of the concepts involved. Correct reasoning, therefore,
+must depend largely upon the accuracy of our concepts, or, in other
+words, upon the old knowledge at our command. On the other hand,
+however, it has been seen that both deductive and inductive reasoning
+follow to some degree a systematic form. For this reason it may be
+assumed that the practice of these forms should have some effect in
+giving control of the processes. The child, for instance, who habituates
+himself to such thought processes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[329]</a></span> as AB equals BC, and AC equals BC,
+therefore AB equals AC, no doubt becomes able thereby to grasp such
+relations more easily. Granting so much, however, it is still evident
+that close attention to, and accurate knowledge of, the various terms
+involved in the reasoning process is the sure foundation of correct
+reasoning.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[330]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a>CHAPTER XXIX</h2>
+
+<h2>FEELING</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Sensuous and Ideal Feeling.</b>&mdash;We have noted (<a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">Chapter XXIV</a>), that in
+addition to the general feeling tone accompanying an act of attention,
+and already described as a feeling of interest, there are two important
+classes of feeling known respectively as sensuous and ideal feeling.
+When a person says: "I feel tired" or "I feel hungry," he is referring
+to the feeling side of certain organic sensations. When he says: "The
+air feels cold" or "The paper feels smooth," he is referring to the
+feeling side of temperature and touch sensations. These are, therefore,
+examples of sensuous feeling. On the other hand, to say "I feel angry"
+or "I feel afraid," is to refer to a feeling state which accompanies
+perhaps the perception of some object, the recollection or anticipation
+of some act, or the inference that something is sure to happen, etc.
+These latter states are therefore known as ideal feelings.</p>
+
+<p><b>Quality of Feeling States.</b>&mdash;The qualities of our various feeling
+states are distinguished under two heads, pleasure and pain. It might
+seem at first sight that our feeling states will fall into a much larger
+number of classes distinguished by differences in quality, or tone. The
+taste of an orange, the smell of lavender, the touch of a hot stove, the
+appreciation of a fine piece of music, and the appreciation of a lofty
+poem, seem at first sight to yield different feelings. The supposed
+difference in the quality of the feelings is due, however, to a
+difference in the knowledge elements accompanying the feelings, or to
+the fact that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[331]</a></span> they are discriminated as different experiences. The idea
+of the music or the poem is of a higher grade than the sensory image of
+taste, and accordingly the feelings <i>appear</i> to be different. The
+feelings may, of course, differ in intensity, but in <i>quality</i> they are
+either pleasant or unpleasant.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONDITIONS OF FEELING TONE</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Neural.</b>&mdash;The quality, or tone, of a feeling will vary according to
+the intensity of the impression. Great heat stimulates the nerves
+violently and the resultant feeling state is painful; warmth gives a
+moderate stimulation and the resultant tone is pleasant. Excessive cold
+also, because it stimulates violently, produces a painful feeling. Since
+the intensity of a stimulus varies according to the resistance
+encountered in the nervous arc, the quality of a feeling state must,
+therefore, vary according to the resistance. It is for this reason that
+an experience, at first very painful, may lose much of its tone by
+repetition. By repetition the nerve centres are adapted to the
+experience, resistance is lessened, and the accompanying pain
+diminished. In this way, some work or exercise, which is at first
+positively unpleasant, may at least become endurable as the organism
+becomes adapted to the occupation. From this point of view, it is
+sometimes said that any impressions to which we are perfectly adapted
+give pleasurable feelings, while, in other cases the resultant tone will
+be painful.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Mental.</b>&mdash;The law of perfect adaptation also explains why ideal
+feelings may at one time result in a pleasant, and at another time in a
+painful, feeling tone. According to the principle of apperception, the
+new experience must organize itself with whatever thoughts and feelings
+are now occupying consciousness. It necessarily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[332]</a></span> happens that a given
+experience does not always equally harmonize with our present thoughts
+and feelings. The recognition of a friend under ordinary circumstances
+is agreeable, but amid certain associations or in a certain environment,
+such recognition would be disagreeable. So, too, while an original
+experience may have been agreeable, the memory of it may now be
+disagreeable; and vice versa. For instance, the memory of a former
+success or prosperity may, in the midst of present failure and poverty,
+be disagreeable; while the recollection of former failure and defeat may
+now, in the midst of success and prosperity, be agreeable. What is it
+that makes a sensation, a perception, a memory, or an apprehended
+relation pleasant under some circumstances and unpleasant under others?
+The rule appears to be that when the experience harmonizes with our
+present train of thought, when it promotes our present interests and
+intentions, it is pleasant; but when, on the other hand, it does not
+harmonize with our train of thought or thwarts or impedes our interests
+and purposes, it is unpleasant.</p>
+
+<p><b>Function of Pleasure and Pain.</b>&mdash;From what has been noted concerning
+co-ordination between the adaptation of the organism to impression and
+the quality of the accompanying feeling, it is evident that pleasure and
+pain each have their part to play in promoting the ultimate good of the
+individual. Pain is beneficial, because it lets us know that there is
+some misadjustment to our environment, and thereby warns us to remove or
+cease doing what is proving injurious. In this connection, it may be
+noted that no disease is so dangerous as one that fails to make its
+presence known through pain. Pleasure also is valuable in so far as it
+results from perfect adaptation to a perfect environment, since it
+induces the individual to con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[333]</a></span>tinue beneficial acts. It must be
+remembered, however, that so far as heredity or education has adapted
+our organism to improper stimuli, pleasure is no proof that the good of
+the organism is being advanced. In such cases, redemption can come to
+the fallen world only through suffering.</p>
+
+<p><b>Feeling and Knowing.</b>&mdash;Since the intensity of a feeling state is
+conditioned by the amount of resistance, an intense state of feeling is
+likely to be accompanied by a lowering of intellectual activity. For
+this reason excessive hunger, heat or cold, intense joy, anger or
+sorrow, are usually antagonistic to intellectual work. The explanation
+for this seems to be that so much of our nervous energy is consumed in
+overcoming the resistance in the centres affected, that little is left
+for ordinary intellectual processes. This does not, of course, imply
+that no one can do intellectual work under such conditions; nor that the
+intellectual man is always devoid of strong feelings, although such is
+often the case. Occasionally, however, a man is so strongly endowed with
+nervous energy, that even after overcoming the resistance being
+encountered, he still has a residue of energy to devote to ordinary
+intellectual processes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Feeling and Will.</b>&mdash;Although, as pointed out in the last paragraph,
+there is a certain antagonism between knowing and feeling, it has also
+been seen that every experience has its knowing as well as its feeling
+side. Because of this co-ordination, the qualities of our feeling states
+become known to us, or are able to be distinguished by the mind. As a
+result of this recognition of a difference in our feeling states, we
+learn to seek states of pleasure and to avoid states of pain or, in
+other words, our mere states of feeling become desires. This means that
+we become able to contrast a present feeling with other remembered
+states,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[334]</a></span> and seek either to continue the present desired state or to
+substitute another for the present undesirable feeling. In the form of
+desire, therefore, our feelings become strong motives, which may
+influence the will to certain lines of action.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SENSUOUS FEELINGS</h3>
+
+<p>While the sensations of the special senses, namely, sight, sound, touch,
+taste, and smell, have each their affective, or feeling, side, a minute
+study of these feelings is not necessary for our present purpose. It may
+be noted, however, that in the more intellectual senses, namely, sight,
+hearing, and touch, feeling tone is less marked, although strong feeling
+may accompany certain tactile sensations. In the lower senses of taste
+and smell, the feeling tone is more pronounced. Under muscular sensation
+we meet such marked feeling tones as fatigue, exertion, and strain,
+while associated with the organic sensations are such feelings as hunger
+and thirst, and the various pains which usually accompany derangement
+and disease of the bodily organs. Some of these feelings are important,
+because they are likely to influence the will by developing into desires
+in the form of appetites. Many sensuous feelings are important also
+because they especially warn the mind regarding the condition of the
+organism.</p>
+
+
+<h3>EMOTION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Emotion.</b>&mdash;An emotion differs from sensuous feeling, not in
+its content, but in its higher intensity, its greater complexity, and
+its more elaborate motor response. It may be defined as a succession of
+interconnected feelings with a more complex physical expression than a
+simple feeling. On reading an account of a battle, one may feel sad and
+express this sadness only in a gloomy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[335]</a></span> appearance of the face. But if
+one finds that in this battle a friend has been killed, the feeling is
+much intensified and may become an emotion of grief, expressing itself
+in some complex way, perhaps in tears, in sobbing, in wringing the
+hands. Similarly, a feeling of slight irritation expressed in a frowning
+face, if intensified, becomes the emotion of anger, expressed in tense
+muscles, rapidly beating heart, laboured breathing, perhaps a torrent of
+words or a hasty blow.</p>
+
+<p><b>Emotion and Instinct.</b>&mdash;Feeling and instinct are closely related. Every
+instinct has its affective phase, that is, its satisfaction always
+involves an element of pleasure or pain. The satisfaction of the
+instincts of curiosity or physical activity illustrates this fact. On
+the other hand, every emotion has its characteristic instinctive
+response. Fear expresses itself in all persons alike in certain
+characteristic ways inherited from a remote ancestry; anger expresses
+itself in other instinctive reactions; grief in still others.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CONDITIONS OF EMOTION</h3>
+
+<p>An analysis of a typical emotion will serve to show the conditions under
+which it makes its appearance. Let us take first the emotion of fear.
+Suppose a person is walking alone on a dark night along a deserted
+street. His nervous currents are discharging themselves uninterruptedly
+over their wonted channels, his current of thought is unimpeded.
+Suddenly there appears a strange and frightful object in his pathway.
+His train of thought is violently checked. His nervous currents, which a
+moment ago were passing out smoothly and without undue resistance into
+muscles of legs, arms, body, and face, are now suddenly obstructed, or
+in other words encounter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[336]</a></span> violent resistance. He stands still. His heart
+momentarily stops beating. A temporary paralysis seizes him. As the
+nervous currents thus encounter resistance, the feeling tone known as
+fear is experienced. At the same time the currents burst their barriers
+and overflow into new channels that are easy of access, the motor
+centres being especially of this character. Some of the currents,
+therefore, run to the involuntary muscles, and in consequence the heart
+beats faster, the breathing becomes heavier, the face grows pale, a cold
+sweat breaks forth, the hair "stands on end." Other currents, through
+hereditary influences, pass to the voluntary muscles, and the person
+shrieks, and turns and flees.</p>
+
+<p>Or take the emotion of anger. Some fine morning in school everything is
+in good order, everybody is industriously at work, the lessons are
+proceeding satisfactorily. The current of the teacher's experience is
+flowing smoothly and unobstructedly. Presently a troublesome boy, who
+has been repeatedly reproved for misconduct, again shows symptoms of
+idleness and misbehaviour. The smooth current of experience being
+checked, here also both a new feeling tone is experienced and the wonted
+nerve currents flow out into other brain centres. The teacher stops his
+work and gazes fixedly at the offending pupil. His heart beats rapidly,
+the blood surges to his face, his breathing becomes heavy, his muscles
+grow tense. In these reactions we have the nervous currents passing out
+over involuntary channels. Then, perhaps, the teacher unfortunately
+breaks forth into a torrent of words or lays violent hands upon the
+offender. Here the nervous currents are passing outward over the
+voluntary system.</p>
+
+<p>These illustrations indicate that three important conditions are present
+at the appearance of the emotion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[337]</a></span> namely, (1) the presence of an
+unusual object in consciousness, (2) the consequent disturbance of the
+smooth flow of experience or, in physiological terms, the temporary
+obstruction of the ordinary pathways of nervous discharge through the
+great resistance encountered, and (3) the new feeling state with its
+concomitant overflow of the impulses into new motor channels, some of
+which lead to the involuntary muscles and others to the voluntary. The
+emotion proper consists in the feeling state which arises as a result of
+the resistance encountered by the nervous impulses as the smooth flow of
+experience is checked. The idea that I shall die some day arouses no
+emotion in me, because it in no way affects my ordinary thought
+processes, and therefore it in no way disturbs my nervous equilibrium.
+The perception of a wild animal about to kill me, because it suddenly
+thwarts and impedes the smooth flow of my experience through a
+suggestion of danger, produces an intense feeling and a diffused and
+intense derangement of the nervous equilibrium.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of Emotions.</b>&mdash;The question of paramount importance in
+connection with emotion is how to arouse and develop desirable emotions.
+The close connection of the three phases of the mind's
+manifestation&mdash;knowing, feeling, and willing, gives the key to the
+question. Feeling cannot be developed alone apart from knowing and
+willing. In fact, if we attend carefully to the knowing and willing
+activities, the feelings, in one sense, take care of themselves. Two
+principles, therefore, lie at the basis of proper emotional development:</p>
+
+<p>1. The mind must be allowed to dwell upon only those ideas to which
+worthy emotions are attached. We must refuse to think those thoughts
+that are tinged with unworthy feelings. The Apostle Paul has expressed
+this very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[338]</a></span> eloquently when he says in his Epistle to the Philippians:
+"Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are
+honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure,
+whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; if
+there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things."</p>
+
+<p>2. The teacher's main duty in the above regard is to provide the pupil
+with a rich fund of ideas to which desirable feelings cling. An
+impressive manner, an enthusiastic attitude toward subjects of study, an
+evident interest in them, and apparent appreciation of them, will also
+aid much in inspiring pupils with proper feelings, for feelings are
+often contagious in the absence of very definite ideas. How often have
+we been deeply moved by hearing a poem impressively read even though we
+have very imperfectly grasped its meaning. The feelings of the reader
+have been communicated to us through the principle of contagion.
+Similarly, in history, art, and nature study, emotions may be stirred,
+not only through the medium of the ideas presented, but also by the
+impressiveness, the enthusiasm, and the interest exhibited by the
+teacher in presenting them.</p>
+
+<p>3. We must give expression to these emotions we wish to develop.
+Expression means the probability of the recurrence of the emotion, and
+gradually an emotional habit is formed. An unselfish disposition is
+cultivated by performing little acts of kindness and self-denial
+whenever the opportunity offers. The expression of a desirable emotion,
+moreover, should not stop merely with an experience of the organic
+sensations or the reflex reactions accompanying the emotion. To listen
+to a sermon and react only by an emotional thrill, a quickened heart
+beat, or a few tears, is a very ineffective kind of expression.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[339]</a></span> The
+only kind of emotional expression that is of much consequence either to
+ourselves or others is conduct. Only in so far as our emotional
+experiences issue in action that is beneficial to those about us, are
+they of any practical value.</p>
+
+<p><b>Elimination of Emotions.</b>&mdash;Since certain of our emotions, such as anger
+and fear, are, in general, undesirable states of feeling, a question
+arises how such emotions may be prevented. It is sometimes said that, if
+we can inhibit the expression, the emotion will disappear, that is, if I
+can prevent the trembling, I will cease to be afraid. From what has just
+been learned, however, the emotion and its expression being really
+concomitant results of the antecedent obstruction of ordinary nervous
+discharges, emotion cannot be checked by checking the expression, but
+both will be checked if the nervous impulses can be made to continue in
+their wonted courses in spite of the disturbing presentations. The real
+secret of emotional control lies, therefore, in the power of voluntary
+attention. The effect of attention is to cause the nervous energy to be
+directed without undue resistance into its wonted channels, this, in
+turn, preventing its overflow into new channels. By thus directing the
+energy into wonted and open channels, attention prevents both the
+movements and the feeling that are concomitants of a disturbance of
+nervous equilibrium. By meeting the attack of the dog in a purposeful
+and attentive manner, we cause the otherwise damming-up nervous energy
+to continue flowing into ordinary channels, and in this way prevent both
+the feeling of fear and also the flow of the energy into the motor
+centres associated with the particular emotion. But while it is not
+scientifically correct in a particular case to say that we may inhibit
+the feeling by inhibiting the move<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[340]</a></span>ments, it is of course true that, by
+avoiding a present emotional outburst, we are less likely in the future
+to respond to situations which tend to arouse the emotional state. On
+the other hand, to give way frequently to any emotional state will make
+it more difficult to avoid yielding to the emotion under similar
+conditions.</p>
+
+
+<h3>OTHER TYPES OF FEELING</h3>
+
+<p><b>Mood.</b>&mdash;Our feelings and emotions become organized and developed in
+various ways. The sum total of all the feeling tones of our sensory and
+ideational processes at any particular time gives us our <i>mood</i> at that
+time. If, for instance, our organic sensations are prevailingly
+pleasant, if the ideas we dwell upon are tinged with agreeable feeling,
+our mood is cheerful. We can to a large extent control our current of
+thought, and can as we will, except in case of serious bodily
+disturbances, attend, or not attend, to our organic sensations.
+Consequently we are ourselves largely responsible for the moods we
+indulge.</p>
+
+<p><b>Disposition.</b>&mdash;A particular kind of mood frequently indulged in
+produces a type of emotional habit, our <i>disposition</i>. For instance, the
+teacher who permits the occurrences of the class-room to trouble him
+unnecessarily, and who broods over these afterwards, soon develops a
+worrying disposition. As we have it in our power to determine what
+habits, emotional and otherwise, we form, we alone are responsible for
+the dispositions we cultivate.</p>
+
+<p><b>Temperament.</b>&mdash;Some of us are provided with nervous systems that are
+predisposed to particular moods. This predisposition, together with
+frequent indulgence in particular types of mood, gives us our
+<i>temperament</i>. The responsibility for this we share with our ancestors,
+but,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[341]</a></span> even though predisposed through heredity to unfortunate moods, we
+can ourselves decide whether we shall give way to them. Temperaments
+have been classified as <i>sanguine</i>, <i>melancholic</i>, <i>choleric</i>, and
+<i>phlegmatic</i>. The sanguine type is inclined to look on the bright side
+of things, to be optimistic; the melancholic tends to moodiness and
+gloom; the choleric is easily irritated, quick to anger; the phlegmatic
+is not easily aroused to emotion, is cold and sluggish. An individual
+seldom belongs exclusively to one type.</p>
+
+<p><b>Sentiments.</b>&mdash;Certain emotional tendencies become organized about an
+object and constitute a <i>sentiment</i>. The sentiment of love for our
+mother had its basis in our childhood in the perception of her as the
+source of numberless experiences involving pleasant feeling tones. As we
+grew older, we understood better her solicitude for our welfare and her
+sacrifices for our sake&mdash;further experiences involving a large feeling
+element. Thus there grew up about our mother an organized system of
+emotional tendencies, our sentiment of filial love. Such sentiments as
+patriotism, religious faith, selfishness, sympathy, arise and develop in
+the same way. Compared with moods, sentiments are more permanent in
+character and involve more complex knowledge elements. Moreover, they do
+not depend upon physiological conditions as do moods. One's organic
+sensations may affect one's mood to a considerable extent, but will
+scarcely influence one's patriotism or filial love.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[342]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX"></a>CHAPTER XXX</h2>
+
+<h2>THE WILL</h2>
+
+<h3>VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF ACTION</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Types of Movement.</b>&mdash;Closely associated with the problem of voluntary
+attention is that of voluntary movement, or control of action. It is an
+evident fact that the infant can at first exercise no conscious control
+over his bodily movements. He has, it is true, certain reflex and
+instinctive tendencies which enable him to react in a definite way to
+certain special stimuli. In such cases, however, there is no conscious
+control of the movements, the bodily organs merely responding in a
+definite way whenever the proper stimulus is present. The eye, for
+instance, must wink when any foreign matter affects it; wry movements of
+the face must accompany the bitter taste; and the body must start at a
+sudden noise. At other times, bodily movements may be produced in a more
+spontaneous way. Here the physical energy stored within the system gives
+rise to bodily activity and causes those random impulsive movements so
+evident during infancy and early childhood. When these movements, which
+are the only ones possible to very early childhood, are compared with
+the movements of a workman placing the brick in the wall or of an artist
+executing a delicate piece of carving, there is found in the latter
+movements the conscious idea of a definite end, or object, to be
+reached. To gain control of one's movements is, therefore, to acquire an
+ability to direct bodily actions toward the attainment of a given end.
+Thus a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[343]</a></span> question arises as to the process by which a child attains to
+this bodily control.</p>
+
+<p><b>Ideas of Movements Acquired.</b>&mdash;Although, as pointed out above, a
+child's early instinctive and impulsive movements are not under
+conscious control, they nevertheless become conscious acts, in the sense
+that the movements are soon realized in idea. The movements, in other
+words, give rise to conscious states, and these in turn are retained as
+portions of past experience. For instance, although the child at first
+grasps the object only impulsively, he nevertheless soon obtains an
+idea, or experience, of what it means to grasp with the hand. So, also,
+although he may first stretch the limb impulsively or make a wry face
+reflexively, he secures, in a short time, ideas representative of these
+movements. As the child thus obtains ideas representative of different
+bodily movements, he is able ultimately, by fixing his attention upon
+any movement, to produce it in a voluntary way.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of Control: A. Ideo-motor Action.</b>&mdash;At first, on account of
+the close association between the thought centres and the motor centres
+causing the act, the child seems to have little ability to check the
+act, whenever its representative idea enters consciousness. It is for
+this reason that young children often perform such seemingly
+unreasonable acts as, for instance, slapping another person, kicking and
+throwing objects, etc. In such cases, however, it must not be assumed
+that these are always deliberate acts. More often the act is performed
+simply because the image of the act arises in the child's mind, and his
+control of the motor discharge is so weak that the act follows
+immediately upon the idea. This same tendency frequently manifests
+itself even in the adult. As one thinks intently of some favourite game,
+he may suddenly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[344]</a></span> find himself taking a bodily position used in playing
+that game. It is by the same law also that the impulsive man tends to
+act out in gesture any act that he may be describing in words. Such a
+type of action is described as ideo-motor action.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Deliberate Action.</b>&mdash;Because the child in time gains ideas of
+various movements and an ability to fix his attention upon them, he thus
+becomes able to set one motor image against another as possible lines of
+action. One image may suggest to slap; the other to caress; the one to
+pull the weeds in the flower bed; the other, to lie down in the hammock.
+But attention is ultimately able, as noted in the last Chapter, so to
+control the impulse and resistance in the proper nervous centres that
+the acts themselves may be indefinitely suspended. Thus the mind becomes
+able to conceive lines of action and, by controlling bodily movement,
+gain time to consider the effectiveness of these toward the attainment
+of any end. When a bodily movement thus takes place in relation to some
+conscious end in view, it is termed a deliberate act. One important
+result of physical exercises with the young child is that they develop
+in him this deliberate control of bodily movements. The same may be said
+also of any orderly modes of action employed in the general management
+of the school. Regular forms of assembly and dismissal, of moving about
+the class-room, etc., all tend to give the child this same control over
+his acts.</p>
+
+<p><b>Action versus Result.</b>&mdash;As already noted, however, most of our
+movements soon develop into fixed habits. For this reason our bodily
+acts are usually performed more or less unconsciously, that is, without
+any deliberation as to the mere act itself. For this reason, we find
+that when bodily movements are held in check, or inhibited, in order<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[345]</a></span> to
+allow time for deliberation, attention usually fixes itself, not upon
+the acts themselves, but rather upon the results of these acts. For
+instance, a person having an axe and a saw may wish to divide a small
+board into two parts. Although the axe may be in his hand, he is
+thinking, not how he is to use the axe, but how it will result if he
+uses this to accomplish the end. In the same way he considers, not how
+to use the saw, but the result of using the saw. By inhibiting the motor
+impulses which would lead to the use of either of these, the individual
+is able to note, say, that to use the axe is a quick, but inaccurate,
+way of gaining the end; to use the saw, a slow, but accurate, way. The
+present need being interpreted as one where only an approximate division
+is necessary, attention is thereupon given wholly to the images tending
+to promote this action; resistance is thus overcome in these centres,
+and the necessary motor discharges for using the axe are given free
+play. Here, however, the mind evidently does not deliberate on how the
+hands are to use the axe or the saw, but rather upon the results
+following the use of these.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VOLITION</h3>
+
+<p><b>Nature of Will.</b>&mdash;When voluntary attention is fixed, as above, upon the
+results of conflicting lines of action, the mind is said to experience a
+conflict of desires, or motives. So long as this conflict lasts,
+physical expression is inhibited, the mind deliberating upon and
+comparing the conflicting motives. For instance, a pupil on his way to
+school may be thrown into a conflict of motives. On the one side is a
+desire to remain under the trees near the bank of the stream; on the
+other a desire to obey his parents, and go to school. So long as these
+desires each press themselves upon the attention, there results an
+inhibiting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[346]</a></span> of the nervous motor discharge with an accompanying mental
+state of conflict, or indecision. This prevents, for the time being, any
+action, and the youth deliberates between the two possible lines of
+conduct. As he weighs the various elements of pleasure on the one hand
+and of duty on the other, the one desire will finally appear the
+stronger. This constitutes the person's choice, or decision, and a line
+of action follows in accordance with the end, or motive, chosen. This
+mental choice, or decision, is usually termed an act of will.</p>
+
+<p><b>Attention in Will.</b>&mdash;Such a choice between motives, however, evidently
+involves an act of voluntary attention. What really goes on in
+consciousness in such a conflict of motives is that voluntary attention
+makes a single problem of the twofold situation&mdash;school versus play. To
+this problem the attention marshals relative ideas and selects and
+adjusts them to the complex problem. Finally these are built into an
+organized experience which solves the problem as one, say, of going to
+school. The so-called choice is, therefore, merely the mental solution
+of the situation; the necessary bodily action follows in an habitual
+manner, once the attention lessens the resistance in the appropriate
+centres.</p>
+
+<p><b>Factors in Volitional Act.</b>&mdash;Such an act of volition, or will, is
+usually analysed in the following steps:</p>
+
+<p>1. Conflicting desires</p>
+
+<p>2. Deliberation&mdash;weighing of motives</p>
+
+<p>3. Choice&mdash;solving the problem</p>
+
+<p>4. Expression.</p>
+
+<p>As a mental process, however, an act of will does not include the fourth
+step&mdash;expression. The mind has evidently willed, the moment a
+conclusion, or choice, is reached<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[347]</a></span> in reference to the end in view. If,
+therefore, I stand undecided whether to paint the house white or green,
+an act of will has taken place when the conclusion, or mental decision,
+has been reached to paint the house green. On the other hand, however,
+only the man who forms a decision and then resolutely works out his
+decision through actual expression, will be credited with a strong will
+by the ordinary observer.</p>
+
+<p><b>Physical Conditions of Will.</b>&mdash;Deliberation being but a special case of
+giving voluntary attention to a selected problem, it involves the same
+expenditure of nervous energy in overcoming resistance within the brain
+centres as was seen to accompany any act of voluntary attention. Such
+being the case, our power of will at any given time is likely to vary in
+accordance with our bodily condition. The will is relatively weak during
+sickness, for instance, because the normal amount of nervous energy
+which must accompany the mental processes of deliberation and choice is
+not able to be supplied. For the same reason, lack of food and sleep,
+working in bad air, etc., are found to weaken the will for facing a
+difficulty, though we may nevertheless feel that it is something that
+ought to be done. An added reason, therefore, why the victim of alcohol
+and narcotics finds it difficult to break his habit is that the use of
+these may permanently lessen the energy of the nervous organism. In
+facing the difficult task of breaking an old habit, therefore, this
+person has rendered the task doubly difficult, because the indulgence
+has weakened his will for undertaking the struggle of breaking an old
+habit. On the other hand, good food, sleep, exercise in the fresh air,
+by quickening the blood and generating nervous energy, in a sense
+strengthens the will in undertaking the duties and responsibilities
+before it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[348]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>ABNORMAL TYPES OF WILL</h3>
+
+<p><b>The Impulsive Will.</b>&mdash;One important problem in the education of the
+will is found in the relation of deliberation to choice. As is the case
+in a process of learning, the mind in deliberating must draw upon past
+experiences, must select and weigh conflicting ideas in a more or less
+intelligent manner, and upon this basis finally make its choice. A first
+characteristic of a person of will, therefore, is to be able to
+deliberate intelligently upon any different lines of action which may
+present themselves. But in the case of many individuals, there seems a
+lack of this power of deliberation. On every hand they display almost a
+childlike impulsiveness, rushing blindly into action, and always
+following up the word with the blow. This type, which is spoken of as an
+impulsive will, is likely to prevail more or less among young children.
+It is essential, therefore, that the teacher should take this into
+account in dealing with the moral and the practical actions of these
+children. It should be seen that such children in their various
+exercises are made to inhibit their actions sufficiently to allow them
+to deliberate and choose between alternative modes of action. For this
+purpose typical forms of constructive work will be found of educational
+value. In such exercises situations may be continually created in which
+the pupil must deliberate upon alternative lines of action and make his
+choice accordingly.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Retarded Will.</b>&mdash;In some cases a type of will is met in which the
+attention seems unable to lead deliberation into a state of choice. Like
+Hamlet, the person keeps ever weighing whether <i>to be or not to be</i> is
+the better course. Such people are necessarily lacking in achievement,
+although always intending to do great things in the future. This type of
+will is not so prevalent among young<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[349]</a></span> children; but if met, the teacher
+should, as far as possible, encourage the pupil to pass more rapidly
+from thought to action.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sluggish Will.</b>&mdash;A third and quite common defect of will is seen
+where the mind is either too ignorant or too lazy to do the work of
+deliberating. While such characters are not impulsive, they tend to
+follow lines of action merely by habit, or in accordance with the
+direction of others, and do little thinking for themselves. The only
+remedy for such people is, of course, to quicken their intellectual
+life. Unless this can be done, the goodness of their character must
+depend largely upon the nobility of those who direct the formation of
+their habits and do their thinking for them.</p>
+
+<p><b>Development of Will.</b>&mdash;By recalling what has been established
+concerning the learning process, we may learn that most school
+exercises, when properly conducted, involve the essential facts of an
+act of will. In an ordinary school exercise, the child first has before
+him a certain aim, or problem, and then must select from former
+experience the related ideas which will enable him to solve this
+problem. So far, however, as the child is led to select and reject for
+himself these interpreting ideas, he must evidently go through a process
+similar to that of an ordinary act of will. When, for example, the child
+faces the problem of finding out how many yards of carpet of a certain
+width will cover the floor of a room, he must first decide how to find
+the number of strips required. Having come to a decision on this point,
+he must next give expression to his decision by actually working out
+this part of the problem. In like manner, he must now decide how to
+proceed with the next step in his problem and, having come to a
+conclusion on this point, must also give it expression by performing
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[350]</a></span> necessary mathematical processes. It is for this reason, that the
+ordinary lessons and exercises of the school, when presented to the
+children as actual problems, constitute an excellent means for
+developing will power.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Essentials of Moral Character.</b>&mdash;It must be noted finally, that
+will power is a third essential factor in the attainment of real moral
+character, or social efficiency. We have learned that man, through the
+possession of an intelligent nature, is able to grasp the significance
+of his experience and thus form comprehensive plans and purposes for the
+regulation of his conduct. We have noted further that, through the
+development of right feeling, he may come to desire and plan for the
+attainment of only such ends as make for righteousness. Yet, however
+noble his desires, and however intelligent and comprehensive his plans
+and purposes, it is only as he develops a volitional personality, or
+determination of character which impels toward the attainment of these
+noble ends through intelligent plans, that man can be said to live the
+truly efficient life.</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">These three alone lead life to sovereign power.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>In this connection, also, we cannot do better than quote Huxley's
+description of an educated man, as given in his essay on <i>A Liberal
+Education</i>, a description which may be considered to crystallize the
+true conception of an efficient citizen:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so
+trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will,
+and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism,
+it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine,
+with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order;
+ready, like a steam engine,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[351]</a></span> to be turned to any kind of work, and
+spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose
+mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths
+of nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted
+ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained
+to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender
+conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature
+or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself.</p></div><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[352]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI"></a>CHAPTER XXXI</h2>
+
+<h2>CHILD STUDY</h2>
+
+
+<p><b>Scope and Purpose of Child Study.</b>&mdash;By child study is meant the
+observation of the general characteristics and the leading individual
+differences exhibited by children during the periods of infancy,
+childhood, and adolescence. Its purpose is to gather facts regarding
+childhood and formulate them into principles that are applicable in
+education. From the teacher's standpoint, the purpose is to be able to
+adapt intelligently his methods in each subject to the child's mind at
+the different stages of its development.</p>
+
+<p>In the education of the child we have our eyes fixed, at least partly,
+upon his future. The aim of education is usually stated in terms of what
+the child is to <i>become</i>. He is to become a socially efficient
+individual, to be fitted to live completely, to develop a good moral
+character, to have his powers of mind and body harmoniously developed.
+All these aims look toward the future. But what the child <i>becomes</i>
+depends upon what he <i>is</i>. Education, in its broadest sense, means
+taking the individual's present equipment of mind and body and so using
+it as to enable him to become something else in the future. The teacher
+must be concerned, therefore, not only with what he wishes the child to
+<i>become</i> in the future, but also with what he <i>is</i>, here and now.</p>
+
+<p><b>Importance to the Teacher.</b>&mdash;The adaptation of matter and method to the
+child's tendencies, capacities, and interests, which all good teaching
+demands, is possible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[353]</a></span> only through an understanding of his nature. The
+teacher must have regard, not only to the materials and the method used
+in training, but also to the being who is to be trained. A knowledge of
+child nature will prevent expensive mistakes and needless waste.</p>
+
+<p>A few typical examples will serve to illustrate the immense importance a
+knowledge of child nature is to his teacher.</p>
+
+<p>1. As has been already explained, when the teacher knows something about
+the instincts of children, he will utilize these tendencies in his
+teaching and work with them, not against them. He will, wherever
+possible, make use of the play instinct in his lessons, as for example,
+when he makes the multiplication drill a matter of climbing a stairway
+without stumbling or crossing a stream on stones without falling in. He
+will use the instinct of physical activity in having children learn
+number combinations by manipulating blocks, or square measure by
+actually measuring surfaces, or fractions by using scissors and strips
+of cardboard, or geographical features by modelling in sand and clay. He
+will use the imitative instinct in cultivating desirable personal
+habits, such as neatness, cleanliness, and order, and in modifying
+conduct through the inspiring presentation of history and literature. He
+will provide exercise for the instinct of curiosity by suggesting
+interesting problems in geography and nature study.</p>
+
+<p>2. When the teacher understands the principle of eliminating undesirable
+tendencies by substitution, he will not regard as cardinal sins the
+pushing, pinching, and kicking in which boys give vent to their excess
+energy, but will set about directing this purposeless activity into more
+profitable channels. He will thus substitute another means of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[354]</a></span>
+expression for the present undesirable means. He will, for instance,
+give opportunity for physical exercises, paper-folding and cutting,
+cardboard work, wood-work, drawing, colour work, modelling, etc., so far
+as possible in all school subjects. He will try to transform the boy who
+teases and bullies the smaller boys into a guardian and protector. He
+will try to utilize the boy's tendency to collect useless odds and ends
+by turning it into the systematic and purposeful collection of plants,
+insects, specimens of soils, specimens illustrating phases of
+manufactures, postage stamps, coins, etc.</p>
+
+<p>3. When the teacher knows that the interests of pupils have much to do
+with determining their effort, he will endeavour to seize upon these
+interests when most active. He will thus be saved such blunders as
+teaching in December a literature lesson on <i>An Apple Orchard in the
+Spring</i>, or assigning a composition on "Tobogganing" in June, because he
+realizes that the interest in these topics is not then active. Each
+season, each month of the year, each festival and holiday has its own
+particular interests, which may be effectively utilized by the
+presentation of appropriate materials in literature, in composition, in
+nature study, and in history. A current event may be taken advantage of
+to teach an important lesson in history or civics. For instance, an
+election may be made the occasion of a lesson on voting by ballot, a
+miniature election being conducted for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>4. When the teacher appreciates the extent of the capacities of
+children, he will not make too heavy demands upon their powers of
+logical reasoning by introducing too soon the study of formal grammar or
+the solution of difficult arithmetical problems. When he knows that the
+period from eight to twelve is the habit-forming period,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[355]</a></span> he will
+stress, during these years such things as mechanical accuracy in the
+fundamental rules in arithmetic, the memorization of gems of poetry, and
+the cultivation of right physical and moral habits. When he knows the
+influence of motor expression in giving definiteness, vividness, and
+permanency to ideas, he will have much work in drawing, modelling,
+constructive work, dramatization, and oral and written expression.</p>
+
+
+<h3>METHODS OF CHILD STUDY</h3>
+
+<p><b>A. Observation.</b>&mdash;From the teacher's standpoint the method of
+observation of individual children is the most practicable. He has the
+material for his observations constantly before him. He soon discovers
+that one pupil is clever, another dull; that one excels in arithmetic,
+another in history; that one is inclined to jump to conclusions, another
+is slow and deliberate. He is thus able to adapt his methods to meet
+individual requirements. But however advantageous this may be from the
+practical point of view, it must be noted that the facts thus secured
+are individual and not universal. Such child study does not in itself
+carry one very far. To be of real value to the teacher, these particular
+facts must be recognized as illustrative of a general law. When the
+teacher discovers, for instance, that nobody in his class responds very
+heartily to an abstract discussion of the rabbit, but that everybody is
+intensely interested when the actual rabbit is observed, he may regard
+the facts as illustrating the general principle that children need to be
+appealed to through the senses. Likewise when he obtains poor results in
+composition on the topic, "How I Spent My Summer Holidays," but
+excellent results on "How to Plant Bulbs," especially after the pupils
+have planted a bed of tulips on the front<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[356]</a></span> lawn, he may infer the law,
+that the best work is obtained when the matter is closely associated
+with the active interests of pupils. By watching the children when they
+are on the school grounds, the teacher may observe how far the
+occupations of the home, or a current event, such as a circus, an
+election, or a war, influences the play of the children. Thus the method
+of observation requires that not only individual facts should be
+obtained, but also that general principles should be inferred on the
+basis of these. Care must be taken, however, that the facts observed
+justify the inference.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Experiment.</b>&mdash;An experiment in any branch of science means the
+observation of results under controlled conditions. Experimental child
+study must, to a large extent, therefore, be relegated to the
+psychological laboratory. Such experiments as the localization of
+cutaneous impressions, the influence of certain operations on fatigue,
+or the discovery of the length of time necessary for a conscious
+reaction, can be successfully carried out only with more or less
+elaborate equipment and under favourable conditions. However, the school
+offers opportunity for some simple yet practical experiments in child
+study. The teacher may discover experimentally what is the most
+favourable period at which to place a certain subject on the school
+programme, whether, for instance, it is best to take mechanical
+arithmetic when the minds of the pupils are fresh or when they are
+weary, or whether the writing lesson had better be taught immediately
+after the strenuous play at recess or at a time when the muscles are
+rested. He may find out the response of the pupils to problems in
+arithmetic closely connected with their lives (for example, in a rural
+community problems relating to farm activities), as compared with their
+response to problems<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[357]</a></span> involving more or less remote ideas. He may
+discover to what extent concentration in securing neat exercises in one
+subject, composition for instance, affects the exercises in other
+subjects in which neatness has not been explicitly demanded. This latter
+experiment might throw some light upon the much debated question of
+formal discipline. In all these cases the teacher must be on his guard
+not to accept as universal principles what he has found to be true of a
+small group of pupils, until at least he has found his conclusions
+verified by other experimenters.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Direct Questions.</b>&mdash;This method involves the submission of questions
+to pupils of a particular age or grade, collecting and classifying their
+answers, and basing conclusions upon these. Much work in this direction
+has been done in recent years by certain educators, and much
+illuminating and more or less useful material has been collected. A good
+deal of light has been thrown upon the apperceptive material that
+children have possession of by noting their answers to such questions
+as: "Have you ever seen the stars? A robin? A pig? Where does milk come
+from? Where do potatoes come from?" etc., etc. The practical value of
+this method lies in the insight it gives into the interests of children,
+the kind of imagery they use, and the relationships they have set up
+among their ideas. Every teacher has been surprised at times at the
+absurd answers given by children. These absurdities are usually due to
+the teacher's taking for granted that the pupils have possession of
+certain old knowledge that is actually absent. The moral of such
+occurrences is that he should examine very carefully what "mind stuff"
+the pupils have for interpreting the new material.</p>
+
+<p><b>D. Biographical Studies of Individual Children.</b>&mdash;Many books have been
+written describing the development<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[358]</a></span> of individual children. These
+descriptions doubtless contain much that is typical of all children, but
+one must be careful not to argue too much from an individual case. Such
+records are valuable as confirmatory evidence of what has already been
+observed in connection with other children, or as suggestive of what may
+be looked for in them.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT</h3>
+
+<p>The period covered by child study may be roughly divided into three
+parts, namely, (1) infancy, extending from birth to three years of age,
+(2) childhood, from three to twelve, and (3) adolescence, from twelve to
+eighteen. While children during each of these periods exhibit striking
+dissimilarities one from another, there are nevertheless many
+characteristics that are fairly universal during each period.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>1. INFANCY</b></p>
+
+<p><b>A. Physical Characteristics.</b>&mdash;One of the striking features of infancy
+is the rapidity with which command of the bodily organs is secured.
+Starting with a few inherited reflexes, the child at three years of age
+has attained fairly complete control of his sense organs and bodily
+movements, though he lacks that co-ordination of muscles by which
+certain delicate effects of hand and voice are produced. The relative
+growth is greater at this than at any subsequent period. Another
+prominent characteristic is the tendency to incessant movement. The
+constant handling, exploring, and analysing of objects enhances the
+child's natural thirst for knowledge, and he probably obtains a larger
+stock of ideas during the first three years of his life than during any
+equal period subsequently.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Mental Characteristics.</b>&mdash;A conspicuous feature of infancy is the
+imitative tendency, which early manifests<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[359]</a></span> itself. Through this means
+the child acquires many of his movements, his language power, and the
+simple games he plays. Sense impressions begin to lose their fleeting
+character and to become more permanent. As evidence of this, few
+children remember events farther back than their third year, while many
+can distinctly recall events of the third and fourth years even after
+the lapse of a long period of time. The child at this period begins to
+compare, classify, and generalize in an elementary way, though his ideas
+are still largely of the concrete variety. His attention is almost
+entirely non-voluntary; he is interested in objects and activities for
+themselves alone, and not for the sake of an end. He is, as yet, unable
+to conceive remote ends, the prime condition of voluntary attention. His
+ideas of right and wrong conduct are associated with the approval and
+disapproval of those about him.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>2. CHILDHOOD</b></p>
+
+<p><b>A. Physical Characteristics.</b>&mdash;In the earlier period of childhood, from
+three to seven years, bodily growth is very rapid. Much of the vital
+force is thus consumed, and less energy is available for physical
+activity. The child has also less power of resistance and is thus
+susceptible to the diseases of childhood. His movements are for the same
+reason lacking in co-ordination. In the later period, from seven to
+twelve years, the bodily growth is less rapid, more energy is available
+for physical activity, and the co-ordination of muscles is greater. The
+brain has now reached its maximum size and weight, any further changes
+being due to the formation of associative pathways along nerve centres.
+This is, therefore, pre-eminently the habit-forming period. From the
+physical standpoint this means that those activities that are
+essentially habitual must have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[360]</a></span> their genesis during the period between
+seven and twelve if they are to function perfectly in later life. The
+mastery of a musical instrument must be begun then if technique is ever
+to be perfect. If a foreign language is to be acquired, it should be
+begun in this period, or there will always be inaccuracies in
+pronunciation and articulation.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Mental Characteristics.</b>&mdash;The instinct of curiosity is very active
+in the earlier period of childhood, and this, combined with greater
+language power, leads to incessant questionings on the part of the
+child. He wants to know what, where, why, and how, in regard to
+everything that comes under his notice, and fortunate indeed is that
+child whose parent or teacher is sufficiently long-suffering to give
+satisfactory answers to his many and varied questions. To ignore the
+inquiries of the child, or to return impatient or grudging answers may
+inhibit the instinct and lead later to a lack of interest in the world
+about him. The imitative instinct is also still active and reveals
+itself particularly in the child's play, which in the main reflects the
+activities of those about him. He plays horse, policeman, school,
+Indian, in imitation of the occupations of others. Parents and teachers
+should depend largely upon this imitative tendency to secure desirable
+physical habits, such as erect and graceful carriage, cleanliness of
+person, orderly arrangement of personal belongings, neatness in dress,
+etc. The imagination is exceedingly active during childhood, fantastic
+and unregulated in the earlier period, under better control and
+direction in the later. It reveals itself in the love of hearing,
+reading, or inventing stories. The imitative play mentioned above is one
+phase of imaginative activity. The child's ideas of conduct, in this
+earlier stage of childhood, are derived from the pleasure or pain of
+their consequences. He has as yet little power of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[361]</a></span> subordinating his
+lower impulses to an ideal end, and hence is not properly a moral being.
+Good conduct must, therefore, be secured principally through the
+exercise of arbitrary authority from without.</p>
+
+<p>In the later period of childhood, acquired interests begin to be formed
+and, coincident with this, active attention appears. The child begins to
+be interested in the product, not merely in the process. The mind at
+this period is most retentive of sense impressions. This is consequently
+the time to bring the child into immediate contact with his environment
+through his senses, in such departments as nature study and field work
+in geography. Thus is laid the basis of future potentialities of
+imagery, and through it appreciation of literature. On account of the
+acuteness of sense activity at this period, this is also the time for
+memorization of fine passages of prose and poetry. The child's thinking
+is still of the pictorial rather than of the abstract order, though the
+powers of generalization and language are considerably extended. The
+social interests are not yet strong, and hence co-operation for a common
+purpose is largely absent. His games show a tendency toward
+individualism. When co-operative games are indulged in, he is usually
+willing to sacrifice the interests of his team to his own personal
+glorification.</p>
+
+
+<p style="text-align: center;"><b>3. ADOLESCENCE</b></p>
+
+<p><b>A. Physical Characteristics.</b>&mdash;In early adolescence the characteristic
+physical accompaniments of early childhood are repeated, namely, rapid
+growth and lack of muscular co-ordination. From twelve to fifteen, girls
+grow more rapidly than boys and are actually taller and heavier than
+boys at corresponding ages. From fifteen onward, however, the boys
+rapidly outstrip the girls in growth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[362]</a></span> Lack of muscular co-ordination is
+responsible for the awkward movements, ungainly appearance, ungraceful
+carriage, with their attendant self-consciousness, so characteristic of
+both boys and girls in early adolescence.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Mental Characteristics.</b>&mdash;Ideas are gradually freed from their
+sensory accompaniments. The child thinks in symbols rather than in
+sensory images. Consequently there is a greater power of abstraction and
+reflective thought. This is therefore the period for emphasizing those
+subjects requiring logical reasoning, for example, mathematics, science,
+and the reflective aspects of grammar, history, and geography.</p>
+
+<p>From association with others or from literature and history, ideals
+begin to be formed which influence conduct. This is brought about
+largely through the principle of suggestion. In the early years of
+adolescence children are very susceptible to suggestions, but the
+suggestive ideas must be introduced by a person who is trusted, admired,
+or loved, or under circumstances inspiring these feelings; hence the
+importance to the adolescent of having teachers of strong and inspiring
+personality. However, if the suggestive idea is to influence action, it
+must be introduced in such a way as not to set up a reaction against it.
+Reaction will be set up if the idea is antagonistic to the present
+ideas, feelings, or aims, or if it is so persistently thrust upon the
+child that he begins to suspect that he is being unduly influenced. To
+avoid reaction the parent or teacher should introduce suggestive ideas
+indirectly. For instance, while the mind is concentrated upon one set of
+ideas, a suggestive idea that would otherwise be distasteful may be
+tolerated. It may lie latent for a time, and when it recurs it may be
+regarded as original, under which condition it is likely to issue in
+action.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[363]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The adolescent stage is the period of greatest emotional development,
+and care should therefore be exercised to have the child's mind dwell
+upon only those ideas with which worthy emotions are associated. The
+emotional bent, whether good or bad, is determined to a large extent
+during this period of adolescence. So far as morality is the
+subordination of primitive instincts to higher ideas, the child now
+becomes a moral being. His conduct is now determined by reason and by
+ideals, and the primitive pleasure-pain motives disappear. It follows
+that coercion and arbitrary authority have little place in discipline at
+this period. Social interests are prominent, evidenced by the tendency
+to co-operate with others for a common end. The games of the period are
+mainly of the co-operative variety and are marked by a willingness to
+sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the team, or side.</p>
+
+
+<h3>INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES</h3>
+
+<p>While, as noted above, all children have certain common characteristics
+at each of the three periods of development, it is even more apparent
+that every child is in many respects different from every other child.
+He has certain peculiarities that demand particular treatment. It is
+evident that it would be impossible to enumerate all the individual
+differences in children. The most that can be done is to classify the
+most striking differences and endeavour to place individual children in
+one or other of these classes.</p>
+
+<p><b>A. Differences in Thought.</b>&mdash;One of the obvious classifications of
+pupils is that of "quick" and "slow." The former learns easily, but
+often forgets quickly; the latter learns slowly, but usually retains
+well. The former is keen and alert; the latter, dull and passive. The
+former<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[364]</a></span> frequently lacks perseverance; the latter is often tenacious and
+persistent. The former unjustly wins applause for his cleverness; the
+latter, equally unjustly, wins contempt for his dulness. The teacher
+must not be unfair to the dull plodder, who in later years may
+frequently outstrip his brilliant competitor in the race of life.</p>
+
+<p>Some pupils think better in the abstract, others, in the concrete. The
+former will analyse and parse well in grammar, distinguish fine shades
+of meaning in language, manage numbers skilfully, or work out chemical
+equations accurately. The latter will be more successful in doing
+things, for instance, measuring boards, planning and planting a garden
+plot, making toys, designing dolls' clothes, and cooking. The schools of
+the past have all emphasized the ability to think in the abstract, and
+to a large extent ignored the ability to think in the concrete. This is
+unfair to the one class of thinkers. From the ranks of those who think
+in the abstract have come the great statesmen, poets, and philosophers;
+from the ranks of those who think in the concrete have come the
+carpenters, builders, and inventors. It will be admitted that the world
+owes as great a debt from the practical standpoint to the latter class
+as to the former. Let the school not despise or ignore the pupil who,
+though unable to think well in abstract studies, is able to do things.</p>
+
+<p><b>B. Differences in Action.</b>&mdash;There is a marked difference among children
+in the ability to connect an abstract direction with the required act.
+This is particularly seen in writing, art, and constructive work,
+subjects in which the aim is the formation of habit, and in which
+success depends upon following explicitly the direction given. The
+teacher will find it economical to give very definite instruction as to
+what is to be done in work in these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[365]</a></span> subjects. It is equally important
+that instructions regarding conduct should be definite and unmistakable.</p>
+
+<p>As explained in the last Chapter, there are two extreme and contrasting
+types of will exhibited by children, namely, the impulsive type and the
+obstructed type. In the former, action occurs without deliberation
+immediately upon the appearance of the idea in consciousness. This type
+is illustrated in the case of the pupil who, as soon as he hears a
+question, thoughtlessly blurts out an answer without any reflection
+whatever. In the adult, we find a similar illustration when, immediately
+upon hearing a pitiable story from a beggar, he hands out a dollar
+without stopping to investigate whether or not the action is
+well-advised. It is useless to plead in extenuation of such actions that
+the answer may be correct or the act noble and generous. The probability
+is equally great that the opposite may be the case. The remedy for
+impulsive action is patiently and persistently to encourage the pupil to
+reflect a moment before acting. In the case of the obstructed type of
+will, the individual ponders long over a course of action before he is
+able to bring himself to a decision. Such is the child whom it is hard
+to persuade to answer even easy questions, because he is unable to
+decide in just what form to put his answer. On an examination paper he
+proceeds slowly, not because he does not know the matter, but because he
+finds it hard to decide just what facts to select and how to express
+them. The bashful child belongs to this type. He would like to answer
+questions asked him, to talk freely with others, to act without any
+feeling of restraint, but is unable to bring himself to do so. The
+obstinate child is also of this type. He knows what he ought to do, but
+the opposing motives are strong enough to inhibit action in the right
+direction.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[366]</a></span> As already shown, the remedy for the obstructed will is to
+encourage rapid deliberation and choice and then immediate action,
+thrusting aside all opposing motives. Show such pupils that in cases
+where the motives for and against a certain course of action are of
+equal strength, it often does not matter which course is selected. One
+may safely choose either and thus end the indecision. The "quick" child
+usually belongs to the impulsive type; the "slow" child, to the
+obstructed type. The former is apt to decide and act hastily and
+frequently unwisely; the latter is more guarded and, on the whole, more
+sound in his decision and action.</p>
+
+<p><b>C. Differences in Temperament.</b>&mdash;All four types of temperament given in
+the formal classification are represented among children in school. The
+<i>choleric</i> type is energetic, impulsive, quick-tempered, yet forgiving,
+interested in outward events. The <i>phlegmatic</i> type is impassive,
+unemotional, slow to anger, but not of great kindness, persistent in
+pursuing his purposes. The <i>sanguine</i> type is optimistic,
+impressionable, enthusiastic, but unsteady. The <i>melancholic</i> type is
+pessimistic, introspective, moody, suspicious of the motives of others.
+Most pupils belong to more than one class. Perhaps the two most
+prominent types represented in school are (1) that variety of the
+sanguine temperament which leads the individual to think himself, his
+possessions, and his work superior to all others, and (2) that variety
+of the melancholic temperament which leads the individual to fancy
+himself constantly the victim of injustice on the part of the teacher or
+the other pupils. A pupil of the first type always believes that his
+work is perfectly done; he boasts that he is sure he made a hundred per
+cent. on his examinations; what he has is always, in his own estimation,
+better than that of others.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[367]</a></span> When the teacher suggests that his work
+might be better done, the pupil appears surprised and aggrieved. Such a
+child should be shown that he is right in not being discouraged over his
+own efforts, but wrong in thinking that his work does not admit of
+improvement. A pupil of the second type is continually imagining that
+the teacher treats him unjustly, that the other pupils slight or injure
+him, that, in short, he is an object of persecution. Such a pupil should
+be shown that nobody has a grudge against him, that the so-called
+slights are entirely imaginary, and that he should take a sane view of
+these things, depending more upon judgment than on feeling to estimate
+the action of others toward him.</p>
+
+<p><b>D. Sex Differences.</b>&mdash;Boys differ from girls in the predominance of
+certain instincts, interests, and mental powers. In boys the fighting
+instinct, and capacities of leadership, initiative, and mastery are
+prominent. In girls the instinct of nursing and fondling, and the
+capacities to comfort and relieve are prominent. These are revealed in
+the games of the playground. The interests of the two sexes are
+different, since their games and later pursuits are different. In a
+system of co-education it is impossible to take full cognizance of this
+fact in the work of the school. Yet it is possible to make some
+differentiation between the work assigned to boys and that assigned to
+girls. For instance, arithmetical problems given to boys might deal with
+activities interesting to boys, and those to girls might deal with
+activities interesting to girls. In composition the differentiation will
+be easier. Such a topic as "A Game of Baseball" would be more suitable
+for boys, and on the other hand "How to Bake Bread" would make a
+stronger appeal to girls. Similarly in literature, such a poem as <i>How
+They Brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[368]</a></span> the Good News from Ghent to Aix</i> would be particularly
+interesting to boys, while <i>The Romance of a Swan's Nest</i> would be of
+greater interest to girls. As to mental capacities, boys are usually
+superior in those fields where logical reasoning is demanded, while
+girls usually surpass boys in those fields involving perceptive powers
+and verbal memory. For instance, boys succeed better in mathematics,
+science, and the reflective phases of history; girls succeed better in
+spelling, in harmonizing colours in art work, in distinguishing fine
+shades of meaning in language, and in memorizing poetry. The average
+intellectual ability of each sex is nearly the same, but boys deviate
+from the average more than girls. Thus while the most brilliant pupils
+are likely to be boys, the dullest are also likely to be boys. It is a
+scientific fact that there are more individuals of conspicuously clever
+mind, but also more of weak intellect, among men than there are among
+women.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Caution.</b>&mdash;While it has been stated that the teacher should take
+notice of individual differences in his pupils, it may be advisable also
+to warn the student-teacher against any extravagant tendency in the
+direction of such a study. A teacher is occasionally met who seems to
+act on the assumption that his chief function is not to educate but to
+study children. Too much of his time may therefore be spent in the
+conducting of experiments and the making of observations to that end.
+While the data thus secured may be of some value, it must not be
+forgotten that control of the subject-matter of education and of the
+method of presenting that subject-matter to the normal child, together
+with an earnest, enthusiastic, and sympathetic manner, are the prime
+qualifications of the teacher as an instructor.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[369]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Suggested Readings from Books of Reference</span></p>
+
+
+<p>
+CHAPTER I<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter I.<br />
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter II.<br />
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter I.<br />
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter I.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER II<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        Educational Values, Chapters I, II, III.<br />
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter III.<br />
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter I.<br />
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VI.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER III<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XIV.<br />
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter I.<br />
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XI.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER IV<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters II, XV.<br />
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part I.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapters VI, VII.<br />
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter XVIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER V<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter I.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter III.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER VI<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter III.<br />
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part II.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapters I, IV.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[370]</a></span>Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter XIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER VII<br />
+<br />
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER VIII<br />
+<br />
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I.<br />
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER IX<br />
+<br />
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV.<br />
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VII.<br />
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part II.<br />
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter II.<br />
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter III.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER X<br />
+<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VII.<br />
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VI.<br />
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapters IV, IX.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XI<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter VI.<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, V, IX.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XII<br />
+<br />
+Betts         Psychology, Chapter XVI.<br />
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter XIII.<br />
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter IX.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XIII<br />
+<br />
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI.<br />
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VII.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XIV<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[371]</a></span>McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter III.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XV<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters XIX, XX.<br />
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter XXII.<br />
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapters VIII, X.<br />
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters V, VI.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XVI<br />
+<br />
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter III.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XVII<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters XXI, XXII.<br />
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter IV.<br />
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters IV, VIII, X.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XVIII<br />
+<br />
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XII.<br />
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Educative Process, Chapter XI.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XIX<br />
+<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter I.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Education, Chapter I.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter II.<br />
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter I.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XX<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter II.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter III.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter II.<br />
+Halleck       Education of the Central Nervous System.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXI<br />
+<br />
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV.<br />
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter X.<br />
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter III.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[372]</a></span>Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter IV.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXII<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter III.<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter VII.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter V.<br />
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV.<br />
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter VIII.<br />
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter XIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXIII<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter IV.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter II.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V.<br />
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXIV<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter XXI.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XIII.<br />
+James         Talks to Teachers, Chapter X.<br />
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXV<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters V, VI.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VI.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapters IV, VII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXVI<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter IX.<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XI.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VIII.<br />
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter III.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXVII<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter VIII.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter IX.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXVIII<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters X, XII.<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IX, X.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter X.<br />
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter XXII.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter IX.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[373]</a></span>Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXIX<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters XIII, XIV.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapters XII, XIV.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapters XI, XII.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXX<br />
+<br />
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters XX, XXII.<br />
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XV.<br />
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter XIII.<br />
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+CHAPTER XXXI<br />
+<br />
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter XII.<br />
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter V.<br />
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science
+of Education, by Ontario Ministry of Education
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of
+Education, by Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science of Education
+
+Author: Ontario Ministry of Education
+
+Release Date: May 25, 2006 [EBook #18451]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ONTARIO NORMAL SCHOOL MANUALS
+
+SCIENCE OF EDUCATION
+
+
+AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
+
+TORONTO THE RYERSON PRESS
+
+COPYRIGHT, CANADA, 1915, BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION FOR ONTARIO
+
+Second Printing, 1919.
+Third Printing, 1923.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I
+
+THE PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
+
+CHAPTER I                                  PAGE
+
+NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION               1
+  Conditions of Growth and Development        2
+  Worth in Human Life                         4
+  Factors in Social Efficiency                6
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FORMS OF REACTION                             9
+  Instinctive Reaction                        9
+  Habitual Reaction                          10
+  Conscious Reaction                         11
+  Factors in process                         12
+  Experience                                 13
+  Relative value of experiences              15
+  Influence of Conscious Reaction            17
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PROCESS OF EDUCATION                         19
+  Conscious Adjustment                       19
+  Education as Adjustment                    19
+  Education as Control of Adjustment         22
+  Requirements of the Instructor             24
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM                        25
+  Purposes of Curriculum                     25
+  Dangers in Use of Curriculum               28
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS                     34
+  The School                                 34
+  Other Educative Agents                     35
+    The church                               35
+    The home                                 36
+    The vocation                             36
+    Other institutions                       36
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL                    38
+  Civic Views                                38
+  Individualistic Views                      40
+  The Eclectic View                          43
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY               46
+  Control of Experience                      46
+  The Instructor's Problems                  48
+    General method                           49
+    Special methods                          49
+    School management                        50
+    History of education                     50
+
+
+PART II
+
+METHODOLOGY
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+GENERAL METHOD                               52
+  Subdivisions of Method                     52
+  Method and Mind                            53
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE LESSON PROBLEM                           55
+  Nature of Problem                          55
+  Need of Problem                            57
+  Pupil's Motive                             59
+  Awakening Interest                         61
+  Knowledge of Problem                       67
+  How to Set Problem                         69
+  Examples of Motivation                     71
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY             75
+  The Selecting Process                      77
+  Law of Preparation                         82
+    Value of preparation                     83
+    Precautions                              84
+    Necessity of preparation                 85
+    Examples of preparation                  86
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY              89
+  Nature of Synthesis                        90
+  Interaction of Processes                   91
+    Knowledge unified                        94
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE                     95
+  Types of Action                            96
+  Nature of Expression                       97
+  Types of Expression                        99
+  Value of Expression                       100
+  Dangers of Omitting                       102
+  Expression and Impression                 103
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATION                106
+  The Lecture Method                        106
+  The Text-book Method                      109
+    Uses of text-book                       111
+    Abuse of text-book                      113
+  The Developing Method                     113
+  The Objective Method                      116
+  The Illustrative Method                   118
+    Precautions                             119
+  Modes of Presentation Compared            121
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE                 122
+
+  Acquisition of Particular Knowledge       122
+    Through senses                          122
+    Through imagination                     122
+    By deduction                            123
+  Acquisition of General Knowledge          124
+    By conception                           124
+    By induction                            125
+    Applied knowledge general               126
+  Processes of Acquiring Knowledge Similar  127
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MODES OF LEARNING                           129
+  Development of Particular Knowledge       129
+    Learning through senses                 129
+    Learning through imagination            131
+    Learning by deduction                   133
+    Examples for study                      137
+  Development of General Knowledge          139
+    The conceptual lesson                   139
+    The inductive lesson                    140
+    The formal steps                        141
+    Conception as learning process          143
+    Induction as learning process           144
+    Further examples                        145
+    The inductive-deductive lesson          148
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE LESSON UNIT                             150
+  Whole to Parts                            151
+  Parts to Whole                            154
+  Precautions                               155
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+LESSON TYPES                                156
+  The Study Lesson                          157
+  The Recitation Lesson                     160
+    Conducting recitation lesson            161
+    The Drill Lesson                        162
+    The Review Lesson                       165
+      The topical review                    166
+      The comparative review                169
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+QUESTIONING                                 171
+  Qualifications of Good Questioner         171
+  Purposes of Questioning                   173
+  Socratic Questioning                      174
+  The Question                              177
+  The Answer                                179
+  Limitations                               181
+
+
+PART III
+
+EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+CONSCIOUSNESS                               183
+  Value of Educational Psychology           186
+    Limitations                             186
+  Methods of Psychology                     187
+  Phases of Consciousness                   189
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+MIND AND BODY                               192
+  The Nervous System                        192
+  The Cortex                                198
+  Reflex Acts                               199
+  Characteristics of Nervous Matter         202
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+INSTINCT                                    207
+  Human Instincts                           209
+    Curiosity                               214
+    Imitation                               217
+    Play                                    221
+      Play in education                     223
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+HABIT                                       226
+  Formation of Habits                       230
+  Value of Habits                           231
+  Improvement of Habits                     234
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ATTENTION                                   237
+  Attention Selective                       240
+  Involuntary Attention                     243
+  Non-voluntary Attention                   245
+  Voluntary Attention                       246
+  Attention in Education                    251
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE FEELING OF INTEREST                     257
+  Classes of Feelings                       258
+  Interest in Education                     261
+    Development of interests                264
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SENSE PERCEPTION                            267
+  Genesis of Perception                     270
+  Factors in Sensation                      273
+  Classification of Sensations              274
+  Education of the Senses                   276
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION                     282
+  Distinguished                             283
+  Factors of Memory                         284
+  Conditions of Memory                      285
+  Types of Recall                           288
+  Localization of Time                      290
+  Classification of Memories                290
+  Memory in Education                       291
+  Apperception                              293
+    Conditions of Apperception              294
+    Factors in Apperception                 296
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+IMAGINATION                                 298
+  Types of Imagination                      299
+    Passive                                 299
+    Active                                  300
+  Uses of Imagination                       301
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+THINKING                                    304
+  Conception                                305
+    Factors in concept                      309
+    Aims of conceptual lessons              310
+    The definition                          313
+  Judgment                                  315
+    Errors in judgment                      317
+  Reasoning                                 320
+    Deduction                               320
+    Induction                               323
+  Development of Reasoning Power            328
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+FEELING                                     330
+  Conditions of Feeling Tone                331
+  Sensuous Feelings                         334
+  Emotion                                   334
+    Conditions of emotion                   335
+  Other Types of Feeling                    340
+    Mood                                    340
+    Disposition                             340
+    Temperament                             340
+    Sentiments                              341
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE WILL                                    342
+  Types of Movement                         342
+  Development of Control                    343
+  Volition                                  345
+    Factors in volitional act               346
+  Abnormal Types of Will                    348
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+CHILD STUDY                                 352
+  Methods of Child Study                    355
+  Periods of Development                    358
+    Infancy                                 358
+    Childhood                               359
+    Adolescence                             361
+  Individual Differences                    363
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+  SUGGESTED READINGS                        369
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION
+
+PART I. PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+NATURE AND PURPOSE OF EDUCATION
+
+
+=Value of Scientific Knowledge.=--In the practice of any intelligent
+occupation or art, in so far as the practice attains to perfection,
+there are manifested in the processes certain scientific principles and
+methods to which the work of the one practising the art conforms. In the
+successful practice, for example, of the art of composition, there are
+manifested the principles of rhetoric; in that of housebuilding, the
+principles of architecture; and in that of government, the principles of
+civil polity. In practising any such art, moreover, the worker finds
+that a knowledge of these scientific principles and methods will guide
+him in the correct practice of the art,--a knowledge of the science of
+rhetoric assisting in the art of composition; of the science of
+architecture, in the art of housebuilding; and of the science of civil
+polity, in the art of government.
+
+=The Science of Education.=--If the practice of teaching is an
+intelligent art, there must, in like manner, be found in its processes
+certain principles and methods which may be set forth in systematic form
+as a science of education, and applied by the educator in the art of
+teaching. Assuming the existence of a science of education, it is
+further evident that the student-teacher should make himself acquainted
+with its leading principles, and likewise learn to apply these
+principles in his practice of the art of teaching. To this end,
+however, it becomes necessary at the outset to determine the limits of
+the subject-matter of the science. We shall, therefore, first consider
+the general nature and purpose of education so far as to decide the
+facts to be included in this science.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
+
+=A. Physical Growth.=--Although differing in their particular conception
+of the nature of education, all educators agree in setting the child as
+the central figure in the educative process. As an individual, the
+child, like other living organisms, develops through a process of inner
+changes which are largely conditioned by outside influences. In the case
+of animals and plants, physical growth, or development, is found to
+consist of changes caused in the main through the individual responding
+to external stimulation. Taking one of the simplest forms of animal
+life, for example, the amoeba, we find that when stimulated by any
+foreign matter not constituting its food, say a particle of sand, such
+an organism at once withdraws itself from the stimulating elements. On
+the other hand, if it comes in contact with suitable food, the amoeba
+not only flows toward it, but by assimilating it, at once begins to
+increase in size, or grow, until it finally divides, or reproduces,
+itself as shown in the following figures. Hence the amoeba as an
+organism is not only able to react appropriately toward different
+stimuli, but is also able to change itself, or develop, by its
+appropriate reactions upon such stimulations.
+
+In plant life, also, the same principle holds. As long as a grain of
+corn, wheat, etc., is kept in a dry place, the life principle stored up
+within the seed is unable to manifest itself in growth. When, on the
+other hand, it is appropriately stimulated by water, heat, and light,
+the seed awakens to life, or germinates. In other words, the seed
+reacts upon the external stimulations of water, heat, and light, and
+manifests the activity known as growth, or development. Thus all
+physical growth, whether of the plant or the animal, is conditioned on
+the energizing of the inherent life principle, in response to
+appropriate stimulation of the environment.
+
+[Illustration: A. Simple amoeba.
+B. An amoeba developing as a result of assimilating food.
+C. An amoeba about to divide, or propagate.]
+
+
+=B. Development in Human Life.=--In addition to its physical nature,
+human life has within it a spiritual law, or principle, which enables
+the individual to respond to suitable stimulations and by that means
+develop into an intelligent and moral being. When, for instance, waves
+of light from an external object stimulate the nervous system through
+the eye, man is able, through his intelligent nature, to react mentally
+upon these stimulations and, by interpreting them, build up within his
+experience conscious images of light, colour, and form. In like manner,
+when the nerves in the hand are stimulated by an external object, the
+mind is able to react upon the impressions and, by interpreting them,
+obtain images of touch, temperature, and weight. In the sphere of
+action, also, the child who is stimulated by the sight of his elder
+pounding with a hammer, sweeping with a broom, etc., reacts imitatively
+upon such stimulations, and thus acquires skill in action. So also when
+stimulated by means of his human surroundings, as, for example, through
+the kindly acts of his mother, father, etc., he reacts morally toward
+these stimulations and thus develops such social qualities as sympathy,
+love, and kindness. Nor are the conditions of development different in
+more complex intellectual problems. If a child is given nine blocks on
+which are printed the nine digits, and is asked to arrange them in the
+form of a square so that each of the horizontal and the vertical columns
+will add up to fifteen, there is equally an inner growth through
+stimulation and response. In such a case, since the answer is unknown to
+the child, the problem serves as a stimulation to his mind. Furthermore,
+it is only by reacting upon this problem with his present knowledge of
+the value of the various digits when combined in threes, as 1, 6, 8; 5,
+7, 3; 9, 2, 4; 1, 5, 9; etc., that the necessary growth of knowledge
+relative to the solution of the problem will take place within the mind.
+
+
+WORTH IN HUMAN LIFE
+
+But the possession of an intellectual and moral nature which responds to
+appropriate stimulations implies, also, that as man develops
+intellectually, he will find meaning in human life as realized in
+himself and others. Thus he becomes able to recognize worth in human
+life and to determine the conditions which favour its highest growth, or
+development.
+
+=The Worthy Life not a Natural Growth.=--Granting that it is thus
+possible to recognize that "life is not a blank," but that it should
+develop into something of worth, it by no means follows that the young
+child will adequately recognize and desire a worthy life, or be able to
+understand and control the conditions which make for its development.
+Although, indeed, there is implanted in his nature a spiritual tendency,
+yet his early interests are almost wholly physical and his attitude
+impulsive and selfish. Left to himself, therefore, he is likely to
+develop largely as a creature of appetite, controlled by blind passions
+and the chance impressions of the moment. Until such time, therefore, as
+he obtains an adequate development of his intellectual and moral life,
+his behaviour conforms largely to the wants of his physical nature, and
+his actions are irrational and wasteful. Under such conditions the young
+child, if left to himself to develop in accordance with his native
+tendencies through the chance impressions which may stimulate him from
+without, must fall short of attaining to a life of worth. For this
+reason education is designed to control the growth, or development, of
+the child, by directing his stimulations and responses in such a way
+that his life may develop into one of worth.
+
+=Character of the Worthy Life.=--If, however, it is possible to add to
+the worth of the life of the child by controlling and modifying his
+natural reactions, the first problem confronting the scientific educator
+is to decide what constitutes a life of worth. This question belongs
+primarily to ethics, or the science of right living, to which the
+educator must turn for his solution. Here it will be learned that the
+higher life is one made up of moral relations. In other words, the
+perfect man is a social man and the perfect life is a life made up of
+social rights and duties, wherein one is able to realize his own good
+in conformity with the good of others, and seek his own happiness by
+including within it the happiness of others. But to live a life of
+social worth, man must gain such control over his lower physical wants
+and desires that he can conform them to the needs and rights of others.
+He must, in other words, in adapting himself to his social environment,
+develop a sense of duty toward his fellows which will cause him to act
+in co-operation with others. He must refuse, for instance, to satisfy
+his own want by causing want to others, or to promote his own desires by
+giving pain to others. Secondly, he must obtain such control over his
+physical surroundings, including his own body, that he is able to make
+these serve in promoting the common good. In the worthy life, therefore,
+man has so adjusted himself to his fellow men that he is able to
+co-operate with them, and has so adjusted himself to his physical
+surroundings that he is able to make this co-operation effective, and
+thus live a socially efficient life.
+
+
+FACTORS IN SOCIAL EFFICIENCY
+
+=A. Knowledge, a Factor in Social Efficiency.=--The following simple
+examples will more fully demonstrate the factors which enter into the
+socially efficient life. The young child, for instance, who lives on the
+shore of one of our great lakes, may learn through his knowledge of
+colour to distinguish between the water and the sky on the horizon line.
+This knowledge, he finds, however, does not enter in any degree into his
+social life within the home. When on the same basis, however, he learns
+to distinguish between the ripe and the unripe berries in the garden, he
+finds this knowledge of service in the community, or home, life, since
+it enables him to distinguish the fruit his mother may desire for use
+in the home. One mark of social efficiency, therefore, is to possess
+knowledge that will enable us to serve effectively in society.
+
+=B. Skill, a Factor in Social Efficiency.=--In the sphere of action,
+also, the child might acquire skill in making stones skip over the
+surface of the lake. Here, again, however, the acquired skill would
+serve no purpose in the community life, except perhaps occasionally to
+enable him to amuse himself or his fellows. When, on the other hand, he
+acquires skill in various home occupations, as opening and closing the
+gates, attending to the furnace, harnessing and driving the horse, or
+playing a musical instrument, he finds that this skill enables him in
+some measure to serve in the community life of which he is a member. A
+second factor in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession of such
+skill as will enable us to co-operate effectively within our social
+environment.
+
+=C. Right Feeling, a Factor in Social Efficiency.=--But granting the
+possession of adequate knowledge and skill, a man may yet fall far short
+of the socially efficient life. The machinist, for instance, may know
+fully all that pertains to the making of an excellent engine for the
+intended steamboat. He may further possess the skill necessary to its
+actual construction. But through indifference or a desire for selfish
+gain, this man may build for the vessel an engine which later, through
+its poor construction, causes the loss of the ship and its crew. A third
+necessary requisite in social efficiency, therefore, is the possession
+of a sense of duty which compels us to use our knowledge and skill with
+full regard to the feelings and rights of others. Thus a certain amount
+of socially useful knowledge, a certain measure of socially effective
+skill, and a certain sense of moral obligation, or right feeling, all
+enter as factors into the socially efficient life.
+
+
+FORMAL EDUCATION
+
+Assuming that the educator is thus able to distinguish what constitutes
+a life of worth, and to recognize and in some measure control the
+stimulations and reactions of the child, it is evident that he should be
+able to devise ways and means by which the child may grow into a more
+worthy, that is, into a more socially efficient, life. Such an attempt
+to control the reactions of the child as he adjusts himself to the
+physical and social world about him, in order to render him a more
+socially efficient member of the society to which he belongs, is
+described as formal education.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+FORMS OF REACTION
+
+
+INSTINCTIVE REACTION
+
+Since the educator aims to direct the development of the child by
+controlling his reactions upon his physical and social surroundings, we
+have next to consider the forms under which these reactions occur. Even
+at birth the human organism is endowed with certain tendencies, which
+enable it to react effectively upon the presentation of appropriate
+stimuli. Our instinctive movements, such as sucking, hiding, grasping,
+etc., being inherited tendencies to react under given conditions in a
+more or less effective manner for our own good, constitute one type of
+reactive movement. At birth, therefore, the child is endowed with
+powers, or tendencies, which enable him to adapt himself more or less
+effectively to his surroundings. Because, however, the child's early
+needs are largely physical, many of his instincts, such as those of
+feeding, fighting, etc., lead only to self-preservative acts, and are,
+therefore, individual rather than social in character. Even these
+individual tendencies, however, enable the child to adjust himself to
+his surroundings, and thus assist that physical growth without which, as
+will be learned later, there could be no adequate intellectual and moral
+development. But besides these, the child inherits many social and
+adaptive tendencies--love of approbation, sympathy, imitation,
+curiosity, etc., which enable him of himself to participate in some
+measure in the social life about him.
+
+=Instinct and Education.=--Our instincts being inherited tendencies, it
+follows that they must cause us to react in a somewhat fixed manner upon
+particular external stimulation. For this reason, it might be assumed
+that these tendencies would build up our character independently of
+outside interference or direction. If such were the case, instinctive
+reactions would not only lie beyond the province of formal education,
+but might even seriously interfere with its operation, since our
+instinctive acts differ widely in value from the standpoint of the
+efficient life. It is found, however, that human instincts may not only
+be modified but even suppressed through education. For example, as we
+shall learn in the following paragraphs, instinctive action in man may
+be gradually supplanted by more effective habitual modes of reaction.
+Although, therefore, the child's instinctive tendencies undoubtedly play
+a large part in the early informal development of his character outside
+the school, it is equally true that they can be brought under the
+direction of the educator in the work of formal education. For that
+reason a more thorough study of instinctive forms of reaction, and of
+their relation to formal education, will be made in Chapter XXI.
+
+
+HABITUAL REACTION
+
+A second form of reaction is known as habit. On account of the plastic
+character of the matter constituting the nervous tissue in the human
+organism, any act, whether instinctive, voluntary, or accidental, if
+once performed, has a tendency to repeat itself under like
+circumstances, or to become habitual. The child, for example, when
+placed amid social surroundings, by merely yielding to his general
+tendencies of imitation, sympathy, etc., will form many valuable modes
+of habitual reaction connected with eating, dressing, talking,
+controlling the body, the use of household implements, etc. For this
+reason the early instinctive and impulsive acts of the child gradually
+develop into definite modes of action, more suited to meet the
+particular conditions of his surroundings.
+
+=Habit and Education.=--Furthermore, the formation of these habitual
+modes of reaction being largely conditioned by outside influences, it is
+possible to control the process of their formation. For this reason, the
+educator is able to modify the child's natural reactions, and develop in
+their stead more valuable habits. No small part of the work of formal
+education, therefore, must consist in adding to the social efficiency of
+the child by endowing him with habits making for neatness, regularity,
+accuracy, obedience, etc. A detailed study of habit in its relation to
+education will be made in Chapter XXII.
+
+
+CONSCIOUS REACTION
+
+=An Example.=--The third and highest form of human reaction is known as
+ideal, or conscious, reaction. In this form of reaction the mind,
+through its present ideas, reacts upon some situation or difficulty in
+such a way as to adjust itself satisfactorily to the problem with which
+it is faced. As an example of such a conscious reaction, or adjustment,
+may be taken the case of a young lad who was noticed standing over a
+stationary iron grating through which he had dropped a small coin. A few
+moments later the lad was seen of his own accord to take up a rod lying
+near, smear the end with tar and grease from the wheel of a near by
+wagon, insert the rod through the grating, and thus recover his lost
+coin. An analysis of the mental movements involved previously to the
+actual recovery of the coin will illustrate in general the nature of a
+conscious reaction, or adjustment.
+
+=Factors Involved in Process.=--In such an experience the consciousness
+of the lad is at the outset occupied with a definite problem, or felt
+need, demanding adjustment--the recovering of the lost coin, which need
+acts as a stimulus to the consciousness and gives direction and value to
+the resulting mental activity. Acting under the demands of this problem,
+or need, the mind displays an intelligent initiative in the selecting of
+ideas--stick, adhesion, tar, etc., felt to be of value for securing the
+required new adjustment. The mind finally combines these selected ideas
+into an organized system, or a new experience, which is accepted
+mentally as an adequate solution of the problem. The following factors
+are found, therefore, to enter into such an ideal, or conscious,
+reaction:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The conscious reaction is the result of a definite
+problem, or difficulty, presented in consciousness and grasped by the
+mind as such--How to recover the coin.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--To meet the solution of this problem use is
+made of ideas which already form a part of the lad's present experience,
+or knowledge, and which are felt by him to have a bearing on the
+presented problem.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--These elements of former experience are
+organized by the child into a mental plan which he believes adequate to
+solve the problem before him.
+
+4. _Application._--This resulting mental plan serves to guide a further
+physical reaction, which constitutes the actual removal of the
+difficulty--the recovery of the coin.
+
+=Significance of Conscious Reactions.=--In a conscious reaction upon any
+situation, or problem, therefore, the mind first uses its present ideas,
+or experience, in weighing the difficulties of the situation, and it is
+only after it satisfies itself in theory that a solution has been
+reached that the physical response, or application of the plan, is made.
+Hence the individual not only directs his actions by his higher
+intelligent nature, but is also able to react effectively upon varied
+and unusual situations. This, evidently, is not so largely the case with
+instinctive or habitual reactions. For efficient action, therefore,
+there must often be an adequate mental adjustment prior to the
+expression of the physical action. For this reason the value of
+consciousness consists in the guidance it affords us in meeting the
+demands laid upon us by our surroundings, or environment. This will
+become more evident, however, by a brief examination into the nature of
+experience itself.
+
+
+EXPERIENCE
+
+=Its Value.=--In the above example of conscious adjustment it was found
+that a new experience arises naturally from an effort to meet some need,
+or problem, with which the mind is at the time confronted. Our ideas,
+therefore, naturally organize themselves into new experiences, or
+knowledge, to enable us to gain some desired end. It was in order to
+effect the recovery of the lost coin, for example, that conscious effort
+was put forth by the lad to create a mental plan which should solve the
+problem. Primarily, therefore, man is a doer and his ideas, or
+knowledge, is meant to be practical, or to be applied in directing
+action. It is this fact, indeed, which gives meaning and purpose to the
+conscious states of man. Hour by hour new problems arise demanding
+adjustment; the mind grasps the import of the situation, selects ways
+and means, organizes these into an intelligent plan, and directs their
+execution, thus enabling us:
+
+    Not without aim to go round
+    In an eddy of purposeless dust.
+
+=Its Theoretic or Intellectual Value.=--But owing to the value which
+thus attaches to any experience, a new experience may be viewed as
+desirable apart from its immediate application to conduct. Although, for
+instance, there is no immediate physical need that one should learn how
+to resuscitate a drowning person, he is nevertheless prepared to make of
+it a problem, because he feels that such knowledge regarding his
+environment may enter into the solution of future difficulties. Thus the
+value of new experience, or knowledge, is often remote and intellectual,
+rather than immediate and physical, and looks to the acquisition of
+further experience quite as much as to the directing of present physical
+movement. Beyond the value they may possess in relation to the removal
+of present physical difficulty, therefore, experiences may be said to
+possess a secondary value in that they may at any time enter into the
+construction of new experiences.
+
+=Its Growth: A. Learning by Direct Experience.=--The ability to recall
+and use former experience in the upbuilding of an intelligent new
+experience is further valuable, in that it enables a person to secure
+much experience in an indirect rather than in a direct way, and thus
+avoid the direct experience when such would be undesirable. Under direct
+experience we include the lessons which may come to us at first hand
+from our surroundings, as when the child by placing his hand upon a
+thistle learns that it has sharp prickles, or by tasting quinine learns
+that it is bitter. In this manner direct experience is a teacher,
+continually adjusting man to his environment; and it is evident that
+without an ability to retain our experiences and turn them to use in
+organizing a new experience without expressing it in action, all
+conscious adjustments would have to be secured through such a direct
+method.
+
+=B. Learning Indirectly.=--Since man is able to retain his experiences
+and organize them into new experiences, he may, if desirable, enter into
+a new experience in an indirect, or theoretic, way, and thus avoid the
+harsher lessons of direct experience. The child, for example, who knows
+the discomfort of a pin-prick may apply this, without actual expression,
+in interpreting the danger lurking in the thorn. In like manner the
+child who has fallen from his chair realizes thereby, without giving it
+expression, the danger of falling from a window or balcony. It is in
+this indirect, or theoretic, way that children in their early years
+acquire, by injunction and reproof, much valuable knowledge which
+enables them to avoid the dangers and to shun the evils presented to
+them by their surroundings. By the same means, also, man is able to
+extend his knowledge to include the experiences of other men and even of
+other ages.
+
+=Relative Value of Experiences.=--While the value of experience consists
+in its power to adjust man to present or future problems, and thus
+render his action more efficient, it is to be noted that different
+experiences may vary in their value. Many of these, from the point of
+their value in meeting future problems or making adjustments, must
+appear trivial and even useless. Others, though adapted to meet our
+needs, may do this in a crude and ineffective manner. As an
+illustration of such difference in value, compare the effectiveness and
+accuracy of the notation possessed by primitive men as illustrated in
+the following strokes:
+
+     1, 11, 111, 1111, 11111, 111111, etc.,
+
+with that of our present system of notation as suggested in:
+
+     1, 10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 1000000, etc.
+
+In like manner to experience that ice is cold is trivial in comparison
+with experiencing its preservative effects as seen in cold storage or
+its medicinal effects in certain diseases; to know that soda is white
+would be trivial in comparison with a knowledge of its properties in
+baking.
+
+=Man Should Participate in Valuable Experiences.=--Of the three forms of
+human reaction, instinctive, habitual, and conscious, or ideal, it is
+evident that, owing to its rational character, ideal reaction is not
+only the most effective, but also the only one that will enable man to
+adjust himself to unusual situations. For this reason, and because of
+the difference in value of experiences themselves, it is further evident
+that man should participate in those experiences which are most
+effective in facilitating desired adjustments or in directing right
+conduct. It is found, moreover, that this participation can be effected
+by bringing the child's experiencing during his early years directly
+under control. It is held by some, indeed, that the whole aim of
+education is to reconstruct and enrich the experiences of the child and
+thereby add to his social efficiency. Although this conception of
+education leaves out of view the effects of instinctive and habitual
+reaction, it nevertheless covers, as we shall see later, no small part
+of the purpose of formal education.
+
+
+INFLUENCE OF CONSCIOUS REACTION
+
+=A. On Instinctive Action.=--Before concluding our survey of the various
+forms of reaction, it may be noted that both instinctive and habitual
+action are subject to the influence of conscious reaction. As a child's
+early instinctive acts develop into fixed habits, his growing knowledge
+aids in making these habits intelligent and effective. Consciousness
+evidently aids, for example, in developing the instinctive movements of
+the legs into the rhythmic habitual movements of walking, and those of
+the hands into the later habits of holding the spoon, knife, cup, etc.
+Greater still would be the influence of consciousness in developing the
+crude instinct of self-preservation into the habitual reactions of the
+spearman or boxer. In general, therefore, instinctive tendencies in man
+are subject to intelligent training, and may thereby be moulded into
+effective habits of reaction.
+
+=B. On Habitual Action.=--Further new habits may be established and old
+ones improved under the direction of conscious reaction. When a child
+first learns to represent the number four by the symbol, the problem is
+necessarily met at first through a conscious adjustment. In other words,
+the child must mentally associate into a single new experience the
+number idea and certain ideas of form and of muscular movement.
+Although, however, the child is conscious of all of these factors when
+he first attempts to give expression to this experience, it is clear
+that very soon the expressive act of writing the number is carried on
+without any conscious direction of the process. In other words, the
+child soon acquires the habit of performing the act spontaneously, or
+without direction from the mind. Inversely, any habitual mode of
+action, in whatever way established, may, if we possess the necessary
+experience, be represented in idea and be accepted or corrected
+accordingly. A person, for instance, who has acquired the necessary
+knowledge of the laws of hygiene, may represent ideally both his own and
+the proper manner of standing, sitting, reclining, etc., and seek to
+modify his present habits accordingly. The whole question of the
+relation of conscious to habitual reaction will, however, be considered
+in Chapter XXII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE PROCESS OF EDUCATION
+
+
+CONSCIOUS ADJUSTMENT
+
+From the example of conscious adjustment previously considered, it would
+appear that the full process of such an adjustment presents the
+following characteristics:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The individual conceives the existence within his
+environment of a difficulty which demands adjustment, or which serves as
+a problem calling for solution.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--With this problem as a motive, there takes
+place within the experience of the individual a selecting of ideas felt
+to be of value for solving the problem which calls for adjustment.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--These relevant ideas are associated in
+consciousness and form a new experience believed to overcome the
+difficulty involved in the problem. This new experience is accepted,
+therefore, mentally, as a satisfactory plan for meeting the situation,
+or, in other words, it adjusts the individual to the problem in hand.
+
+4. _Expression._--This new experience is expressed in such form as is
+requisite to answer fully the need felt in the original problem.
+
+
+EDUCATION AS ADJUSTMENT
+
+=Example from Writing.=--An examination of any ordinary educative
+process taken from school-room experience will show that it involves in
+some degree the factors mentioned above.
+
+As a very simple example, may be taken the case of a young child
+learning to form capital letters with short sticks. Assuming that he has
+already copied letters involving straight lines, such as A, H, etc., the
+child, on meeting such a letter as C or D, finds himself face to face
+with a new problem. At first he may perhaps attempt to form the curves
+by bending the short thin sticks. Hereupon, either through his own
+failure or through some suggestion of his teacher, he comes to see a
+short, straight line as part of a large curve. Thereupon he forms the
+idea of a curve composed of a number of short, straight lines, and on
+this principle is able to express himself in such forms as are shown
+here.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In this simple process of adjustment there are clearly involved the four
+stages referred to above, as follows:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The forming of a curved letter by means of straight
+sticks.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--Selecting of the ideas straight and curved
+and the fixing of attention upon them.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--An organization of the selected ideas into a
+new experience in which the curve is viewed as made up of a number of
+short, straight lines.
+
+4. _Expression._--Working out the physical expression of the new
+experience in the actual forming of capitals involving curved lines.
+
+=Example from Arithmetic.=--An analysis of the process by which a child
+learns that there are four twos in eight, shows also the following
+factors:
+
+1. _The Problem._--To find out how many twos are contained in the
+vaguely known eight.
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--To meet this problem the pupil is led from
+his present knowledge of the number two, to proceed to divide eight
+objects into groups of two; and, from his previous knowledge of the
+number four, to measure the number of these groups of two.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--Next the three ideas two, four, and eight are
+translated into a new experience, constituting a mental solution of the
+present problem.
+
+4. _Expression._--This new experience expresses itself in various ways
+in the child's dealings with the number problems connected with his
+environment.
+
+=Example from Geometry.=--Taking as another example the process by which
+a student may learn that the exterior angle of a triangle is equal to
+the two interior and opposite angles, there appear also the same stages,
+thus:
+
+1. _The Problem._--The conception of a difficulty or problem in the
+geometrical environment which calls for solution, or adjustment--the
+relation of the angle _a_ to the angles _b_ and _c_ in Figure 1.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3]
+
+2. _A Selecting Process._--With this problem as a motive there follows,
+as suggested by Figure 2, the selecting of a series of ideas from the
+previous experiences of the pupil which seem relative to, or are
+considered valuable for solving the problem in hand.
+
+3. _A Relating Process._--These relative ideas pass into the formation
+of a new experience, as illustrated in Figure 3, constituting the
+solution of the problem.
+
+4. _Expression._--A further applying of this experience may be made in
+adjusting the pupil to other problems connected with his geometric
+environment; as, for example, to discover the sum of the interior angles
+of a triangle.
+
+
+EDUCATION AS CONTROL OF ADJUSTMENT
+
+The examples of adjustment taken from school-room practice, are found,
+however, to differ in one important respect from the previous example
+taken from practical life. This difference consists in the fact that in
+the recovery of the coin the modification of experience took place
+wholly without control or direction other than that furnished by the
+problem itself. Here the problem--the recovery of the coin--presents
+itself to the child and is seized upon as a motive by his attention
+solely on account of its own value; secondly, this problem of itself
+directs a flow of relative images which finally bring about the
+necessary adjustment. In the examples taken from the school, on the
+other hand, the processes of adjustment are, to a greater or less
+extent, directed and regulated through the presence of some type of
+educative agent. For instance, when a student goes through the process
+of learning the relation of the exterior angle to the two interior and
+opposite angles, the control of the process appears in the fact that the
+problem is directly presented to the student as an essential step in a
+sequence of geometric problems, or adjustments. The same direction or
+control of the process is seen again in the fact that the student is not
+left wholly to himself, as in the first example, to devise a solution,
+but is aided and directed thereto, first, in that the ideas bearing upon
+the problem have previously been made known to the student through
+instruction, and secondly, in that the selecting and adjusting of these
+former ideas to the solution of the new problem is also directed through
+the agency of either a text-book or a teacher. A conscious adjustment,
+therefore, which is brought about without direction from another,
+implies only a process of learning on the part of the child, while a
+controlled adjustment implies both a process of learning on the part of
+the child and a process of teaching on the part of an instructor. For
+scientific treatment, therefore, it is possible to limit formal
+education, so far as it deals with conscious adjustment, to those
+modifications of experience which are directed or controlled through an
+educative agent, or, in other words, are brought about by means of
+instruction.
+
+
+REQUIREMENTS OF THE INSTRUCTOR
+
+Formal education being an attempt to direct the development of the child
+by controlling his stimulations and responses through the agency of an
+instructor, we may now understand in general the necessary
+qualifications and offices of the teacher in directing the educative
+process.
+
+1. The teacher must understand what constitutes the worthy life; that
+is, he must have a definite aim in directing the development of the
+child.
+
+2. He must know what stimulations, or problems, are to be presented to
+the child in order to have him grow, or develop, into this life of
+worth.
+
+3. He must know how the physical, intellectual, and moral nature of the
+child reacts upon these appropriate stimulations.
+
+4. He must have skill in presenting the stimuli, or problems, to the
+child and in bringing its mind to react appropriately thereon.
+
+5. He must, in the case of conscious reactions, see that the child not
+only acquires the new experience, but that he is also able to apply it
+effectively. In other words, he must see that the child acquires not
+only knowledge, but also skill in the use of knowledge.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM
+
+
+=Valuable Experience: Race Knowledge.=--Since education aims largely to
+increase the effectiveness of the moral conduct of the child by adding
+to the value of his experience, the science of education must decide the
+basis on which the educator is to select experiences that possess such a
+value in directing conduct. Now a study of the progress of a nation's
+civilization will show that this advancement is brought about through
+the gradual interpretation of the resources at the nation's command, and
+the turning of these resources to the attainment of human ends. Thus
+there is gradually built up a community, or race, experience, in which
+the materials of the physical, economic, political, moral, and religious
+life are organized and brought under control. By this means is
+constituted a body of race experience, the value of which has been
+tested in its direct application to the needs of the social life of the
+community. It is from the more typical forms of this social, or race,
+experience that education draws the experience, or problems, for the
+educative process. In other words, through education the experiences of
+the child are so reconstructed that he is put in possession of the more
+typical and more valuable forms of race experience, and thus rendered
+more efficient in his conduct, or action.
+
+
+PURPOSES OF CURRICULUM
+
+=Represents Race Experiences.=--So far as education aims to have the
+child enter into typical valuable race experiences, this can be
+accomplished only by placing these experiences before him as problems
+in such form that he may realize them through a regular process of
+learning. The purpose of the school curriculum is, therefore, to provide
+such problems as may, under the direction of the instructor, control the
+conscious reactions of the child, and enable him to participate in these
+more valuable race experiences. In this sense arithmetic becomes a means
+for providing the child with a series of problems which may give him the
+experiences which the race has found valuable in securing commercial
+accuracy and precision. In like manner, constructive work provides a
+series of problems in which the child experiences how the race has
+turned the materials of nature to human service. History provides
+problems whose solution gives the experience which enables the pupil to
+meet the political and social conditions of his own time. Physics shows
+how the forces of nature have become instruments for the service of man.
+Geography shows how the world is used as a background for social life;
+and grammar, what principles control the use of the race language as a
+medium for the communication of thought.
+
+=Classifies Race Experience.=--Without such control of the presentation
+of these racial experiences as is made possible through the school and
+the school curriculum, the child would be likely to meet them only as
+they came to him in the actual processes of social life. These processes
+are, however, so complex in modern society, that, in any attempt to
+secure experience directly, the child is likely to be overwhelmed by
+their complex and unorganized character. The message boy in the
+dye-works, for example, may have presented to him innumerable problems
+in number, language, physics, chemistry, etc., but owing to the
+confused, disorganized, and mingled character of the presentation, these
+are not likely to be seized upon by him as direct problems calling for
+adjustment. In the school curriculum, on the other hand, the different
+phases of this seemingly unorganized mass of experiences are abstracted
+and presented to the child in an organized manner, the different phases
+being classified as facts of number, reading, spelling, writing,
+geography, physics, chemistry, etc. Thus the school curriculum
+classifies for the child the various phases of this race experience and
+provides him with a comprehensive representation of his environment.
+
+=Systematizes Race Experience.=--The school curriculum further presents
+each type of experience, or each subject, in such a systematic order
+that the various experiences may develop out of one another in a natural
+way. If the child were compelled to meet his number facts altogether in
+actual life, the impressions would be received without system or order,
+now a discount experience, next a problem in fractions, at another time
+one in interest or mensuration. In the school curriculum, on the other
+hand, the child is in each subject first presented with the simple,
+near, and familiar, these in turn forming basic experiences for learning
+the complex, the remote, and the unknown. Thus he is able in geography,
+for example, on the basis of his simple and known local experiences, to
+proceed to a realization of the whole world as the background for human
+life.
+
+=Clarifies Race Experience.=--Finally, when a child is given problems by
+means of the school curriculum, the experiences come to him in a pure
+form. That is, the trivial, accidental, and distracting elements which
+are necessarily bound up with these experiences when they are met in the
+ordinary walks of life are eliminated, and the single type is presented.
+For instance, the child may every day meet accidentally examples of
+reflection and refraction of light. But these not being separated from
+the mass of accompanying impressions, his mind may never seize as
+distinct problems the important relations in these experiences, and may
+thus fail to acquire the essential principles involved. In the school
+curriculum, on the other hand, under the head of physics, he has the
+essential aspects presented to him in such an unmixed, or pure, form
+that he finds relatively little difficulty in grasping their
+significance. Thus the school curriculum renders possible an effective
+control of the experiencing of the child by presenting in a
+comprehensive form a classified, systematized, and pure representation
+of the more valuable features of the race experience. In other words, it
+provides suitable problems which may lead the child to participate more
+fully in the life about him. Through the subjects of the school
+curriculum, therefore, the child may acquire much useful knowledge which
+would not otherwise be met, and much which, if met in ordinary life,
+could not be apprehended to an equal degree.
+
+
+DANGERS IN USE OF CURRICULUM
+
+While recognizing the educational value of the school curriculum, it
+should be noticed that certain dangers attach to its use as a means of
+providing problems for developing the experiences of the child. It is
+frequently argued against the school that the experiences gained therein
+too often prove of little value to the child in the affairs of practical
+life. The world of knowledge within the school, it is claimed, is so
+different from the world of action outside the school, that the pupil
+can find no connection between them. If, however, as claimed above, the
+value of experience consists in its use as a means of efficient control
+of conduct, it is evident that the experiences acquired through the
+school should find direct application in the affairs of life, or in
+other words, the school should influence the conduct, or behaviour, of
+the child both within and without the school.
+
+=A. Child may not see Connection with Life.=--Now the school curriculum,
+as has been seen, in representing the actual social life, so classifies
+and simplifies this life that only one type of experience--number,
+language, chemistry, geography, etc., is presented to the child at one
+time. It is evident, however, that when the child faces the problems of
+actual life, they will not appear in the simple form in which he meets
+them as represented in the school curriculum. Thus, when he leaves the
+school and enters society, he frequently sees no connection between the
+complex social life outside the school and the simplified and
+systematized representation of that life, as previously met in the
+school studies. For example, when the boy, after leaving school, is set
+to fill an order in a wholesale drug store, he will in the one
+experience be compelled to use various phases of his chemical,
+arithmetical, writing, and bookkeeping knowledge, and that perhaps in
+the midst of a mass of other accidental impressions. In like manner, the
+girl in her home cooking might meet in a single experience a situation
+requiring mathematical, chemical, and physical knowledge for its
+successful adjustment, as in the substitution of soda and cream of
+tartar for baking-powder. This complex character of the problems of
+actual life may prove so bewildering that the person is unable to see
+any connection between the outside problem and his school experiences.
+Thus school knowledge frequently fails to function to an adequate degree
+in the practical affairs of life.
+
+=How to Avoid This Danger.=--To meet this difficulty, school work must
+be related as closely as possible to the practical experiences of the
+child. This would cause the teacher, for example, to draw his problems
+in arithmetic, his subjects in composition, or his materials for nature
+study from the actual life about the child, while his lessons in hygiene
+would bear directly on the care of the school-room and the home, and the
+health of the pupils. Moreover, that the work of the school may
+represent more fully the conditions of actual life, pupils should
+acquire facility in correlating different types of experience upon the
+same problem. In this way the child may use in conjunction his knowledge
+of arithmetic, language, geography, drawing, nature study, etc., in
+school gardening; and his arithmetic, language, drawing, art, etc., in
+conjunction with constructive occupations.
+
+=Value of Typical Forms of Expression.=--A chief cause in the past for
+the lack of connection between school knowledge and practical life was
+the comparative absence from the curriculum of any types of human
+activity. In other words, though the ideas controlling human activity
+were experienced by the child within the school, the materials and tools
+involved in the physical expression of such ideas were almost entirely
+absent. The result was that the physical habits connected with the
+practical use of knowledge were wanting. Thus, in addition to the lack
+of any proper co-ordinating of different types of knowledge in suitable
+forms of activity, the knowledge itself became theoretic and abstract.
+This danger will, however, be discussed more fully at a later stage.
+
+=B. Curriculum May Become Fossilized.=--A second danger in the use of
+the school curriculum consists in the fact that, as a representation of
+social life, it may not keep pace with the social changes taking place
+outside the school. This may result in the school giving its pupils
+forms of knowledge which at the time have little functional value, or
+little relation to present life about the child. An example of this was
+seen some years ago in the habit of having pupils spend considerable
+time and energy in working intricate problems in connection with British
+currency. This currency having no practical place in life outside the
+school, the child could see no connection between that part of his
+school work and any actual need. Another marked example of this tendency
+will be met in the History of Education in connection with the
+educational practice of the last two centuries in continuing the
+emphasis placed on the study of the ancient languages, although the
+functional relation of these languages to everyday life was on the
+decline, and scientific knowledge was beginning to play a much more
+important part therein. While the school curriculum may justly represent
+the life of past periods of civilization so far as these reflect on, and
+aid in the interpreting of, the present, it is evident that in so far as
+the child experiences the past without any reference to present needs,
+the connection which should exist between the school and life outside
+the school must tend to be destroyed.
+
+=C. May be Non-progressive.=--As a corollary to the above, is the fact
+that the school, when not watchful of the changes going on without the
+school, may fail to represent in its curriculum new and important phases
+of the community life. At the present time, for example, it is a
+debatable question whether the school curriculum is, in the matter of
+our industrial life, keeping pace with the changes taking place in the
+community. It is in this connection that one of the chief dangers of the
+school text-book is to be found. The text is too often looked upon as a
+final authority upon the particular subject-matter, rather than being
+treated as a mode of representing what is held valuable and true in
+relation to present-day interests and activities. The position of
+authority which the text-book thus secures, may serve as a check against
+even necessary changes in the attitude of the school toward any
+particular subject.
+
+=D. May Present Experience in too Technical Form.=--Lastly, the school
+curriculum, even when representing present life, may introduce it in a
+too highly technical form. So far at least as elementary education is
+concerned, each type of knowledge, or each subject, should find a place
+on the curriculum from a consideration of its influence upon the conduct
+and, therefore, upon the present life of the child. There is always a
+danger, however, that the teacher, who may be a specialist in the
+subject, will wish to stress its more intellectual and abstract phases,
+and thus force upon the child forms of knowledge which he is not able to
+refer to his life needs in any practical way. This tendency is
+illustrated in the desire of some teachers to substitute with young
+children a technical study of botany and zoology, in place of more
+concrete work in nature study. Now when the child approaches these
+phases of his surroundings in the form of nature study, he is able to
+see their influence upon his own community life. When, on the other
+hand, these are introduced to him in too technical a form, he is not
+able, in his present stage of learning, to discover this connection, and
+the so-called knowledge remains in his experience, if it remains at all,
+as uninteresting, non-significant, and non-digested information. In the
+elementary school at least, therefore, knowledge should not be presented
+to the child in such a technical and abstract way that it will seem to
+have no contact with daily life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
+
+
+THE SCHOOL
+
+As man, in the progress of civilization, became more fully conscious of
+the worth of human life and of the possibilities of its development
+through educational effort, the providing of special instruction for the
+young naturally began to be recognized as a duty. As this duty became
+more and more apparent, it gave rise, on the principle of the division
+of labour, to corporate, or institutional, effort in this direction. By
+this means there has been finally developed the modern school as a fully
+organized corporate institution devoted to educational work, and
+supported as an integral part of our civil or public obligations.
+
+=Origin of the School.=--To trace the origin of the school, it will be
+necessary to look briefly at certain marked stages of the development of
+civilization. The earliest and simplest forms of primitive life suggest
+a time when the family constituted the only type of social organization.
+In such a mode of life, the principle of the division of labour would be
+absent, the father or patriarch being the family carpenter, butcher,
+doctor, judge, priest, and teacher. In the two latter capacities, he
+would give whatever theoretic or practical instruction was received by
+the child. As soon, however, as a tribal form of life is met, we find
+the tribe or race collecting a body of experience which can be retained
+only by entrusting it to a selected body. This experience, or knowledge,
+is at first mainly of a religious character, and is possessed and
+handed on by a body of men forming a priesthood. Such priestly bodies,
+or colleges, may be considered the earliest special organizations
+devoted to the office of teaching. As civilization gradually advanced, a
+mass of valuable practical knowledge relative to man's environment was
+secured and added to the more theoretic forms. As this practical
+knowledge became more complex, there was felt a greater need that the
+child should be made acquainted with it in some systematic manner during
+his early years. Thus developed the conception of the school as an
+instrument by which such educative work might be carried on more
+effectively. On account of the constant increase of practical knowledge
+and its added importance in directing the political and economic life of
+the people, the civil authorities began in time to assume control of
+secular education. Thus the government of the school as an institution
+gradually passed to the state, the teacher taking the place of the
+priest as the controlling agent in the education of the young.
+
+
+OTHER EDUCATIVE AGENTS
+
+=The Church.=--But notwithstanding the organization of the present
+school as a civic institution, it is to be noticed that the church still
+continues to act as an educative agent. In many communities, in fact,
+the church is still found to retain a large control of education even of
+a secular type. Even in communities where the church no longer exercises
+control over the school, she still does much, though in a more indirect
+way, to mould the thought and character of the community life; and is
+still the chief educational agent concerned in the direct attempt to
+enrich the religious experiences of the race.
+
+=The Home.=--While much of the knowledge obtained by the child within
+his own home necessarily comes through self, or informal, education, yet
+in most homes the parent still performs in many ways the function of a
+teacher, both by giving special instruction to the child and by
+directing the formation of his habits. In certain forms of experience
+indeed, it is claimed by the school that the instruction should be given
+by the parent rather than by the teacher. In questions of morals and
+manners, the natural tie which unites child and parent will undoubtedly
+enable much of the necessary instruction to be given more effectively in
+the home. It is often claimed, in fact, that parents now leave too much
+to the school and the teacher in relation to the education of the child.
+
+=The Vocation.=--Another agent which may directly control the
+experiences of the young is found in the various vocations to which they
+devote themselves. This phase of education was very important in the
+days of apprenticeship. One essential condition in the form of agreement
+was that the master should instruct the apprentice in the art, or craft,
+to which he was apprenticed. Owing to the introduction of machinery and
+the consequent more complex division of labour, this type of formal
+education has been largely eliminated. It may be noted in passing that
+it is through these changed conditions that night classes for mechanics,
+which are now being provided by our technical schools, have become an
+important factor in our educational system.
+
+=Other Educational Institutions.=--Finally, many clubs, institutes, and
+societies attempt, in a more accidental way, to convey definite
+instruction, and therefore serve in a sense as educational institutions.
+Prominent among such institutions is the modern Public Library, which
+affords opportunity for independent study in practically every
+department of knowledge. Our Farmers' Institutes also attempt to convey
+definite instruction in connection with such subjects as dairying,
+horticulture, agriculture, etc. Many Women's Clubs seek to provide
+instruction for young women, both of a practical and also of a moral and
+religious character. Various societies of a scientific character have
+also done much to spread a knowledge of nature and her laws and are
+likewise to be classed as educational institutions. Such movements as
+these, while taking place without the limits of the school, may not
+unreasonably claim a certain recognition as educational factors in the
+community and should receive the sympathetic co-operation of the
+teacher.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE PURPOSE OF THE SCHOOL
+
+
+CIVIC VIEWS
+
+Since the school of to-day is organized and supported by the state as a
+special corporate body designed to carry on the work of education, it
+becomes of public interest to know the particular purpose served through
+the maintenance of such a state institution. We have already seen that
+the school seeks to interpret the civilized life of the community, to
+abstract out of it certain elements, and to arrange them in systematic
+or scientific order as a curriculum of study, and finally to give the
+child control of this experience, or knowledge. We have attempted to
+show further that by this means education so increases the effectiveness
+of the conscious reactions of the child and so modifies his instincts
+and his habits as to add to his social efficiency. As, however, many
+divergent and incomplete views are held by educators and others as to
+the real purpose of public instruction, it will be well at this stage to
+consider briefly some of the most important types of these theories.
+
+=Aristocratic View.=--It may be noted that the experience, or knowledge,
+represented in the curriculum cannot exist outside of the knowing mind.
+In other words, arithmetic, grammar, history, geography, etc., are not
+something existing apart from mind, but only as states of consciousness.
+Text-books, for instance, do not contain knowledge but merely symbols of
+knowledge, which would have no significance and give no light without a
+mind to interpret them. Some, therefore, hold that the school, in
+seeking to translate this social experience into the consciousness of
+the young, should have as its aim merely to conserve for the future the
+intellectual and moral achievements of the present and the past. This
+they say demands of the school only that it produce an intellectual
+priesthood, or a body of scholars, who may conserve wisdom for the light
+and guidance of the whole community. Thus arises the aristocratic view
+of the purpose of education, which sees no justification in the state
+attempting to provide educational opportunities for all of its members,
+but holds rather that education is necessary only for the leaders of
+society.
+
+=Democratic View.=--Against the above view, it is claimed by others
+that, while public education should undoubtedly be conducted for the
+benefit of the state as a whole; yet, since a chain cannot be stronger
+than its weakest link, the efficiency of the state must be measured by
+that of its individual units. The state, therefore, must aim, by means
+of education, to add to its own efficiency by adding to that of each and
+all of its members. This demands, however, that every individual should
+be able to meet in an intelligent way such situations as he is likely to
+encounter in his community life. Although carried on, therefore, for the
+good of the state, yet education should be democratic, or universal, and
+should fit every individual to become a useful member of society.
+
+=These Views Purely Civic.=--It is to be noted that though the latter
+view provides for the education of all as a duty of the state, yet both
+of the above views are purely civic in their significance, and hold that
+education exists for the welfare of the state as a whole and not for the
+individual. If, therefore, the state could be benefited by having the
+education of any class of citizens either limited or extended in an
+arbitrary way, nothing in the above conception of the purpose of state
+education would forbid such a course.
+
+
+INDIVIDUALISTIC VIEWS
+
+Opposed to the civic view of education, many hold, on the other hand,
+that education exists for the child and not for the state, and
+therefore, aims primarily to promote the welfare of the individual. By
+these educators it is argued that, since each child is created with a
+separate and distinct personality, it follows that he possesses a divine
+right to have that personality developed independently of the claims of
+the community to which he belongs. According to this view, therefore,
+the aim of education should be in each case solely to effect some good
+for the individual child. These educators, however, are again found to
+differ concerning what constitutes this individual good.
+
+=The Culture Aim.=--According to the practice of many educators,
+education is justified on the ground that it furnishes the individual a
+degree of personal culture. According to this view, the worth of
+education is found in the fact that it puts the learner in possession of
+a certain amount of conventional knowledge which is held to give a
+polish to the individual; this polish providing a distinguishing mark by
+which the learned class is separated from the ignorant. It is
+undoubtedly true that the so-called culture of the educated man should
+add to the grace and refinement of social life. In this sense, culture
+is not foreign to the conception of individual and social efficiency. A
+narrow cultural view, however, overlooks the fact that man's experience
+is significant only when it enables him to meet the needs and problems
+of the present, and that, as a member of a social community, he must
+apply himself to the actual problems to be met within his environment.
+To acquire knowledge, therefore, either as a mere possession or as a
+mark of personal superiority, is to give to experience an unnatural
+value.
+
+=The Utilitarian Aim.=--Others express quite an opposite view to the
+above, declaring that the aim of education is to enable the individual
+to get on in the world. By this is meant that education should enable us
+to be more successful in our business, and thus live more comfortable
+lives. Now, so far as this practical success of the individual can be
+achieved in harmony with the interests of society as a whole, we may
+grant that education should make for individual betterment. Indeed it
+may justly be claimed that an advancement in the comfort of the
+individual under such conditions really implies an increase in the
+comfort of society as a whole; for the man who is not able to provide
+for his own welfare must prove, if not a menace, at least a burden to
+society. If, however, it is implied that the educated man is to be
+placed in a position to advance his own interests irrespective of, or in
+direct opposition to, the rights and comforts of others, then the
+utilitarian view of the end of education must appear one-sided. To
+emphasize the good of the individual irrespective of the rights of
+others, and to educate all of its members with such an end in view,
+society would tend to destroy the unity of its own corporate life.
+
+=The Psychological Aim.=--According to others, although education aims
+to benefit the child, this benefit does not come from the acquisition of
+any particular type of knowledge, but is due rather to a development
+which takes place within the individual himself as a result of
+experiencing. In other words, the child as an intelligent being is born
+with certain attributes which, though at first only potential, may be
+developed into actual capacities or powers. Thus it is held that the
+real aim of education is to develop to the full such capacities as are
+found already within the child. Moreover, it is because the child has
+such possibilities of development within him, and because he starts at
+the very outset of his existence with a divine yearning to develop these
+inner powers, that he reaches out to experience his surroundings. For
+this reason, they argue that every individual should have his own
+particular capacities and powers fully and harmoniously developed. Thus
+the true aim of education is said to be to unfold the potential life of
+each individual and allow it to realize itself; the purpose of the
+school being primarily not to make of the child a useful member of
+society, but rather to study the nature of the child and develop
+whatever potentialities are found within him as an individual. Because
+this theory places such large emphasis on the natural tendencies and
+capacities of the child, it is spoken of as the psychological aim of
+education.
+
+=Limitations of the Aim.=--This view evidently differs from others in
+that it finds the justification for education, not primarily in the
+needs or rights of a larger society of which the child is a member, but
+rather in those of the single individual. Here, however, a difficulty
+presents itself. If the developing of the child's capacities and
+tendencies constitute the real purpose of public education, may not
+education at times conflict with the good of the state itself? Now it is
+evident that if a child has a tendency to lie, or steal, or inflict pain
+on others, the development of such tendencies must result in harm to the
+community at large. On the other hand, it is clear that in the case of
+other proclivities which the child may possess, such as industry,
+truthfulness, self-sacrifice, etc., the development of these cannot be
+separated from the idea of the good of others. To apply a purely
+individual aim to education, therefore, seems impossible; since we can
+have no standard to distinguish between good and bad tendencies, unless
+these are measured from a social standpoint or from a consideration of
+the good of others, and not from the mere tendencies and capacities of
+the individual. Moreover, to attempt the harmonious development of all
+the child's tendencies and powers is not justifiable, even in the case
+of those tendencies which might not conflict with the good of others. As
+already noted, division of labour has now gone so far that the
+individual may profitably be relieved from many forms of social
+activity. This implies as a corollary, however, that the individual will
+place greater stress upon other forms of activity.
+
+
+THE SOCIAL, OR ECLECTIC, VIEW
+
+Moreover, because, as already noted, the child is by his very nature a
+social being, it follows that the good of the individual can never in
+reality be opposed to the good of society, and that whenever the child
+has in his nature any tendencies which conflict with the good of others,
+these do not represent his true, or social, nature. For education to
+suppress these, therefore, is not only fitting the child for society but
+also advancing the development of the child so far as his higher, or
+true, nature is concerned. Thus the true view of the purpose of the
+school and of education will be a social, or eclectic, one, representing
+the element of truth contained in both the civic and the individualistic
+views. In the first place, such a view may be described as a civic one,
+since it is only by considering the good of others, that is of the
+state, that we can find a standard for judging the value of the child's
+tendencies. Moreover, it is only by using the forms of experience, or
+knowledge, that the community has evolved, that conditions can be
+provided under which the child's tendencies may realize themselves.
+Secondly, the true view is equally an individualistic view, for while it
+claims that the child is by his nature a social being, it also demands a
+full development of the social or moral tendencies of the individual, as
+being best for himself as well as for society.
+
+=This View Dynamic.=--In such an eclectic view of the aim of education,
+it is to be noted further that society may turn education to its own
+advancement. By providing that an individual may develop to his
+uttermost such good tendencies as he may possess, education not only
+allows the individual to make the most of his own higher nature, but
+also enables him to contribute something to the advancement, or
+elevation, of society itself. Such a conception of the aim of education,
+therefore, does not view the present social life as some static thing to
+which the child must be adapted in any formal sense, but as dynamic, or
+as having the power to develop itself in and through a fuller
+development of the higher and better tendencies within its individual
+members.
+
+=A Caution.=--While emphasizing the social, or moral, character of the
+aim of education, it is to be borne in mind by the educator that this
+implies more than a passive possession by the individual of a certain
+moral sentiment. Man is truly moral only when his moral character is
+functioning in goodness, or in _right action_. This is equivalent to
+declaring that the moral man must be individually efficient in action,
+and must likewise control his action from a regard for the rights of
+others. There is always a danger, however, of assuming that the
+development of moral character consists in giving the child some
+passive mark, or quality, without any necessity of having it continually
+functioning in conduct. But this reduces morality to a mere sentiment.
+In such a case, the moral aim would differ little from the cultural aim
+mentioned above.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+DIVISIONS OF EDUCATIONAL STUDY
+
+
+CONTROL OF EXPERIENCE
+
+=Significance of Control.=--From our previous inquiry into the nature of
+education, we may notice that at least two important problems present
+themselves for investigation in connection with the educative process.
+Our study of the subject-matter of education, or the school curriculum,
+has shown that its function as an educational instrumentality is to
+furnish for the child experiences of greater value, this enhanced value
+consisting in the greater social significance of the race experiences,
+or knowledge, embodied within the curriculum, when compared with the
+more individual experiences of the average child. It has been noted
+further, however, that the office of education is not merely to have the
+child translate this race experience into his own mind, but rather to
+have him add to his social efficiency by gaining an adequate power of
+control over these experiences. It is not, for instance, merely to know
+the number combinations, but to be able to meet his practical needs,
+that the child must master the multiplication tables. Control of
+experience, however, as we have seen from our analysis of the learning
+process, implies an ability to hold an aim, or problem, in view, and a
+further ability to select and arrange the means of gaining the desired
+end. In relation to the multiplication table, therefore, control of
+experience implies that a person is able to apprehend the present number
+situation as one that needs solution, and also that he can bring, or
+apply, his knowledge of the table to its solution.
+
+=Nature of Growth of Control.=--The young child is evidently not able at
+first to exercise this power of control over his experiences. When a
+very young child is aroused, say by the sound proceeding from a bell,
+the impression may give rise to certain random movements, but none of
+these indicate on his part any definite experience or purpose. When,
+however, under the same stimulation, in place of these random movements,
+the child reacts mentally in a definite way, it signifies on his part
+the recognition of an external object. This recognition shows that the
+child now has, in place of the first vague image, a more or less
+definite idea of the external thing. Before it was vague noise; now it
+is a bell. But a yet more valuable control is gained by the child when
+he gives this idea a wider meaning by organizing it as an element into
+more complex experiences, as when he relates it with the idea of a fire,
+of dinner, or of a call to school. Before it was merely a bell; now it
+is an alarm of fire. So far, however, as the child is lacking in the
+control of his experiences, he remains largely a mere creature of
+impulse and instinct, and is occupied with present impressions only.
+This implies also an inability to set up problems and solve them through
+a regular process of adjustment, and a consequent lack of power to
+arrange experiences as guides to action. In the educative process,
+however, as previously exemplified, we find that the child is not a
+slave to the passing transient impressions of the present, but is able
+to secure a control over his experience which enables him to set up
+intelligent aims, devise plans for their attainment, and apply these
+plans in gaining the end desired. Growth of control takes place,
+therefore, to the extent to which the child thus becomes able to keep
+an end in view and to select and organize means for its realization.
+
+=Elements of Control.=--In the growth of control manifested in the
+learning process, the child, as we have noticed, becomes able to judge
+the value, or worth, of experience. In other words, he becomes able to
+distinguish between the important and the trivial, and to see the
+relative values of various experiences when applied to practical ends.
+Further, he gains right feeling or an emotional warmth toward that which
+his intelligence affirms to be worthy, or grows to appreciate the right.
+Thirdly, he secures a power in execution that enables him to attain to
+that which his judgment and feeling have set up as a desirable end. In
+fine, the educative process implies for the child a growth of control by
+which he becomes able (1) to select worthy ends; (2) to devise plans for
+their attainment; and (3) to put these plans into successful execution.
+
+
+THE INSTRUCTOR'S PROBLEMS
+
+The end in any learning process being to set the pupils a problem which
+may stimulate them to gain such an efficient control of useful
+experience, or knowledge, we may note two important problems confronting
+the teacher as an instructor:
+
+1. _Problem of Matter._--The teacher must be so conversant with the
+subject-matter of the curriculum and with its value in relation to
+actual life, that he may select therefrom the problems and materials
+which will enable the child to come into possession of the desirable
+experiences. This constitutes the question of the subject-matter of
+education.
+
+2. _Problem of Method._--The teacher must further be conversant with the
+process by which the child gets command of experience or with the way in
+which the mind of the child, in reacting upon any subject-matter,
+selects and organizes his knowledge into new experience and puts the
+same into execution. In other words, the teacher must fully understand
+how to direct the child successfully through the four stages of the
+learning process.
+
+(_a_) _General Method._--In a scientific study of education it is
+usually assumed that the student-teacher has mastered academically the
+various subjects of the curriculum. In the professional school,
+therefore, the subject-matter of education is studied largely from the
+standpoint of method. In his study of method the student of education
+seeks first to master the details of the process of education outlined
+in the opening Chapters under the headings of problem, selecting
+process, relating process, and application. By this means the teacher
+comes to understand in greater detail how the mind of the child reacts
+upon the presented problems of the curriculum in gaining control over
+his experiences, or, in other words, how the process of learning
+actually takes place within the consciousness of the child. This
+sub-division is treated under the head of _General Method_.
+
+(_b_) _Special Methods._--In addition to General Method, the
+student-teacher must study each subject of the curriculum from the
+standpoint of its use in setting problems, or lessons, which shall
+enable the child to gain control of a richer experience. This
+sub-division is known as _Special Methods_, since it considers the
+particular problems involved in adapting the matter of each subject to
+the general purpose of the educative process.
+
+3. _Problem of Management._--From what has been seen in reference to the
+school as an institution organized for directing the education of the
+child, it is apparent that in addition to the immediate and direct
+control of the process of learning as involved in the method of
+instruction, there is the more indirect control of the process through
+the systematic organization and management of the school as a corporate
+institution. These more indirect problems connected with the control of
+education within the school will include, not only such topics as the
+organization and management of the pupils, but also the legal ways and
+means for providing these various educational instrumentalities. These
+indirect elements of control constitute a third phase of the problem of
+education, and their study is known as _School Organization and
+Management_.
+
+4. _An Historic Problem._--It has been noted that the corporate
+institution known as the school arose as the result of the principle of
+the division of labour, and thus took to itself duties previously
+performed under other less effective conditions. Thus the school
+presents on its organic side a history with which the teacher should be
+more or less familiar. On its historical side, therefore, education
+presents a fourth phase for study. This division of the subject is known
+as the _History of Education_.
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+The facts of education, as scientifically considered by the
+student-teacher, thus arrange themselves under four main heads:
+
+1. General Method
+
+2. Special Methods
+
+3. School Organization and Management
+
+4. History of Education
+
+The third and fourth divisions of education are always studied as
+separate subjects under the above heads. In dealing with Special
+Methods, also, it is customary in the study of education to treat each
+subject of the curriculum under its own head in both a professional and
+an academic way. There is left, therefore, for scientific consideration,
+the subject of General Method, to a study of which we shall now
+proceed.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.--METHODOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+GENERAL METHOD
+
+
+=Meaning of Method.=--In the last Chapter it was seen that, in relation
+to the child, education involves a gaining of control over experiences.
+It has been seen further, that the child gains control of new experience
+whenever he goes through a process of learning involving the four steps
+of problem, selecting activity, relating activity, and expression.
+Finally it has been decided that the teacher in his capacity as an
+instructor, by presenting children with suitable problems, may in a
+sense direct their selecting and relating activities and thus exercise a
+certain control over their learning processes. To the teacher,
+therefore, method will mean an ability to control the learning process
+in such a way that the children shall, in their turn, gain an adequate
+control over the new experience forming the subject-matter of any
+learning process. Thus a detailed study by student-teachers of the
+various steps of the learning process, with a view to gaining knowledge
+and skill relative to directing pupils in their learning, constitutes
+for such teachers a study of General Method.
+
+=Subdivisions of Method.=--For the student-teacher, the study of general
+method will involve a detailed investigation of how the child is to gain
+control of social experiences as outlined above, and how the teacher may
+bring about the same through instruction.
+
+Tn such an investigation, he must examine in detail the various steps of
+the educative process to discover:
+
+1. How the knowledge, or social experience, contained in the school
+curriculum should be presented to the child. This will involve an
+adequate study of the first step of the learning process--the problem.
+
+2. How the mind, or consciousness, of the child reacts during the
+learning process upon the presented materials in gaining control of this
+knowledge. This will embrace a study of the second and third steps of
+the process--the selecting and relating activities.
+
+3. How the child is to acquire facility in using a new experience, or in
+applying it to direct his conduct. This involves a particular study of
+the fourth step of the process--the law of expression.
+
+4. How the teacher may use any outside agencies, as maps, globes,
+specimens, experiments, etc., to assist in directing the learning
+process. This involves a study of various classes of educational
+instrumentalities.
+
+5. How the principles of general method are to be adapted to the
+different modes by which the learner may gain new experience, or
+knowledge. This will involve a study of the different kinds of lessons,
+or a knowledge of lesson types.
+
+
+METHOD IMPLIES KNOWLEDGE OF MIND
+
+Before we proceed to such a detailed study of the educative process as a
+process of teaching, it should be noted that the existence of a general
+method is possible only provided that the growth of conscious control
+takes place in the mind of the child in a systematic and orderly manner.
+All children, for instance, must be supposed to respond in the same
+general way in the learning process when they are confronted with the
+same problem. Without this they could not secure from the same lesson
+the same experiences and the same relative measure of control over
+these experiences. But if our conscious acts are so uniform that the
+teacher may expect from all of his pupils like responses and like states
+of experience under similar stimulations, then a knowledge on the part
+of the teacher of the orderly modes in which the mind works will be
+essential to an adequate control of the process of learning. Now a full
+and systematic account of mind and its activities is set forth in the
+Science of Psychology. As the Science of Consciousness, or Experience,
+psychology explains the processes by which all experience is built up,
+or organized, in consciousness. Thus psychology constitutes a basic
+science for educational method. It is essential, therefore, that the
+teacher should have some knowledge of the leading principles of this
+science. For this reason, frequent reference will be made, in the study
+of general method, to underlying principles of psychology. The more
+detailed examination of these principles and of their application to
+educational method will, however, be postponed to a later part of the
+text. Each of the four important steps of the learning process will now
+be treated in order, beginning in the next Chapter with the problem.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE LESSON PROBLEM
+
+
+=Problem, a Motive.=--The foregoing description and examples of the
+educative process have shown that new knowledge necessarily results
+whenever the mind faces a difficulty, or need, and adjusts itself
+thereto. In other words, knowledge is found to possess a practical value
+and to arise as man faces the difficulties, or problems, with which he
+is confronted. The basis of conscious activity in any direction is,
+therefore, a feeling of _need_. If one analyses any of his conscious
+acts, he will find that the motive is the satisfaction of some desire
+which he more or less consciously feels. The workman exerts himself at
+his labour because he feels the need of satisfying his artistic sense or
+of supplying the necessities of those who are dependent upon him; the
+teacher prepares the lessons he has to present and puts forth effort to
+teach them successfully, because he feels the need of educating the
+pupils committed to his care; the physician observes symptoms closely
+and consults authorities carefully, because he feels the need of curing
+his patients; the lawyer masters every detail of the case he is
+pleading, because he feels the need of protecting the interests of his
+client. What is true of adults is equally true of children in school.
+The pupil puts forth effort in school work because he feels that this
+work is meeting some of his needs.
+
+=Nature of Problem.=--It is not to be assumed, however, that the only
+problem which will prompt the individual to put forth conscious effort
+must be a purely physical need, such as hunger, thirst, or a distinct
+desire for the attainment of a definite object, as to avoid danger or to
+secure financial gain or personal pleasure. Nor is it to be understood
+that the learner always clearly formulates the problem in his own mind.
+Indeed, as will be seen more fully later, one very important motive for
+mastering a presented problem is the instinct of curiosity. As an
+example of such may be noted a case which came under the observation of
+the writer, where the curiosity of a small child was aroused through the
+sight of a mud-turtle crawling along a walk. After a few moments of
+intense investigation, he cried to those standing by, "Come and see the
+bug in the basket." Here, evidently, the child's curiosity gave the
+strange appearance sufficient value to cause him to make it an object of
+study. Impelled by this feeling, he must have selected ideas from his
+former experience (bug--crawling thing; basket--incasing thing), which
+seemed of value in interpreting the unknown presentation. Finally by
+focusing these upon this strange object, he formed an idea, or mental
+picture, which gave him a reasonable control over the new vague
+presentation. Such a motive as curiosity may not imply to the same
+degree as some others a personal need, nor does it mean that the child
+consciously says to himself that this new material or activity is
+satisfying a specific need, but in some vague way he knows that it
+appeals to him because of its attractiveness in itself or because of its
+relation to some other attractive object. In brief, it interests him,
+and thus creates a tendency on the part of an individual to give it his
+attention. In such situations, therefore, the learner evidently feels to
+a greater or less degree a necessity, or a practical need, for solving
+the problem before him.
+
+
+NEED OF PROBLEM
+
+=Knowledge Gained Accidentally.=--It is evident, however, that at times
+knowledge might be gained in the absence of any set problem upon which
+the learner reacts. For example, a certain person while walking along a
+road intent upon his own personal matters observed a boy standing near a
+high fence. On passing further along the street, he glanced through an
+opening and observed a vineyard within the inclosure. On returning along
+the street a few minutes later, he saw the same boy standing at a near
+by corner eating grapes. Hereupon these three ideas at once co-ordinated
+themselves into a new form of knowledge, signifying stealing-of-fruit.
+In such a case, the experience has evidently been gained without the
+presence of a problem to guide the selecting and relating of the ideas
+entering into the new knowledge. In like manner, a child whose only
+motive is to fill paper with various coloured crayon may accidentally
+discover, while engaged on this problem, that red and yellow will
+combine to make orange, or that yellow and blue will combine to make
+green. Here also the child gains valuable experience quite
+spontaneously, that is, without its constituting a motive, or problem,
+calling for adjustment.
+
+=Learning without Motive.=--In the light of the above, a question
+suggests itself in relation to the lesson problem, or motive. Granting
+that a regular school recitation must contain some valuable problem for
+which the learning process is to furnish a solution, and granting that
+the teacher must be fully conscious both of the problem and of its mode
+of solution, the question might yet be asked whether a problem is to be
+realized by the child as a felt need at the beginning of the lesson. For
+example, if the teacher wishes his pupils to learn how to compose the
+secondary colour purple, might he have them blend in a purely arbitrary
+way, red and blue, and finally ask them to note the result? Or again, if
+he wishes the pupils to learn the construction of a paper-box or
+fire-place, would he not be justified in directing them to make certain
+folds, to do certain cutting, and to join together the various sections
+in a certain way, and then asking them to note the result? If such a
+course is permissible, it would seem that, so far at least as the
+learner is concerned, he may gain control of valuable experience, or
+knowledge, without the presence of a problem, or motive, to give the
+learning process value and direction.
+
+=Problem Aids Control.=--It is true that in cases like the above, the
+child may gain the required knowledge. The cause for this is, no doubt,
+that the physical activity demanded of the pupil constitutes indirectly
+a motive for attending sufficiently to gain the knowledge. But in many
+cases no such conditions might exist. It is important, therefore, to
+have the pupil as far as possible realize at the outset a definite
+motive for each lesson. The advantage consists in the fact that the
+motive gives a value to the ideas which enter into the new knowledge,
+even before they are fully incorporated into a new experience. For
+example, if in a lesson in geometrical drawing, the teacher, instead of
+having the child set out with the problem of drawing a pair of parallel
+lines, merely orders him to follow certain directions, and then requests
+him to measure the shortest distance between the lines at different
+points, the child is not likely to grasp the connections of the various
+steps involved in the construction of the whole problem. This means,
+however, that the learner has not secured an equal control over the new
+experience.
+
+=Pupils Feel Its Lack.=--A further objection to conducting a lesson in
+such a way that the child may find no motive for the process until the
+close of the lesson, is the fact that he is himself aware of its lack.
+In school the child soon discovers that in a lesson he selects and gives
+attention to various ideas solely in order to gain control over some
+problem which he may more or less definitely conceive in advance. For
+this reason, if the teacher attempts, as in the above examples, to fix
+the child's attention on certain facts without any conception of
+purpose, the pupil nevertheless usually asks himself the question: "What
+does the teacher intend me to do with these facts?" Indeed, without at
+least that motive to hold such disconnected ideas in his mind, it is
+doubtful whether the pupil would attend to them sufficiently to organize
+them into a new item of knowledge. When, therefore, the teacher proposes
+at the outset an attractive problem to solve, he has gone a long way
+toward stimulating the intellectual activity of the pupil. The setting
+of problems, the supplying of motives, the giving of aims, the awakening
+of needs--this constitutes a large part of the business of the teacher.
+
+
+PUPIL'S MOTIVE
+
+=Pupil's Problem versus Teacher's.=--But it is important that the
+problem before the pupil at the beginning of the lesson should really be
+the pupil's and not the teacher's merely. The teacher should be careful
+not to impose the problem on the pupils in an arbitrary way, but should
+try to connect the lesson with an interest that is already active. The
+teacher's motive in teaching the lesson and the pupil's motive in
+attending to it are usually quite different. The teacher's problem
+should, of course, be identical with the real problem of the lesson.
+Thus in a literature lesson on "Hide and Seek" (_Ontario Third Reader_),
+the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil to appreciate the music
+of the lines, the beauty of the images, and the pathos of the ideas; and
+in general, to increase the pupil's capacities of constructive
+imagination and artistic appreciation. The pupil's motive might be to
+find out how the poet had described a familiar game. In a nature study
+lesson on "The Rabbit," the teacher's motive would be to lead the pupil
+to make certain observations and draw certain inferences and thus add
+something to his facility in observation and inference. The pupil's
+motive in the same lesson would be to discover something new about a
+very interesting animal. In general, the teacher's motive will be (1) to
+give the pupil a certain kind of useful knowledge; (2) to develop and
+strengthen certain organs; or (3) to add something to his mechanical
+skill by the forming of habitual reactions. In general, the pupil's
+motive will be to learn some fact, to satisfy some instinct, or perform
+some activity that is interesting either in itself or because of its
+relation to some desired end. That is, the pupil's motive is the
+satisfaction of an interest or the promotion of a purpose.
+
+=Pupil's Motive May Be Indirect.=--It is evident from the foregoing that
+the pupil's motive for applying himself to any lesson may differ from
+the real lesson problem, or motive. For instance, in mastering the
+reading of a certain selection, the pupil's chief motive in applying
+himself to this particular task may be to please and win the approbation
+of the teacher. The true lesson problem, however, is to enable the
+learner to give expression to the thoughts and feelings of the author.
+When the aim, or motive, is thus somewhat disconnected from the lesson
+problem itself, it becomes an _indirect_ motive. While such indirect
+motives are undoubtedly valuable and must often be used with young
+children, it is evident that when the pupil's motive is more or less
+directly associated with the real problem of the lesson, it will form a
+better centre for the selecting and organizing of the ideas entering
+into the new experience.
+
+=Relation to Pupil's Feeling.=--A chief essential in connection with the
+pupil's motive, or attitude, toward the lesson problem, is that the
+child should _feel_ a value in the problem. That is, his apprehension of
+the problem should carry with it a desire to secure a complete mastery
+of the problem from a sense of its intrinsic value. The difference in
+feeling which a pupil may have toward the worth of a problem would be
+noticed by comparing the attitude of a class in the study of a military
+biography or a pioneer adventure taken from Canadian or United States
+sources respectively. In the case of the former, the feeling of
+patriotism associated with the lesson problem will give it a value for
+the pupils entirely absent from the other topic. The extent to which the
+pupil feels such a value in the lesson topic will in most cases also
+measure the degree of control he obtains over the new experience.
+
+
+AWAKENING INTEREST IN PROBLEMS
+
+As will be seen in Chapter XXIX, where our feeling states will be
+considered more fully, feeling is essentially a personal attitude of
+mind, and there can be little guarantee that a group of pupils will feel
+an equal value in the same problem. At times, in fact, even where the
+pupil understands fairly well the significance of a presented lesson
+problem, he may feel little personal interest in it. One of the most
+important questions of method is, therefore, how to awaken in a class
+the necessary interest in the lesson problem with which they are being
+presented.
+
+1. =Through Physical Activity.=--It is a characteristic of the young
+child to enjoy physical activity for the sake of the activity itself.
+This is true even of his earliest acts, such as stretching, smiling,
+etc. Although these are merely impulsive movements without conscious
+purpose, the child soon forms ideas of different acts, and readily
+associates these with other ideas. Thus he takes a delight in the mere
+functioning of muscles, hands, voice, etc., in expressive movements. As
+he develops, however, on account of the close association, during his
+early years, between thought and movement, the child is much interested
+in any knowledge which may be presented to him in direct association
+with motor activity. This fact is especially noticeable in that the
+efforts of a child to learn a strange object consist largely in
+endeavouring to discover what he can do with it. He throws, rolls,
+strikes, strives _to_ open it, and in various other ways makes it a
+means of physical expression. Whenever, especially, he can discover the
+use of an object, as to cut with knife or scissors, to pound with a
+hammer, to dip with a ladle, or to sweep with a broom, this social
+significance of the object gives him full satisfaction, and little
+attention is paid to other qualities. For these reasons the teacher will
+find it advantageous, whenever possible, to associate a lesson problem
+directly with some form of physical action. In primary number work, for
+example, instead of presenting the child with mere numbers and symbols,
+the teacher may provide him with objects, in handling which he may
+associate the number facts with certain acts of grouping objects. It is
+in this way that a child should approach such problems as:
+
+    How many fours are there in twelve?
+    How many feet in a yard?
+    How many quarts in a peck? etc.
+
+The teaching of fractions by means of scissors and cardboard; the
+teaching of board measure by having boards actually measured; the
+teaching of primary geography by means of the sand-table; the teaching
+of nature study by excursions to fields and woods; these are all easy
+because we are working in harmony with the child's natural tendency to
+be physically active. The more closely the lesson problem adjusts itself
+to these tendencies, the greater will be the pupil's activity and hence
+the more rapid his progress.
+
+2. Through Constructive Instinct.--The child's delight in motor
+expression is closely associated with his instinctive tendency to
+construct. When, therefore, new knowledge can be presented to the child
+in and through constructive exercises, he is more likely to feel its
+value. Thus it is possible, by means of such occupations as paper
+folding or stick-laying, to provide interesting problems for teaching
+number and geometric forms. In folding the check-board, for example, the
+child will master necessary problems relating to the numbers, 2, 4, 8,
+and 16. In learning colour, it is more interesting for the child to
+study different colours through painting leaves, flowers, and fruits,
+than to learn them through mere sense impressions, or even through
+comparing coloured objects, as in the Montessori chromatic exercises. A
+study of the various kindergarten games and occupations would give an
+abundance of examples illustrative of the possibility of presenting
+knowledge in direct association with various types of constructive
+work.
+
+=A. Activity must be Directly Connected with Problem.=--It may be noted,
+however, that certain dangers associate themselves with these methods.
+One danger consists in the fact that, if care is not taken, the physical
+activity may not really involve the knowledge to be conveyed, but may be
+only very indirectly associated with it. Such a danger might occur in
+the use of the Montessori colour tablets for teaching tints and shades.
+In handling those, kindergarten children show a strong inclination to
+build flat forms with the tablets. Now unless these building exercises
+involve the distinguishing of the various tints and shades, the
+constructive activity will be likely to divert the attention of the
+pupil away from the colour problem which the tablets are supposed to set
+for the pupils.
+
+=B. Not too much Emphasis on Manual Skill.=--Again, in expressive
+exercises intended merely to impart new knowledge, it may happen that
+the teacher will lay too much stress on perfect form of expression. In
+these exercises, however, the purpose should be rather to enable the
+child to realize the ideas in his expressive actions. When, for example,
+a child, in learning such geographical forms as island, gulf, mountain,
+etc., uses sand, clay, or plasticine as a medium of expression, too much
+striving after accuracy of form in minor details may tend to draw the
+pupil's attention from the broader elements of knowledge to be mastered.
+In other words, it is the gaining of certain ideas, or knowledge, and
+not technical perfection, that is being aimed at in such expressive
+movements.
+
+=3. Instinct of Curiosity as Motive.=--The value of the instinct of
+curiosity in setting a problem for the young child has been already
+referred to. From what was there seen, it is evident that to the extent
+to which the teacher awakens wonder and curiosity in his presentation
+of a lesson problem, the child will be ready to enter upon the further
+steps of the learning process. For example, by inserting two forks and a
+large needle into a cork, as illustrated in the accompanying Figure, and
+then apparently balancing the whole on a small hard surface, we may
+awaken a deep interest in the problem of gravity. In the same manner, by
+calling the pupils' attention to the drops on the outside of a glass
+pitcher filled with water, we may have their curiosity aroused for the
+study of condensation. So also the presentation of a picture may arouse
+curiosity in places or people.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=4. Ownership as Motive.=--The natural pleasure which children take in
+collection and ownership may often be associated with presented problems
+in a way to cause them to take a deeper interest in the knowledge to be
+acquired. For example, in presenting a lesson on the countries of
+Europe, the collection of coins or stamps representative of the
+different countries will add greatly to the interest, compared with a
+mere outline study of the political divisions from a map. A more
+detailed examination of the instincts and tendencies of the child and
+their relation to the educative process will, however, be found in
+Chapter XXI.
+
+=5. Acquired Interest as Motive.=--Finally, in the case of individual
+pupils, a knowledge of their particular, or special, interests is often
+a means of awakening in them a feeling of value for various types of
+school work. As an example, there might be cited the experience of a
+teacher who had in his school a pupil whom it seemed impossible to
+interest in reading. Thereupon the teacher made it his object to learn
+what were this pupil's chief interests outside the school. Using these
+as a basis for the selecting of simple reading matter for the boy, he
+was soon able to create in him an interest in reading for its own sake.
+The result was that in a short time this pupil was rendered reasonably
+efficient in what had previously seemed to him an uninteresting and
+impossible task.
+
+=6. Use of Knowledge as Motive.=--In the preceding cases, interest in
+the problem is made to rest primarily upon some native instinct, or
+tendency. It is to be noted, however, that as the child advances in the
+acquisition of knowledge, or experience, there develops in him also a
+desire for mental activity. In other words, the normal child takes a
+delight in the use of any knowledge over which he possesses adequate
+control. It is to be noted further, that the child masters the new
+problem by bringing to bear upon it suitable ideas selected out of his
+previously acquired experiences. It is evident, therefore, that, when a
+lesson problem is presented to the child in such a way that he sees a
+connection between it and his present knowledge and feels, further, that
+the problem may be mastered by a use of knowledge over which he has
+complete mastery, he will take a deeper interest in the learning
+process. When, on the other hand, he has imperfect control over the old
+knowledge from which the interpreting ideas are selected, his interest
+in the problem itself will be greatly reduced. Owing to this fact, the
+teacher may adapt his lesson problems, or motives, to the stage of
+development of the pupils. In the case of young children, since they
+have little knowledge, but possess a number of instinctive tendencies,
+the lesson problem should be such as may be associated with their
+instinctive tendencies. Since, however, the expressing of these
+tendencies necessarily brings to the child ideas, or increases his
+knowledge, the pupil will in time desire to use his growing knowledge
+for its own sake. Here the child becomes able to grasp a problem
+consciously, or in idea, and, so far as it appeals to his past
+experience, will desire to work for its solution. Thus any problem which
+is recognized as having a vital connection with his own experience
+constitutes for the child a strong motive. For older pupils, therefore,
+the lesson problem which constitutes the strongest motive is the one
+that is consciously recognized and felt to have some direct connection
+with their present knowledge.
+
+
+KNOWLEDGE OF PROBLEM
+
+=Relation to Pupil's Knowledge.=--Since the conscious apprehension of
+the problem by the pupil in its relation to his present knowledge
+constitutes the best motive for the learning process, a question arises
+how this problem is to be grasped by the pupil. First, it is evident
+that the problem is not a state of knowledge, or a complete experience.
+If such were the case, there would be nothing for him to learn. It is
+this partial ignorance that causes a problem to exist for the learner as
+a felt need, or motive. On the other hand it is not a state of complete
+ignorance, otherwise the learner could not call up any related ideas
+for its solution. When, for example, the child, after learning the
+various physical features, the climate, and people of Ontario, is
+presented with the problem of learning the chief industries, he is able
+by his former knowledge to realize the existence of these industries
+sufficiently to feel the need of a fuller realization. In the same way
+the student who has traced the events of Canadian History up to the year
+1791, is able to know the Constitutional Act as a problem for study,
+that is, he is able to experience the existence of such a problem and to
+that extent is able to know it. His mental state is equally a state of
+ignorance, in that he has not realized in his own consciousness all the
+facts relative to the Act. In the orderly study of any school subject,
+therefore, the mastery of the previous lesson or lessons will in turn
+suggest problems for further lessons. It is this further development of
+new problems out of present knowledge that demands an orderly sequence
+of topics in the different school subjects, a fact that should be fully
+realized by the teacher.
+
+=Recognition of Problem: A. Prevents Digressions.=--An adequate
+recognition of the lesson problem by the pupil in the light of his own
+experience is useful in preventing the introduction of irrelevant
+material into the lesson. Young children are particularly prone (and,
+under certain circumstances, older students also) to drag into the
+lessons interesting side issues that have been suggested by some phase
+of the work. As a rule, it is advisable to follow closely the straight
+and narrow road that leads to the goal of the lesson and not to permit
+digressions into attractive by-paths. If a pupil attempts to introduce
+irrelevant matter, he should be asked what the problem of the lesson is
+and whether what he is speaking of will be of any value in attaining
+that end. The necessity of this will, however, be seen more fully in our
+consideration of the next division of the learning process.
+
+=B. Organizes the Lesson Facts.=--The adequate recognition of the lesson
+problem is valuable in helping the pupil to organize his knowledge. If
+you take a friend for a walk along the streets of a strange city
+engaging him in interesting conversation by the way, and if, when you
+have reached a distant point, you tell him that he must find his way
+back alone, he will probably be unable to do so without assistance. But
+if you tell him at the outset what you are going to do, he will note
+carefully the streets traversed, the corners turned, the directions
+taken, and will likely find his way back easily. This is because he had
+a clearly defined problem before him. The conditions are much the same
+in a lesson. When the pupil starts out with no definite problem and is
+led along blindly to some unknown goal, he will be unable to retrace his
+route; that is, he will be unable to reproduce the matter over which he
+has been taken. But with a clearly defined problem he will be able to
+note the order of the steps of the lesson, their relation to one another
+and to the problem, and when the lesson is over he will be able to go
+over the same course again. The facts of the lesson will have become
+organized in his mind.
+
+
+HOW TO SET LESSON PROBLEM
+
+=Precautions.=--If the teacher expects his pupils to become interested
+in a problem by immediately recognizing a connection between it and
+their previous knowledge, he must avoid placing the problem before them
+in a form in which they cannot readily apprehend this connection. The
+teacher who announced at the beginning of the grammar lesson, "To-day we
+are going to learn about Mood in verbs" started the problem in a form
+that was meaningless to the class. The simplest method in such a lesson
+would be to draw attention to examples in sentences of verbs showing
+this change and then say to the class, "Let us discover why these verbs
+are changed." Similarly, to propose as the problem of the history lesson
+"the development of parliamentary government during the Stuart period"
+would be to use terms too difficult for the class to interpret. It would
+be better to say: "We are going to find out how the Stuart kings were
+forced by Parliament to give up control of certain things." Instead of
+saying, "We shall study in this lesson the municipal government of
+Ontario," it would be much better to proceed in some such way as the
+following: "A few days ago your father paid his taxes for the year. Now
+we are going to learn by whom, and for what purposes, these taxes are
+spent." Similarly, "Let us find out all we can about the cat," would be
+inferior to, "Of what use to the cat are his sharp claws, padded feet,
+and rough tongue?"
+
+On the other hand, it is evident that, in attempting to present the
+problem in a form in which the pupils may recognize its connection with
+their previous experiences, care must be taken not to tell outright the
+whole point of the lesson. In a lesson on the adverb, for instance, it
+would not do to say: "You have learned how adjectives modify, or change
+the meaning of, nouns. To-day we shall study words that modify verbs." A
+more satisfactory way of proceeding in such a lesson would be to have on
+the black-board two sets of sentences exactly alike except that the
+second would contain adverbs and the first would not. Then ask: "What
+words are in the second group of sentences that are not in the first?
+Let us examine the use of these words." In the same way, to state the
+problem of an arithmetic lesson as the discovery of "how to add
+fractions by changing them to equivalent fractions having the same
+denominator" is open to the objection of telling too much. In this case
+a better method would be to present a definite problem requiring the use
+of addition of fractions. The pupil will see that he has not the
+necessary arithmetical knowledge to solve the problem and will then be
+in the proper mental attitude for the lesson.
+
+
+EXAMPLES OF MOTIVATION
+
+A few additional examples, drawn from different school subjects, are
+here added to illustrate further what is meant by setting a problem as a
+need, or motive.
+
+=A. History.=--The members of a Form IV class were about to take up the
+study of the influence of John Wilkes upon parliamentary affairs during
+the reign of George III. As most of the pupils had visited the Canadian
+Parliament Buildings and had watched from the galleries the proceedings
+of the House of Commons, the teacher took this as the point of departure
+for the lesson. First, he obtained from the class the facts that the
+members of the Commons are elected by the different constituencies of
+the Dominion and that nobody has any power to interfere with the
+people's right to elect whomsoever they wish to represent them. The same
+conditions exist to-day in England, but this has not always been the
+case there. There was a time when the people's choice of a
+representative was sometimes set aside. The teacher then inquired
+regarding the men who sit in the gallery just above the Speaker's chair.
+These are the parliamentary reporters for the important daily
+newspapers throughout the Dominion. They send telegraphic despatches
+regarding the debates in the House to their respective newspapers. These
+despatches are published the following day, and the people of the
+country are thus enabled to know what is going on in Parliament. Nobody
+has any right to prevent these newspapers from publishing what they wish
+regarding the proceedings, provided, of course, the reports are not
+untruthful. These conditions prevail also in England now, but have not
+always done so.
+
+The work of the lesson was to see how these two conditions, freedom of
+elections and liberty of the press, have been brought about. The pupils
+were thus placed in a receptive attitude to hear the story of John
+Wilkes.
+
+=B. Arithmetic.=--A Form IV class had been studying decimals and knew
+how to read and write, add and subtract them. The teacher suggested a
+situation requiring the use of multiplication, and the pupils found
+themselves without the necessary means to meet the situation. For
+instance, "Mary's mother sent her to buy 2.25 lb. tea which cost $.375
+per lb. What would she have to pay for it?" Or, "Mr. Brown has a field
+containing 8.72 acres. Last year it yielded 21.375 bushels of wheat to
+the acre. Wheat was worth 97.5 cents per bushel. What was the crop from
+the field worth?" The pupils saw that, in order to solve these
+questions, they must know how to multiply decimals. Multiplication of
+decimals became the problem of the lesson, the goal to be attained.
+
+=C. Grammar.=--The teacher wished to show the meaning of _case_ as an
+inflection of nouns and pronouns. He had written on the black-board such
+sentences as:
+
+    I dropped my book when John pushed me.
+    When the man passed, he had his dog with him.
+
+He asked the pupils what words in these sentences refer to the same
+person, and obtained the answer that _I_, _my_, and _me_ all refer to
+one person, and _he_, _his_, and _him_ to another. Then, he proposed the
+problem, "Let us find out why we have three different forms of a word
+all meaning the same person." The problem was adapted to animate the
+curiosity of the pupils and call into activity their capacity for
+perceiving relationships.
+
+=D. Literature.=--The teacher was about to present the poem, "Hide and
+Seek," to a Form III class. He said, "You have all played 'hide and
+seek.' How do you play it? You will find on page 50 of your _Ontario
+Third Reader_ a beautiful poem describing a game of 'hide and seek' that
+is rather a sad one. Let us see how the poet has described this game."
+The pupils were at once interested in what the poet had to say about
+what was to them a very familiar diversion, and, while the lesson was in
+progress, their capacity for sympathy and for artistic appreciation was
+appealed to.
+
+=E. Geography.=--A Form III class was to study some of the more
+important commercial centres of Canada. Speaking of Montreal, the
+teacher proposed the problem, "Do you think we can find out why a city
+of half a million people has grown up at this particular point?" The
+pupils' instinct of curiosity was here appealed to and their capacity
+for perceiving relationships was challenged.
+
+=F. Composition.=--The teacher wished to take up the writing of letters
+of application with a class of Form IV pupils. He wrote on the
+black-board an advertisement copied from a recent newspaper, for
+example, "Wanted--A boy about fifteen to assist in office; must be a
+good writer and accurate in figures; apply by letter to Martin & Kelly,
+8 Central Chambers, City." Then he said, "Some day in the near future
+many of you will be called upon to answer such an advertisement as this.
+Now what should a letter of application in reply to this contain?" The
+class at once proceeded, with the teacher's assistance, to work out a
+satisfactory letter. Here, a purpose for the future was the principal
+need promoted.
+
+=G. Nature Study.=--The pupils of a Form II class had been making
+observations regarding a pet rabbit that one of their number had brought
+to school. After reporting these observations, the pupils were asked,
+"What good do you think these long ears, large eyes, strong hind legs,
+split upper lip, etc., are to the rabbit?" Here the problem set was
+related to the children's instinctive interest in a living animal,
+appealed to the instinct of curiosity, and challenged their capacity to
+draw inferences.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+LEARNING AS A SELECTING ACTIVITY
+
+OR
+
+PROCESS OF ANALYSIS
+
+
+=Knowledge Obtained Through Use of Ideas.=--As already noted, the
+presented problem of a lesson is neither a state of complete knowledge
+nor a state of complete ignorance. On the other hand, its function is to
+provide a starting-point and guide for the calling up of a number of
+suitable ideas which the pupil may later relate into a single
+experience, constituting the new knowledge. Take, for example, a person
+without a knowledge of fractions, who approaches for the first time the
+problem of sharing as found in such a question as:
+
+Divide $15 between John and William, giving John $3 as often as William
+gets $2.
+
+In gaining control of this situation, the pupil must select the ideas $3
+and $2, the knowledge that $3 and $2 = $5, and the further knowledge
+that $15 contains $5 three times. These various ideas will constitute
+data for organizing the new experience of $9 for John and $6 for
+William. In the same manner, when the student in grammar is first
+presented with the problem of interpreting the grammatical value of the
+word _driving_ in the sentence, "The boy _driving_ the horse is very
+noisy," he is compelled to apply to its interpretation the ideas noun,
+adjectival relation, and adjective, and also the ideas object, objective
+relation, and verb. In this way the child secures the mental elements
+which he may organize into the new experience, or knowledge
+(participle), and thus gain control of the presented word.
+
+=Interpreting Ideas Already Known.=--It is to be noticed at the outset
+that all ideas selected to aid in the solution of the lesson problem
+have their origin in certain past experiences which have a bearing on
+the subject in hand. When presented with a strange object (guava), a
+person fixes his attention upon it, and thereupon is able, through his
+former sensation experiences, to interpret it as an unknown thing. He
+then begins to select, out of his experiences of former objects, ideas
+that bear upon the thing before him. By focusing thereon certain ideas
+with which he is perfectly familiar, as rind, flesh, seed, etc., he
+interprets the strange thing as a kind of fruit. In the same way, when
+the student is first presented in school with an example of the
+infinitive, he brings to bear upon the vague presentation various ideas
+already contained within his experience through his previous study of
+the noun and the verb. To the extent also to which he possesses and is
+able to recall these necessary old ideas, will he be able to adjust
+himself to the new and unfamiliar presented example (infinitive). It is
+evident, therefore, that a new presentation can have a meaning for us
+only as it is related to something in our past experience.
+
+=Further Examples.=--The mind invariably tries to interpret new
+presentations in terms of old ideas. A newspaper account of a railway
+wreck will be intelligible to us only through the revival and
+reconstruction of those past experiences that are similar to the
+elements described in the account. The grief, disappointment, or
+excitement of another will be appreciated only as we have experienced
+similar feelings in the past. New ideas are interpreted by means of
+related old ideas; new feelings and acts are dependent upon and made
+possible by related old feelings and acts. Moreover, the meaning
+assigned to common objects varies with different persons and even with
+the same person under different circumstances. A forest would be
+regarded by the savage as a place to hide from the attacks of his
+enemies; by the hunter as a place to secure game; by the woodcutter as
+affording firewood; by the lumberman as yielding logs for lumber; by the
+naturalist as offering opportunity for observing insects and animals; by
+the artist as a place presenting beautiful combinations of colours. This
+ability of the mind to retain and use its former knowledge in meeting
+and interpreting new experiences is known in psychology as
+_apperception_. A more detailed study of apperception as a mental
+process will be made in Chapter XXVI.
+
+
+THE SELECTING PROCESS
+
+=Learner's Mind Active.=--A further principle of method to be deduced
+from the foregoing is, that the process of bringing ideas out of former
+experiences to bear upon a presented problem must take place within the
+mind of the learner himself. The new knowledge being an experience
+organized from elements selected out of former experiences, it follows
+that the learner will possess the new knowledge only in so far as he has
+himself gone through the process of selecting the necessary interpreting
+ideas out of his own former knowledge and finally organizing them into
+new knowledge. This need for the pupil to direct mental effort, or
+attention, upon the problem in order to bring upon it, out of his former
+knowledge, the ideas relative to the solution of the question before
+him, is one of the most important laws of method. From the standpoint of
+the teacher, this law demands that he so direct the process of learning
+that the pupil will clearly call up in consciousness the selected
+interpreting ideas as portions of his old knowledge, and further feel a
+connection between these and the new problem before him.
+
+=Learner's Experience Analysed.=--The second stage of the learning
+process is found to involve also a breaking up of former experience.
+This appears in the fact that the various ideas which are necessary to
+interpret the new problem are to be selected out of larger complexes of
+past experience. For example, in a lesson whose problem is to account
+for the lack of rainfall in the Sahara desert, the pupil may have a
+complex of experiences regarding the position of the desert. Out of this
+mass of experience he must, however, select the one feature--its
+position in relation to the equator. In the same way, he may have a
+whole body of experience regarding the winds of Africa. This body must,
+however, be analysed, and the attention fixed upon the North-east
+trade-wind. Again, he may know many things about these winds, but here
+he selects out the single item of their coming from a land source.
+Again, from the complex of old knowledge which he possesses regarding
+the land area from which the wind blows, he must analyse out its
+temperature, and compare it with that of the areas toward which the wind
+is blowing. Thus it will be seen that, step by step, the special items
+of old knowledge to be used in the apperceptive process are selected out
+of larger masses of experience. For this reason this phase of the
+learning process is frequently designated as a process of analysis.
+
+=Problem as Object of Analysis.=--Although the second step of the
+learning process has been described as a selecting of elements from past
+experience, it might be supposed that the various elements which the
+mind has been said to select from its former experiences to interpret
+the new problem, come in a sense from the presentation itself. Thus it
+is often said, in describing the present step in the learning process,
+that the presentation embodies a certain aggregate of experience, which
+the learner can master by analysing it into its component parts and
+recombining the analysed parts into a better known whole.
+
+=Analysis Depends upon Selection.=--It is not in the above sense,
+however, that the term analysis is to be applied in the learning
+process. It is not true, for instance, when a person is presented with a
+strange object, say an _ornithorhynchus_, and realizes it in only a
+vague way, that any mere analysis of the object will discover for him
+the various characteristics which are to synthesize into a knowledge of
+the animal. This would imply that in analysis the mind merely breaks up
+a vaguely known whole in order to make of it a definitely known whole.
+But the learner could not discover the characteristics of such an object
+unless the mind attended to it with certain elements of its former
+experiences. Unless, for instance, the person already knew certain
+characteristics of both birds and animals, he could not interpret the
+ornithorhynchus as a bird-beaked animal. In the case of the child and
+the mud-turtle, also, there could have been no analysis of the problem
+in the way referred to, had the child not had the ideas, bug and basket,
+as elements of former experience. These characteristics, therefore,
+which enter into a definite knowledge of the object, do not come out of
+the object by a mere mechanical process of analysis, but are rather read
+into the object by the apperceptive process. That is, the learner does
+not get his new experience directly out of the presented materials, but
+builds up his new experience out of elements of his former knowledge. In
+other words, the learner sees in the new object, or problem, only such
+characteristics as his former knowledge and interest enable him to see.
+Thus while the learner may be said from one standpoint to analyse the
+new problem, this is possible only because he is able to break up, or
+analyse, his former experience and read certain of its elements into the
+new presentation. To say that the mind analyses the unknown object, or
+topic, in any other sense, would be to confound mental interpretation
+with physical analysis.
+
+=A Further Example.=--The following example will further show that the
+learner can analyse a presented problem only to the extent that he is
+able to put characteristics into it by this process of analysing or
+selecting from his past experience. Consider how a young child gains his
+knowledge of a triangle. At first his control of certain sensations
+enables him to read into it two ideas, three-sidedness and
+three-angledness, and only these factors, therefore, organize themselves
+into his experience triangle. Nor would any amount of mere attention
+enable him at this stage to discover another important quality in the
+thing triangle. Later, however, through the growth of his geometric
+experience, he may be able to read another quality into a triangle,
+namely two-right-angledness. This new quality will then, and only then,
+be organized with his former knowledge into a more complete knowledge of
+a triangle. Here again it is seen that analysis as a learning process is
+really reading into a new presentation something which the mind already
+possesses as an element of former experience, and not gaining something
+at first hand out of the presented problem.
+
+=Problem Directs Selection.=--It will be well to note here also that the
+selecting of the interpreting ideas is usually controlled by the problem
+with which the mind is engaged. This is indicated from the various ways
+in which the same object may be interpreted as the mind is confronted
+with different problems. The round stone, for instance, when one wishes
+to crack the filbert, is viewed as a hammer; when he wishes to place his
+paper on the ground, it becomes a weight; when he is threatened by the
+strange dog, it becomes a weapon of defence. In like manner the sign _x_
+suggests an unknown quantity in relation to the algebraic problem; in
+relation to phonics it is a double sound; in relation to numeration, the
+number ten. It is evident that in all these cases, what determines the
+meaning given to the presented object is the _need_, or _problem_, that
+is at the moment predominant. In the same way, any lesson problem, in so
+far as it is felt to be of value, forms a starting-point for calling up
+other ideas, and therefore starts in the learner's mind a flow of ideas
+which is likely to furnish the solution. Moreover, the mind has the
+power to measure the suitability of various ideas and select or reject
+them as they are felt to stand related to the problem in hand. For
+example, when a pupil is engaged in a study of the grammatical value of
+the word _driving_ in the sentence, "The boy driving the horse is very
+noisy," it is quite possible that he may think of the horse at his own
+home, or the shouting of his father's hired man, or even perhaps the
+form of the word _driving_, if he has just been viewing it in a writing
+lesson. The mind is able, however, to reject these irrelevant ideas, and
+select only those that seem to adjust themselves to the problem in hand.
+The cause of this lies in the fact that the problem is at the outset at
+least partly understood by the learner, which fact enables him to
+determine whether the ideas coming forward in consciousness are related
+in any way to this partially known topic. Thus in the example cited,
+the learner knows the problem sufficiently to realize that it is a
+question of grammatical function, and is able, therefore, to feel the
+value, or suitability, of any knowledge which may be applied to it, even
+before he is fully aware of its ultimate relation thereto.
+
+
+LAW OF PREPARATION
+
+=Control of Old Knowledge Necessary.=--But notwithstanding the direction
+given the apperceptive process through the aim, or problem, it is
+evident that if the pupil is to select from his former experiences the
+particular elements which bear upon the problem in hand, he must have a
+ready and intelligent control over such former knowledge. It is too
+evident, however, that pupils frequently do not possess sufficient
+control over the old knowledge which will bear upon a presented problem.
+In endeavouring, for example, to grasp the relation of the exterior
+angle to the two interior and opposite angles, the pupil may fail
+because he has not a clear knowledge of the equality of angles in
+connection with parallel lines. For this reason teachers will often find
+it necessary (before bringing old knowledge to bear upon a new problem)
+to review the old knowledge, or experience, to be used during the
+apperceptive process. Thus a lesson on the participle may begin with a
+review of the pupils' knowledge of verbs and adjectives, a lesson on the
+making of the colours orange and green for painting a pumpkin with its
+green stem may begin with a recognition of the standard colours, red,
+yellow, and blue, and the writing of a capital letter with a review of
+certain movements.
+
+=Preparation Recalls Interpreting Ideas.=--It must be noted that this
+review of former knowledge always implies, either that the pupil is
+likely to have forgotten at least partially this former knowledge, or
+that without such review he is not likely to recall and apply it readily
+when the new problem is placed before him. For this reason the teacher
+is usually warned that his lesson should always begin with a review of
+such of the pupil's old knowledge as is to be used in mastering the new
+experiences.
+
+
+VALUE OF PREPARATION
+
+=A. Aids the Understanding.=--The main advantage of this preparatory
+work is that it brings into clear consciousness that group of ideas and
+feelings best suited to give meaning to the new presentation. Without
+it, the pupil may not understand, or only partially understand, or
+entirely misunderstand the lesson. (1) He may not understand the new
+matter at all because he does not bring any related facts from his past
+experience to bear upon it. Multiplication of decimals would in all
+probability be a merely mechanical process if the significance of
+decimals and the operation of multiplying fractions were not brought to
+bear upon it, the pupil not understanding it at all as a rational
+process. (2) He may only partially understand the new matter because he
+does not see clearly the relation between his old ideas and the new
+facts, or because he does not bring to the new facts a sufficient
+equipment of old ideas to make them meaningful. The adverbial objective
+would be imperfectly understood if it were not shown that its functions
+are exactly parallel with those of the adverb. The pupil would have only
+a partial understanding of it. (3) He may entirely misunderstand the new
+facts because he uses wrong old experiences to give them meaning. Such
+was evidently the difficulty in the case of the young pupil who, after a
+lesson on the equator, described it as a menagerie lion running around
+the earth. Many of the absurd answers that a pupil gives are due to his
+failure to use the correct old ideas to interpret the new facts. He has
+misunderstood because his mind was not prepared by making the proper
+apperceiving ideas explicit.
+
+=B. Saves Time.=--There is the further advantage of economy of time,
+when an adequate preparation of the mind has been made. When the
+appropriate ideas are definitely in the forefront of consciousness, they
+seize upon kindred impressions as soon as these are presented and give
+them meaning. On the other hand, when sufficient preparation has not
+been made, time must be taken during the presentation of the new problem
+to go back in search of those experiences necessary to make it
+meaningful. Frequent interruptions and consequent waste of time will be
+inevitable. Time will be saved by having the apperceiving ideas ready
+and active.
+
+=C. Provides for Review.=--One of the most important values of the
+preparatory step is the opportunity given for the review of old ideas.
+These have to be revived, worked over, and reconstructed, and in
+consequence they become the permanent possessions of the mind. The
+pupil's knowledge of the functions of the adverb is reviewed when he
+learns the adverb phrase and adverb clause, and is still further
+illuminated when he comes to study the adverbial objective. Further, the
+apperceiving ideas become more interesting to the pupil, when he finds
+that he can use them in the conquest of new fields. He has a
+consciousness of power, which in itself is a source of satisfaction and
+pleasure.
+
+
+PRECAUTIONS REGARDING PREPARATION
+
+=Must not be too Long.=--Two precautions seem advisable in the
+preparatory step. The first is that too long a time should not be spent
+over it. There is sometimes a tendency to go back too far and drag
+forward ideas that are only remotely connected with the new ideas to be
+presented. Under such conditions much irrelevant material is likely to
+be introduced, and often a train of associations out of harmony with the
+meaning and spirit of the lesson is started. This is especially
+dangerous in lessons in literature and history. Only those experiences
+should be revived which are necessary to a clear apprehension of the
+ideas or a full appreciation of the emotions to be presented in the new
+lesson.
+
+=Must Recall Vital Ideas.=--The most active, vivid, and powerful ideas
+in the pupil's mind are those which are closely connected with his life.
+This suggests the second precaution, namely, the use wherever possible
+of the ideas associated with his surroundings, his games, his
+occupations. When this is done, not only will the new knowledge have a
+much greater interest attached to it but it will also be much more
+vividly apprehended. This will be referred to further in connection with
+the use of illustrations in teaching.
+
+
+NECESSITY OF PREPARATION
+
+Teachers, however, are not always agreed as to the amount of time or
+emphasis to be given to this preparatory step. If the teacher can assure
+himself that a lesson is following in easy sequence upon something with
+which the children are undoubtedly familiar, he may, many argue, safely
+omit such preparatory work. Indeed it is evident that after leaving
+school the child will have no personal monitor to call up beforehand the
+ideas that he must apply in solving the problems continually presenting
+themselves in practical life. On the other hand, however, it is to be
+remembered that the young child is, at the best, feeling his way in the
+process of adjusting himself to new experiences. For this reason, the
+first work for the teacher in any lesson is to ascertain whether the
+pupils are in a proper attitude for the new knowledge, and, so far as is
+necessary, prepare their minds through the recall of such knowledge as
+is related to the new experiences to be presented. Although, therefore,
+the step of preparation is not an essential part of the learning
+process, since it constitutes for the pupil merely a review of knowledge
+acquired through previous learning processes, it may be accepted as a
+step in the teacher's method of controlling the learning process.
+
+
+EXAMPLES OF PREPARATION
+
+The following additional examples as to the mode and form of the step of
+preparation may be considered by the student-teacher:
+
+In a lesson in phonic reading in a primary class, the preparation should
+consist of a review of those sounds and those words which the pupil
+already knows that are to be used in the new lesson. In a nature study
+lesson on "The Rabbit," in a Form II class, the preparation should
+include a recall of any observations the pupils may have made regarding
+the wild rabbit. They may have observed its timidity, its manner of
+running, what it feeds upon, where it makes its home, its colour during
+the winter and during the summer, the kind of tracks it makes in the
+snow, etc. All these facts will be useful in interpreting the new
+observations and in assisting the pupils to make new inferences. In a
+lesson in a Form III class on "Ottawa as a Commercial Centre," the
+preparation consists of a recall of the pupil's knowledge regarding the
+position of the city; the adjacent rivers, the Ottawa, Gatineau,
+Rideau, Lievre, Madawaska; the waterfalls of the Rideau and Chaudiere;
+the forests to the north and west, with their immense supplies of pine,
+spruce, and hemlock; and the fact that it is the Dominion capital. All
+these facts are necessary in inferring the causes of the importance of
+Ottawa. In a literature lesson in a Form III class on _The Charge of the
+Light Brigade_, the preparation would involve a recall of some deed of
+personal heroism with which the pupils are familiar, such as that of
+John Maynard, Grace Darling, or any similar one nearer home. Recall how
+such a deed is admired and praised, and the memory of the doer is
+cherished and revered. Then the teacher should tell the story of
+Balaklava with all the dramatic intensity he is master of, in order that
+the pupils may be in a proper mood to approach the study of the poem. In
+a grammar lesson on "The Adverbial Objective" the preparation should
+consist of a review of the functions of the adverb as modifying a verb,
+an adjective, and sometimes another adverb. Upon this knowledge alone
+can a rational idea of the adverbial objective be built. In an
+arithmetic lesson on "Multiplication of Decimals," in a Form IV class,
+the preparation should involve a review of the meaning of decimals, of
+the interconversion of decimals and fractions (for example, .05 = 5
+hundredths; 27 ten-thousandths = .0027, etc.); and of the multiplication
+of fractions. Unless the pupil can do these operations, it is obviously
+impossible to make his knowledge of multiplication of decimals anything
+more than a merely mechanical process.
+
+
+PREPARATION MERELY AIDS SELECTION
+
+Before closing our consideration of preparation as a stage of method, it
+will be well again to call attention to the fact that this is not one
+of the four recognized stages of the learning process, but rather a
+subsidiary feature of the second, or apperceptive stage. In other words,
+actual advance is made by the pupil toward the control of a new
+experience, not through a review of former experience, but by an active
+relating of elements selected from past experience to the interpretation
+of the new problem.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+LEARNING AS A RELATING ACTIVITY
+
+OR
+
+PROCESS OF SYNTHESIS
+
+
+=Learning a Unifying Process.=--It has been seen that the learner, in
+gaining control of new knowledge, must organize into the new experience
+elements selected from former experiences. For instance, when a person
+gains a knowledge of a new fruit (guava), he not only brings forward in
+consciousness from his former knowledge the ideas--rind, flesh, seed,
+etc.,--to interpret the strange object, but also associates these into a
+single experience, a new fruit. So long also as the person referred to
+in an earlier chapter retained in his consciousness as distinct factors
+three experiences--seeing a boy at the fence, seeing the vineyard, and
+finally, seeing the boy eating grapes--these would not, as three such
+distinct experiences, constitute a knowledge of grape-stealing. On the
+other hand, as soon as these are combined, or associated by a relating
+act of thought, the different factors are organized into a new idea
+symbolized by the expression, _grape-stealing_.
+
+=Examples From School-room Procedure.=--A similar relating process is
+involved when the learner faces a definite school problem. When, for
+instance, the pupil gains a knowledge of the sign /, he must not only
+bring forward in consciousness from his former knowledge distinct ideas
+of a line, of two dots, and of a certain mathematical process, but must
+also associate these into a new idea, division-sign. So also a person
+may know that air takes up more moisture as it becomes warmer, that the
+north-east trade-winds blow over the Sahara from land areas, and that
+the Sahara is situated just north of the equator. But the mind must
+unify these into a single experience in order to gain a knowledge of the
+condition of the rainfall in that quarter.
+
+
+NATURE OF SYNTHESIS
+
+=Deals with Former Experiences.=--This mental organizing, or unifying,
+of the elements of past experiences to secure control of the new
+experience, is usually spoken of as a process of synthesis. The term
+synthesis, however, must be used with the same care as was noted in
+regard to the term analysis. Synthesis does not mean that totally _new_
+elements are being unified, but merely that whatever selected elements
+of old knowledge the mind is able to read into a presented problem, are
+built, or organized, into a new system; and constitute, for the time
+being, one's knowledge and control of that problem. This is well
+exemplified by noting the growth of a person's knowledge of any object
+or topic. Thus, so long as the child is able to apperceive only the
+three sides and three angles of a triangle, his idea of triangle
+includes a synthesis of these. When later, through the building up of
+his geometric knowledge, he is able to apperceive that the interior
+angles equal two right angles, his knowledge of a triangle expands
+through the synthesis of this with the former knowledge.
+
+=All Knowledge a Synthesis.=--The fact that all knowledge is an
+organization from earlier experiences becomes evident by looking at the
+process from the other direction. The adult who has complete knowledge
+of an orange has it as a single experience. This experience is found,
+however, to represent a co-ordination of other experiences, as touch,
+taste, colour, etc. Moreover, each of these separate characteristics is
+an association of simpler experiences. Experiencing the touch of the
+orange, for instance, is itself a complex made up of certain muscular,
+touch, and temperature sensations. From this it is evident that the
+knowledge of an orange, although a unity of experience in adult life, is
+really a complex, or synthesis, made up of a large number of different
+elements.
+
+What is true of our idea of an orange is true of every other idea.
+Whether it be the understanding of a plant, an animal, a city, a
+picture, a poem, an historical event, an arithmetical problem, or a
+scientific experiment, the process is always the same. The apperceptive
+process of interpreting the new by selecting and relating elements of
+former experience, or the process of analysis-synthesis, is universal in
+learning. Expressed in another form, what is at first indistinct and
+indefinite becomes clear and defined through attention selecting, for
+the interpretation of the new presentation, suitable old ideas and
+setting up relationships among them. Analysis, or selection, is
+incomplete without an accompanying unification, or synthesis; synthesis,
+or organization, is impossible without analysis, or selection. It is on
+account of the mind's ability to unify a number of mental factors into a
+single experience, that the process of unification, or synthesis, is
+said to imply economy within our experiences. This fact will become even
+more evident, however, when later we study such mental processes as
+sense perception and conception.
+
+
+INTERACTION OF PROCESSES
+
+It is to be noted, however, that the selecting and the relating of the
+different interpreting ideas during the learning process are not
+necessarily separate and distinct parts of the lesson. In other words,
+the mind does not first select out of its former knowledge a whole mass
+of disconnected elements, and then later build them up into a new
+organic experience. There is, rather, in almost every case, a continual
+interplay between the selecting and relating activity, or between
+analysis and synthesis, throughout the whole learning process. As soon,
+for instance, as a certain feature, or characteristic, is noted, this
+naturally relates itself to the central problem. When later, another
+characteristic is noted, this may relate itself at once both with the
+topic and with the formerly observed characteristic into a more complete
+knowledge of the object. Thus during a lesson we find a gradual growth
+of knowledge similar to that illustrated in the case of the scholar's
+knowledge of the triangle, involving a continual interplay of analysis
+and synthesis, or of selecting and relating different groups of ideas
+relative to the topic. This would he illustrated by noting a pupil's
+study of the cat. The child may first note that the cat catches and eats
+rats and mice, and picks meat from bones. These facts will at once
+relate themselves into a certain measure of knowledge regarding the food
+of the animal. Later he may note that the cat has sharp claws, padded
+feet, long pointed canines, and a rough tongue; these facts being also
+related as knowledge concerning the mouth and feet of the animal. In
+addition to this, however, the latter facts will further relate
+themselves to the former as cases of adaptation, when the child notes
+that the teeth and tongue are suited to tearing food and cleaning it
+from the bones, and that its claws and padded feet are suited to
+surprising and seizing its living prey.
+
+=Example from Study of Conjunctive Pronoun.=--This continuous selecting
+and relating throughout a process of learning is also well illustrated
+in the pupil's process of learning the _conjunctive pronoun_. By
+bringing his old knowledge to bear on such a sentence as "The men _who_
+brought it returned at once"; the pupil may be asked first to apperceive
+the subordinate clause, _who brought it_. This will not likely be
+connected by the pupil at first with the problem of the value of _who_.
+From this, however, he passes to a consideration of the value of the
+clause and its relation. Hereupon, these various ideas at once
+co-ordinate themselves into the larger idea that _who_ is conjunctive.
+Next, he may be called upon to analyse the subordinate clause. This, at
+first, also may seem to the child a disconnected experience. From this,
+however, he passes to the idea of _who_ as subject, and thence to the
+fact that it signifies man. Thereupon these ideas unify themselves with
+the word _who_ under the idea _pronoun_. Thereupon a still higher
+synthesis combines these two co-ordinated systems into the more complex
+system, or idea--_conjunctive pronoun_.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+This progressive interaction of analysis and synthesis is illustrated by
+the accompanying figure, in which the word _who_ represents the
+presented unknown problem; _a_, _b_, and _c_, the selecting and relating
+process which results in the knowledge, _conjunction_; _a'_, _b'_, and
+_c'_, the building up of the _pronoun_ notion; and the circle, the final
+organization of these two smaller systems into a single notion,
+_conjunctive pronoun_.
+
+The learning of any fact in history, the mastery of a poem, the study of
+a plant or animal, will furnish excellent examples of these subordinate
+stages of analysis and synthesis within a lesson. It is to be noted
+further that this feature of the learning process causes many lessons to
+fall into certain well marked sub-divisions. Each of these minor
+co-ordinations clustering around a sub-topic of the larger problem, the
+whole lesson separates itself into a number of more or less distinct
+parts. Moreover, the child's knowledge of the whole lesson will largely
+depend upon the extent to which he realizes these parts both as separate
+co-ordinations and also as related parts of the whole lesson problem.
+
+
+ALL KNOWLEDGE UNIFIED
+
+Nor does this relating activity of mind confine itself within the single
+lesson. As each lesson is organized, it will, if fully apprehended, be
+more or less directly related with former lessons in the same subject.
+In this way the student should discover a unity within the lessons of a
+single subject, such as arithmetic or grammar. In like manner, various
+groups of lessons organize themselves into larger divisions within the
+subject, in accordance with important relations which the pupil may read
+into their data. Thus, in grammar, one sequence of lessons is organized
+into a complete knowledge of sentences; another group, into a complete
+knowledge of inflection; a smaller group within the latter, into a
+complete knowledge of tense or mood. It is thus that the mind is able to
+construct its mass of knowledge into organized groups known as sciences,
+and the various smaller divisions into topics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE
+
+OR
+
+LAW OF EXPRESSION
+
+
+=Practical Significance of Knowledge.=--In our consideration of the
+fourth phase of the learning process, or the law of expression, it is
+necessary at the outset to recall what has already been noted regarding
+the correlation of knowledge and action. In this connection it was
+learned that knowledge arises naturally as man faces a difficulty, or
+problem, and that it finds significance and value in so far as it
+enables him to meet the practical and theoretical difficulties with
+which he may be confronted. In other words, man is primarily a doer, and
+knowledge is intended to guide the conduct of the individual along
+certain recognized lines. This being the case, while instruction aims to
+control the process by which the child is to acquire valuable social
+experience, or knowledge, it is equally important that it should promote
+skill by correlating that knowledge with expression, or should strive to
+influence action while forming character. To apperceive, for instance,
+the rules of government and agreement in grammar will have a very
+limited value if the student is not able to give expression to these in
+his own conversation. It becomes imperative, therefore, that as far as
+possible, expression should enter as a factor in the learning process.
+
+=Examples of Expression.=--Man's expressive acts are found, however, to
+differ greatly in their form. When one is hurt, he distorts his face
+and cries aloud; when he hears a good speech he claps his hands and
+shouts approval; when he reads an amusing story he laughs; when he
+learns of the death of a friend he sheds tears; when he is affronted his
+face grows red, his muscles tense, and he strikes a blow or breaks into
+a torrent of words; when he has seen a striking incident he tells some
+one about it or writes an account to a distant friend. When his feelings
+are stirred by a patriotic address, he springs to his feet and sings,
+"God Save the King." The desire that his team should carry the foot-ball
+to the southern goal causes the spectator to lean and push in that
+direction. When he conceives how he may launch a successful venture, the
+business man at once proceeds to carry it into effect. These are all
+examples of _expression_. Every impression, idea, or thought, tends
+sooner or later to work itself out in some form of motor expression.
+
+
+TYPES OF ACTION
+
+=A. Uncontrolled Actions.=--Passing to an examination of such physical,
+or motor, activities, we find that man's expressive acts fall into three
+somewhat distinct classes. A young child is found to engage in many
+movements which seem destitute of any conscious direction. Some of these
+movements, such as breathing, sneezing, winking, etc., are found to be
+useful to the child, and imply what might be termed inherited control of
+conduct, though they do not give expression to any consciously organized
+knowledge, or experience. At other times, his bodily movements seem to
+be mere random, or impulsive, actions. These latter actions at times
+arise in a spontaneous way as a result of native bodily vigour, as, for
+instance, stretching, kicking, etc., as seen in a baby. At other times
+these uncontrolled acts have their origin in the various impressions
+which the child is receiving from his surroundings, or environment, as
+when the babe impulsively grasps the object coming in contact with his
+hand. Although, moreover, these instinctive movements may come in time
+under conscious control, such actions do not in themselves imply
+conscious control or give expression to organized knowledge.
+
+=B. Actions Subject to Intelligent Control.=--To a second class of
+actions belong the orderly movements which are both produced and
+directed by consciousness. When, in distinction to the movements
+referred to above, a child pries open the lid to see what is in the box,
+or waves his hand to gain the attention of a companion, a conscious aim,
+or intention, produces the act, and conscious effort sustains it until
+the aim is reached. The distinction between mere impulsive and
+instinctive actions on the one hand, and guided effort on the other,
+will be considered more fully in Chapter XXX.
+
+=C. Habitual Actions.=--Thirdly, as has been noted in Chapter II, both
+consciously directed and uncontrolled action may, by repetition, become
+so fixed that it practically ceases to be directed by consciousness, or
+becomes habitual.
+
+Our expressive actions may be classified, therefore, into three
+important groups as follows:
+
+1. Instinctive, reflex, and impulsive action
+2. Consciously controlled, or directed action
+3. Habitual action.
+
+
+NATURE OF EXPRESSION
+
+=Implies Intelligent Control.=--It is evident that as a stage in the
+learning process, expression must deal primarily with the second class
+of actions, since its real purpose is to correlate the new conscious
+knowledge with action. Expression in education, therefore, must
+represent largely consciously produced and consciously directed action.
+
+=Conscious Expression may Modify A. Instinctive Acts.=--While this is
+true, however, expression, as a stage in the educative process, will
+also have a relation to the other types of action. As previously noted,
+the expression stage of the learning process may be used as a means to
+bring instinctive and impulsive acts under conscious control. This is
+indeed an important part of a child's education. For instance, it is
+only by forming ideas of muscular movements and striving to express them
+that the child can bring his muscular movements under control. It is
+evident, therefore, that the expressive stage of the lesson can be made
+to play an important part in bringing many instinctive and impulsive
+acts under conscious direction. By expressing himself in the games of
+the kindergarten, the child's social instinct will come under conscious
+control. By directing his muscular movements in art and constructive
+work, he gains the control which will in part enable him to check the
+impulse to strike the angry blow. These points will, however, be
+considered more fully in a study of the inherited tendencies in Chapter
+XXI.
+
+=B. Habits.=--Further, many of our consciously directed acts are of so
+great value that they should be made more permanent through habituation.
+Expression must, therefore, in many lessons be emphasized, not merely to
+test and render clear present conscious knowledge, but also to lead to
+habitual control of action, or to create skill. This would be especially
+true in having a child practise the formation of figures and letters.
+Although at the outset we must have him form the letter to see that he
+really knows the outline, the ultimate aim is to enable him to form
+these practically without conscious direction. In language work, also,
+the child must acquire many idiomatic expressions as habitual modes of
+speech.
+
+
+TYPES OF EXPRESSION
+
+Since the tendency to express our impressions in a motor way is a law of
+our being, it follows that the school, which is constantly seeking to
+give the pupil intelligent impressions, or valuable knowledge, should
+also provide opportunity for adequate expression of the same. The forms
+most frequently adopted in schools are speech and writing. Pupils are
+required to answer questions orally or in writing in almost every school
+subject, and in doing so they are given an opportunity for expression of
+a very valuable kind. In fact, it would often be much more economical to
+try to give pupils fewer impressions and to give them more opportunities
+for expression in language. But written or spoken language is not the
+only means of expression that the school can utilize. Pupils can
+frequently be required to express themselves by means of manual
+activity. In art, they represent objects and scenes by means of brush
+and colour, or pencil, or crayon; in manual training, they construct
+objects in cardboard and wood; in domestic science, they cook and sew.
+The primary object of these so-called "new" subjects of the school
+programme is not to make the pupils artists, carpenters, or
+house-keepers, but partly to acquaint them with typical forms of human
+activity and partly to give them means of expression having an educative
+value. In arithmetic, the pupils express numerical facts by
+manipulating blocks and splints, and measure quantities, distances,
+surfaces, and solids. In geography, they draw maps of countries, model
+them in sand or clay, and make collections to illustrate manufactures at
+various stages of the process. In literature, they dramatize stories and
+illustrate scenes and situations by a sketch with pencil or brush. In
+nature study, they illustrate by drawings and make mounted collections
+of plants and insects.
+
+
+VALUE OF EXPRESSION
+
+=A. Influences Conduct.=--In nature study, history, and literature, the
+most valuable kind of expression is that which comes through some
+modification of future conduct. That pupil has studied the birds and
+animals to little purpose who needlessly destroys their lives or causes
+them pain. He has studied the reign of King John to little purpose if he
+is not more considerate of the rights of others on the playground. He
+has gained little from the life of Robert Bruce, Columbus, or La Salle,
+if he does not manfully attack difficulties again and again until he has
+overcome them. He has not read _The Heroine of Vercheres_, or _The
+Little Hero of Haarlem_ aright, if he does not act promptly in a
+situation demanding courage. He has learned little from the story of
+Damon and Pythias if he is not true to his friends under trying
+circumstances, and he has not imbibed the spirit of _The Christmas
+Carol_ if he is not sympathetic and kindly toward those less fortunate
+than himself. From the standpoint of the moral life, therefore, right
+knowledge is valuable only as it expresses itself in right action.
+
+=B. Aids Impression.=--Apart from the fact that it satisfies a demand of
+our being, expression is most important in that it tests the clearness
+of the applied knowledge. We often think that our impression is clear,
+only to discover its vagueness when we attempt to express it in some
+form. People often say that they understand a fact thoroughly, but they
+cannot exactly express it. Such a statement is usually incorrect. If the
+impression were clear, the expression under ordinary circumstances would
+also be clear. In this connection a danger should be pointed out. Pupils
+sometimes express themselves in language with apparent clearness, when
+in reality they are merely repeating words that they have memorized and
+that are quite meaningless to them. The alert teacher can, however, by
+judicious questioning, avoid being deceived in this regard.
+
+=C. Adds to Clearness of Knowledge.=--Not only does expression test the
+clearness of the apperceived new knowledge, but at the same time it
+gives the knowledge greater clearness. We learn to know by doing. A
+pupil realizes a story more fully when he has reproduced it for somebody
+else. He images a scene described in a poem more clearly when he has
+drawn it. He has a clearer idea of the volume of a cord when he has
+actually measured out a cord of wood. He has a more accurate conception
+of the difficulties attending the discoveries of La Salle when he has
+drawn a map and traced the routes of his various expeditions. There is
+much truth in the statement that one never fully knows some things until
+he has taught them to somebody else. The teacher in grammar and
+geography will often have occasion to realize this. Greater clearness of
+impression means, of course, greater permanence. We remember best those
+facts of which our impression was most vivid.
+
+
+DANGERS OF OMITTING EXPRESSION
+
+=A. Knowledge not Practical.=--It is apparent, then, that if the pupil
+is not given opportunity for expression, his ideas are vague and
+evanescent. Further than this, his capacities for _knowing_ will be
+developed but his capacities for _doing_ ignored. His _intellectual_
+powers will be exercised and his _volitional_ powers neglected. The
+pupil is thus likely to develop into a mere _theorist_; and as the
+tendencies of childhood are accentuated in later life, he becomes an
+_impractical_ man. There are many men in the world who apparently know a
+great deal, but who, through inability to make practical application of
+their knowledge, are unsuccessful in life. It is, however, seriously to
+be doubted whether knowledge is ever _real_ until it has been worked out
+in practice and conduct. To avoid the danger of becoming impractical, a
+pupil should have every opportunity for expression.
+
+=B. Feelings Weakened.=--A second serious danger of neglecting
+expression lies in the field of the emotions. To have generous emotions
+continually aroused and never to act upon them, to have one's sympathies
+frequently stirred and never to perform a kindly act, to experience
+feelings of love and never to express them in acts of service, is to
+cultivate a weakness of character. A classic instance of this is that of
+the lady who wept bitterly over the imaginary sorrows of the heroine in
+the play while her coachman was freezing to death outside the theatre.
+If worthy emotions are ever to be of the slightest moral value to us,
+they must be expressed in action. The pupil frequently has his emotions
+stirred in the lessons in literature, history, and nature study, and
+there are situations constantly arising in the school room, on the
+playground, on the street, and in the home, that afford opportunity for
+expression. To give a single instance, there is a story in the _Ontario
+Third Reader_ by Elizabeth Phelps Ward, called "Mary Elizabeth." No
+pupil could read that story without being stirred with a deep pity and
+yet profound admiration for the pathetic figure of poor little Mary
+Elizabeth. The natural expression for such emotions would be a more
+kindly and sympathetic attitude towards some unfortunate child in the
+school.
+
+
+RELATION OF EXPRESSION TO IMPRESSION
+
+=Knowledge Tends Toward Expression.=--On account of the evident
+connection between knowledge and action, the law of expression has
+formulated itself into a well-known pedagogical law of method--no
+impression without expression. Like many other educational maxims,
+however, this law may be interpreted in too wide a sense. The law of
+expression in education claims only that valuable experiences, or
+valuable forms of new knowledge, should not be built up in the child's
+mind without adequate accompanying expression. In the first case, as
+already seen, many impressions come to us which are never seized upon
+sufficiently by our consciousness to become intelligent rules for
+conduct, or action. It is true, of course that, so far as such
+impressions stimulate us, they tend toward expression, and to that
+extent the maxim is true. For instance, when a child is impressed, say,
+by a sudden strange sound, he has a tendency to express himself by
+straining his attention, and when the man imagines an enemy is before
+him, he finds his arms and fists assuming the fighting attitude.
+
+=Expression at Times Inhibited.=--It is to be noted that the child
+should early learn to form intelligent plans of action and postpone or
+even condemn them as forms of expression. In other words, a child
+should early learn to select and co-ordinate ideas into an orderly
+system independently of their actual expression in physical action.
+Without this power to suppress, or inhibit, expression, the child would
+be unable adequately to weigh and compare alternative courses of action
+and suppress such as seem undesirable. Such indeed is the weakness of
+the man who possesses an impulsive nature. Although, therefore, it is
+true that all knowledge is intended to serve in meeting actual needs, or
+to function in the control of expression, it is equally true that not
+every organized experience should find expression in action. Part at
+least of man's efficiency must consist in his ability to organize a new
+experience in an indirect way and condemn it as a rule of action. While,
+therefore, we emphasize the importance, under ordinary conditions, of
+having the child's knowledge function as directly as possible in some
+form of actual expression, it is equally important to recognize that in
+actual life many organized plans should not find expression in outer
+physical action. This being the case, the divorce between organized
+experience, or knowledge, and practical expression, which at times takes
+place in school work, is not necessarily unsound, since it tends to make
+the child proficient in separating the mental organizing of experience
+from its immediate expression, and must, therefore, tend to make him
+more capable of weighing plans before putting them into execution. This
+will in turn habituate the child to taking the necessary time for
+reflection between "the acting of a thing and the first purpose." This
+question will be considered more fully in Chapter XXX, which treats of
+the development of voluntary control.
+
+It should be noted in conclusion that the law of expression as a fourth
+stage of the learning process differs in purpose from the use of
+physical action as a means of creating interest in the problem, as
+referred to on page 62. When, for instance, we set a pupil who has no
+knowledge of long measure to use the inch in interpreting the yard
+stick, expressive action is merely a means of putting the problem before
+the child in an interesting form on account of his liking for physical
+action. When, on the other hand, the child later uses the foot or yard
+as a unit to measure the perimeter of the school-room, he is applying
+his knowledge of long measure, which has been acquired previously to
+this expressive act.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+FORMS OF LESSON PRESENTATION
+
+
+The chief office of the teacher, in controlling the pupils' process of
+learning, being to direct their self-activity in making a selection of
+ideas from their former knowledge which shall stand in vital connection
+with the problem, and lead finally to its solution, the question arises
+in what form the teacher is to conduct the process in order to obtain
+this desired result. Three different modes of directing the selecting
+activity of the student are recognized and more or less practised by
+teachers. These are usually designated the lecture method, the text-book
+method, and the developing method.
+
+
+THE LECTURE METHOD
+
+=Example of Lecture Method.=--In the lecture method so-called, the
+teacher tells the students in direct words the facts involved in the new
+problem, and expects these words to enable the pupils to call up from
+their old knowledge the ideas which will give the teacher's words
+meaning, and thus lead to a solution of the problem. For example, in
+teaching the meaning of alluvial fans in geography, a teacher might seek
+to awaken the interpreting ideas by merely stating in words the
+characteristic of a fan. This would involve telling the pupils that an
+alluvial fan is a formation on the floor of a main river valley,
+resulting from the depositing of detritus carried down the steep side of
+the valley by a tributary stream and deposited in the form of a fan,
+when the force of the water is weakened as it enters the more level
+floor of the valley. To interpret this verbal description, however, the
+pupil must first interpret the words of the teacher as sounds, and then
+convert these into ideas by bringing his former knowledge to bear upon
+the word symbols. If we could take it for granted that the pupil will
+readily grasp the ideas here signified by such words as, formation, main
+river valley, depositing, detritus, steep side, etc., and at once feel
+the relation of these several ideas to the more or less unknown
+object--alluvial fan--this method would undoubtedly give the pupil the
+knowledge required.
+
+=The Method Difficult.=--To expect of young children a ready ability in
+thus interpreting words would, however, be an evident mistake. To
+translate such sound symbols into ideas, and immediately adjust them to
+the problem, demands a power of language interpretation and of
+reflection not usually found in school children. The purely lecture
+method, therefore, has very small place with young children, whatever
+may be its value with advanced students. Pupils in the primary grades
+have not sufficient power of attention to listen to a long lecture on
+any subject, and no teacher should think of conducting a lesson by that
+method alone. The purpose of the lecture is merely to give information,
+and that is seldom the sole purpose of a lesson in elementary classes.
+There the more important purposes are to train pupils to acquire
+knowledge by thinking for themselves, and to express themselves, both of
+which are well-nigh impossible if the purely lecture method is followed.
+
+=Does not Insure Selection.=--The weakness of such a method is well
+illustrated in the case of the young teacher who, in giving her class a
+conception of the equator, followed the above method, and carefully
+explained to the pupils that the equator is an imaginary line running
+around the earth equally distant from the two poles. When the teacher
+came later to review the work with the class, one bright lad described
+the equator as a menagerie lion running around the earth. Here evidently
+the child, true to the law of apperception, had interpreted, or rather
+misinterpreted, the words of the teacher, by means of the only ideas in
+his possession which seemed to fit the uttered sounds. It is evident,
+therefore, that too often in this method the pupils will either thus
+misinterpret the meaning of the teacher's words, or else fail to
+interpret them at all, because they are not able to call up any definite
+images from what the teacher may be telling them.
+
+=When to be Used.=--It may be noted, however, that there is some place
+for the method in teaching. For example, when young children are
+presented with a suitable story, they will usually have no difficulty in
+fitting ideas to words, and thus building up the story. It requires, in
+fact, the continuity found in the telling method to keep the children's
+attention on the story, the tone of voice and gesture of the reciter
+going a long way in helping the child to call up the ideas which enable
+him to construct the story plot. Moreover, some telling must be done by
+the teacher in every lesson. Everything cannot be discovered by the
+pupils themselves. Even if it were possible, it would often be
+undesirable. Some facts are relatively unimportant, and it is much
+better to tell these outright than to spend a long time in trying to
+lead pupils to discover them. The lecture method, or telling method,
+should be used, then, to supply pupils with information they could not
+find out for themselves, or which they could find out only by spending
+an amount of time disproportionate to the importance of the facts. The
+teacher must use good judgment in discriminating between those facts
+which the pupils may reasonably be expected to find out for themselves
+and those facts which had better be told. Many teachers tell too much
+and do not throw the pupils sufficiently on their own resources. On the
+other hand, many teachers tell too little and waste valuable time in
+trying to "draw" from the pupils what they do not know, with the result
+that the pupils fall back upon the pernicious practice of guessing. The
+teacher needs to be on his guard against "the toil of dropping buckets
+into empty wells, and growing old in drawing nothing up."
+
+It may be added further that, in practical life, man is constantly
+required to interpret through spoken language. For this reason,
+therefore, all children should become proficient in securing knowledge
+through spoken language, that is, by means of the lecture, or telling,
+method.
+
+
+THE TEXT-BOOK METHOD
+
+=Nature of Text-book Method.=--In the text-book method, in place of
+listening to the words of the teacher, the pupil is expected to read in
+a text-book, in connection with each lesson problem, a series of facts
+which will aid him in calling up, or selecting, the ideas essential to
+the mastery of the new knowledge. This method is similar, therefore, in
+a general way, to the lecture method; since it implies ability in the
+pupil to interpret language, and thus recall the ideas bearing upon the
+topic being presented. Although the text-book method lacks the
+interpretation which may come through gesture and tone of voice, it
+nevertheless gives the pupil abundance of time for reflecting upon the
+meaning of the language without the danger of losing the succeeding
+context, as would be almost sure to happen in the lecture method.
+Moreover, the language and mode of presentation of the writer of the
+text-book is likely to be more effective in awakening the necessary old
+knowledge, than would be the less perfect descriptions of the ordinary
+teacher. On the whole, therefore, the text-book seems more likely to
+meet the conditions of the laws of apperception and self-activity, than
+would the lecture method.
+
+=Method Difficult for Young Children.=--The words of the text-book,
+however, like the words of the teacher, are often open to
+misinterpretation, especially in the case of young pupils. This may be
+illustrated by the case of the student, who upon reading in her history
+of the mettle of the defenders of Lacolle Mill, interpreted it as the
+possession on their part of superior arms. An amusing illustration of
+the same tendency to misinterpret printed language, in spite of the time
+and opportunity for studying the text, is seen in the case of the
+student who, after reading the song entitled "The Old Oaken Bucket," was
+called upon to illustrate in a drawing his interpretation of the scene.
+His picture displayed three buckets arranged in a row. On being called
+upon for an explanation, he stated that the first represented "The old
+oaken bucket"; the second, "The iron-bound bucket"; and the third, "The
+moss-covered bucket." Another student, when called upon to express in
+art his conception of the well-known lines:
+
+    All at once I saw a crowd,
+    A host of golden daffodils;
+    Beside the lake, beneath the trees,
+    Fluttering and dancing in the breeze;
+
+represented on his paper a bed of daffodils blooming in front of a
+platform, upon which a number of female figures were actively engaged in
+the terpsichorean art.
+
+=Pupil's Mind Often Passive.=--As in the lecture method, also, the pupil
+may often go over the language of the text in a passive way without
+attempting actively to call up old knowledge and relate it to the
+problem before him. It is evident, therefore, that without further aid
+from a teacher, the text-book could not be depended upon to guide the
+pupil in selecting the necessary interpreting ideas. As with the lecture
+method, however, it is to be recognized that, both in the school and in
+after life, the student must secure much information by reading, and
+that he should at some time gain the power of gathering information from
+books. The use of the text-book in school should assist in the
+acquisition of this power. The teacher must, therefore, distinguish
+between the proper _use_ of the text-book and the _abuse_ of it. There
+are several ways in which the text-book may be effectively used.
+
+
+USES OF TEXT-BOOK
+
+1. After a lesson has been taught, the pupils may be required by way of
+review to read the matter covered by the lesson as stated by the
+text-book. This plan is particularly useful in history and geography
+lessons. The text-book strengthens and clarifies the impression made by
+the lesson.
+
+2. Before assigning the portion to be read in the text-book, the teacher
+may prepare the way by presenting or reviewing any matter upon which the
+interpretation of the text depends. This preparatory work should be just
+sufficient to put the pupils in a position to read intelligently the
+portion assigned, and to give them a zest for the reading. Sometimes in
+this assignment, it is well to indicate definitely what facts are
+sufficiently important to be learned, and where these are discussed in
+the text-book.
+
+3. The mastery of the text by the pupils may sometimes be aided by a
+series of questions for which answers are to be found by a careful
+reading. Such questions give the pupils a definite purpose. They
+constitute a set of problems which are to be solved. They are likely to
+be interesting, because problems within the range of the pupils'
+capacity are a challenge to their intelligence. Further, these questions
+will emphasize the things that are essential, and the pupils will be
+enabled to grasp the main points of the lesson assigned. Occasionally,
+to avoid monotony, the pupils should be required, as a variation of this
+plan, to make such a series of questions themselves. In these cases, the
+pupil with the best list might be permitted, as a reward for his effort,
+to "put" his questions to the class.
+
+4. In the more advanced classes, the pupils should frequently be
+required to make a topical outline of a section or chapter of the
+text-book. This demands considerable analytic power, and the pupil who
+can do it successfully has mastered the art of reading. The ability is
+acquired slowly, and the teacher must use discretion in what he exacts
+from the pupil in this regard. If the plan were followed persistently,
+there would be less time wasted in cursory reading, the results of which
+are fleeting. What is read in this careful way will become the real
+possession of the mind and, even if less material is read, more will be
+permanently retained.
+
+The facts thus learned from the text-book should be discussed by the
+teacher and pupils in a subsequent recitation period. This may be done
+by the question and answer method, the teacher asking questions to which
+the pupils give brief answers; or by the topical recitation method, the
+pupils reporting in connected form the facts under topics suggested by
+the teacher. The teacher has thus an opportunity of emphasizing the
+important facts, of correcting misconceptions, and of amplifying and
+illustrating the facts given in the text-book. Further, the pupils are
+given an opportunity of expressing themselves, and have thus an exercise
+in language which is a valuable means of clarifying their impressions.
+
+
+ABUSE OF TEXT-BOOK
+
+As instances of the abuse of the text-book, the following might be
+cited:
+
+1. The memorization by the pupils of the words of the text-book without
+any understanding of the meaning.
+
+2. The assignment of a certain number of pages or sections to be learned
+by the pupils without any preliminary preparation for the study.
+
+3. The employment of the text-book by the teacher during the recitation
+as a means of guiding him in the questions he is to ask--a confession
+that he does not know what he requires the pupils to know.
+
+=Limitation of Text-book.=--The chief limitation of the text-book method
+of teaching is that the pupil makes few discoveries on his own account,
+and is, therefore, not trained to think for himself. The problems being
+largely solved for him by the writer, the knowledge is not valued as
+highly as it would be if it came as an original discovery. We always
+place a higher estimation on that knowledge which we discover for
+ourselves than on that which somebody else gives us.
+
+
+THE DEVELOPING METHOD
+
+=Characteristics of the Method.=--The third, or developing, method of
+directing the selecting activity of the learner, is so called because
+in this method the teacher as an instructor aims to keep the child's
+mind actively engaged throughout each step of the learning process. He
+sees, in other words, that step by step the pupil brings forward
+whatever old knowledge is necessary to the problem, and that he relates
+it in a definite way to this problem. Instead of telling the pupils
+directly, for instance, the teacher may question them upon certain known
+facts in such a way that they are able themselves to discover the new
+truth. In teaching alluvial fans, for example, the teacher would begin
+questioning the pupil regarding his knowledge of river valleys,
+tributary streams, the relation of the force of the tributary water to
+the steepness of the side of the river valley, the presence of detritus,
+etc., and thus lead the pupil to form his own conclusion as to the
+collecting of detritus at the entrance to the level valley and the
+probable shape of the deposit. So also in teaching the conjunctive
+pronoun from such an example as:
+
+     He gave it to a boy _who_ stood near him;
+
+the teacher brings forward, one by one, the elements of old knowledge
+necessary to a full understanding of the new word, and tests at each
+step whether the pupil is himself apprehending the new presentation in
+terms of his former grammatical knowledge. Beginning with the clause
+"who stood near him," the teacher may, by question and answer, assure
+himself that the pupil, through his former knowledge of subordinate
+clauses, apprehends that the clause is joined adjectively to _boy_, by
+the word _who_. Next, he assures himself that the pupil, through his
+former knowledge of the conjunction, apprehends clearly the consequent
+_conjunctive_ force of the word _who_. Finally, by means of the pupil's
+former knowledge of the subjective and pronoun functions, the teacher
+assures himself that the pupil appreciates clearly the _pronoun_
+function of the word _who_. Thus, step by step, throughout the learning
+process, the teacher makes certain that he has awakened in the mind of
+the learner the exact old knowledge which will unify into a clearly
+understood and adequately controlled new experience, as signified by the
+term _conjunctive pronoun_.
+
+=Question and Answer.=--On account of the large use of questioning as a
+means of directing and testing the pupils' selecting of old knowledge,
+or interpreting ideas, the developing method is often identified with
+the question and answer method. But the real mark of the developing
+method of teaching is the effort of an instructor to assure himself
+that, step by step, throughout the learning process, the pupil himself
+is actively apprehending the significance of the new problem by a use of
+his own previous experience. It is true, however, that the method of
+interrogation is the most universal, and perhaps the most effective,
+mode by which a teacher is able to assure himself that the learner's
+mind is really active throughout each step of the learning process.
+Moreover, as will be seen later, the other subsidiary methods of the
+developing method usually involve an accompanying use of question and
+answer for their successful operation. It is for this reason that the
+question is sometimes termed the teacher's best instrument of
+instruction. For the same reason, also, the young teacher should early
+aim to secure facility in the art of questioning. An outline of the
+leading principles of questioning will, therefore, be given in Chapter
+XVIII.
+
+=Other Forms of Development.=--Notwithstanding the large part played by
+question and answer in the developing method, it must be observed that
+there are other important means which the teacher at times may use in
+the learning process in order to awaken clear interpreting ideas in the
+mind of the learner. In so far, moreover, as any such methods on the
+part of the teacher quicken the apperceptive process in the child, or
+cause him to apply his former knowledge in a more active and definite
+way to the problem in hand, they must be classified as phases of the
+developing method. Two of these subsidiary methods will now be
+considered.
+
+
+THE OBJECTIVE METHOD
+
+=Characteristics of the Objective Method.=--One important sub-section of
+the developing method is known as the objective method. In this method
+the teacher seeks, as far as possible, (1) to present the lesson problem
+through the use of concrete materials, and (2) to have the child
+interpret the problem by examining this concrete material. A child's
+interest and knowledge being largely centred in objects and their
+qualities and uses, many truths can best be presented to children
+through the medium of objective teaching. For example, in arithmetic,
+weights and measures should be taught by actually handling weights and
+measures and building up the various tables by experiment. Tables of
+lengths, areas, and volumes may be taught by measurements of lines,
+surfaces, and solids. Geographical facts are taught by actual contact
+with the neighbouring hills, streams, and ponds; and by visits to
+markets and manufacturing plants. In nature study, plants and animals
+are studied in their natural habitat or by bringing them into the
+class-room.
+
+=Advantages of the Objective Method.=--The advantages of this method in
+such cases are readily manifest. Although, for instance, the pupil who
+knows in a general way an inch space and the numbers 144, 9, 30-1/4, 40,
+and 4, might be supposed to be able to organize out of his former
+experiences a perfect knowledge of surface measure, yet it will be found
+that compared with that of the pupil who has worked out the measure
+concretely in the school garden, the control of the former student over
+this knowledge will be very weak indeed. In like manner, when a student
+gains from a verbal description a knowledge of a plant or an animal, not
+only does he find it much more difficult to apply his old knowledge in
+interpreting the word description than he would in interpreting a
+concrete example, but his knowledge of the plant or animal is likely to
+be imperfect. Objective teaching is important, therefore, for two
+reasons:
+
+1. It makes an appeal to the mind through the senses, the avenue through
+which the most vivid images come. Frequently several senses are brought
+to bear and the impressions thereby multiplied.
+
+2. On account of his interest in objects, the young child's store of old
+experiences is mainly of objects and of their sensuous qualities and
+uses. To teach the abstract and unfamiliar through these, therefore, is
+an application of the law of apperception, since the object makes it
+easier for the child's former knowledge to be related to the presented
+problem.
+
+=Limitations of Objective Method.=--It must be recognized, however, that
+objective teaching is only a means to a higher end. The concrete is
+valuable very often only as a means of grasping the abstract. The
+progress of humanity has ever been from the sensuous and concrete to the
+ideal and abstract. Not the objects themselves, but what the objects
+symbolize is the important thing. It would be a pedagogical mistake,
+then, to make instruction begin, continue, and end in the concrete. It
+is evident, moreover, that no progress could be made through
+object-teaching, unless the question and answer method is used in
+conjunction.
+
+
+THE ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD
+
+=Characteristics of the Illustrative Method.=--In many cases it is
+impossible or impracticable to bring the concrete object into the
+school-room, or to take the pupils to see it outside. In such cases,
+somewhat the same result may be obtained by means of some form of
+graphic illustration of the object, as a picture, sketch, diagram, map,
+model, lantern slide, etc. The graphic representation of an object may
+present to the eye most of the characteristics that the actual object
+would. For this reason pictures are being more and more used in
+teaching, though it is a question whether teachers make as good use of
+the pictures of the text-book, in geography for instance, as might be
+made.
+
+=Illustrative Method Involves Imagination.=--In the illustrative method,
+however, the pupil, instead of being able to apply directly former
+knowledge obtained through the senses, in interpreting the actual
+object, must make use of his imagination to bridge over the gulf between
+the actual object and the representation. When, for example, the child
+is called upon to form his conception of the earth with its two
+hemispheres through its representation on a globe, the knowledge will
+become adequate only as the child's imagination is able to picture in
+his mind the actual object out of his own experience of land, water,
+form, and space, in harmony with the mere suggestions offered by the
+model. It is evident, for the above reason, that the illustrative method
+often demands more from the pupil than does the more concrete objective
+method. For instance, the child who is able to see an actual mountain,
+lake, canal, etc., is far more likely to obtain an accurate idea of
+these, than the student who learns them by means of illustrations. The
+cause for this lies mainly in the failure of the child to form a perfect
+image of the real object through the exercise of his imagination. In
+fact it sometimes happens that he makes very little use of his
+imagination, his mental picture of the real object differing little from
+the model placed before him. The writer was informed of a case in which
+a teacher endeavoured to give some young pupils a knowledge of the earth
+by means of a large school globe. When later the children were
+questioned thereon, it was discovered that their earth corresponded in
+almost every particular with the large globe in the school. The
+successful use of the illustrative method, therefore, demands from the
+teacher a careful test by the question and answer method, to see that
+the learner has properly bridged over, through his imagination, the gulf
+separating the actual object from its illustration. For this reason an
+acquaintance with the mental process of imagination is of great value to
+the teacher. The leading facts connected with this process will be set
+forth in Chapter XXVII.
+
+
+PRECAUTIONS IN USE OF MATERIALS
+
+In the use of objective and illustrative materials the following
+precautions are advisable:
+
+1. Their use in the lesson should not be continued too long. It should
+be remembered that their office is illustrative, and the aim of the
+teacher should be to have the pupils think in the abstract as soon as
+possible. To make pupils constantly dependent on the concrete is to make
+their thinking weak.
+
+2. The pupils must be mentally active while the concrete object or
+illustrative material is being used, and not merely gaze in a passive
+way upon the objects. It requires mental activity to grasp the abstract
+facts that the objects or illustrations typify. A tellurion will not
+teach the changes of the seasons; bundles of splints, notation; nor
+black-board examples, the law of agreement; unless these are brought
+under the child's mental apprehension. The sole purpose of such
+materials is, therefore, to start a flow of imagery or ideas which bear
+upon the presented problem.
+
+3. The objects should not be so intrinsically interesting that they
+distract the attention from what they are intended to illustrate. It
+would be injudicious to use candies or other inherently attractive
+objects to illustrate number facts in primary arithmetic. The objects,
+not the number facts, would be of supreme interest. The teacher who used
+a heap of sand and some gunpowder to teach what a volcano is, found his
+pupils anxious for "fireworks" in subsequent geography classes. The
+science teacher may make his experiments so interesting that his
+students neglect to grasp what the experiments illustrate. The preacher
+who uses a large number of anecdotes to illustrate the points of his
+sermon, would be probably disappointed to know that the only part of his
+discourse remembered by the majority of his hearers was these very
+anecdotes. In his enthusiasm for objective teaching, the teacher may
+easily make the objects so attractive that the pupils fail altogether to
+grasp what they signify.
+
+4. In the case of pictures, maps, and sketches, it is well to present
+those that are not too detailed. A map drawn on the black-board by the
+teacher is usually better for purposes of illustration than a printed
+wall map. The latter shows so many details that it is often difficult
+for the pupil to single out those required in the lesson. The
+black-board map, on the other hand, will emphasize just those details
+that are necessary. For the same reason the sketch is often better than
+the printed picture or photograph. Any one who can sketch rapidly and
+accurately has at his disposal a valuable means of communicating
+knowledge, and every teacher should strive to cultivate this power.
+
+
+MODES OF PRESENTATION COMPARED
+
+The relative clearness of different modes of presenting knowledge may be
+seen from the following:
+
+If a teacher stated to his pupils that he saw a guava yesterday,
+possibly no information would be conveyed to them other than that some
+unknown object has been referred to. Merely to name any object of
+thought, therefore, does not guarantee any real understanding in the
+mind of the pupil. If the teacher describes the object as a fruit,
+fragrant, yellow, fleshy, and pear-shaped, the mental picture of the
+pupil is likely to be much more definite. If, on the other hand, a
+picture of the fruit is shown, it is likely that the pupil will more
+fully realize at least some of the features of the fruit. If the pupil
+is given the object and allowed to bring all his senses to bear upon it,
+his knowledge will become both more full and more definite. If he were
+allowed to express himself through drawing and modelling, his knowledge
+would become still more thorough, while if he grew, marketed, and
+manufactured the fruit into jelly, his knowledge of the fruit might be
+considered complete.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+Before passing to a consideration of the various types or classes into
+which school lessons may be divided, it is necessary to note a certain
+distinction in the way the mind thinks of objects, or two classes into
+which our experiences are said to divide themselves. When the mind
+experiences, or is conscious of, this particular chair on the platform,
+that tree outside the window, the size of this piece of stone, or the
+colour and shape of this bonnet, it is said to be occupied with a
+particular experience, or to be gaining particular knowledge.
+
+
+ACQUISITION OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE
+
+=A. Through the Senses.=--These particular experiences may arise through
+the actual presentation of a thing to the senses. I _see_ this chair;
+_taste_ this sugar; _smell_ this rose; _hear_ this bell; etc. As will be
+seen later, the senses provide the primary conditions for revealing to
+the mind the presence of particular things, that is, for building up
+particular ideas, or, as they are frequently called, particular notions.
+Neither does a particular experience, or notion, necessarily represent a
+particular concrete object. It may be an idea of some particular state
+of anger or joy being experienced by an individual of the beauty
+embodied in this particular painting, etc.
+
+=B. Through the Imagination.=--Secondly, by an act of constructive
+imagination, one may image a picture of a particular object as present
+here and now. Although never having had the actual particular
+experience, a person can, with the eye of the imagination, picture as
+now present before him any particular object or event, real or
+imaginary, such as King Arthur's round table; the death scene of Sir
+Isaac Brock or Captain Scott; the sinking of the _Titanic_; the Heroine
+of Vercheres; or the many-headed Hydra.
+
+=C. By Inference, or Deduction.=--Again, knowledge about a particular
+individual, or particular knowledge, may be gained in what seems a yet
+more indirect way. For instance, instead of standing beside Socrates and
+seeing him drink the hemlock and die, and thus, by actual sense
+observation, learn that Socrates is mortal; we may, by a previous series
+of experiences, have gained the knowledge that all men are mortal. For
+that reason, even while he yet lives, we may know the particular fact
+that Socrates, being a man, is also mortal. In this process the person
+is supposed to start with the known general truth, "All men are mortal";
+next, to call to mind the fact that Socrates is a man; and finally, by a
+comparison of these statements or thoughts, reason out, or deduce, the
+inference that therefore Socrates is mortal. This process is, therefore,
+usually illustrated in what is called the syllogistic form, thus:
+
+    All men are mortal.
+    Socrates is a man.
+    Socrates is mortal.
+
+When particular knowledge about an individual thing or event is thus
+inferred by comparing two known statements, it is said to be secured by
+a process of _deduction_, or by inference.
+
+
+GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+In all of the above examples, whether experienced through the senses,
+built up by an act of imagination, or gained by inference, the
+knowledge is of a single thing, fact, organism, or unity, possessing a
+real or imaginary existence. In addition to possessing its own
+individual unity, however, a thing will stand in a more or less close
+relation with many other things. Various individuals, therefore, enter
+into larger relations constituting groups, or classes, of objects. In
+addition, therefore, to recognizing the object as a particular
+experience, the mind is able, by examining certain individuals, to
+select and relate the common characteristics of such classes, or groups,
+and build up a general, or class, idea, which is representative of any
+member of the class. Thus arise such general ideas as book, man, island,
+county, etc. These are known as universal, or class, notions. Moreover,
+such rules, or definitions, as, "A noun is the name of anything"; "A
+fraction is a number which expresses one or more equal parts of a
+whole," are general truths, because they express in the form of a
+statement the general qualities which have been read into the ideas,
+noun and fraction. When the mind, from a study of particulars, thus
+either forms a class notion as noun, triangle, hepatica, etc., or draws
+a general conclusion as, "Air has weight," "Any two sides of a triangle
+are together greater than the third side," it is said to gain general
+knowledge.
+
+
+ACQUISITION OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+=A. Conception.=--In describing the method of attaining general
+knowledge, it is customary to divide such knowledge into two slightly
+different types, or classes, and also to distinguish between the
+processes by which each type is attained. When the mind, through having
+experienced particular dogs, cows, chairs, books, etc., is able to form
+such a general, or class, idea as, dog, cow, chair, or book, it is said
+to gain a class notion, or concept; and the method by which these ideas
+are gained is called _conception_.
+
+=B. Induction.=--When the mind, on the basis of particular experiences,
+arrives at some general law, or truth, as, "Any two sides of a triangle
+are together greater than the third side"; "Air has weight"; "Man is
+mortal"; "Honesty is the best policy"; etc., it is said to form a
+universal judgment, and the process by which the judgment is formed is
+called a process of _induction_.
+
+=Examples of General and Particular Knowledge.=--When a pupil learns the
+St. Lawrence River system as such, he gains a particular experience, or
+notion; when he learns of river basins, he obtains a general notion. In
+like manner, for the child to realize that here are eight blocks
+containing two groups of four blocks, is a particular experience; but
+that 4 + 4 = 8, is a general, or universal, truth. To notice this water
+rising in a tube as heat is being applied, is a particular experience;
+to know that liquids are expanded by heat is a general truth. _The air
+above this radiator is rising_ is a particular truth, but _heated air
+rises_ is a general truth. _The English people plunged into excesses in
+Charles II's reign after the removal of the stern Puritan rule_ is
+particular, but a _period of license follows a period of repression_ is
+general.
+
+=Distinction is in Ideas, not Things.=--It is to be noted further that
+the same object may be treated at one time as a particular individual,
+at another time as a member of a class, and at still another time as a
+part of a larger individual. Thus the large peninsula on the east of
+North America may be thought of now, as the individual, Nova Scotia; at
+another time, as a member of the class, province; and at still another
+time, as a part of the larger particular individual, Canada.
+
+=Only Two Types of Knowledge.=--It is evident from the foregoing that no
+matter what subject is being taught, so far as any person may aim _to
+develop a new experience_ in the mind of the pupil, that experience will
+be one or other of the two classes mentioned above. If the aim of our
+lesson is to have the pupils know the facts of the War of 1812-14, to
+study the rainfall of British Columbia, to master the spelling of a
+particular word, or to image the pictures contained in the story _Mary
+Elizabeth_, then it aims primarily to have pupils come into possession
+of a particular fact, or a number of particular facts. On the other
+hand, if the lesson aims to teach the pupils the nature of an
+infinitive, the rule for extracting square root, the law of gravity, the
+classes of nouns, etc., then the aim of the lesson is to convey some
+general idea or truth.
+
+
+APPLIED KNOWLEDGE GENERAL
+
+Before proceeding to a special consideration of such type lessons, it
+will be well to note that the mind always applies general knowledge in
+the learning process. That is, the application of old knowledge to the
+new presentation is possible only because this knowledge has taken on a
+general character, or has become a general way of thinking. The tendency
+for every new experience, whether particular or general, to pass into a
+general attitude, or to become a standard for interpreting other
+presentations, is always present, at least after the very early
+impressions of infancy. When, for instance, a child observes a strange
+object, dog, and perceives its four feet, this idea does not remain
+wholly confined to the particular object, but tends to take on a general
+character. This consists in the fact that the characteristic perceived
+is vaguely thought of as a quality distinct from the dog. This quality,
+_four-footedness_, therefore, is at least in some measure recognized as
+a quality that may occur in other objects. In other words, it takes on a
+general character, and will likely be applied in interpreting the next
+four-footed object which comes under the child's attention. So also when
+an adult first meets a strange fruit, guava, he observes perhaps that it
+is _pear-shaped, yellow-skinned, soft-pulped_, of _sweet taste_, and
+_aromatic flavour_. All such quality ideas as pear-shaped, yellow, soft,
+etc., as here applied, are general ideas of quality taken on from
+earlier experiences. Even in interpreting the qualities of particular
+objects, therefore, as this rose, this machine, or this animal, we apply
+to its interpretation general ideas, or general forms of thought, taken
+on from earlier experiences.
+
+The same fact is even more evident when the mind attempts to build up
+the idea of a particular object by an act of imagination. One may
+conceive as present, a sphere, red in colour, with smooth surface, and
+two feet in diameter. Now this particular object is defined through the
+qualities spherical, red, smooth, etc. But these notions of quality are
+all general, although here applied to building up the image of a
+particular thing.
+
+
+PROCESSES OF ACQUIRING KNOWLEDGE SIMILAR
+
+If what has already been noted concerning the law of universal method is
+correct, and if all learning is a process of building up a new
+experience in accordance with the law of apperception, then all of the
+above modes of gaining either particular or general knowledge must
+ultimately conform to the laws of general method. Keeping in view the
+fact that applied knowledge is always general in character, it will not
+be difficult to demonstrate that these various processes do not differ
+in their essential characteristics; but that any process of acquiring
+either particular or general knowledge conforms to the method of
+selection and relation, or of analysis-synthesis, as already described
+in our study of the learning process. To demonstrate this, however, it
+will be necessary to examine and illustrate the different modes of
+learning in the light of the principles of general method already laid
+down in the text.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+MODES OF LEARNING
+
+
+DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICULAR KNOWLEDGE
+
+A. LEARNING THROUGH THE SENSES
+
+In many lessons in nature study, elementary science, etc., pupils are
+led to acquire new knowledge by having placed before them some
+particular object which they may examine through the senses. The
+knowledge thus gained through the direct observation of some individual
+thing, since it is primarily knowledge about a particular individual, is
+to be classified as particular knowledge. As an example of the process
+by which a pupil may gain particular knowledge through the senses, a
+nature lesson may be taken in which he would, by actual observation,
+become acquainted with one of the constellations, say the Great Dipper.
+Here the learner first receives through his senses certain impressions
+of colour and form. Next he proceeds to read into these impressions
+definite meanings, as stars, four, corners, bowl, three, curve, handle,
+etc. In such a process of acquiring knowledge about a particular thing,
+it is to be noted that the acquisition depends upon two important
+conditions:
+
+1. The senses receive impressions from a particular thing.
+
+2. The mind reacts upon these impressions with certain phases of its old
+knowledge, here represented by such words as four, corner, bowl, etc.
+
+=Analysis of Process.=--When the mind thus gains knowledge of a
+particular object through sense perception, the process is found to
+conform exactly to the general method already laid down; for there is
+involved:
+
+1. _The Motive._--To read meaning into the strange thing which is placed
+before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses.
+
+_2. Selection, or Analysis._--Bringing selected elements of former
+knowledge to interpret the unknown impressions, the elements of his
+former knowledge being represented in the above example by such words
+as, four, bowl, curve, handle, etc.
+
+3. _Unification, or Synthesis._--A continuous relating of these
+interpreting factors into the unity of a newly interpreted object, the
+Dipper.
+
+
+SENSE PERCEPTION IN EDUCATION
+
+=A. Gives Knowledge of Things.=--In many lessons in biology, botany,
+etc., although the chief aim of the lesson is to acquire a correct class
+notion, yet the learning process is in large part the gaining of
+particular knowledge through the senses. In a nature lesson, for
+instance, the pupil may be presented with an insect which he has never
+previously met. When the pupil interprets the object as six-legged, with
+hard shell-like wing covers, under wings membranous, etc., he is able to
+gain knowledge about this particular thing:
+
+1. Because the thing manifests itself to him through the senses of sight
+and touch.
+
+2. Because he is able to bring to bear upon these sense impressions his
+old knowledge, represented by such words as six, wing, shell, hard,
+membranous, etc. So far, therefore, as the process ends with knowledge
+of the particular object presented, the learning process conforms
+exactly to that laid down above, for there is involved:
+
+1. _The Motive._--To read meaning into the new thing which is placed
+before the pupil as a problem to stimulate his senses.
+
+2. _Selection, or Analysis._--Bringing selected elements of former
+knowledge to interpret the unknown problem, the elements of his former
+knowledge being represented above by such words as six, leg, wing, hard,
+shell, membranous, etc.
+
+3. _Unification, or Synthesis._--A continuous relating of these
+interpreting factors into the unity of a better known object, the
+insect.
+
+=B. Is a Basis for Generalization.=--It is to be noted, however, that in
+any such lesson, although the pupil gains through his senses a knowledge
+of a particular individual only, yet he may at once accept this
+individual as a sign, or type, of a class of objects, and can readily
+apply the new knowledge in interpreting other similar things. Although,
+for example, the pupil has experienced but one such object, he does not
+necessarily think of it as a mere individual--this thing--but as a
+representative of a possible class of objects, a beetle. In other words
+the new particular notion tends to pass directly into a general, or
+class, notion.
+
+
+B. LEARNING THROUGH IMAGINATION
+
+As an example of a lesson in which the pupil secures knowledge through
+the use of his imagination, may be taken first the case of one called
+upon to image some single object of which he may have had no actual
+experience, as a desert, London Tower, the sphinx, etc. Taking the last
+named as an example, the learner must select certain characteristics as,
+woman, head, lion, body, etc., all of which are qualities which have
+been learned in other past experiences. Moreover, the mind must
+organize these several qualities into the representation of a single
+object, the sphinx. Here, evidently, the pupil follows fully the normal
+process of learning.
+
+1. The term--the sphinx--suggests a problem, or felt need, namely, to
+read meaning into the vaguely realized term.
+
+2. Under the direction of the instructor or the text-book, the pupil
+selects, or analyses out of past experience, such ideas as, woman, head,
+body, lion, which are felt to have a value in interpreting the present
+problem.
+
+3. A synthetic, or relating, activity of mind unifies the selected ideas
+into an ideally constructed object which is accepted by the learner as a
+particular object, although never directly known through the senses.
+
+Nor is the method different in more complex imagination processes. In
+literary interpretation, for instance, when the reader meets such
+expressions as:
+
+    The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,
+      The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea,
+    The ploughman homeward plods his weary way
+      And leaves the world to darkness and to me;
+
+the words of the author suggest a problem to the mind of the reader.
+This problem then calls up in the mind of the student a set of images
+out of earlier experience, as bell, evening, herd, ploughman, lea, etc.,
+which the mind unifies into the representation of the particular scene
+depicted in the lines. It is in this way that much of our knowledge of
+various objects and scenes in nature, of historical events and
+characters, and of spiritual beings is obtained.
+
+=Imagination Gives Basis for Generalization.=--It should be noted by the
+student-teacher that in many lessons we aim to give the child a notion
+of a class of objects, though he may in actual experience never have
+met any representatives of the class. In geography, for instance, the
+child learns of deserts, volcanoes, etc., without having experienced
+these objects through the senses. It has been seen, however, that our
+general knowledge always develops from particular experience. For this
+reason the pupil who has never seen a volcano, in order to gain a
+general notion of a volcano, must first, by an act of constructive
+imagination, image a definite picture of a particular volcano. The
+importance of using in such a lesson a picture or a representation on a
+sand-board, lies in the fact that this furnishes the necessary stimulus
+to the child's imagination, which will cause him to image a particular
+individual as a basis for the required general, or class, notion. Too
+often, however, the child is expected in such lessons to form the class
+notion directly, that is, without the intervention of a particular
+experience. This question will be considered more fully in Chapter
+XXVII, which treats of the process of imagination.
+
+
+C. LEARNING BY INFERENCE, OR DEDUCTION
+
+Instead of placing himself in British Columbia, and noting by actual
+experience that there is a large rainfall there, a person may discover
+the same by what is called a process of inference. For example, one may
+have learned from an examination of other particular instances that air
+takes up moisture in passing over water; that warm air absorbs large
+quantities of moisture; that air becomes cool as it rises; and that
+warm, moist air deposits its moisture as rain when it is cooled. Knowing
+this and knowing a number of particular facts about British Columbia,
+namely that warm winds pass over it from the Pacific and must rise owing
+to the presence of mountains, we may infer of British Columbia that it
+has an abundant rainfall. When we thus discover a truth in relation to
+any particular thing by inference, we are said to go through a process
+of deduction. A more particular study of this process will be made in
+Chapter XXVIII, but certain facts may here be noted in reference to the
+process as a mode of acquiring knowledge. An examination will show that
+the deductive process follows the ordinary process of learning, or of
+selecting certain elements of old knowledge, and organizing them into a
+new particular experience in order to meet a certain problem.
+
+=Deduction as Formal Reasoning.=--It is usually stated by psychologists
+and logicians that in this process the person starts with the general
+truth and ends with the particular inference, or conclusion, for
+example:
+
+     Winds coming from the ocean are saturated with moisture.
+
+     The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific.
+
+     Therefore these winds are saturated with moisture.
+
+     All winds become colder as they rise.
+
+     The winds of British Columbia rise as they go inland.
+
+     Therefore, the winds (atmosphere) in British Columbia become colder
+     as they go inland.
+
+     The atmosphere gives out moisture as it becomes colder.
+
+     The atmosphere in British Columbia becomes colder as it goes
+     inland.
+
+     Therefore, the atmosphere gives out moisture in British Columbia.
+
+=Steps in Process.=--The various elements involved in a deductive
+process are often analysed into four parts in the following order:
+
+1. _Principles._ The general laws which are to be applied in the
+solution of the problem. These, in the above deductions, constitute the
+first sentence in each, as,
+
+     The air becomes colder as it rises.
+
+     Air gives out its moisture as it becomes colder, etc.
+
+2. _Data._ This includes the particular facts already known relative to
+the problem. In this lesson, the data are set forth in the second
+sentences, as follows:
+
+     The prevailing winds in British Columbia come from the Pacific; the
+     wind rises as it goes inland, etc.
+
+3. _Inferences._ These are the conclusions arrived at as a result of
+noting relations between data and principles. In the above lesson, the
+inferences are:
+
+     The atmosphere, or trade-winds, coming from the Pacific rise,
+     become colder, and give out much moisture.
+
+4. _Verification._ In some cases at least the learner may use other
+means to verify his conclusions. In the above lesson, for example, he
+may look it up in the geography or ask some one who has had actual
+experience.
+
+=Deduction Involves a Problem.=--It is to be noted, however, that in a
+deductive learning process, the young child does not really begin with
+the general principle. On the contrary, as noted in the study of the
+learning process, the child always begins with a particular unsolved
+problem. In the case just cited, for instance, the child starts with the
+problem, "What is the condition of the rainfall in British Columbia?" It
+is owing to the presence of this problem, moreover, that the mind calls
+up the principles and data. These, of course, are already possessed as
+old knowledge, and are called up because the mind feels a connection
+between them and the problem with which it is confronted. The principles
+and data are thus both involved in the selecting process, or step of
+analysis. What the learner really does, therefore, in a deductive
+lesson is to interpret a new problem by selecting as interpreting ideas
+the principles and data. The third division, inference, is in reality
+the third step of our learning process, since the inference is a new
+experience organized out of the selected principles and data. Moreover,
+the verification is often found to take the form of ordinary expression.
+As a process of learning, therefore, deduction does not exactly follow
+the formal outline of the psychologists and logicians of (1) principles,
+(2) data, (3) inference, and (_4_) verification; but rather that of the
+learning process, namely, (1) problem, (2) selecting activity, including
+principles and data, (3) relating activity=inference, (4)
+expression=verification.
+
+=Example of Deduction as Learning Process.=--A simple and interesting
+lesson, showing how the pupil actually goes through the deductive
+process, is found in paper cutting of forms balanced about a centre, say
+the letter X.
+
+1. _Problem._ The pupil starts with the problem of discovering a way of
+cutting this letter by balancing about a centre.
+
+2. _Selection._ Principles and Data. The pupil calls up as data what he
+knows of this letter, and as principles, the laws of balance he has
+learned from such letters as, A, B, etc.
+
+3. _Organization or Inference._ The pupil infers from the principle
+involved in cutting the letter A, that the letter X (Fig. A) may be
+balanced about a vertical diameter, as in Fig. B.
+
+Repeating the process, he infers further from the principle involved in
+cutting the letter B, that this result may again be balanced about a
+horizontal diameter, as in Fig. C.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+4. _Expression or Verification._ By cutting Figure D and unfolding
+Figures E and F, he is able to verify his conclusion by noting the shape
+of the form as it unfolds, thus:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+FURTHER EXAMPLES FOR STUDY
+
+The following are given as further examples of deductive processes.
+
+The materials are here arranged in the formal or logical way. The
+student-teacher should rearrange them as they would occur in the child's
+learning process.
+
+
+I. DIVISION OF DECIMALS
+
+1. _Principles_:
+
+(_a_) Multiplying the dividend and divisor by the same number does not
+alter the quotient.
+
+(_b_) To multiply a decimal by 10, 100, 1000, etc., move the decimal
+point 1, 2, 3, etc., places respectively to the right.
+
+2. _Data_:
+
+Present knowledge of facts contained in such an example as .0027 divided
+by .05.
+
+3. _Inferences_:
+
+(_a_) The divisor (.05) may be converted into a whole number by
+multiplying it by 100.
+
+(_b_) If the divisor is multiplied by 100, the dividend must also be
+multiplied by 100 if the quotient is to be unchanged.
+
+(_c_) The problem thus becomes .27 divided by 5, for which the answer is
+.054.
+
+4. _Verification_:
+
+Check the work to see that no mistakes have been made in the
+calculation. Multiply the quotient by the divisor to see if the result
+is equal to the dividend.
+
+
+II. TRADE-WINDS
+
+1. _Principles_:
+
+(_a_) Heated air expands, becomes lighter, and is pushed upward by
+cooler and heavier currents of air.
+
+(_b_) Air currents travelling towards a region of more rapid motion have
+a tendency to "lag behind," and so appear to travel in a direction
+opposite to that of the earth's rotation.
+
+2. _Data_:
+
+(_a_) The most heated portion of the earth is the tropical region.
+
+(_b_) The rapidity of the earth's motion is greatest at the equator and
+least at the poles.
+
+(_c_) The earth rotates on its axis from west to east.
+
+3. _Inferences_:
+
+(_a_) The heated air in equatorial regions will be constantly rising.
+
+(_b_) It will be pushed upward by colder and heavier currents of air
+from the north and south.
+
+(_c_) If the earth did not rotate, there would be constant winds towards
+the south, north of the equator; and towards the north, south of the
+equator.
+
+(_d_) These currents of air are travelling from a region of less motion
+to a region of greater motion, and have a tendency to lag behind the
+earth's motion as they approach the equator.
+
+(_e_) Hence they will seem to blow in a direction contrary to the
+earth's rotation, namely, towards the west.
+
+(_f_) These two movements, towards the equator and towards the west,
+combine to give the currents of air a direction towards the south-west
+north of the equator, and towards the north-west south of the equator.
+
+4. _Verification_:
+
+Read the geography text to see if our inferences are correct.
+
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
+
+=The Conceptual Lesson.=--As an example of a lesson involving a process
+of conception, or classification, may be taken one in which the pupil
+might gain the class notion _noun_. The pupil would first be presented
+with particular examples through sentences containing such words as
+John, Mary, Toronto, desk, boy, etc. Thereupon the pupil is led to
+examine these in order, noting certain characteristics in each.
+Examining the word _John_, for instance, he notes that it is a word;
+that it is used to name and also, perhaps, that it names a person, and
+is written with a capital letter. Of the word _Toronto_, he may note
+much the same except that it names a place; of the word _desk_, he may
+note especially that it is used to name a thing and is written without a
+capital letter. By comparing any and all the qualities thus noted, he
+is supposed, finally, by noting what characteristics are common to all,
+to form a notion of a class of words used to name.
+
+=The Inductive Lesson.=--To exemplify an inductive lesson, there may be
+noted the process of learning the rule that to multiply the numerator
+and denominator of any fraction by the same number does not alter the
+value of the fraction.
+
+
+_Conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different
+denominators_
+
+The teacher draws on the black-board a series of squares, each
+representing a square foot. These are divided by vertical lines into a
+number of equal parts. One or more of these parts are shaded, and pupils
+are asked to state what fraction of the whole square has been shaded.
+The same squares are then further divided into smaller equal parts by
+horizontal lines, and the pupils are led to discover how many of the
+smaller equal parts are contained in the shaded parts.
+
+[Illustration: 1/2=3/6 2/3=8/12 3/4=15/20 3/5=18/30]
+
+Examine these equations one by one, treating each after some such manner
+as follows:
+
+How might we obtain the numerator 18 from the numerator 3? (Multiply by
+6.)
+
+The denominator 30 from the denominator 5? (Multiply by 6.)
+
+1x3   3  2x4    8  3x5   15  3x6   18
+--- = -; --- = --; --- = --; --- = --.
+2x3   6  3x4   12  4x5   20  5x6   30
+
+If we multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction
+3/5 by 6, what will be the effect upon the value of the fraction? (It
+will be unchanged.)
+
+What have we done with the numerator and denominator in every case? How
+has the fraction been affected? What rule may we infer from these
+examples? (Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the same number
+does not alter the value of the fraction.)
+
+
+THE FORMAL STEPS
+
+In describing the process of acquiring either a general notion or a
+general truth, the psychologist and logician usually divide it into four
+parts as follows:
+
+1. The person is said to analyse a number of particular cases. In the
+above examples this would mean, in the conceptual lesson, noting the
+various characteristics of the several words, John, Toronto, desk, etc.;
+and in the second lesson, noting the facts involved in the several cases
+of shading.
+
+2. The mind is said to compare the characteristics of the several
+particular cases, noting any likenesses and unlikenesses.
+
+3. The mind is said to pick out, or abstract, any quality or quantities
+common to all the particular cases.
+
+4. Finally the mind is supposed to synthesise these common
+characteristics into a general notion, or concept, in the conceptual
+process, and into a general truth if the process is inductive.
+
+Thus the conceptual and inductive processes are both said to involve the
+same four steps of:
+
+1. _Analysis._--Interpreting a number of individual cases.
+
+2. _Comparison._--Noting likenesses and differences between the several
+individual examples.
+
+3. _Abstraction._--Selecting the common characteristics.
+
+4. _Generalization._--Synthesis of common characteristics into a general
+truth or a general notion, as the case may be.
+
+=Criticism.=--Here again it will be found, however, that the steps of
+the logician do not fully represent what takes place in the pupil's mind
+as he goes through the learning process in a conceptual or inductive
+lesson. It is to be noted first that the above outline does not signify
+the presence of any problem to cause the child to proceed with the
+analysis of the several particular cases. Assuming the existence of the
+problem, unless this problem involves all the particular examples, the
+question arises whether the learner will suspend coming to any
+conclusion until he has analysed and compared all the particular cases
+before him. It is here that the actual learning process is found to vary
+somewhat from the outline of the psychologist and logician. As will be
+seen below, the child really finds his problem in the first particular
+case presented to him. Moreover, as he analyses out the characteristics
+of this case, he does not really suspend fully the generalizing process
+until he has examined a number of other cases, but, as the teacher is
+fully aware, is much more likely to jump at once to a more or less
+correct conclusion from the one example. It is true, of course, that it
+is only by going on to compare this with other cases that he assures
+himself that this first conclusion is correct. This slight variation of
+the actual learning process from the formal outline will become evident
+if one considers how a child builds up any general notion in ordinary
+life.
+
+
+CONCEPTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS
+
+=A. In Ordinary Life.=--Suppose a young child has received a vague
+impression of a cow from meeting a first and only example; we find that
+by accepting this as a problem and by applying to it such experience as
+he then possesses, he is able to read some meaning into it, for
+instance, that it is a brown, four-footed, hairy object. This idea, once
+formed, does not remain a mere particular idea, but becomes a general
+means for interpreting other experiences. At first, indeed, the idea may
+serve to read meaning, not only into another cow, but also into a horse
+or a buffalo. In course of time, however, as this first imperfect
+concept of the animal is used in interpreting cows and perhaps other
+animals, the first crude concept may in time, by comparison, develop
+into a relatively true, or logical, concept, applicable to only the
+actual members of the class. Now here, the child did not wait to
+generalize until such time as the several really essential
+characteristics were decided upon, but in each succeeding case applied
+his present knowledge to the particular thing presented. It was, in
+other words, by a series of regular selecting and relating processes,
+that his general notion was finally clarified.
+
+=B. In the School.=--Practically the same conditions are noted in the
+child's study of particular examples in an inductive or conceptual
+lesson in the school, although the process is much more rapid on account
+of its being controlled by the teacher. In the lesson outlined above,
+the pupil finds a problem in the very first word _John_, and adjusts
+himself thereto in a more or less perfect way by an apperceptive process
+involving both a selecting and a relating of ideas. With this first more
+or less perfect notion as a working hypothesis, the pupil goes on to
+examine the next word. If he gains the true notion from the first
+example, he merely verifies this through the other particular examples.
+If his first notion is not correct, however, he is able to correct it by
+a further process of analysis and synthesis in connection with other
+examples. Throughout the formal stages, therefore, the pupil is merely
+applying his growing general knowledge in a selective, or analytic, way
+to the interpreting of several particular examples, until such time as a
+perfect general, or class, notion is obtained and verified. It is,
+indeed, on account of this immediate tendency of the mind to generalize,
+that care must be taken to present the children with typical examples.
+To make them examine a sufficient number of examples is to ensure the
+correcting of crude notions that may be formed by any of the pupils
+through their generalizing perhaps from a single particular.
+
+
+INDUCTION AS A LEARNING PROCESS
+
+In like manner, in an inductive lesson, although the results of the
+process of the development of a general principle may for convenience be
+arranged logically under the above four heads, it is evident that the
+child could not wholly suspend his conclusions until a number of
+particular cases had been examined and compared. In the lesson on the
+rule for conversion of fractions to equivalent fractions with different
+denominators, the pupils could not possibly apperceive, or analyse, the
+examples as suggested under the head of selection, or analysis, without
+at the same time implicitly abstracting and generalizing. Also in the
+lesson below on the predicate adjective, the pupils could not note, in
+all the examples, all the features given under analysis and fail at the
+same time to abstract and generalize. The fact is that in such lessons,
+if the selection, or analysis, is completed in only one example,
+abstraction and generalization implicitly unfold themselves at the same
+time and constitute a relating, or synthetic, act of the mind. The
+fourfold arrangement of the matter, however, may let the teacher see
+more fully the children's mental attitude, and thus enable him to direct
+them intelligently through the apperceptive process. It will undoubtedly
+also impress on the teacher's mind the need of having the pupils compare
+particular cases until a correct notion is fully organized in
+experience.
+
+
+TWO PROCESSES SIMILAR
+
+Notwithstanding the distinction drawn by psychologists between
+conception as a process of gaining a general notion, and induction as a
+process of arriving at a general truth, it is evident from the above
+that the two processes have much in common. In the development of many
+lesson topics, in fact, the lesson may be viewed as involving both a
+conceptual and an inductive process. In the subject of grammar, for
+instance, a first lesson on the pronoun may be viewed as a conceptual
+lesson, since the child gains an idea of a class of words, as indicated
+by the new general term pronoun, this term representing the result of a
+conceptual process. It may equally be viewed as an inductive lesson,
+since the child gains from the lesson a general truth, or judgment, as
+expressed in his new definition--"A pronoun is a word that represents an
+object without naming it," the definition representing the result of an
+inductive process. This fact will be considered more fully, however, in
+Chapter XXVIII.
+
+
+FURTHER EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE LESSONS
+
+As further illustrations of an inductive process, the following outlines
+of lessons might be noted. The processes are outlined according to the
+formal steps. The student-teacher should consider how the children are
+to approach each problem and to what extent they are likely to
+generalize as the various examples are being interpreted during the
+analytic stage.
+
+
+1. THE SUBJECTIVE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE
+
+_Analysis, or selection:_
+
+     Divide the following sentences into subject and predicate:
+
+     The man was old.
+
+     The weather turned cold.
+
+     The day grew stormy.
+
+     The boy became ill.
+
+     The concert proved successful.
+
+     What kind of man is referred to in the first sentence? What part of
+     speech is "old"? What part of the sentence does it modify? In what
+     part of the sentence does it stand? Could it be omitted? What then
+     is its duty with reference to the verb? What are its two duties?
+     (It completes the verb "was" and modifies the subject "man.")
+
+Lead the pupils to deal similarly with "cold," "stormy," "ill,"
+"successful."
+
+
+_Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:_
+
+     What two duties has each of these italicized words? Each is called
+     a "Subjective Predicate Adjective." What is a Subjective Predicate
+     Adjective? (A Subjective Predicate Adjective is an adjective that
+     completes the verb and modifies the subject.)
+
+
+2. CONDENSATION OF VAPOUR
+
+_Analysis, or selection:_
+
+The pupils should be asked to report observations they have made
+concerning some familiar occurrences like the following:
+
+     (1) Breathe upon a cold glass and upon a warm glass. What do you
+     notice in each case? Where must the drops of water have come from?
+     Can you see this water ordinarily? In what form must the water have
+     been before it formed in drops on the cold glass?
+
+     (2) What have you often noticed on the window of the kitchen on
+     cool days? From where did these drops of water come? Could you see
+     the vapour in the air? How did the temperature of the window panes
+     compare with the temperature of the room?
+
+     (3) When the water in a tea-kettle is boiling rapidly, what do you
+     see between the mouth of the spout and the cloud of steam? What
+     must have come through that clear space? Is the steam then at first
+     visible or invisible?
+
+The pupils should be further asked to report observations and make
+correct inferences concerning such things as:
+
+     (4) The deposit of moisture on the outside surface of a pitcher of
+     ice-water on a warm summer day.
+
+     (5) The clouded condition of one's eye-glasses on coming from the
+     cold outside air into a warm room.
+
+
+_Comparison, Abstraction, and Generalization, or Organization:_
+
+     In all these cases you have reported what there has been in the
+     air. Was this vapour visible or invisible? Under what condition did
+     it become visible?
+
+The pupils should be led to sum up their observations in some such way
+as the following:
+
+Air often contains much water vapour. When this comes in contact with
+cooler bodies, it condenses into minute particles of water. In other
+words, the two conditions of condensation are (1) a considerable
+quantity of water vapour in the air, and (2) contact with cooler
+bodies.
+
+It must be borne in mind that in a conceptual or an inductive lesson
+care is to be taken by the teacher to see that the particulars are
+sufficient in number and representative in character. As already pointed
+out, crude notions often arise through generalizing from too few
+particulars or from particulars that are not typical of the whole class.
+Induction can be most frequently employed in elementary school work in
+the subjects of grammar, arithmetic, and nature study.
+
+
+INDUCTIVE-DEDUCTIVE LESSONS
+
+Before we leave this division of general method, it should be noted that
+many lessons combine in a somewhat formal way two or more of the
+foregoing lesson types.
+
+In many inductive lessons the step of application really involves a
+process of deduction. For example, after teaching the definition of a
+noun by a process of induction as outlined above, we may, in the same
+lesson, seek to have the pupil use his new knowledge in pointing out
+particular nouns in a set of given sentences. Here, however, the pupil
+is evidently called upon to discover the value of particular words by
+the use of the newly learned general principle. When, therefore, he
+discovers the grammatical value of the particular word "Provender" in
+the sentence "Provender is dear," the pupil's process of learning can be
+represented in the deductive form as follows:
+
+    All naming words are nouns.
+    _Provender_ is a naming word.
+    _Provender_ is a noun.
+
+Although in these exercises the real aim is not to have the pupil learn
+the value of the individual word, but to test his mastery of the general
+principle, such application undoubtedly corresponds with the deductive
+learning process previously outlined. Any inductive lesson, therefore,
+which includes the above type of application may rightly be described as
+an inductive-deductive lesson. A great many lessons in grammar and
+arithmetic are of this type.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE LESSON UNIT
+
+
+=What Constitutes a Lesson Problem.=--The foregoing analysis and
+description of the learning process has shown that the ordinary school
+lesson is designed to lead the pupil to build up, or organize, a new
+experience, or, as it is sometimes expressed, to gain control of a unit
+of valuable knowledge, presented as a single problem. From what has been
+learned concerning the relating activity of mind, however, it is evident
+that the teacher may face a difficulty when he is called upon to decide
+what extent of knowledge, or experience, is to be accepted as a
+knowledge unit. It was noted, for example, that many topics regularly
+treated in a single lesson fall into quite distinct sub-divisions, each
+of which represents to a certain extent a separate group of related
+ideas and, therefore, a single problem. On the other hand, many
+different lesson experiences, or topics, although taught as separate
+units, are seen to stand so closely related, that in the end they
+naturally organize themselves into a larger single unit of knowledge,
+representing a division, of the subject of study. From this it is
+evident that situations may arise, as in teaching the classes of
+sentences in grammar, in which the teacher must ask himself whether it
+will be possible to take up the whole topic with its important
+sub-divisions in a single lesson, or whether each sub-division should be
+treated in a single lesson.
+
+=How to Approach Associated Problems.=--Even when it is realized that
+the related matter is too large for a single lesson, it must be decided
+whether it will be better to bring on each sub-division as a separate
+topic, and later let these sub-divisions synthesise into a new unity; or
+whether the larger topic should be taken up first in a general way, and
+the sub-divisions made topics of succeeding lessons. In the study of
+mood in grammar, for example, shall we introduce each mood separately,
+and finally have the child synthesise the separate facts; or shall we
+begin with a lesson on mood in general, and follow this with a study of
+the separate moods? In like manner, in the study of winds in geography,
+shall we study in order land and sea breezes, trade-winds, and monsoons,
+and have the child synthesise these facts at the end of the series; or
+shall we begin with a study of winds in general, and follow this with a
+more detailed study of the three classes of winds?
+
+
+WHOLE TO PARTS
+
+=Advantages.=--The second of these methods, which is often called the
+method of proceeding from whole to parts, should, whenever possible, be
+followed. For instance, in a study of such a lesson as _Dickens in the
+Camp_, the detailed study of the various stanzas should be preceded by
+an introductory lesson, bringing out the leading thought of the poem,
+and noting the sub-topics. When, in an introductory lesson, the pupil is
+able to gain control of a large topic, and see the relation to it of a
+given number of sub-topics, he is selecting and relating the parts of
+the whole topic by the normal analytic-synthetic method. Moreover, in
+the following lessons, he is much more likely to appreciate the relation
+of the various sub-topics to the central topic, and the inter-relations
+between these various sub-topics. For this reason, in such subjects as
+history, literature, geography, etc., pupils are often introduced to
+these large divisions, or complex lesson units, and given a vague
+knowledge of the whole topic, the detailed study of the parts being made
+in subsequent lessons.
+
+=Examples.=--The following outlines will further illustrate how a series
+of lessons (numbered I, II, III, etc.) may thus proceed from a first
+study of the larger whole to a more detailed study of a number of
+subordinate parts.
+
+
+THE ST. LAWRENCE RIVER SYSTEM
+
+_I. Topic.--The St. Lawrence River:_
+
+     Position, size, extent of system, other characteristics.
+     Importance--historical, commercial, industrial.
+
+_II. Sub-topic 1.--Importance historically:_
+
+     Open mouth to Europe; Open door to continent; Cartier, Champlain.
+     System of lakes and rivers large and small gave lines of
+     communication, inviting discovery and subsequent development and
+     settlement.
+
+_III. Sub-topic 2.--Importance commercially:_
+
+     Large tracts of valuable land, timber, etc., made available.
+     Highway--need of such between East and West. Difficulties to be
+     overcome, canal, ships. Competition of railways, How? Classes of
+     goods back and forth. Avenue to and from the wheat land.
+
+_IV. Sub-topic 3.--Importance industrially:_
+
+     Great commercial centres--where located and why? Water powers,
+     elevators, manufacturing of raw materials made available in the
+     large areas; Immigration; Fishing.
+
+
+STUDY OF BACTERIA
+
+_I. Topic.--Bacteria:_
+
+     What they are; relations, comparisons; other plants in same class,
+     or those of higher orders; size, shape; where found; conditions of
+     growth; propagation; modes of distribution; etc.
+
+_II. Sub-topic 1.--Our interest in bacteria, arising out of the injury
+or good they do:_
+
+     (_a_) Injury: Decay of fruits, trees, tissues, etc.,
+     diseases--diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis; how developed,
+     conditions, favourable toxins.
+
+     (_b_) Benefits: In soil, cheese, butter, etc.; chemical action,
+     building new compounds and breaking up other compounds.
+
+_III. Sub-topic 2.--Our interest in controlling them; the methods based
+on mode and conditions of growth, etc.:_
+
+     (_a_) Prevention: Eliminating favourable conditions; low
+     temperature, high temperatures, cleanliness; sewerage disposal;
+     clean cow-stables, cellars, kitchens, etc.; antiseptics--carbolic,
+     formalin, sugar for fruit, sealing up; quarantine, vaccination,
+     antitoxin.
+
+     (_b_) Cultures,--alfalfa, cheese, butter, under control.
+
+
+GEOGRAPHY OF EUROPE
+
+_I. Topic.--Europe:_
+
+     What interest to us; why we study it; position, latitude, near
+     water, boundaries, size; Surface features--highlands, lowlands,
+     drainage rivers, coast-line, etc. Climate--temperature (means,
+     Jan., July), wind, moisture.
+
+_II. Sub-topic 1.--Products (based on above conditions):_
+
+     Vegetation, animal, mineral; vary over area according to physical
+     climatic, and geological conditions; Kinds of products of each
+     class, in each area, etc.
+
+_III. Sub-topic 2.--Occupations (based on Lesson II):_
+
+     Study of operations and conditions favourable and unfavourable
+     under which each product is produced, gathered, and manufactured.
+     Industries, arising from work on the raw materials.
+
+_IV. Sub-topic 3.--Trade and Commerce (based on Lessons II and III):_
+
+     Transportation, producers selling and manufacturers buying raw
+     material, distributed to homes in country and city, to factories
+     within the region itself, to regions beyond, across oceans, etc.
+     Manufactured products sent out, exports and imports.
+
+_V. Sub-topic 4.--Civil advantages (based on Lessons I, III, and IV):_
+
+     Conditions of living--homes, dress, work and pleasure; trades,
+     education, government, social, religious, etc.
+
+
+PARTS TO WHOLE
+
+The method of whole to parts cannot be followed in all cases even where
+a number of lesson units may possess important points of inter-relation.
+Although, for instance, simple and compound addition and addition of
+fractions are only different phases of one process, no one would
+advocate the combining of these into such a unified lesson series. In
+Canadian History, also, although the conditions of the Quebec Act, the
+coming of the United Empire Loyalists, and the passing of the
+Constitutional Act, have definite points of inter-relation, it would
+nevertheless be unwise to attempt to evolve these out of a single
+complex lesson unit. In such cases, therefore, the synthesis of the
+various parts must be made as the lessons proceed. Moreover, it is well
+to ensure the complete organization of the elements by means of an
+outline review at the end of the lesson series. The student-teacher will
+meet an example of this process under the topical lesson in Chapter
+XVII.
+
+
+PRECAUTIONS
+
+It is evident from the above considerations, that certain precautions
+should be observed in deciding upon the particular subject-matter to be
+included in each lesson topic.
+
+1. A just balance should be maintained between the difficulty of each
+lesson unit and the ability of the class. Matter that is too easy
+requires no effort in its mastery and hence is uninteresting. Matter
+that is too difficult discourages effort, and is, therefore, equally
+uninteresting. It should be sufficiently easy for every pupil to master,
+and sufficiently difficult to require real effort.
+
+2. The amount of matter included should be carefully adjusted to the
+length of time taken for the lesson and to the attainments of the class.
+If too much is attempted, there will be insufficient time for adequate
+drill and review, and hence there will be lack of thoroughness. If too
+little is attempted, time will be wasted in needless repetition.
+
+3. Each unit of instruction in any subject should, in general, grow out
+of the preceding unit taken in that subject, and be closely connected
+with it. It is in this way that a pupil's interest is aroused for the
+new problem and his knowledge becomes organized. Neglect in this regard
+results in the possession of disconnected and unsystematized facts.
+
+Each lesson should contain one or more central facts around which the
+other facts are grouped. This permits easy organization of the material
+of the lesson, and ensures its retention by the pupils. Further, the
+pupils are by this means trained to discriminate between the essential
+and the non-essential.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+LESSON TYPES
+
+
+=The Developing Lesson.=--In the various lesson plans already
+considered, the aim has always appeared as an attempt to direct the
+learning process so that the pupil may both build up a new experience
+and also gain such control over it as will enable him to turn it to
+practical use. Because in all such lessons the teacher is supposed to
+direct the pupils through the four steps of the learning process in such
+a way that they discover for themselves some important new experience,
+or develop it out of their own present knowledge, the lessons are spoken
+of as developing lessons. Moreover, the two parts of the lesson in which
+the new experience is especially gained by the pupils, namely the
+selecting and relating processes, are often spoken of as a single step
+and called the step of _development,_ the lesson then being treated
+under four heads: Problem, preparation, development, and application.
+
+=Auxiliary Lessons.=--It is evident, however, that there may be lessons
+in which this direct attempt to have the pupils build up some wholly new
+experience through a regularly controlled learning process, will not
+appear as the chief purpose of the lesson. In the previous consideration
+of the deductive lesson, it was pointed out that this type may be used
+to give a further mastery of general rules previously learned, rather
+than a knowledge of particular examples. Such would be the case in an
+ordinary parsing and analysis lesson in grammar. Here the primary
+purpose is, evidently, not to give the pupils a grammatical knowledge
+of the particular words and sentences which are being parsed and
+analysed, but rather to give them better control of certain general
+rules of language which they have partially mastered in previous
+lessons. So also a lesson in writing may seek, not to teach the form of
+some new letter, but to give skill in writing a letter form which the
+pupils have already learned. In an exercise in addition of fractions,
+also, the aim is not so much to have the pupil know these particular
+questions, as to have him gain a more complete control of the previously
+learned rule. In other lessons the pupils may be left to secure new
+knowledge largely for themselves, and the recitation be devoted to
+testing whether they have been able to accomplish this successfully. In
+still other lessons the teacher may merely outline a certain topic or
+certain topics, preparatory to such independent study by the pupils.
+
+The following outlines will explain and exemplify these auxiliary lesson
+types.
+
+
+THE STUDY LESSON
+
+=Purpose of Study Lesson.=--The purpose of the Study Lesson is the
+mastery by the pupils of a stated portion of the text-book. Ultimately,
+however it is the cultivation of the power of gleaning information from
+the printed page, of selecting essential features, and of arranging
+these in their proper relationships.
+
+The main difficulty in connection with the study lesson is the
+adaptation of the matter to the interests of the pupils. This difficulty
+is sometimes due to their inability to interpret the language of the
+book, and to the difficulty of their distinguishing the salient features
+from the non-essential. The trouble in this regard is accentuated when
+they approach the lesson with an inadequate preparation of mind.
+
+The study lesson falls naturally into two parts, the assignment and the
+seat work.
+
+=The Assignment.=--The object of the assignment is to put the pupils in
+an attitude of inquiry toward the new matter. It corresponds to the
+conception of the problem and the step of preparation in the development
+lesson. The most successful assignment is one in which the interest of
+the pupils is aroused to such a pitch that they are anxious to read more
+about the subject. In general it will consist of a recall of those
+ideas, or a statement of those facts upon which the interpretation of
+the new matter depends. Most of the unsuccessful study lessons are due
+to insufficient care in the assignment. Often pupils are told to read so
+many pages of the book, without any preliminary preparation and without
+any idea of what facts they are to learn. Under such conditions, the
+result is usually a very slight interest in the lesson, and consequently
+an unsatisfactory grasp of it.
+
+=Examples of Assignment.=--A few examples will serve to illustrate what
+is meant by an adequate assignment. When a new reading lesson is to be
+prepared, the assignment should include the pronunciation and meaning of
+the different words, and a general understanding of the passage to be
+read. For a new spelling lesson, the assignment should include the
+pronunciation and meaning of the words, and any special difficulties
+that may appear in them. In assigning a history lesson on, say, the
+Capture of Quebec, the teacher should discuss with the class the
+position of Quebec, the difficulties that would present themselves to a
+besieging army, the character and personal appearance of Wolfe (making
+him stand out as vividly as possible), and the position seized by the
+British army, illustrating as far as possible by maps and diagrams.
+Then the class will be in a mental attitude to read with interest the
+dramatic story of the taking of the fortress. If the pupils were about
+to study the geography of British Columbia, the teacher might, in the
+assignment, ask them to note from the map of Canada the position of the
+province and the direction of the mountain ranges; to infer the
+character and direction of the rivers and their value for navigation; to
+infer the nature of the climate, knowing the direction of the prevailing
+winds; to infer the character of the chief industries, knowing the
+physical features and climate. With these facts in mind the class will
+be able to read intelligently what the text-book says about British
+Columbia.
+
+=The Seat Work.=--However good the assignment may be, there is always a
+danger that there will be much waste of time in connection with the seat
+work. The tendency to mind-wandering is always so great that the time
+devoted to the preparation of lessons at seats may to a large extent be
+lost, unless special precautions are taken in that regard. Unfortunately
+every lesson cannot be made so enthralling that the pupil's mind is kept
+upon it in spite of distractions. To prevent this possible waste of
+time, suggestions have already been made in another connection (page 112
+above). These will bear repetition here. Questions upon the matter to be
+studied might be placed on the black-board and pupils asked to prepare
+answers for these. The difficulty with this plan is, that, unless the
+questions are carefully thought out by the teacher, the pupils may get
+from their reading only a few disconnected facts instead of organized
+knowledge. The pupils might be asked to prepare lists of questions for
+themselves, and the one who had the best list might be permitted to put
+his questions to the rest of the class. The difficulty here is that
+most pupils have a tendency to question about what is unimportant and
+to neglect the important. In the higher classes, the pupils might be
+required to make a topical outline of the lesson studied. This requires
+considerable analytic ability, and the results at first are likely to be
+disappointing. However, it is an ability worth striving for. The
+individual who can readily outline what he has read has mastered the art
+of reading.
+
+=Use of Study Lessons.=--There is a danger that the study lesson may be
+used too much or too little. In an ungraded school containing many
+classes, the teacher may be tempted to rely solely upon the study lesson
+as a means of intellectual advancement. Used exclusively it becomes
+monotonous, and the pupils grow weary of the constant effort required.
+On the other hand, in the graded school, where a teacher has charge of
+only one class, there will be a tendency to depend entirely on the oral
+presentation of lessons, to the exclusion of the text-book altogether.
+The result is that pupils do not cultivate the power to obtain knowledge
+from books. The study lesson should alternate with the oral lesson, so
+that monotony may be avoided, and the pupils will reap the undoubted
+benefits of both methods.
+
+
+THE RECITATION LESSON
+
+=Purpose of the Recitation Lesson.=--The recitation lesson is the
+complement of the study lesson. Its purpose is to test the pupil's grasp
+of the facts he has read during the study period. Incidentally the
+teacher clears up difficulties and corrects misconceptions on the part
+of the pupil. The facts of the text-book may be amplified from the
+teacher's stock of information. Abstract facts may be illustrated in a
+concrete way. The important facts may be emphasized and the unimportant
+ones lightly passed over. The ultimate aim of the recitation lesson is
+to add something to the pupil's power of interpreting and organizing
+facts.
+
+=Precautions.=--Some precautions are to be noted in connection with the
+recitation lesson. (1) Care must be exercised that the pupils are not
+reciting mere words that have no solid basis of ideas. Young children
+are particularly expert at verbalizing. (2) Care must also be taken that
+the pupils have not merely scrappy information, but have the ideas
+thoroughly organized. (3) The teacher must know the facts to be recited
+well enough to be independent of the text-book during the recitation. To
+conduct the lesson with an open book before him is a confession of
+weakness on the part of the teacher.
+
+
+CONDUCTING THE RECITATION LESSON
+
+There are two methods of conducting the recitation lesson, namely, the
+question and answer method and the topical method.
+
+=A. The Question and Answer Method.=--This is the easier method for the
+pupil, as he is called upon to answer only in a brief form detailed
+questions asked by the teacher. The onus of the analysis of the lesson
+rests largely upon the teacher. He must ask the questions in a proper
+sequence so that, if the answers of the pupils were written out, they
+would form a connected account of the matter. He must be able to detect
+from the pupils' answers whether they have real knowledge or are merely
+masquerading with words. To be able to question well is one of the most
+valuable accomplishments that a teacher can possess. The whole problem
+of the art of questioning will be considered in the next Chapter.
+
+=B. The Topical Method.=--The topical recitation consists in the pupil's
+reporting the facts of the study lesson with a minimum of questioning on
+the part of the teacher. Two advantages are apparent: (1) It gives the
+pupil an excellent training in organizing his materials, and (2) it
+develops his language power. It is to be feared that the topical
+recitation is not so frequently used as its value warrants. The reason
+is probably that it is a difficult method to follow. Poor results are
+usually secured at first, teachers grow discouraged, they stop trying
+it, and thereafter put their whole faith in the question and answer
+recitation. This is unfortunate, for however good the latter may be, it
+is greatly inferior to the topical recitation in helping the pupil to
+institute relations among his facts, and in improving his power to use
+his mother-tongue effectively. Successful topical recitations can be
+secured only at the price of long, patient, and persistent effort. The
+teacher can gradually work towards them from detailed questions to
+questions requiring the combination of a few sentences in answer, and
+thence to the complete outline. In almost every lesson the pupils may be
+called upon to summarize some topic after it has been gone over by means
+of detailed questions. In such answers the pupils may reasonably be
+expected to state the facts in their proper connection and in good
+language form. In reviews, also, in such subjects as history and
+geography, the pupils should be frequently called upon to recite
+topically.
+
+
+THE DRILL LESSON
+
+=Purpose of Drill Lesson.=--The Drill Lesson involves the repetition of
+matter in the same form as it was originally learned, in order to fix it
+in the mind so firmly that its recall will eventually become automatic.
+In other words, the function of this type of lesson is habit-formation.
+It is necessary in those subjects that are more or less mechanical in
+nature, and that can be reduced to the plane of habit. The field of the
+drill lesson will, therefore, be largely restricted to spelling,
+writing, language, and the mechanical phases of art and arithmetic.
+
+=The Method.=--As the purpose of the drill lesson is the formation of
+habit, the method will involve the application of the principles that
+lie at the basis of habit-formation. These are, (1) attention to the
+thing to be done so as to obtain a vivid picture or a clear
+understanding of it, and (2) repetition with attention. For instance, if
+the writing lesson is the formation of the capital E, the class will
+examine carefully a model form, note the parts of which it is composed,
+the relative size and position of the parts, how they are connected,
+etc. Then will follow the repetition of the form by the pupils, each
+time with careful attention to the method of making it, comparison with
+the model, and the noting of defects in their work. This will continue
+until the letter can be made correctly without attention, that is, until
+the method of making it has been reduced to a habit. If the lesson is on
+the spelling of difficult words, the first step will be to observe the
+pronunciation of each, the division into syllables, the difficult part
+of the word, and the order of the letters. Then the word will be
+repeated attentively until it can be spelled without effort. In a
+language lesson on the correct use, say, of "lie" and "lay," the pupils
+will first be called upon to observe the forms of each, "lie, lay, lain,
+lying," and "lay, laid, laying"--as used in sentences on the
+black-board, and the meaning of each group--"lie" meaning "to recline"
+and "lay" meaning "to place." The pupils will then repeat attentively
+the correct forms of the words in sentences, until they finally reach
+the stage when they unconsciously use the words correctly, or as habits
+of speech. The same principles apply in learning the addition and
+multiplication tables, and the tables of weights and measures in
+arithmetic; in the memorization of gems of poetry and prose; in the
+learning of dates, lists of events, and important provisions of acts in
+history; and in the memorization of lists of places and products in
+geography, where this is desirable. In all the cases mentioned, it must
+not be supposed that a single drill lesson will be sufficient for the
+fixing of the desired knowledge or skill. Before instant and unconscious
+reaction can be depended upon, repetition will be needed at intervals
+for some time.
+
+=Danger in Mere Repetition.=--In connection with the repetition
+necessary in the second stage of the drill lesson, an important
+precaution should be noted. It is impossible for anybody to repeat
+anything _attentively_ many times in succession unless there is some new
+element noted in each repetition. When there is no longer a new element,
+the repetition becomes mechanical, and hence comparatively useless so
+far as acquisition of knowledge or even habit is concerned. To ask a
+pupil who has difficulty with a combination in addition, or a product in
+multiplication, or the spelling of a word, to repeat it many times in
+succession, may be not only waste of time, but even worse, because a
+tendency toward mind-wandering may be encouraged. The practice of
+requiring pupils to write out new words, or words that have been
+mis-spelled in the dictation lesson, five, ten, or twenty times
+successively, cannot be too strongly condemned. The attention cannot
+possibly be concentrated upon the work beyond two or three repetitions,
+and the fact that pupils frequently make mistakes two or three words
+down the column and repeat this mistake to the end, is sufficient proof
+of the mechanical nature of the process. The little boy who had
+difficulty with the use of "went" and "gone," and was commanded by his
+teacher to write "I have gone" a hundred times on his slate, illustrates
+this principle exactly. He had been left to finish his task alone and,
+after writing "I have gone" faithfully forty or fifty times, grew tired
+of the monotony of the process. Turning the slate over, he wrote on the
+other side, "I have went home" and left it on the desk for the teacher's
+approval.
+
+=How to Overcome Dangers.=--To avoid this difficulty, some device must
+be adopted to secure attention to each repetition until the knowledge is
+firmly fixed. For instance, instead of asking the pupil many times one
+after the other, what seven times six are, it would be better to
+introduce other combinations and come back frequently to seven times
+six. In that way the pupil would have to attend to it every time it came
+up. Similarly, in learning to spell a troublesome word like "separate,"
+the best plan would be to mix it up with other words and come back to it
+often. Repetition is always necessary in the drill lesson, but it should
+always be _repetition with attention_.
+
+
+THE REVIEW LESSON
+
+=Purpose of Review Lesson.=--As the name implies, a review is a new view
+of old knowledge. While the drill lesson repeats the matter in the same
+form as it was originally learned, the review lesson repeats the matter
+from another standpoint or in new relations. The function of the review
+lesson is the organization of the material of a series of lessons into
+an inter-connected whole, and incidentally the fixing of these facts in
+the mind by the additional repetitions.
+
+=Kinds of Review.=--Almost every lesson gives opportunities for
+incidental reviews. The step of preparation recalls old ideas in new
+connections, and may be properly considered a review. A lesson on the
+"gerund" in grammar would require a recall of the various relations in
+which a noun may stand, and the various ways in which a verb may be
+completed. It is quite probable that the pupils have never before
+brought these facts together in an organized way. Similarly, the step of
+expression affords opportunity for review. The solution of problems in
+simple interest confronts the pupils with new situations in which this
+principle can be applied. The reproduction of the matter of the history
+lesson requires the selection of the important facts from the mass of
+details given and the placing of these in their proper relationship to
+one another.
+
+But besides the incidental reviews which form a part of nearly all
+lessons, there must be lessons which are purely reviews. Without these,
+the pupil, because of insufficient repetition, would rapidly forget the
+facts he had once learned or would never really know the facts at all,
+because he had not seen them in all their connections. There are two
+methods of conducting these reviews: (1) by means of the topical
+outline, (2) by means of the method of comparison.
+
+
+THE TOPICAL REVIEW
+
+=Purpose of Topical Outlines.=--By this method the pupil gets a
+bird's-eye view of a whole field. In learning the matter originally, his
+attention was largely concentrated upon the individual facts, and it is
+quite probable that he has since lost sight of some of the threads of
+unity running through them. The topical outline will bring these into
+prominence. It will enable the pupil to keep in his mind the most
+important headings of a subject, the sub-headings, and the individual
+facts coming under these. Whatever may be said against the practice of
+memorizing topical outlines, it must be acknowledged that unless it is
+done the pupil's knowledge of the subject is likely to be very hazy,
+indefinite, and disconnected.
+
+=Illustrations from History.=--As an illustration of the review lesson
+by means of the topical outline, take the history of the Hudson's Bay
+Company. If the pupil has followed the order of the text-book, he has
+probably learned this subject in pieces--a bit here, another some pages
+later, and still another a few chapters farther on. In the multiplicity
+of other events, he has probably missed the connections among the facts,
+and a topical review will be necessary to establish these. He may be
+required to go through his history text-book, reading all the parts
+relating to the Hudson's Bay Company. He will thus get a grasp of the
+relationships among the facts, and this will be made firmer if an
+outline such as the following is worked out with the assistance of the
+teacher.
+
+
+THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY
+
+I. EARLY HISTORY:
+
+     1. Groseilliers and Radisson interest Prince Rupert in
+     possibilities of trade in North-Western Canada. Two vessels fitted
+     out for Hudson's Bay. Report favourable.
+
+     2. Charter granted Hudson's Bay Company by Charles II, 1670.
+
+     3. Forts Nelson, Albany, Rupert, and Hayes attacked and captured by
+     DeTroyes and D'Iberville, 1686. Restored by Treaty of Utrecht,
+     1713.
+
+II. NATURE OF FUR-TRADE:
+
+     1. Furs gathered by Indians in winter.
+
+     2. Conveyed to forts in summer, after incredible difficulties.
+
+     3. Ceremonies on arrival of Indians at forts.
+
+     4. Articles exchanged for furs at first showy and worthless, but
+     later more useful and valuable, for example, guns, hatchets,
+     powder, shot, blankets, etc.
+
+III. RIVALS OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY:
+
+     1. Coureurs-de-bois.
+
+     2. Scottish traders--ranged from Michilimackinac to Saskatchewan.
+     H.B. Co. built Cumberland House on Saskatchewan to compete for
+     interior trade.
+
+     3. North-West Company, 1783-4--at first friendly to H.B. Co., but
+     later bitter enemies.
+
+IV. THE SELKIRK SETTLEMENT:
+
+     1. _Establishment._--Lord Selkirk, a Scottish philanthropist, and a
+     shareholder in the Hudson's Bay Co., purchased from the Company
+     70,000 square miles of land around Red River for Scotch colonies,
+     1811. About three hundred settlers came within three years. Miles
+     Macdonell at head of the colony.
+
+     2. _Trouble with North-West Company._--
+
+     (_a_) Suspicion of N.W. Co. that colony was established by H.B. Co.
+     to compete for fur trade.
+
+     (_b_) Proclamation of Macdonell that food should not be taken out
+     of settlement. Attack on colony by Metis Indians encouraged by N.W.
+     Co. Withdrawal of colonists to Lake Winnipeg.
+
+     (_c_) Return with reinforcements under Semple. Skirmish at Seven
+     Oaks, 1816. Semple with twenty others killed.
+
+     (_d_) Selkirk's descent upon Fort William. Arrest of several
+     Nor'Westers. Colony at Red River restored.
+
+     (_e_) Nor'Westers acquitted of murder of Semple. Selkirk convicted
+     and heavily fined for acts of violence. Selkirk withdrew from
+     Canada in disappointment and disgust.
+
+     3. _Later Progress._--
+
+     (_a_) Hardships of pioneer life like those of Ontario.
+
+     (_b_) A series of disasters--grasshoppers, floods.
+
+     (_c_) Prosperity finally came.
+
+     (_d_) Government at first administered by governor of H.B. Co.,
+     later assisted by Council of fourteen members.
+
+V. AMALGAMATION OF RIVAL COMPANIES:
+
+     1. _Union._--
+
+     After withdrawal of Selkirk, the H.B. Co. and the N.W. Co. united
+     in 1821, under name of former.
+
+     2. _Subsequent Progress._--
+
+     (_a_) Governor Sir George Simpson extended posts westward to
+     Pacific.
+
+     (_b_) Through his energy Britain was able to retain possession of
+     Western Canada in spite of aggression of United States and Russia.
+
+VI. RELINQUISHMENT OF ADMINISTRATIVE POWERS:
+
+     1. Canadian Government claimed that the rule of the Company
+     hindered development of Western Canada because it was interested
+     only in trade.
+
+     2. _Agreement with Canadian Government._--
+
+     (_a_) Company sold Prince Rupert's Land and gave up its trade
+     monopoly.
+
+     (_b_) In return.--
+
+         (i) Received L300,000.
+
+         (ii) Retained one twentieth of land south of the Saskatchewan.
+
+         (iii) Retained its posts and trading privileges.
+
+3. Company still exists as a trading organization with many posts in the
+West and large stores in many cities.
+
+VII. SERVICES OF H.B. CO. TO CANADA AND THE EMPIRE:
+
+     1. Opened up a valuable trade in Western Canada.
+
+     2. Explored and opened up the West for settlement.
+
+     3. Retained for Britain the territory west of Rockies when it was
+     in danger of falling into other hands.
+
+The subjects of the Public and Separate School Course where topical
+reviews are most necessary are history and geography.
+
+THE COMPARATIVE REVIEW
+
+A thing always stands out most vividly in the mind when the relations of
+similarity and difference are perceived between it and other things.
+When we compare and contrast two things, certain features of each that
+would otherwise escape our attention are brought to light. We get a
+clearer idea of both the rabbit and the squirrel when we compare their
+various characteristics. Great Britain and Germany are each better
+understood geographically, when we set up comparisons between them; Pitt
+and Walpole stand out more clearly as statesmen when we compare and
+contrast them. One of the most effective forms of review is that in
+which the relations of likeness and difference are set up between
+subjects that have already been studied. For instance, the geographical
+features of Manitoba and British Columbia may be effectively reviewed by
+instituting comparisons between them in regard to (1) position and size,
+(2) physical features, (3) climate, (4) industries, (5) products, (6)
+commercial centres. The careers of Walpole and Pitt might be reviewed by
+comparing and contrasting them with regard to (1) circumstances under
+which each became Prime Minister, (2) domestic policy, (3) foreign
+policy, (4) circumstances surrounding the resignation of each, (5)
+personal character.
+
+Whatever form the review lesson may take, the teacher should always keep
+in mind its two main purposes, namely, (1) the organization of knowledge
+which comes through the apprehension of new relationships, and (2) the
+deeper impression of facts on the mind which comes through attentive
+repetition.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+QUESTIONING
+
+
+=Importance.=--As a teaching device, questioning must always occupy a
+place of the highest importance. While it may not be always true that
+good questioning is synonymous with good teaching, there can be no doubt
+that the good teacher must have, as one of his qualifications, the
+ability to question well. A good question is a problem to solve. A
+stimulating problem arouses and directs mental activity. Well-directed
+mental activity is the prime requisite of all learning and one of the
+ends which all effective teaching endeavours to realize. Questioning is
+one of the best means of securing that desirable activity of mind
+without which intellectual progress is impossible. The teacher who would
+master the technique of his art must study to attain skill in
+questioning.
+
+
+QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GOOD QUESTIONER
+
+=A. Knowledge of Subject and of Mind.=--The most obvious essentials are
+familiarity with the subject-matter and a knowledge of the mental
+processes of the child. Without the first, the questions will be
+pointless, haphazard, and unsystematic; without the second, they will be
+ill-adjusted to the interests and attainments of the pupils. A thorough
+knowledge of the facts of the lesson and a keen insight into the
+workings of the child mind are indispensable.
+
+=B. Analytic Ability.=--As an accompaniment of the first of these
+qualifications, the good questioner must have analytic ability. The
+material of the lesson must be analysed into its elements and the
+relations of these must be clearly perceived if it is to be effectively
+presented to the pupils. The teacher must further have the power to
+discriminate between the important and the unimportant. The ability to
+seize upon the essential features and to give due prominence to these is
+one of the most valuable accomplishments a teacher can have.
+
+=C. Knowledge of Pupils' Experiences.=--As an accompaniment of the
+second qualification, the good questioner must have a knowledge of the
+previous experience and of the capacities of the pupils. Good teaching
+consists largely in the skilful adjustment of the new to the old. The
+teacher must ascertain what the pupils already know, what their
+interests are, and what matter they may reasonably be expected to
+apprehend, if he is to have them assimilate properly the facts of the
+lesson. He must further show sympathy and tact in order to inspire the
+pupils to their best effort. He must be able to detect unerringly the
+symptoms of inattention, listlessness, and misbehaviour, and by a
+well-directed question to bring back the wandering attention to the
+subject in hand.
+
+=Faults in Questioning.=--There are two serious weaknesses that many
+young teachers exhibit, namely, questioning when they ought to tell and
+telling when they ought to question. To tell pupils what they might
+easily discover for themselves is to deprive them of the joy of conquest
+and to miss an opportunity of exercising and strengthening their mental
+powers. On the other hand, to question upon matter which the pupils
+cannot reasonably be expected to know or discover is to discourage
+effort and encourage guessing. To know just when to question and when
+to tell requires considerable discrimination and insight on the part of
+the teacher.
+
+
+PURPOSES OF QUESTIONING
+
+Questioning has three main purposes, namely:
+
+1. To determine the limits of the pupil's present knowledge in order
+that the teacher may have a definite basis upon which to build the new
+material;
+
+2. To direct the pupil's thought along a prescribed channel to a
+definite end, to lead him to make discoveries and form conclusions on
+his own account;
+
+3. To ascertain how far he has grasped the meaning of the new material
+that has been presented.
+
+=A. Preparatory.=--The first of these purposes may be designated as
+preparatory. Here the teacher clears the ground for the presentation of
+the new matter by recalling the old related facts necessary to the
+interpretation of the new. In thus sounding the depths of the pupil's
+previous knowledge, the teacher should usually ask questions that demand
+fairly long answers instead of those which may be answered briefly. The
+onus of the recall should be placed largely upon the pupil. The teacher
+will do comparatively little talking; the pupil will do much.
+
+=B. Developing.=--The second purpose may be described as developing. The
+pupil is led step by step to a conclusion. Each question grows naturally
+out of the preceding question, the responsibility for this logical
+connection falling upon the teacher. The pupil has before him a certain
+set of conditions, and he is asked to infer the logical result of such
+conditions. He forms inferences, makes new discoveries, sets up new
+relationships, and formulates definitions and laws. It should be noted
+that this form of questioning gives no entirely new information to the
+pupil. It merely classifies and organizes what is already in his mind in
+a more or less indistinct and nebulous form. New information cannot be
+questioned out of a pupil; it must be given to him directly.
+
+=C. Recapitulation.=--The third purpose of questioning may be described
+as recapitulatory. The pupil is asked to reproduce what he has learned
+during the progress of the lesson. At convenient intervals during the
+presentation and at the close, he should be asked to summarize in a
+connected manner the main points already covered. Thus the teacher tests
+the pupil's comprehension of the facts of the lesson. The pupil, on his
+side, as a result of such reproduction, has the facts more clearly fixed
+in his mind. As in the first stage of the lesson, the answers should be
+of considerable length, logically connected, and expressed in good
+language. The responsibility for this is again thrown largely upon the
+pupil. He does most of the talking; the teacher does little.
+
+=How Employed in Lesson.=--It will thus be recognized that questioning
+is employed for different purposes at the three different stages of the
+lesson. At the opening of the lesson it prepares the mind of the pupil
+for what is to follow. During the presentation it leads the pupil to
+form his own inferences. At the close of the lesson it tests his grasp
+of the facts and gives these greater clearness and fixity in his mind.
+The first and third might both be designated as _testing_ purposes, and
+the second _training_.
+
+
+SOCRATIC QUESTIONING
+
+=Its Characteristics.=--Developing, or training, questions, are
+sometimes referred to as Socratic questions. The terms are, however, not
+altogether synonymous. The method of Socrates had two divisions, known
+as _irony_ and _maieutics_. The former consisted in leading the pupil
+to express an opinion on some subject of current interest, an opinion
+that was apparently accepted by Socrates. Then, by a series of questions
+adroitly put, he drove his pupil into a contradiction or an absurd
+position, thus revealing the inadequacy of the answer. This phase of the
+Socratic method is rarely applicable with young children. Occasionally,
+in grammar or arithmetic, for instance, an incorrect answer may properly
+be followed up so as to lead the pupil into a contradiction, but it is
+usually not desirable to embarrass him unnecessarily. It is never
+agreeable to be covered with the confusion which such a situation
+usually brings about. The other phase of the Socratic method, the
+_maieutics_, consisted in leading the pupil, by a further series of
+questions, to formulate the correct opinion of which the first
+hastily-given answer was only a fragment. This coincides with the
+developing method and may sometimes be profitably employed with young
+children.
+
+EXAMPLE OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONING.--As an example of Socratic
+questioning may be noted the following taken from Plato's _Minos_.
+Socrates has questioned his companion concerning the nature of Law and
+has received the answer, "Law is the decree of the city." To show his
+companion the inadequacy of this definition, Socrates engages with him
+in the following dialogue:
+
+     _Socrates_: Justice and law, are highly honourable; injustice and
+     lawlessness, highly dishonourable; the former preserves cities, the
+     latter ruins them?
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes, it does.
+
+     _Socrates_: Well, then! we must consider law as something
+     honourable; and seek after it, under the assumption that it is a
+     good thing. You defined law to be the decree of the city: Are not
+     some decrees good, others evil?
+
+     _Pupil_: Unquestionably.
+
+     _Socrates_: But we have already said that law is not evil?
+
+     _Pupil_: I admit it.
+
+     _Socrates_: It is incorrect therefore to answer, as you did
+     broadly, that law is the decree of the city. An evil decree cannot
+     be law.
+
+     _Pupil_: I see that it is incorrect.
+
+Having shown his pupil the fallacy of his first definition, Socrates
+proceeds to teach him that only what is right is lawful. This part of
+the dialogue proceeds as follows:
+
+     _Socrates_: Those who know, must of necessity hold the same opinion
+     with each other, on matters which they know: always and everywhere?
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes--always and everywhere.
+
+     _Socrates_: Physicians write respecting matters of health what they
+     account to be true, and these writings of theirs are the medical
+     laws?
+
+     _Pupil_: Certainly they are.
+
+     _Socrates_: The like is true respecting the laws of farming, the
+     laws of gardening, the laws of cookery. All these are the writings
+     of persons, knowing in each of the respective pursuits?
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes.
+
+     _Socrates_: In like manner, what are the laws respecting the
+     government of a city? Are they not the writings of those who know
+     how to govern--kings, statesmen, and men of superior excellence?
+
+     _Pupil_: Truly so.
+
+     _Socrates_: Knowing men like these will not write differently from
+     each other about the same things, nor change what they have once
+     written. If, then, we see some doing this, are we to declare them
+     knowing or ignorant?
+
+     _Pupil_: Ignorant, undoubtedly.
+
+     _Socrates_: Whatever is right, therefore, we may pronounce to be
+     lawful in medicine, gardening, or cookery; whatever is not right,
+     not to be lawful but lawless. And the like in treatises respecting
+     just and unjust, prescribing how the city is to be administered.
+     That which is right, is the regal law; that which is not right, is
+     not so, but only seems to be law in the eyes of the ignorant, being
+     in truth lawless.
+
+     _Pupil_: Yes.
+
+It will be seen from the above examples, that much of the Socratic
+questioning is really explanatory; the questions, though interrogative
+in form, being often rhetorical, and therefore assertive in value.
+
+
+THE QUESTION
+
+=Characteristics of a Good Question.=--Good questions should seize upon
+the important features and emphasize these. Unimportant details, though
+useful in giving vividness to a narrative and enabling the pupil to
+build up a clear picture of the scene or incident, may well be ignored
+in questioning. The teacher must see that the pupil grasps the
+essentials and must direct his questions towards the attainment of that
+end. The questions should be arranged in logical sequence, so that the
+answers, if written out in the order given, would form a connected
+account of the topic under discussion. Further, the questions should
+require the expression of a judgment on the part of the pupil. In the
+main they should not be answerable by a single word or a brief phrase.
+One of the greatest weaknesses in the answers of pupils is the tendency
+_to_ extreme brevity. As a result, it is difficult to get pupils to give
+a connected and continuous narration, description, or exposition in any
+subject. The remedy for this defect is to ask questions which demand
+answers of considerable length, and to avoid those which require only a
+scrappy answer.
+
+=Form of the Question.=--It should ever be borne in mind that the
+teacher's language influences the language habits of his pupils.
+Carelessly worded, poorly constructed questions are likely to result in
+answers having similar characteristics. On the other hand, correctness
+in the form of the questions asked, accuracy in the use of words,
+simple, straightforward statements of the thing wanted, will be
+reflected, dimly perhaps, in the form of the pupils' answers. Care must,
+therefore, be exercised as to the form in which questions are asked.
+They should be stripped of all superfluous introductory words, such as,
+"Who can tell?" "How many of you know?" etc. Such prefaces are not only
+useless and a waste of time, but they also put before pupils a bad model
+if we are to expect concise and direct statements from them. The
+questions should be so clear and definite in meaning as to admit of only
+one interpretation. Questions such as, "What happened after this?" "What
+did Cromwell become?" "What about the rivers of Germany?" "What might we
+say of this word?" are objectionable on the score of indefiniteness.
+Many correct answers might be given for each and the pupils can only
+guess at what is required. If the question cannot be so stated as to
+make what is desired unmistakable, the information had better be given
+outright. Questions should be brief and usually deal with only one
+point, except, perhaps in asking for summaries of what has been covered
+in the lesson. In the latter case it is frequently desirable to put a
+question involving several points in order to ensure definiteness,
+conciseness, and connectedness in the answer; for example, "For what is
+Alexander Mackenzie noted? State his great aim and describe his two most
+important undertakings connected therewith." But in dealing with matter
+taken up for the first time or involving original thought, this type of
+question, demanding as it does attention to several points, would put
+too great a demand upon the powers of young children. Under such
+conditions it is best to ask questions requiring only one point in
+answer.
+
+
+THE ANSWER
+
+=Form of Answers.=--The possibility of improving the pupil's language
+power through his answers has already been referred to. To secure the
+best results in this regard, the teacher should insist on answers that
+are grammatically correct and, usually, in complete sentences. It would
+be pedantic, however, to insist always upon the latter condition. For
+such questions as, "What British officer was killed at Queenston
+Heights?" or "What province lies west of Manitoba?" the natural answers
+are "General Brock," or "Saskatchewan." To require pupils to say, "The
+British officer killed at Queenston Heights was General Brock," or "The
+province west of Manitoba is Saskatchewan," would be to make the
+recitation unnatural and formal. When answers are a mere echo of the
+question, with some slight inversion or addition, they become
+exceedingly mechanical, and useless from the point of view of language
+training. While it is desirable to avoid, as far as possible, questions
+that admit of answers of a single word or short phrase, such questions
+are sometimes necessary and are not objectionable. Questions should not
+be thrown into the form of an elliptical statement in which the pupil
+merely fills a blank, for example, "The capital of Ontario is...?" "The
+first English parliament was called by...?" Nor should they be given in
+inverted form, as, "Montreal is situated where?" "The Great Charter was
+signed by what king?" Alternative questions such as, "Is this a noun or
+an adjective?" "Was Charles I willing or unwilling to sign the Petition
+of Right?" as well as those questions that are answerable by "Yes" or
+"No," require little thought to answer and should be avoided if
+possible. When they are used, the pupil should at once be required to
+give reasons for his answer. Neither the form of the question nor the
+teacher's tone of voice or manner should afford any inkling as to the
+answer expected.
+
+=Calling for Answers.=--In order that the attention of the whole class
+may be maintained, the question should be proposed before the pupil who
+is to answer is indicated. No fixed order in calling upon the pupils
+should be adopted. If the pupils are never certain beforehand who is to
+be named to answer the question, they are more likely to be kept
+constantly on the alert. The questions should be carefully distributed
+among the class, the duller pupils being given rather more and easier
+questions than the brighter ones. One of the temptations that the
+teacher has to overcome is that of giving the clever and willing pupils
+the majority of the questions. The question should seldom be repeated
+unless the first wording is so unfortunate that the meaning is not clear
+and it is found necessary to recast it. To repeat questions habitually
+is to put a premium on inattention on the part of the pupils. A bad
+habit often noted among teachers is that of wording the question in
+several ways before any one is asked to answer it.
+
+=Methods of Dealing with Answers.=--As has been already indicated in
+another connection, the answers of the pupils should be generally in
+complete sentences and frequently should be in the form of a continuous
+paragraph or series of paragraphs, especially in summaries and reviews.
+The continuous answer should be cultivated much more than it is, as a
+means of training pupils to organize their information and to express
+themselves in clear and connected discourse. On the other hand, however,
+children should be discouraged from giving more information than is
+demanded by the question. While it is desirable that the correctness of
+an answer should be indicated in some way, the teacher should guard
+against forming the habit of indicating every correct answer by a
+stereotyped word or phrase, such as, "Yes" or "That's right." Answers
+should seldom be repeated by the teacher, unless it is desirable to
+re-word them for purposes of emphasis. Repetition of answers encourages
+careless articulation on the part of the pupil answering and inattention
+on the part of the others. One of the worst habits a teacher can
+contract is the "gramophonic" repetition of pupils' answers. The answers
+given by the pupils should almost invariably be individual, not
+collective. Simultaneous answering makes a noisy class-room, cultivates
+a monotonous and measured method of speaking, and encourages the habit
+of relying on others. There are always a few leaders in the class that
+are willing to take the initiative in answering, and the others merely
+chime in with them. The method is not suitable for the expression of
+individual opinion, for all pupils must answer alike. There is, further,
+the possibility that absurd blunders may pass uncorrected, because in
+the general repetition the teacher cannot detect them.
+
+
+LIMITATIONS
+
+Though questioning is the most valuable of teaching devices, it is quite
+susceptible of being overworked. There is quite as much danger of using
+it too extensively as there is of using it too little. Frequently,
+teachers try to question from pupils what they could not be expected to
+know. Further, it is possible by too much questioning to cover up the
+point of the lesson rather than reveal it, and to mystify the pupils
+rather than clarify their ideas. These are the two main abuses of the
+device. After all, it should be remembered that, important as good
+questioning undoubtedly is, it is not the only thing in lesson
+technique. In teaching, as elsewhere, variety is the spice of life.
+Sympathy, sincerity, enthusiasm in the teacher will do more to secure
+mental activity in the pupils than mere excellence in questioning. The
+energetic, enthusiastic, sympathetic teacher may secure better results
+than the teacher whose ability in questioning is well-nigh perfect, but
+who lacks these other qualities. If, however, to these qualities he adds
+a high degree of efficiency in questioning, his success in teaching is
+so much the more assured.
+
+
+
+
+PART III. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+CONSCIOUSNESS
+
+
+=Data of Psychology.=--Throughout the earlier parts of the text,
+occasional reference has been made to various classes of mental states,
+and to psychology, as the science which treats of these mental states,
+under the assumption that such references would be understood in a
+general way by the student-teacher. At the outset of a study of
+psychology as the science of mind, however, it becomes necessary to
+inquire somewhat more fully into the nature of the data with which the
+science is to deal. Mind is usually defined either by contrasting it
+with the concrete world of matter, or by describing its activities. It
+is said, for instance, that mind is that which feels and knows, which
+hopes, fears, determines, etc. By some, indeed, mind is described as
+merely the sum of these states of knowing and feeling and willing. The
+practical man says, however, _I_ know and feel so-and-so, and _my_ wish
+is so-and-so. Here an evident distinction is drawn between the knower,
+or conscious self, and his conscious activities. While, however, we may
+agree with the practical man that there is a mind, or self, that knows
+and wills and feels; yet it is evident that the self, or knower, can
+know himself only through his conscious states. It must be understood,
+therefore, that mind in its ultimate sense cannot be studied directly,
+but only the conscious states, or conditions of mind. Thus psychology
+becomes a study of mental states, or states of consciousness; and it
+is, in fact, frequently described as the science of consciousness.
+
+=Nature of Consciousness.=--Our previous study of the nature of
+experience has shown that various kinds of conscious states may arise in
+the mind, now the smell of burning cloth, now the sound of a ringing
+bell, now the feeling of bodily pain, now a remembered joy, now a future
+expectation or a resolution. Such a conscious state was seen, moreover,
+to represent on the part of the mind, not a mere passive impression
+coming from some external source, but an active attitude resulting in
+definite experience. It signifies, in other words, a power to react in a
+fixed way toward impressions, and direct our conduct in accordance with
+the resulting states of consciousness. Consciousness in the individual
+implies, therefore, that he is aware of phenomena as they are
+experienced, and is able to modify his behaviour accordingly.
+
+=Types of Consciousness.=--Although allowable, from the standpoint of
+the learning process, to describe a conscious state as an attitude of
+awareness in which the individual grasps the significance of an
+experience in relation to his own needs; it must be recognized that not
+all consciousness manifests this meaningful quality, or this relation to
+a felt aim, or end. While lying, for instance, in a vague, half-awake
+state, although one is conscious, the mental condition is quite devoid
+of the meaningful quality referred to, and entirely lacks the feeling of
+reaction, or of mental effort. In this case there is no distinct
+reference to the needs of the self, and a lack of that focusing of
+attention necessary to give the consciousness a meaning and purpose in
+the life of the individual. All such passive, or effortless, states of
+consciousness, which make up those portions of mental existence in
+which no definite presentation seems to hold the attention, although
+falling within the sphere of the scientific psychologist, may
+nevertheless be left out of consideration in a study of educational
+psychology. Learning involves apperception, and apperception is always
+giving a meaning to new presentations by actively bringing old knowledge
+to bear upon them. For the educator, therefore, psychology may be
+limited to a study of the definite states of consciousness which arise
+through an apperceiving act of attention, that is, to our states of
+experience and the processes connected therewith. For this reason,
+psychology is by some appropriately enough defined as the science of
+experience.
+
+=Consciousness a Stream.=--Although we describe the data of psychology
+as facts, or states, of consciousness, a moment's reflection will show
+that our conscious life is not made up of a number of mental states, or
+experiences, completely separated one from the other. Our consciousness
+is rather a unified whole, in which seemingly disconnected states blend
+into one continuous flow of conscious life. For this reason,
+consciousness is frequently compared to a stream, or river, moving
+onward in an unbroken course. This stream of consciousness appears as
+disjointed mental states, simply because the attention discriminates
+within this stream, and thus in a sense detaches different portions one
+from the other, or, as sometimes figuratively put, it creates successive
+waves on the stream of consciousness. A mental state, or experience,
+so-called, is such a discriminated portion of this stream of
+consciousness, and is, therefore, itself a process, the different
+processes blending in a continuous succession or relation to make up the
+unbroken flow of conscious life. For this reason psychology is
+frequently described as a study of conscious processes.
+
+
+VALUE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+Within the school the child secures a control of experience only by
+passing through a process of mental reconstruction, or of changes in
+consciousness. Moreover, to bring about these mental changes, it is
+found necessary for the teacher's effort to conform as far as possible
+to the interests and tendencies of the child. So far, therefore, as the
+teacher's office is to direct and control the children's effort during
+the learning process, he must approach them primarily as mental, or
+conscious, beings. For this reason the educator should at least not
+violate the general principles governing all mental activity. By giving
+him an insight into the general principles underlying conscious
+processes, psychology should aid the teacher to control the learning
+process in the child.
+
+
+LIMITATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
+
+=Psychology Cannot Give: A. Knowledge of Subject-matter.=--It must not
+be assumed, however, that knowledge of psychology will necessarily imply
+a corresponding ability to teach. Psychology, for instance, cannot
+decide what should be taught to the child. This, as we have seen, is a
+problem of social experience, and must be decided by considering the
+types of experience which will add to the social efficiency of the
+individual, or which will enable him best to do his duty to himself and
+to others. All, therefore, that psychology can do here is to explain the
+process by which experience is acquired, leaving to social ethics the
+problem of deciding what knowledge is of most worth.
+
+=B. Love for Children.=--Again, psychology will not necessarily furnish
+that largeness of heart and sympathy for childhood, without which no
+teacher can be successful. Indeed, it is felt by many that making
+children objects of psychological analysis will rather tend to destroy
+that more spiritual conception of their personality which should
+constitute the teacher's attitude toward his pupils. While this is no
+doubt true of the teacher who looks upon children merely as subjects for
+psychological analysis and experimentation, it is equally true that a
+knowledge of psychology will enable even the sympathetic teacher to
+realize more fully and deal more successfully with the difficulties of
+the pupil.
+
+=C. Acquaintance with the Individual Child.=--Again, the teacher's
+problem in dealing with the mental attitude of the particular child
+cannot always be interpreted through general principles. The general
+principle would be supposed to have an application to every child in a
+large class. It is often found, however, that the character and
+disposition of the particular child demands, not general, but special
+treatment. Here, what is termed the knack of the sympathetic teacher is
+often more effective than the general principle of the psychologist.
+Admitting so much, however, it yet may be argued that a knowledge of
+psychology will not hinder, but rather assist the sympathetic teacher in
+dealing even with special cases.
+
+
+METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
+
+=A. Introspection.=--A unique characteristic of mind is its ability to
+turn attention inward and make an object of study of its own states, or
+processes. For instance, the mind is able to make its present sensation,
+its remembered state of anger, its idea of a triangle, etc., stand out
+in consciousness as a subject of study for conscious attention. On
+account of this ability to give attention to his own states of
+consciousness, man is said both to know and to know that he knows. This
+reflective method of studying our own mental states is known as the
+method of _Introspection_.
+
+=B. Objective Method.=--Facts of mind may, however, be examined
+objectively. As previously noted, man, by his words, acts, and works,
+gives expression to his conscious states. These different forms of
+expression are accepted, therefore, as external indications of
+corresponding states of mind, and afford the psychologist certain data
+for developing his science. One of the most important of these objective
+methods is known as Child Study. Here, by the method of observing the
+acts and language of very young children, data are obtained concerning
+the native instincts of the child, concerning the genesis and
+development of the different mental processes, and the relation of these
+to physical development. A brief statement of the leading principles of
+Child Study will be found in Chapter XXXI.
+
+=C. Experimental Method.=--A third method of studying mind is known as
+the _Experimental_ method. Here, as in the case of the ordinary physical
+experimenter, the psychologist seeks to control certain mental processes
+by isolating them and regulating their action. This may be effectively
+done in the study of certain processes. For instance, by passing the two
+points of a pair of compasses over different parts of the body, the
+tactile sensibility of the skin may be compared at these different
+parts. By this means it may be shown that the tip of the finger can
+detect the two points when only one twelfth of an inch apart, while on
+the middle of the back they may require to be two and a half inches
+apart to give a double impression. The experimental method is often
+used in connection with the objective method in Child Study.
+
+
+PHASES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
+
+=A. Knowledge.=--Although, as previously stated, the stream of
+consciousness must at all times be looked upon as a unity, it will be
+found upon analysis to present three more or less distinct phases. A
+state of consciousness implies, in the first place, being aware of
+something as an object of attention. In other words, something is seized
+upon by consciousness as a presentation, and to the extent to which one
+is aware of this object of consciousness, he is said to recognize, or to
+know it. A state of consciousness is always, therefore, a state of
+knowledge, or of intelligence. Thus, whether we perceive this chair,
+imagine a mermaid, recall the looks of an absent friend, experience the
+toothache, judge the weight of this book, or become angry, our conscious
+state is a state of _knowledge_.
+
+=B. Feeling.=--A conscious state is also a state of feeling. Every
+conscious state has its feeling side, since it is a personal state, or
+since the mind itself is affected toward its own state. Two men, for
+instance, may know equally well the taste of a particular food, but the
+taste may affect each one quite differently. To one the experience is
+pleasant, to the other it may be even painful. Two boys may know equally
+that a point has been scored by the visiting team, but the personal
+attitude of each toward the experience may be quite different. The one
+finds in it a quality of joy; the other a quality of sorrow. In the same
+way the mind always feels more or less pleased or displeased in its
+present state of consciousness. To speak of any particular experience as
+painful, joyous, sorrowful, etc., is, therefore, to refer to it as a
+state of _feeling_.
+
+=C. Will.=--Consciousness is a state of effort, or will. It was
+especially pointed out above, that the purposeful consciousness always
+implies a straining or focusing of consciousness in order to attain a
+fuller control of the experience. This element of exertion manifest in
+consciousness may appear as a directing of attention, as the making of a
+choice, as determining upon a certain action, etc. This aspect of any
+conscious state is spoken of as a state of _will_, or volition.
+
+In the unity of the conscious life, therefore, there are three attitudes
+from which consciousness may be viewed:
+
+1. It is a state of Knowledge, or of Intelligence.
+
+2. It is a state of Feeling.
+
+3. It is a state of Will.
+
+On account of this threefold aspect of mental states, consciousness has
+been represented in the following form:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The significance of comparing the threefold aspect of consciousness to
+the three sides of a triangle consists in the fact that if any side of a
+triangle is removed no triangle remains. In like manner, none of the
+three attributes of consciousness could be wanting without the conscious
+state ceasing to exist as such. No one, for instance, could feel the
+pressure of a tight shoe without at the same time knowing it, and fixing
+his attention upon it. Neither could a person at any particular time
+know that the shoe was pinching him unless he was also attending to and
+feeling the experience.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+MIND AND BODY
+
+
+=Relation of Mind to Bodily Organism.=--Notwithstanding the antithesis
+which has been affirmed to exist between mind and matter, yet a very
+close relation exists between mind and the material organism known as
+the body. There are many ways in which this intimate connection
+manifests itself. Mental excitement is always accompanied with agitation
+of the body and a disturbance of such bodily processes as breathing, the
+beating of the heart, digestion, etc. Such mental processes as seeing,
+hearing, tasting, etc., are found also to depend upon the use of a
+bodily organ, as the eye, the ear, the tongue, without which it is quite
+impossible for the mind to come into relation with outside things.
+Moreover, disease or injury, especially to the organs of sense or to the
+brain, weakens or destroys mental power. The size of the brain, also, is
+found to bear a certain relation to mental capacity; the weight of the
+average brain being about 48 ounces, while the brain of an idiot often
+weighs only from 20 to 30 ounces.
+
+
+THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
+
+[Illustration: Brain and Spinal Cord]
+
+=Divisions of Nervous System.=--This intimate connection between mind
+and body is provided for through the existence of that part of the
+bodily organism known as the nervous system, and it is this part,
+together with its associated organs of sense, that chiefly interests the
+student of psychology. A study of the character and functions of the
+various parts of the nervous system, and of the nervous substance of
+which these parts are composed, belongs to physiology rather than to
+psychology. As the student-teacher is given a general knowledge of the
+structure of the nervous system in his study of physiology, a brief
+description will suffice for the present purpose. The nervous system
+consists of two parts, (1) the central part, or cerebro-spinal centre,
+and (2) an outer part--the spinal nerves. The central part, or
+cerebro-spinal centre, includes the spinal cord, passing upward through
+the vertebrae of the spinal column and the brain. The brain consists of
+three parts: The cerebrum, or great brain, consisting of two
+hemispheres, which, though connected, are divided in great part by a
+longitudinal fissure; the cerebellum, or little brain; and the medulla
+oblongata, or bulb. The spinal nerves consist of thirty-one pairs, which
+branch out from the spinal cord. Each pair of nerves contains a right
+and left member, distributed to the right and the left side of the body
+respectively. These nerves are of two kinds, sensory, or afferent,
+(in-carrying) nerves, which carry inward impressions from the outside
+world, and motor, or efferent, (out-carrying) nerves, which convey
+impulses outward to the muscles and cause them to contract. There are
+also twelve pairs of nerves connected with the eye, ear, nose, tongue,
+and face, which, instead of projecting from the spinal cord, proceed at
+once from the brain through openings in the cranium. These are,
+therefore, known as cerebral nerves. In their general character,
+however, they do not differ from the projection fibres.
+
+[Illustration: Pair of Spinal Nerves]
+
+=Nervous Substance.=--Nervous substance is divided into two kinds--grey,
+or cellular, substance and white, or fibrous, substance. The greater
+part of the grey matter is situated as a layer on the outside of the
+cerebrum, or great brain, where it forms a rind from one twelfth to one
+eighth of an inch in thickness, known as the cortex. It is also found on
+the surface of the cerebellum. Diffuse masses of grey matter are
+likewise met in the other parts of the brain, and extending downward
+through the centre of the spinal cord. The function of the grey matter
+is to form centres to which the nerve fibres tend and carry in
+stimulations, or from which they commence and carry out impulses.
+
+=The Neuron.=--The centres of grey matter are composed of aggregations,
+or masses, of very small nerve cells called neurons. A neuron may range
+from 1/300 to 1/3000 of an inch in diameter, and there are several
+thousand millions of these cells in the nervous system. A developed
+neuron consists of a cell body with numerous prolongations in the form
+of white, thread-like fibres. The neuron with its outgoing fibres is the
+unit of the nervous system. Neurons are supposed to be of three classes,
+sensory to receive stimulations, motor to send out impulses to the
+muscles, and association to connect sensory and motor centres.
+
+[Illustration: A Neuron in Stages of Development]
+
+These neurons, as already noted, are collected into centres, and the
+outgoing fibres give connection to the cells, the number of connections
+for each neuron depending upon its outgoing fibres. Some of these
+connections are already established within the system at birth, while
+others, as we shall see more fully later, are formed whenever the
+organism is brought into action in our thinking and doing. To speak of
+such connections being formed between nerve centres by means of their
+outgoing fibres does not necessarily mean a direct connection, but may
+imply only that the fibres of one cell approach nearly enough to those
+of another to admit of a nervous impulse passing from the one cell to
+the other. This is often spoken of as the establishment of a path
+between the centres.
+
+=The Nerve Fibres.=--The nerve fibres which transmit impressions to and
+from the centres of grey matter average about 1/6000 of an inch in
+thickness, but are often of great length, some extending perhaps half
+the length of the body. Large numbers of these fibres unite into a
+sheath or single nerve. It is estimated that the number of fibres in a
+single nerve number in most cases several thousand, those in the nerve
+of sight being estimated at about one hundred thousand. The fibres in
+the white substance of the brain are estimated at several hundred
+million.
+
+=Classes of Fibres.=--These fibres are supposed to be of four classes,
+as follows:
+
+1. _Sensory Cerebral and Spinal Fibres_
+
+These have already been referred to as spreading outward from the brain
+and spinal cord to different parts of the body. Their office is,
+therefore, to carry inward to the centres of grey matter impressions
+received from the outside world, thus setting up a connection between
+the various senses and the cortex of the brain.
+
+2. _Motor Cerebral and Spinal Fibres_
+
+These fibres connect the centres of grey matter directly with the
+muscles, and thus provide a means of communication between these muscles
+and the cortex of the brain.
+
+3. _Association Fibres_
+
+These connect one part of the cortex with another within the same
+hemisphere.
+
+4. _Commissural Fibres_
+
+These connect corresponding centres of the two hemispheres of the
+cerebrum.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+=Function of Parts.=--Because the various cells are thus brought into
+relation, the whole nervous system combines into a single organism,
+which is able to receive impressions and provides conditions for the
+mind to interpret these impressions and, if necessary, react thereon.
+When, for instance, a stimulus is received by an end organ (the eye), it
+will be transmitted by a sensory nerve directly inward to a sensory
+centre, or cell, in the cortex of the brain. In such a case it may be
+interpreted by the mind and a line of action decided upon. Then by means
+of associating cells and fibres a motor centre may be stimulated and an
+impulse transmitted along an outgoing motor nerve to a muscle, whereupon
+the necessary motor reaction will take place. A pupil may, for instance,
+receive the impression of a word through the ear or through the eye and
+thereupon make a motor response by writing the word. The arrows in the
+accompanying figure indicate the course of the stimulus and the response
+in such cases.
+
+
+THE CORTEX
+
+=Cortex the Seat of Consciousness.=--Experiments in connection with the
+different nerve cords and centres have demonstrated that intelligent
+consciousness depends upon the nerve centres situated in the cortex of
+the cerebrum. For instance, a sensory impulse may be carried inward to
+the cells of the spinal cord and upward to the cerebellum without any
+resulting consciousness. When, however, the stimulus reaches a higher
+centre in the cortex of the brain, the mind becomes conscious, or
+interprets the impression, and any resulting action will be controlled
+by consciousness, through impulses given to the motor nerves. It is for
+this reason that the cortex is called the seat of consciousness, and
+that mind is said to reside in the brain.
+
+=Localization of Function.=--In addition, however, to placing the seat
+of consciousness in the cortex of the brain, psychologists also claim
+that different parts of the cortex are involved in different types of
+conscious activity. Sensations of sight, for instance, involve certain
+centres in the cortex, sensations of sound other centres, the movements
+of the organs of speech still other centres. Some go so far as to claim
+that each one of the higher intellectual processes, as memory,
+imagination, judgment, reasoning, love, anger, etc., involves neural
+activity in its own special section of the cortex. There seems no good
+evidence, however, to support this view. The fact seems rather that in
+all these higher processes, quite numerous centres of the cortex may be
+involved. The following figure indicates the main conclusions of the
+psychologists in reference to the localization of certain important
+functions in distinct areas of the cortex.
+
+[Illustration: REFLEX ACTS]
+
+=Nature of Reflex Action.=--While a lower nerve centre is not a seat for
+purposeful consciousness, these centres may, in addition to serving as
+transmission points for cortical messages, perform a special function
+by immediately receiving sensory impressions and transmitting motor
+impulses. A person, for instance, whose mind is occupied with a problem,
+may move a limb to relieve a cramp, wink the eye, etc., without any
+conscious control of the action. In such a case the sensory impression
+was reported to a lower sensory centre, directly carried to a lower
+motor centre, and the motor impulse given to perform the movement. In
+the same way, after one has acquired the habit of walking, although it
+usually requires conscious effort to initiate the movements, yet the
+person may continue walking in an almost unconscious manner, his mind
+being fully occupied with other matters. Here, also, the complex actions
+involved in walking are controlled and regulated by lower centres
+situated in the cerebellum. In like manner a person will unconsciously
+close the eyelid under the stimulus of strong light. Here the impression
+caused by the light stimulus, upon reaching the medulla along an
+afferent nerve, is deflected to a motor nerve and, without any conscious
+control of the movements, the muscles of the eyelid receive the
+necessary impulse to close. Actions which are thus directed from a lower
+centre without conscious control, are usually spoken of as reflex acts.
+Acts directed by consciousness are, on the other hand, known as
+voluntary acts. The difference in the working of the nervous mechanism
+in consciously controlled and in reflex action may be illustrated by
+means of the accompanying figures.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG 2]
+
+The heavy lines in Figure 1 on the opposite page show that the
+sensory-motor arc is made through the cortex, and that the mind is,
+therefore, conscious both of the sense stimulus and also of the
+resulting action. Figure 2 shows the same arc through a lower centre, in
+which case the mind is not directly attending to the impression or the
+resulting action.
+
+=Function of Consciousness.=--The facts set forth above serve further to
+illustrate the purposeful character of consciousness as man interprets
+and adjusts himself to his surroundings. So long, for instance, as the
+individual walks onward without disturbance, his mind is free to dwell
+upon other matters, cortical activity not being necessary to control the
+process of walking. If, however, he steps upon anything which perhaps
+threatens him with a fall, the rhythmic interplay between sensory and
+motor activity going on in the lower centres is at once disturbed, and a
+message is flashed along the sensory nerve to the higher, or cortical,
+centres. This at once arouses consciousness, and the disturbing factor
+becomes an object of attention. Consciousness thus appears as a means of
+adaptation to the new and varying conditions with which the organism is
+confronted.
+
+
+CHARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS MATTER
+
+=A. Plasticity.=--One striking characteristic of nervous matter is its
+plasticity. The nature of the connections within the nervous system have
+already been referred to. Mention has also been made of the fact that
+numerous connections are established within the nervous system as a
+result of movements taking place within the organism during life. In
+other words, the movements within the nervous system which accompany
+stimulations and responses bring about changes in the structure of the
+organism. The cause for these changes seems to be that the neurons which
+chance to work together during any experience form connections with one
+another by means of their outgrowing fibres. By this means, traces of
+past experiences are in a sense stored up within the organism, and it is
+for this reason that our experiences are said to be recorded within the
+nervous system.
+
+=B. Retentiveness.=--A second characteristic of nervous matter is its
+retentive power. In other words, the modifications which accompany any
+experience, besides taking on the permanent character referred to above,
+pre-dispose the system to transmit impulses again through the same
+centres. Moreover, with each repetition of the nervous activity, there
+develops a still greater tendency for the movements to re-establish
+themselves. This power possessed by nervous tissue to establish certain
+modes of action carries with it also an increase in the ease and
+accuracy with which the movements are performed. For example, the
+impressions and impulses involved in the first attempts of the child to
+control the clasping of an object, are performed with effort and in an
+ineffective manner. The cause for this seems to be largely the absence
+of proper connections between the centres involved, as referred to
+above. This absence causes a certain resistance within the system to the
+nervous movements. When, however, the various centres involved in the
+movements establish the proper connections with one another, the act
+will be performed in a much more effective and easy manner. From this
+it is evident that the nervous system, as the result of former
+experiences, always retains a certain potential, or power, to repeat the
+act with greater ease, and thus improve conduct, or behaviour. This
+property of nervous matter will hereafter be referred to as its power of
+retention.
+
+=C. Energy.=--Another quality of nervous matter is its energy. By this
+is meant that the cells are endowed with a certain potential, or power,
+which enables them to transmit impressions and impulses and overcome any
+resistance offered. Different explanations are given as to the nature of
+this energy, or force, with which nervous matter is endowed, but any
+study of these theories is unnecessary here.
+
+=D. Resistance.=--A fourth characteristic to be noted regarding nervous
+matter is that a nervous impulse, or current, as it is transmitted
+through the system, encounters _resistance_, or consumes an amount of
+nervous energy. Moreover, when the nervous current, whether sensory or
+motor, involves the establishment of new connections between cells, as
+when one first learns combinations of numbers or the movements involved
+in forming a new letter, a relatively greater amount of resistance is
+met or, in other words, a greater amount of nervous energy is expended.
+On the other hand, when an impulse has been transmitted a number of
+times through a given arc, the resistance is greatly lessened, or less
+energy is expended; as indicated by the ease with which an habitual act
+is performed.
+
+=Education and Nervous Energy.=--It is evident from the foregoing, that
+the forming of new ideas or of new modes of action tends to use up a
+large share of nervous energy. For this reason, the learning of new and
+difficult things should not be undertaken when the body is in a tired
+or exhausted condition; for the resistance which must be overcome, and
+the changes which must take place in the nervous tissue during the
+learning process, are not likely to be effectively accomplished under
+such conditions. Moreover, the energy thus lost must be restored through
+the blood, and therefore demands proper food, rest, and sleep on the
+part of the individual. It should be noted further that nervous tissue
+is more plastic during the early years of life. This renders it
+imperative, therefore, that knowledge and skill should be gained, as far
+as possible, during the plastic years. The person who wishes to become a
+great violinist must acquire skill to finger and handle the bow early in
+life. The person who desires to become a great linguist, if he allows
+his early years to pass without acquiring the necessary skill, cannot
+expect in middle life to train his vocal organs to articulate a number
+of different languages.
+
+=Cortical Habit.=--In the light of what has been seen regarding the
+character and function of the nervous system, it will now be possible to
+understand more fully two important forms of adjustment already referred
+to. When nervous movements are transmitted to the cortex of the brain,
+they not only awaken consciousness, or make the individual aware of
+something, but the present impression also leaves certain permanent
+effects in the nervous tissue of the cortex itself. Since, however,
+cortical activity implies consciousness, the retention of such a
+tendency within the cortical centres will imply, not an habitual act in
+the ordinary sense, but a tendency on the part of a conscious experience
+to repeat itself. This at once implies an ability to retain and recall
+past experiences, or endows the individual with power of memory.
+Cortical habit, therefore, or the establishment of permanent
+connections within the cortical centres, with their accompanying dynamic
+tendency to repeat themselves, will furnish the physiological conditions
+for a revival of former experience in memory, or will enable the
+individual to turn the past to the service of the present.
+
+=Physical Habits.=--The basis for the formation of physical habits
+appears also in this retentive power of nervous tissue. When the young
+boy, for instance, first mounts his new bicycle, he is unable, except
+with the most attentive effort and in a most laboured and awkward
+manner, either to keep his feet on the pedals, or make the handle-bars
+respond to the balancing of the wheel. In a short time, however, all
+these movements take place in an effective and graceful manner without
+any apparent attention being given to them. This efficiency is
+conditioned by the fact that all these movements have become habitual,
+or take place largely as reflex acts.
+
+In school also, when the child learns to perform such an act as making
+the figure 2, the same changes take place. Here an impression must first
+proceed from the given copy to a sensory centre in the cortex. As yet,
+however, there is no vital connection established between the sensory
+centres and the motor centres which must direct the muscles in making
+the movement. As the movement is attempted, however, faint connections
+are set up between different centres. With each repetition the
+connection is made stronger, and the formation of the figure rendered
+less difficult. So long, however, as the connection is established
+within the cortex, the movement will not take place except under
+conscious direction. Ultimately, however, similar connections between
+sensory and motor neurons may be established in lower centres, whereupon
+the action will be performed as a reflex act, or without the
+intervention of a directing act of consciousness. This evidently takes
+place when a student, in working a problem, can form the figures, while
+his consciousness is fully occupied with the thought phases of the
+problem. Thus the neural condition of physical habit is the
+establishment of easy passages between sensory and motor nerves in
+centres lower than the cortex.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+INSTINCT
+
+
+=Definition of Instinct.=--In a foregoing section, it was seen that our
+bodily movements divide into different classes according to their
+source, or origin. Among them were noted certain inherited spontaneous,
+but useful, complex movements which follow, in a more or less uniform
+way, definite types of stimuli presented to the organism. Such an
+inherited tendency on the part of an organism to react in an effective
+manner, but without any definite purpose in view, whenever a particular
+stimulus presents itself, is known as instinct, and the resulting action
+is described as an instinctive act. As an example of purely instinctive
+action may be taken the maternal instinct of insects whose larvae require
+live prey when they are born. To provide this the mother administers
+sufficient poison to a spider or a caterpillar to stupefy it, and then
+bears it to her nest. Placing the victim close to her eggs, she incloses
+the two together, thus providing food for her future offspring. This
+complex series of acts, so essential to the continuance of the species,
+and seemingly so full of purpose, is nevertheless conducted throughout
+without reference to past experience, and without any future end in
+view. Instinct may, therefore, be defined as the ability of an organism
+to react upon a particular situation so as to gain a desirable end, yet
+without any purpose in view or any previous training.
+
+=Characteristics of Instinct.=--An instinctive act, it may be noted, is
+distinguished by certain well marked characteristics:
+
+1. The action is not brought about by experience or guided by
+intelligence, but is a direct reaction on the part of the organism to
+definite stimulation.
+
+2. Although not the result of reason, instinctive action is purposeful
+to the extent that it shows a predisposition on the part of the organism
+to react in an effective manner to a particular situation.
+
+3. An instinctive movement is a response in which the whole organism is
+concerned. It is the discomfort of the whole organism, for instance,
+that causes the bird to migrate or the child to seek food. In this
+respect it differs from a mere reflex action such as the winking of the
+eye, breathing, coughing, etc., which involves only some particular part
+of the organism.
+
+4. Although not a consciously purposed action, instinct nevertheless
+involves consciousness. In sucking, for instance, sensation accompanies
+both the discomfort of the organism giving rise to the movements and
+also the instinctive act itself. In this respect it differs from such
+automatic actions as breathing, the circulation of the blood, and the
+beating of the heart.
+
+=Origin of Instinct.=--The various instinctive movements with which an
+organism is endowed, not being a result of experience or education, a
+question at once arises as to their source, or origin. Instinct has its
+origin in the fact that certain movements which have proved beneficial
+in the ancestral experience of the race have become established as
+permanent modes of reaction, and are transmitted to each succeeding
+generation. The explanation of this transmission of tendencies is, that
+beneficial movements are retained as permanent modifications of the
+nervous system of the animal, and are transmitted to the offspring as a
+_reactive tendency_ toward definite stimuli. The partridge family, for
+instance, has preserved its offspring from the attacks of foxes, dogs,
+and other enemies only by the male taking flight and dragging itself
+along the ground, thus attracting the enemy away from the direction of
+the nest. The complex movements involved in such an act, becoming
+established as permanent motor connections within the system, are
+transmitted to the offspring as predispositions. Instinct would thus
+seem a physiological habit, or hereditary tendency, within the nervous
+system to react in a fixed manner under certain conditions. In many
+respects, however, instincts seem to depend more largely upon bodily
+development than upon nervous structure. While the babe will at first
+instinctively suck; yet as soon as teeth appear, the sucking at once
+gives way to the biting instinct. The sucking instinct then disappears
+so completely that only a process of education will re-establish it
+later. Birds also show no instinctive tendency to fly until their wings
+are developed, while the young of even the fiercest animals will flee
+from danger, until such time as their bodily organism is properly
+developed for attack. From this it would seem that instinctive action
+depends even more upon general bodily structure and development than
+upon fixed co-ordinations within the nervous system.
+
+
+HUMAN INSTINCTS
+
+On account of the apparently intelligent character of human actions, it
+is often stated that man is a creature largely devoid of instincts. The
+fact is, however, that he is endowed with a large number of impulsive or
+instinctive tendencies to act in definite ways, when in particular
+situations. Man has a tendency, under the proper conditions, to be
+fearful, bashful, angry, curious, sympathetic, grasping, etc. It is
+only, moreover, because experience finally gives man ideas of these
+instinctive movements, that they may in time be controlled by reason,
+and developed into orderly habits.
+
+=Classification of Human Instincts.=--Various attempts have been made to
+classify human instincts. For educational purposes, perhaps the most
+satisfactory method is that which classifies them according to their
+relation to the direct welfare of the individual organism. Being
+inherited tendencies on the part of the organism to react in definite
+ways to definite stimuli, all instinctive acts should naturally tend to
+promote the good of the particular individual. Different instincts will
+be found to differ, however, in the degree in which they involve the
+immediate good of the individual organism. On this basis the various
+human instincts may be divided into the following classes:
+
+1. _Individualistic Instincts._--Some instincts gain their significance
+because they tend solely to meet the needs of the individual. Examples
+of these would be the instincts involved in securing food, as biting,
+chewing, carrying objects to the mouth; such instinctive expressions as
+crying, smiling, and uttering articulate sounds; rhythmical bodily
+movements; bodily expression of fear, etc.
+
+2. _Racial Instincts._--These include such instinctive acts as make for
+the preservation of the species, as the sexual and parental instincts,
+jealousy, etc. The constructive instinct in man, also, may be considered
+parallel to the nesting instinct in birds and animals.
+
+3. _Social Instincts._--Among these are placed such instinctive
+tendencies as bashfulness, sympathy, the gregarious instinct, or love of
+companionship, anger, self-assertion, combativeness, etc.
+
+4. _Instincts of Adjustment._--Included among man's native tendencies
+are a number of complex responses which manifest themselves in his
+efforts to adjust himself to his surroundings. These may be called
+instinctive so far as concerns their mere impulsive tendency, which is
+no doubt inherited. In the operation of these so-called instincts,
+however, there is not seen that definite mode of response to a
+particular stimulus which is found in a pure instinct. Since, however,
+these are important human tendencies, and since they deal specifically
+with the child's attitude in adapting himself to his environment, they
+rank from an educational standpoint among the most important of human
+instincts. These include such tendencies as curiosity, imitation, play,
+constructiveness and acquisitiveness.
+
+=Human Instincts Modified by Experience.=--Although instinctive acts are
+performed without forethought or conscious purpose, yet in man they may
+be modified by experience. This is true to a degree even in the case of
+the instincts of the lower animals. Young spiders, for instance,
+construct their webs in a manner inferior to that of their elders. In
+the case of birds, also, the first nest is usually inferior in structure
+to those of later date. In certain cases, indeed, if accounts are to be
+accepted, animals are able to vary considerably their instinctive
+movements according to the particular conditions. It is reported that a
+swallow had selected a place for her nest between two walls, the
+surfaces of which were so smooth that she could find no foundation for
+her nest. Thereupon she fixed a bit of clay to each wall, laid a piece
+of light wood upon the clay supports, and with the stick as a foundation
+proceeded to construct her nest. On the whole, however, there seems
+little variation in animal instincts. The fish will come a second time
+to take food off the hook, the moth will fly again into the flame, and
+the spider will again and again build his web over the opening, only to
+have it again and again torn away. But whatever may be the amount of
+variation within the instincts of the lower animals, in the case of man
+instinctive action is so modified by experience that his instincts soon
+develop into personal habits. The reason for this is quite evident. As
+previously pointed out, an instinctive act, though not originally
+purposeful, is in man accompanied with a consciousness of both the
+bodily discomfort and the resulting movements. Although, therefore, the
+child instinctively sucks, grasps at objects, or is convulsed with fear,
+these acts cannot take place without his gradually understanding their
+significance as states of experience. In this way he soon learns that
+the indiscriminate performance of an instinctive act may give quite
+different results, some being much more valuable to the individual than
+others. The young child, for instance, may instinctively bite whatever
+enters his mouth, but the older child has learned that this is not
+always desirable, and therefore exercises a voluntary control over the
+movement.
+
+=Instincts Differ in Value.=--The fact that man's instinctive tendencies
+thus come within the range of experience, not only renders them amenable
+to reason, but also leaves the question of their ultimate outcome
+extremely indefinite. For this reason many instincts may appear in man
+in forms that seem undesirable. The instinct to seek food is a natural
+one, yet will be condemned when it causes the child to take fruit from
+the neighbour's garden. In like manner, the instinct to know his
+surroundings is natural to man, but will be condemned when it causes him
+to place his ear to the keyhole. The tendency to imitate is not in
+itself evil, yet the child must learn to weigh the value of what he
+imitates. One important reason, therefore, why the teacher should
+understand the native tendencies of the child is that he may direct
+their development into moral habits and suppress any tendencies which
+are socially undesirable.
+
+=Education of Instincts.=--In dealing with the moral aspects of the
+child's instinctive tendencies, the educator must bear in mind that one
+tendency may come in conflict with another. The individualistic instinct
+of feeding or ownership may conflict with the social instinct of
+companionship; the instinct of egoism, with that of imitation; and the
+instinct of fear, with that of curiosity. To establish satisfactory
+moral habits on the basis of instinct, therefore, it is often possible
+to proceed by a method of substitution. The child who shows a tendency
+to destroy school furniture can best be cured by having constructive
+exercises. The boy who shows a natural tendency to destroy animal life
+may have the same arrested by being given the care of animals and thus
+having his sympathy developed. In other cases, the removal of stimuli,
+or conditions, for awaking the instinctive tendency will be found
+effective in checking the development of an undesirable instinct into a
+habit. The boy who shows a spirit of combativeness may be cured by
+having a generous and congenial boy as his chum. The pupil whose social
+tendencies are so strong that he cannot refrain from talking may be
+cured by isolation.
+
+=Instincts May Disappear.=--In dealing with the instinctive tendencies
+of the child, it is important for the educator to remember that many of
+these are transitory in character and, if not utilized at the proper
+time, will perish for want of exercise. Even in the case of animals,
+natural instincts will not develop unless the opportunity for exercise
+is provided at the time. Birds shut up in a cage lose the instinct to
+fly; while ducks, after being kept a certain time from water, will not
+readily acquire the habit of swimming. In the same way, the child who
+is not given opportunity to associate with others will likely grow up a
+recluse. All work for a few years, and it will be impossible for Jack to
+learn later how to play. The girl who during her childhood has no
+opportunity to display any pride through neatness in dress will grow up
+untidy and careless as to her personal appearance. In like manner, it is
+only the child whose constructive tendency is early given an opportunity
+to express itself who is likely to develop into an expert workman; while
+one who has no opportunity to give expression to his aesthetic instinct
+in early life will not later develop into an artist.
+
+
+CURIOSITY
+
+=Curiosity as Motive.=--An important bearing of instinct upon the work
+of education is found in the fact that an instinctive tendency may add
+much to the force of the motive, or end, in any educative process. This
+is especially true in the case of such adaptive instincts as curiosity,
+imitation, and play. Curiosity is the inquisitive attitude, or appetite,
+of the mind which causes it to seek out what is strange in its
+surroundings and make it an object of attention. As an instinctive
+tendency, its significance consists in the fact that it leads the
+individual to interpret his surroundings. A creature devoid of
+curiosity, therefore, would not discover either the benefits to be
+derived from his surroundings or the dangers to be avoided. In addition
+to its direct practical value in leading the individual to study his
+environment in order to meet actual needs, curiosity often seeks a more
+theoretic end, appearing merely as a feeling of wonder or a thirst for
+knowledge.
+
+=Use and Abuse of Curiosity.=--While curiosity is needful for the
+welfare of the individual, an inordinate development of this instinct is
+both intellectually and morally undesirable. Since curiosity directs
+attention to the novel in our surroundings, over-curiosity is likely to
+keep the mind wandering from one novelty to another, and thus interfere
+with the fixing of attention for a sufficient time to give definiteness
+to particular impressions. The virtue of curiosity is, therefore, to
+direct attention to the novel until it is made familiar. There is a type
+of curiosity, however, which craves for mere astonishment and not for
+understanding. It is such curiosity that causes children to pry into
+other people's belongings, and men into other people's affairs.
+
+=Sensuous and Apperceptive Curiosity.=--Curiosity may be considered of
+two kinds also from the standpoint of its origin. In early life,
+curiosity must rest largely upon sense perception, being essentially an
+appetite of the senses to meet and interpret the objective surroundings.
+A bright light, a loud noise, a moving object, at once awakens
+curiosity. At this stage, curiosity serves as a counteracting influence
+to the instinct of fear, the one leading the child to use his senses
+upon his surroundings, and the other causing him to use them in a
+careful and judicious manner. As the child grows in experience, however,
+his curiosity limits itself more and more in accordance with the law of
+apperception. Here the object attracts attention not merely because of
+its sensuous properties, but because it suggests novel relations within
+the elements of past experience. The young child's curiosity, for
+instance, is aroused toward a strange plant simply because of its form
+and colour, that of the student of botany, because the plant presents
+features that do not relate themselves at once to his botanical
+experience. The first curiosity may be called objective, or sensuous,
+the second subjective, or apperceptive.
+
+=Relation of Two Types.=--The distinction between sensuous and
+apperceptive curiosity is, of course, one of degree rather than one of
+kind. A novel object could not be an object of attention unless it bore
+some relation to the present mental content. The young child, however,
+seeks mainly to give meaning to novel sense impressions, and is not
+attracted to the more hidden relations in which objects may stand one to
+another. He is attracted, for instance, to the colour, scent, and
+general form of the flower, rather than to its structure. On the other
+hand, it is found that at a later stage curiosity is usually aroused
+toward a novel problem, to the extent to which the problem finds a
+setting in previous experience. This is seen in the fact that the young
+child takes no interest in having lessons grow out of each other in a
+connected manner, but must have his curiosity aroused to the present
+situation through its own intrinsic appeal. For this reason, young
+children are mainly interested in a lesson which deals with particular
+elements in a concrete manner, such as coloured blocks, bright pictures,
+and stories of action; while the older pupil seeks out the new problem
+because it stands in definite relation to what is already known.
+
+=Importance of Apperceptive Curiosity.=--Since curiosity depends upon
+novelty, it is evident that sensuous should ultimately give place to
+apperceptive curiosity. Although objects first impress the senses with a
+degree of freshness and vigour, this freshness must disappear as the
+novelty of the impression wears off. When sensuous curiosity thus
+disappears, it is only by seeing in the world of sensuous objects other
+relations with their larger meaning, that healthy curiosity is likely
+to be maintained. Thus it is that the curiosity of the student is
+attracted to the more hidden qualities of objects, to the tracing of
+cause and effect, and to the discovery of scientific truth in general.
+
+=Novelty versus Variety.=--While the familiar must lose something of its
+freshness through its very familiarity, it is to be noted that to remit
+any experience for a time will add something to the freshness of its
+revival. Persons and places, for instance, when revisited after a period
+of absence, gain something of the charm of novelty. Variety is,
+therefore, a means by which the effect of curiosity may be sustained,
+even after the original novelty has disappeared. This fact should be
+especially remembered in dealing with the studies of young children.
+Without being constantly fed upon the novel, the child may yet avoid
+monotony by having a measure of variety within a reasonable number of
+interests. It is in this way, in fact, that permanent centres of
+interest can best be established. To keep a child's attention
+continually upon one line of experiences would destroy both curiosity
+and interest. To keep him ever attending to the novel would prevent the
+building up of any centres of interest. By variety within a reasonable
+number of subjects, both depth of interest and reasonable variety in
+interests will be obtained. This is, therefore, another reason why the
+school curriculum should show a reasonable number of subjects and
+reasonable variety in the presentation of these subjects.
+
+
+IMITATION
+
+=Nature of Imitation.=--In our study of the nervous system, attention
+was called to the close connection existing between sensory impulse and
+action. It may be noted further that, whenever the young child gains an
+idea of an action, he tends at once to express that idea in action. On
+account of this immediate connection between thought and expression, due
+to an inability to inhibit the motor discharge, a child, as soon as he
+is able to form ideas of the acts of others, must necessarily show a
+tendency to repeat, or reproduce, such acts. Granting that this
+immediate connection between sensory impulse and motor response is an
+inherited capacity, the tendency of the young child to imitate the acts
+of others may be classified as an instinct.
+
+=Imitation a Complex.=--On closer examination, however, it will be found
+that imitation is really a complex of several tendencies. The nervous
+organism of the healthy young child is usually supercharged with nervous
+energy. This energy, like a swollen stream, seems ever striving to sweep
+away any resistance to the motor discharge of sensory impulses, and must
+necessarily reinforce the natural tendency to give immediate expression
+to ideas of action. Moreover, the social instincts of the child, his
+sympathy, etc., give him a special interest in human beings and in their
+acts. These tendencies, therefore, focus his attention upon human
+action, and cause his ideas of such acts to become more vivid and
+interesting. For this reason, observation of human acts is more likely
+to lead to motor expression. That the social instincts of the child
+reinforce the tendency to imitate is indicated by the fact that his
+early imitations are of human acts especially, as yawning, smiling,
+crying, etc. The same is further evidenced in that, at a later stage,
+when ordinary objects enter into his imitative acts, the imitation is
+largely symbolic, and objects are endowed with living attributes. Here
+blocks become men; sticks, horses, etc.
+
+=Kinds of. A. Spontaneous Imitation.=--In its simplest form, imitation
+seems to follow directly upon the perception of a given act. As the
+child attends, now to the nod of the head, now to the shaking of the
+rattle, now to an uttered sound, he spontaneously reproduces these
+perceived acts. Because in such cases the imitative act follows directly
+upon the perception of the copy, without the intervention of any
+determination to imitate, it is termed spontaneous, or unconscious,
+imitation. It is by spontaneous imitation that the child gains so much
+knowledge of the world about him, and so much power over the movements
+of his own body. The occupations and language of the home, the
+operations of the workman, the movements and gestures of the older
+children in their games, all these are spontaneously reproduced through
+imitation. This enables the child to participate largely in the social
+life about him. It is for this reason that he should observe only good
+models of language and conduct during his early years.
+
+=B. Symbolic Imitation.=--If we note the imitative acts of a child of
+from four to six years of age, we may find that a new factor is often
+entering into the process. At this stage the child, instead of merely
+copying the acts of others, further clothes objects and persons with
+fancied attributes through a process of imagination. By this means, the
+little child becomes a mother and the doll a baby; one boy becomes a
+teacher or captain, the others become pupils or soldiers. This form has
+already been referred to as symbolic imitation. Frequent use is made of
+this type of imitation in education, especially in the kindergarten.
+Through the gifts, plays, etc., of the kindergarten, the child in
+imagination exemplifies numberless relations and processes of the home
+and community life. The educative value of this type consists in the
+fact that the child, by acting out in a symbolic, or make-believe, way
+valuable social processes, though doing them only in an imaginative way,
+comes to know them better by the doing.
+
+=C. Voluntary Imitation.=--As the child's increasing power of attention
+gives him larger control of his experiences, he becomes able, not only
+to distinguish between the idea of an action and its reproduction by
+imitation, but also to associate some further end, or purpose, with the
+imitative process. The little child imitates the language of his fellows
+spontaneously; the mimic, for the purpose of bringing out certain
+peculiarities in their speech. When first imitating his elder painting
+with a brush, the child imitates merely in a spontaneous or unconscious
+way the act of brushing. When later, however, he tries to secure the
+delicate touch of his art teacher, he will imitate the teacher's
+movements for the definite purpose of adding to his own skill. Because
+in this type the imitator first conceives in idea the particular act to
+be imitated, and then consciously strives to reproduce the act in like
+manner, it is classified as conscious, or voluntary, imitation.
+
+=Use of Voluntary Imitation.=--Teachers differ widely concerning the
+educational value of voluntary imitation. It is evident, however, that
+in certain cases, as learning correct forms of speech, in physical and
+manual exercises, in conduct and manners, etc., good models for
+imitation count for more than rules and precepts. On the other hand, to
+endeavour to teach a child by imitation to read intelligently could only
+result in failure. In such a case, the pupil, by attempting to analyse
+out and set up as models the different features of the teachers reading,
+would have his attention directed from the thought of the sentence. But
+without grasping the meaning, the pupil cannot make his reading
+intelligent. In like manner, to have a child learn a rule in arithmetic
+by merely imitating the process from type examples worked by the
+teacher, would be worse than useless, since it would prevent independent
+thinking on the child's part. The purpose here is not to gain skill in a
+mechanical process, but to gain knowledge of an intelligent principle.
+
+
+PLAY
+
+=Nature of Play Impulse.=--Another tendency of early childhood utilized
+by the modern educator is the so-called instinct of play. According to
+some, the impulse to play represents merely the tendency of the surplus
+energy stored up within the nervous organism to express itself in
+physical action. According to this view, play would represent, not any
+inherited tendency, but a condition of the nervous organism. It is to be
+noted, however, that this activity spends itself largely in what seems
+instinctive tendencies. The boy, in playing hide-and-seek, in chasing,
+and the like, seems to express the hunting and fleeing instincts of his
+ancestors. Playing with the doll is evidently suggested and influenced
+by the parental instinct, while in all games, the activity is evidently
+determined largely by social instincts. Like imitation, therefore, play
+seems a complex, involving a number of instinctive tendencies.
+
+=Play versus Work.=--An essential characteristic of the play impulse is
+its freedom. By this is meant that the acts are performed, not to gain
+some further end, but merely for the sake of the activity itself. The
+impulse to play, therefore, must find its initiative within the child,
+and must give expression merely to some inner tendency. So long, for
+example, as the boy shovels the sand or piles the stones merely to
+exercise his physical powers, or to satisfy an inner tendency to
+imitate the actions of others, the operation is one of play. When, on
+the other hand, these acts are performed in order to clean up the yard,
+or because they have been ordered to be done by a parent, the process is
+one of work, for the impulse to act now lies in something outside the
+act itself. To compel a child to play, therefore, would be to compel him
+to work.
+
+=Value of Play: A. Physical.=--Play is one of the most effective means
+for promoting the physical development of the child. This result follows
+naturally from the free character of the play activity. Since the
+impulse to act is found in the activity itself, the child always has a
+strong motive for carrying on the activity. On the other hand, when
+somewhat similar activities are carried on as a task set by others, the
+end is too remote from the child's present interests and tendencies to
+supply him with an immediate motive for the activity. Play, therefore,
+causes the young child to express himself physically to a degree that
+tasks set by others can never do, and thus aids him largely in securing
+control of bodily movements.
+
+=B. Intellectual and Moral.=--In play, however, the child not only
+secures physical development and a control of bodily movements, but also
+exercises and develops other tendencies and powers. Many plays and
+games, for instance, involve the use of the senses. Whether the young
+child is shaking his rattle, rolling the ball, pounding with the spoon,
+piling up blocks and knocking them over, or playing his regular guessing
+games in the kindergarten, he is constantly stimulating his senses, and
+giving his sensory nerves their needed development. As imitation and
+imagination, by their co-operation, later enable the child to symbolize
+his play, such games as keeping store, playing carpenter, farmer, baker,
+etc., both enlarge the child's knowledge of his surroundings, and also
+awaken his interest and sympathy toward these occupations. Other games,
+such as beans-in-the-bag, involve counting, and thus furnish the child
+incidental lessons in number under most interesting conditions. In games
+involving co-operation and competition, as the bowing game, the
+windmill, fill the gap, chase ball in ring, etc., the social tendencies
+of the child are developed, and such individual instincts as rivalry,
+emulation, and combativeness are brought under proper control.
+
+
+PLAY IN EDUCATION
+
+=Assigning Play.=--In adapting play to the formal education of the
+child, a difficulty seems at once to present itself. If the teacher
+endeavours to provide the child with games that possess an educative
+value, physical, intellectual, or moral, how can she give such games to
+the children, and at the same time avoid setting the game as a task?
+That such a result might follow is evident from our ordinary observation
+of young children. To the boy interested in a game of ball, the request
+to come and join his sister in playing housekeeping would, more than
+likely, be positive drudgery. May it not follow therefore, that a trade
+or guessing game given by the kindergarten director will fail to call
+forth the free activity of the child? One of the arguments of the
+advocates of the Montessori Method in favour of that system is, that the
+specially prepared apparatus of that system is itself suggestive of play
+exercises; and that, by having access to the apparatus, the child may
+choose the particular exercise which appeals to his free activity at the
+moment. This supposed superiority of the Montessori apparatus over the
+kindergarten games is, however, more apparent than real. What the
+skilful kindergarten teacher does is, through her knowledge of the
+interests and tendencies of the children, to suggest games that will be
+likely to appeal to their free activity, and at the same time have
+educative value along physical, intellectual, and moral lines. In this
+way, she does no more than children do among themselves, when one
+suggests a suitable game to his companions. In such a case, no one would
+argue, surely, that the leader is the only child to show free activity
+in the play.
+
+=Stages in Play.=--In the selecting of games, plays, etc., it is to be
+noted that these may be divided into at least three classes, according
+as they appeal to children at different ages. The very young child
+prefers merely to play with somewhat simple objects that can make an
+appeal to his senses, as the rattle, the doll, the pail and shovel,
+hammer, crayon, etc. This preference depends, on the one hand, upon his
+early individualistic nature, which would object to share the play with
+another; and, on the other hand, upon the natural hunger of his senses
+for varied stimulations. At about five years of age, owing to the growth
+of the child's imagination, symbolism begins to enter largely into his
+games. At this age the children love to play church, school, soldier,
+scavenger man, hen and chickens, keeping store, etc. At from ten to
+twelve years of age, co-operative and competitive games are preferred;
+and with boys, those games especially which demand an amount of strength
+and skill. This preference is to be accounted for through the marked
+development of the social instincts at this age and, in the case of
+boys, through increase in strength and will power.
+
+=Limitations of Play.=--Notwithstanding the value of play as an agent in
+education, it is evident that its application in the school-room is
+limited. Social efficiency demands that the child shall learn to
+appreciate the joy of work even more than the joy of play. Moreover, as
+noted in the early part of our work, the acquisition of race experience
+demands that its problems be presented to the child in definite and
+logical order. This can be accomplished only by having them presented to
+the pupil by an educative agent and therefore set as a problem or a task
+to be mastered. This, of course, does not deny that the teacher should
+strive to have the pupil express himself as freely as possible as he
+works at his school problem. It does necessitate, however, that the
+child should find in his lesson some conscious end, or aim, to be
+reached beyond the mere activity of the learning process. This in itself
+stamps the ordinary learning process of the school as more than mere
+play.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+HABIT
+
+
+=Nature of Habit.=--When an action, whether performed under the full
+direction, or control, of attention and with a sense of effort, or
+merely as an instinctive or impulsive act, comes by repetition to be
+performed with such ease that consciousness may be largely diverted from
+the act itself and given to other matters, the action is said to have
+become habitual. For example, if a person attempts a new manner of
+putting on a tie, it is first necessary for him to stand before a glass
+and follow attentively every movement. In a short time, however, he
+finds himself able to perform the act easily and skilfully both without
+the use of a glass and almost without conscious direction. Moreover if
+the person should chance in his first efforts to hold his arms and head
+in a certain way in order to watch the process more easily in the glass,
+it is found that when later he does the act even without the use of a
+glass, he must still hold his arms and head in this manner.
+
+=Basis of Habits.=--The ability of the organism to habituate an action,
+or make it a reflex is found to depend upon certain properties of
+nervous matter which have already been considered.
+
+These facts are:
+
+1. Nervous matter is composed of countless numbers of individual cells
+brought into relation with one another through their outgoing fibres.
+
+2. This tissue is so plastic that whenever it reacts upon an impression
+a permanent modification is made in its structure.
+
+3. Not only are such modifications retained permanently, but they give a
+tendency to repeat the act in the same way; while every such repetition
+makes the structural modification stronger, and this renders further
+repetition of the act both easier and more effective.
+
+4. The connections between the various nervous centres thus become so
+permanent that the action may run its course with a minimum of
+resistance within the nervous system.
+
+5. In time the movements are so fixed within the system that connections
+are formed between sensory and motor centres at points lower than the
+cortex--that is, the stimulus and response become reflex.
+
+=An Example.=--When a child strives to acquire the movements necessary
+in making a new capital letter, his eye receives an impression of the
+letter which passes along the sensory system to the cortex and, usually
+with much effort, finds an outlet in a motor attempt to form the letter.
+Thus a permanent trace, or course, is established in the nervous system,
+which will be somewhat more easily taken on a future occasion. After a
+number of repetitions, the child, by giving his attention fully to the
+act, is able to form the letter with relative ease. As these movements
+are repeated, however, the nervous system, as already noted, may shorten
+the circuit between the point of sensory impression and motor discharge
+by establishing associations in centres lower than those situated in the
+cortex. Whenever any act is repeated a great number of times, therefore,
+these lower associations are established with a resulting diminution of
+the impression upward through the cortex of the brain. This results also
+in a lessening of the amount of attention given the movement, until
+finally the act can be performed in a perfectly regular way with
+practically no conscious, or attentive, effort.
+
+=Habit and Consciousness.=--While saying that such habitual action may
+be performed with facility in the absence of conscious direction, it
+must not be understood that conscious attention is necessarily entirely
+absent during the performance of an habitual act. In many of these acts,
+as for instance, lacing and tieing a shoe, signing one's name, etc.,
+conscious effort usually gives the first impulse to perform the act.
+There may be cases, however, in which one finds himself engaged in some
+customary act without any seeming initial conscious suggestion. This
+would be noted, for instance, where a person starts for the customary
+clothes closet, perhaps to obtain something from a pocket, and suddenly
+finds himself hanging on a hook the coat he has unconsciously removed
+from his shoulders. Here the initial movement for removing the coat may
+have been suggested by the sight of the customary closet, or by the
+movement involved in opening the closet door, these impressions being
+closely co-ordinated through past experiences with those of removing the
+coat. When, also, a woman is sewing or kneading bread, although she
+seems to be able to give her attention fully to the conversation in
+which she may be engaged, yet no doubt a slight trace of conscious
+control is still exercised over the other movements. This is seen in the
+fact that, whenever the conversation becomes so absorbing that it takes
+a very strong hold on the attention, the habitual movements may cease
+without the person being at first aware that she has ceased working.
+
+=Habit and Nervous Action.=--The general flow of the nervous energy
+during such processes as the above, in which there is an interchange
+between conscious and habitual control, may be illustrated by the
+following figures. In these figures the heavy lines indicate the process
+actually going on, while the broken lines indicate that although such
+nerve courses are established, they are not being brought into active
+operation in the particular case.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1, FIG. 2, FIG. 3
+
+A. Sensory Stimulus
+B. Lower Sensory Centre
+C. Higher Sensory Centre
+
+A' Higher Motor Centre
+B' Lower Motor Centre
+C' Motor Response]
+
+The arrows in Figure 1 indicate the course of sensory stimulation and
+motor response during the first efforts to acquire skill in any
+movement. No connections are yet set up between lower centres and the
+acts are under conscious control.
+
+The arrows in Figure 2 indicate the course of sensory stimulus and motor
+response in an ordinary habitual act, as when an expert fingers the
+piano keys or controls a bicycle while his mind is occupied with other
+matters.
+
+The arrows in Figure 3 indicate how, even in performing what is
+ordinarily an habitual act, the mind may at any time assume control of
+the movement. This is illustrated in the case of a person who, when
+unconsciously directing his bicycle along the road, comes to a narrow
+plank over a culvert. Hereupon full attention may be given to the
+movements, that is, the acts may come under conscious control.
+
+
+FORMATION OF HABITS
+
+It is evident from the nature of the structure and properties of the
+nervous system, that man cannot possibly avoid the formation of habits.
+Any act once performed will not only leave an indelible trace within the
+nervous system, but will also set up in the system a tendency to repeat
+the act. It is this fact that always makes the first false step
+exceedingly dangerous. Moreover, every repetition further breaks down
+the present resistance and, therefore, in a sense further enslaves the
+individual to that mode of action. The word poorly articulated for the
+first time, the letter incorrectly formed, the impatient shrug of the
+shoulder--these set up their various tracks, create a tendency, and
+soon, through the establishment of lower connections, become unconscious
+habits. Thus it is that every one soon becomes a bundle of habits.
+
+=Precautions to be Taken.=--A most important problem in relation to the
+life of the young child is that he should at the outset form right
+habits. This includes not only doing the right thing, but also doing it
+in the right way. For this he must have the right impression, make the
+right response, and continue this response until the proper paths are
+established in the nervous system, or, in other words, until practically
+all resistance within the system is overcome. It is here that teachers
+are often very lax in dealing with the pupil in his various forms of
+expressive work. They may indeed give the child the proper impression,
+for example, the correct form of the letter, the correct pronunciation
+of the new word, the correct position for the pen and the body, but too
+often they do not exercise the vigilance necessary to have the first
+responses develop into well-fixed habits. But it must be remembered that
+the child's first response is necessarily crude; for as already seen,
+there is always at first a certain resistance to the co-ordinated
+movements, on account of the tracks within the nervous system not yet
+being surely established. The result is that during the time this
+resistance is being overcome, there is constant danger of variations
+creeping into the child's responses. Unless, therefore, he is constantly
+watched during this practice period, his response may fall much below
+the model, or standard, set by the teacher. Take, for instance, the
+child's mode of forming a letter. At the outset he is given the correct
+forms for _g_ and _m_, but on account of the resistance met in
+performing these movements he may, if left without proper supervision,
+soon fall into such movements as [symbol] and [symbol]. The chief value
+of the Montessori sandpaper letters consists in the fact that they
+enable the child to continue a correct movement without variation until
+all resistance within the nervous organism has been overcome. Two facts
+should, therefore, be kept prominently in view by the teacher concerning
+the child's efforts to secure skill. First, the learner's early attempts
+must be necessarily crude, both through the resistance at first offered
+by the nervous system on account of the proper paths not being laid in
+the system, and also through the image of the movement not being clearly
+conceived. Secondly, there is constant danger of variations from the
+proper standard establishing themselves during this period of
+resistance.
+
+
+VALUE OF HABITS
+
+=Habits Promote Efficiency.=--But notwithstanding the dangers which seem
+to attend the formation of habits, it is only through this inevitable
+reduction of his more customary acts to unconscious habit that man
+attains to proficiency. Only by relieving conscious attention from the
+ordinary mechanical processes in any occupation, is the artist able to
+attend to the special features of the work. Unless, for instance, the
+scholar possesses as an unconscious habit the ability to hold the pen
+and form and join the various letters, he could never devote his
+attention to evolving the thoughts composing his essay. In like manner,
+without an habitual control of the chisel, the carver could not possibly
+give an absorbing attention to the delicate outlines of the particular
+model. It is only because the rider has habituated himself to the
+control of the handles, etc., that he can give his attention to the
+street traffic before him and guide the bicycle or automobile through
+the ever varying passages. The first condition of efficiency, therefore,
+in any pursuit, is to reduce any general movements involved in the
+process to unconscious habits, and thus leave the conscious judgment
+free to deal with the changeable features of the work.
+
+=Habit Conserves Energy.=--Another advantage of habit is that it adds to
+the individual's capacity for work. When any movements are novel and
+require our full attention, a greater nervous resistance is met on
+account of the laying down of new paths in the nerve centres. Moreover
+longer nervous currents are produced through the cortex of the brain,
+because conscious attention is being called into play. These conditions
+necessarily consume a greater amount of nerve energy. The result is that
+man is able to continue for a longer time with less nervous exhaustion
+any series of activities after they have developed into habits. This can
+be seen by noting the ease with which one can perform any physical
+exercise after habituating himself to the movements, compared with the
+evident strain experienced when the exercise is first undertaken.
+
+=Makes the Disagreeable Easy.=--Another, though more incidental,
+advantage of the formation of habits, is that occupations in themselves
+uninteresting or even distasteful may, through habit, be performed at
+least without mental revulsion. This results largely from the fact that
+the growth of habit decreases the resistance, and thus lessens or
+destroys the disagreeable feeling. Moreover, when such acts are reduced
+to mechanical habits, the mind is largely free to consider other things.
+In this way the individual, even in the midst of his drudgery, may enjoy
+the pleasures of memory or imagination. Although, therefore, in going
+through some customary act, one may still dislike the occupation, the
+fact that he can do much of it habitually, leaves him free to enjoy a
+certain amount of mental pleasure in other ways.
+
+=Aids Morality.=--The formation of habits also has an important bearing
+on the moral life. By habituating ourselves to right forms of action, we
+no doubt make in a sense moral machines of ourselves, since the right
+action is the one that will meet the least nervous resistance, while the
+doing of the wrong action would necessitate the establishing of new
+co-ordinations in the nervous system. It is no doubt partly owing to
+this, that one whose habits are formed can so easily resist temptations;
+for to ask him to act other than in the old way is to ask him to make,
+not the easy, but the hard reaction. While this is true, however, it
+must not be supposed that in such cases the choice of the right thing
+involves only a question of customary nervous reaction. When we choose
+to do our duty, we make a conscious choice, and although earlier right
+action has set up certain nerve co-ordinations which render it now easy
+to choose the right, yet it must be remembered that _conscious judgment_
+is also involved. In such cases man does the right mainly because his
+judgment tells him that it is right. If, therefore, he is in a situation
+where he must act in a totally different way from what is customary, as
+when a quiet, peace-loving man sees a ruffian assaulting a helpless
+person, a moral man does not hesitate to change his habitual modes of
+physical action.
+
+
+IMPROVEMENT OF HABITUAL REACTIONS
+
+=To Eliminate a Habit.=--From what has been learned concerning the
+permanency of our habits, it is evident that only special effort will
+enable us to make any change in an habitual mode of reaction. In at
+least two cases, however, changes may be necessary. The fact that many
+of our early habits are formed either unconsciously, or in ignorance of
+their evil character, finds us, perhaps, as we come to years of
+discretion, in possession of certain habits from which we would gladly
+be freed. Such habits may range from relatively unimportant personal
+peculiarities to impolite and even immoral modes of conduct. In
+attempting to free ourselves from such acts, we must bear in mind what
+has been noted concerning the basis of retention. To repeat an act at
+frequent intervals is an important condition of retaining it as a habit.
+On the other hand, the absence of such repetition is almost sure, in due
+time, to obliterate the nervous tendency to repeat the act. To free
+one's self from an undesirable habit, therefore, the great essential is
+to avoid resolutely, for a reasonable time, any recurrence of the banned
+habit. While this can be accomplished only by conscious effort and
+watchfulness, yet each day passed without the repetition of the act
+weakens by so much the old nerve co-ordinations. To attempt to break an
+old habit, gradually, however, as some would prefer, can result only in
+still keeping the habitual tendency relatively strong.
+
+=To Modify a Habit.=--At other times, however, we may desire not to
+eliminate an habitual co-ordination _in toto_, but rather to modify only
+certain phases of the reaction. In writing, for instance, a pupil may be
+holding his pen correctly and also using the proper muscular movements,
+but may have developed a habit of forming certain letters incorrectly,
+as [symbol] and [symbol]. In any attempt to correct such forms, a
+special difficulty is met in the fact that the incorrect movements are
+now closely co-ordinated with a number of correct movements, which must
+necessarily be retained while the other portions of the process are
+being modified. To effect such a modification, it is necessary for
+attention to focus itself upon the incorrect elements, and form a clear
+idea of the changes desired. With this idea as a conscious aim, the
+pupil must have abundant practice in writing the new forms, and avoid
+any recurrence of the old incorrect movements. This fact emphasizes the
+importance of attending to the beginning of any habit. In teaching
+writing, for instance, the teacher might first give attention only to
+the form of the letter and then later seek to have the child acquire the
+muscular movement. In the meantime, however, the child, while learning
+to form the letters, may have been allowed to acquire the finger
+movement, and to break this habit both teacher and pupil find much
+difficulty. By limiting the child to the use of a black-board or a large
+pencil and tablet, and having him make only relatively large letters
+while he is learning to form them, the teacher could have the pupil
+avoid this early formation of the habit of writing with the finger
+movement.
+
+=Limitations of Habit.=--From what has here been learned concerning the
+formation of physical habits, it becomes evident that there are
+limitations to these as forms of reaction. Since any habit is largely
+an unconscious reaction to a particular situation, its value will be
+conditional upon the nature of the circumstances which call forth the
+reaction. These circumstances must occur quite often under almost
+identical conditions, otherwise the habit can have no value in directing
+our social conduct. On the contrary, it may seriously interfere with
+successful effort. For the player to habituate his hands to fingering
+the violin is very important, because this is a case where such constant
+conditions are to be met. For a salesman to habituate himself to one
+mode of presenting goods to his customers would be fatal, since both the
+character and the needs of the customers are so varied that no permanent
+form of approach could be effective in all cases. To habituate ourselves
+to some narrow automatic line of action and follow it even under varying
+circumstances, therefore, might prevent the mind from properly weighing
+these varying conditions, and thus deaden initiative. It is for this
+reason that experience is so valuable in directing life action. By the
+use of past experience, the mind is able to analyse each situation
+calling for reaction and, by noting any unusual circumstances it
+presents, may adapt even our habitual reactions to the particular
+conditions.
+
+The relation of habit to interest and attention is treated in Chapter
+XXIV.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+ATTENTION
+
+
+=Nature of Attention.=--In our study of the principles of general
+method, it was noted that the mind is able to set up and hold before
+itself as a problem any partially realized experience. From what has
+been said concerning nervous stimulation and the passing inward of
+sensuous impression, it might be thought that the mind is for the most
+part a somewhat passive recipient of conscious states as they chance to
+arise through the stimulations of the particular moment. Further
+consideration will show, however, that, at least after very early
+childhood, the mind usually exercises a strong selective control over
+what shall occupy consciousness at any particular time. In the case of a
+student striving to unravel the mazes of his mathematical problem,
+countless impressions of sight, sound, touch, etc., may be stimulating
+him from all sides, yet he refuses in a sense to attend to any of them.
+The singing of the maid, the chilliness of the room as the fire dies
+out, even the pain in the limb, all fail to make themselves known in
+consciousness, until such time as the successful solution causes the
+person to direct his attention from the work in hand. In like manner,
+the traveller at the busy station, when intent upon catching his train,
+is perhaps totally unconscious of the impressions being received from
+the passing throngs, the calling newsboys, the shunting engines, and the
+malodorous cattle cars. This ability of the mind to focus itself upon
+certain experiences to the exclusion of other possible experiences is
+known as _attention_.
+
+=Degree of Attention.=--Mention has already been made of states of
+consciousness in which the mind seems in a passive state of reverie.
+Although the mind, even in such sub-conscious states, would seem to
+exercise some slight attention, it is yet evident that it does not
+exercise a definite selective control during such passive states of
+consciousness. Attention proper, on the other hand, may be described as
+a state in which the mind focuses itself upon some particular
+impression, and thus makes it stand out more clearly in consciousness as
+a definite experience. From this standpoint it may be assumed that, in a
+state of waking reverie, the attention is so scattered that no
+impression is made to stand out clearly in consciousness. On the other
+hand, as soon as the mind focuses itself on a certain impression, for
+example, the report of a gun, the relation of two angles, or the image
+of a centaur, this stands out so clearly that it occupies the whole
+foreground of consciousness, while all other impressions hide themselves
+in the background. This single focal state of consciousness is,
+therefore, pre-eminently a state of attention while the former state of
+reverie, on account of its diffuse character, may be said to be
+relatively devoid of attention.
+
+=Physical Illustrations of Attention.=--To furnish a physical
+illustration of the working of attention, some writers describe the
+stream of our conscious life as presenting a series of waves, the
+successive waves representing the impressions or ideas upon which
+attention is focused at successive moments. When attention is in a
+diffuse state, consciousness is likened to a comparatively level stream.
+The focusing of attention upon particular impressions and thus making
+them stand out as distinct states of consciousness is said to break the
+surface of the stream into waves. This may be illustrated as follows:
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1--Consciousness in a state of passive reverie.
+
+FIG. 2--Active consciousness. Attention focussed on the
+definite experiences _a, b, c, d, e, f, g_.]
+
+By others, consciousness is described as a field of vision, in which the
+centre of vision represents the focal point of attention. For instance,
+if the student intent upon his problem in analysis does not notice the
+flickering light, the playing of the piano, or the smell of the burning
+meat breaking in upon him, it is because this problem occupies the
+centre of the attentive field. The other impressions, on the contrary,
+lie so far on the outside of the field that they fail to stand out in
+consciousness. This may be represented by the following diagram:
+
+[Illustration: P represents the problem on which attention is fixed. A,
+B, C, D, E, represent impressions which, though stimulating the
+organism, do not attract definite attention.]
+
+It must be understood, however, that these are merely mechanical devices
+to illustrate the fact that when the mind selects, or attends to, any
+impression, this impression is made to stand out clearly as an object in
+consciousness; or, in other words, the particular impression becomes a
+clear-cut and definite experience.
+
+[Illustration: Probable adjusting of nerve ends during active attention]
+
+=Neural Basis of Attention.=--The neural conditions under which the mind
+exercises such active attention seem to be that during the attentive
+state the nervous energy concentrates itself upon the paths and centres
+involved in the particular experience, the resistance being decreased in
+the paths connecting the cells traversed by the impulse. Moreover, any
+nervous energy tending to escape in other channels is checked and the
+movements hindered, thus shutting off attention from other possible
+experiences. For instance, a person with little interest in horticulture
+might pass a flowering shrub, the colour, form, and scent making only a
+faint impression upon him. If, however, his companion should say, "What
+a lovely colour," his attention will direct itself to this quality, with
+the result that the colour stands out much more clearly in
+consciousness, and the other features practically escape his notice.
+Here the suggestion of the companion focuses attention upon the colour,
+this being accompanied with a lessening of the resistance between the
+centres involved in interpreting the colour sensations. At the same time
+resistance in the arcs involving form and smell is increased, and the
+energy diverted from these arcs into that of colour.
+
+
+ATTENTION SELECTIVE
+
+=Attention and Interest.=--At this point a question naturally arises why
+the mind, since it is continually subject to the influence of
+impressions from without and of reviving ideas from within, should
+select and focus attention upon certain of these to the exclusion of
+others. The answer usually given is that the mind feels in each case, at
+least vaguely, a personal interest in some change or adjustment to be
+wrought either in or through the impression which it makes an object of
+attention. When, for instance, the reader diverts his attention from the
+interesting story to the loud talking outside the window, he evidently
+desires to adjust his understanding more fully to the new and strange
+impression. So, also, when the spectator rivets his attention upon the
+flying ball, it is because he associates with this the interesting
+possibility of a change in the score. In like manner, the student in
+geometry fixes his attention upon the line joining the points of
+bisection of the sides, because he desires to change his present mental
+state of uncertainty as to its parallelism with the base into one of
+certainty. He further fixes his attention upon the qualities of certain
+bases and triangles, because through attending to these, he hopes to
+gain the desired experience concerning the parallelism of the two
+lines.
+
+=Attention and the Question.=--The general conditions for determining
+the course of attention will be further understood by a reference to two
+facts already established in connection with general method. It has been
+seen that the question and answer method is usually a successful mode of
+conducting the learning process. The reason for this is that the
+question is a most effective means of directing a selective act of
+attention. For instance, in an elementary science lesson on the candle
+flame, although the child, if left to himself, might observe the flame,
+he would not, in all probability, notice particularly the luminous part.
+Or again, if a dry glass is simply held over the flame and then removed
+by the demonstrator, although the pupil may have watched the experiment
+in a general way, it is doubtful whether he would notice particularly
+the moisture deposited upon the glass. A question from the demonstrator,
+however, awakens interest, causes the mind to focus in a special
+direction, and banishes from consciousness features which might
+otherwise occupy attention. This is because the question suggests a
+problem, and thus awakens an expectant or unsatisfied state of mind,
+which is likely to be satisfied only by attending to what the question
+suggests as an object of attention.
+
+=Attention and Motive.=--It has already been noted that any process of
+learning is likely to be more effective when the child realizes a
+distinct problem, or aim, in the lesson, or feels a need for going
+through the learning process. The cause of this is that the aim, by
+awaking curiosity, etc., is an effective means of securing attention.
+When, for example, the pupil, in learning that 3 x 4 = 12, begins with
+the problem of finding out how many threes are contained in his twelve
+blocks, his curiosity can be satisfied only by grasping certain
+significant relations. In approaching the lesson, therefore, with such
+an actual problem before him, the child feels a desire to change, or
+alter, his present mental relation to the problem. In other words, he
+wishes to gain something involved in the problem which he does not now
+know or is not yet able to do. His desire to bring about this change or
+to reach this end not only holds his attention upon the problem, but
+also adjusts it to whatever ideas are likely to assist in solving the
+problem. When, therefore, pupils approach a lesson with an interesting
+problem in mind, the teacher finds it much easier to centre their
+attention upon those factors which make for the acquisition of the new
+experience.
+
+
+INVOLUNTARY ATTENTION
+
+=Nature of Involuntary Attention.=--Attention is met in its simplest
+form when the mind spontaneously focuses itself upon any strong stimulus
+received through the senses, as a flashing light, a loud crash, a bitter
+taste, or a violent pressure. As already noted, the significance of this
+type of attention lies in the fact that the mind seeks to adjust itself
+intelligently to a new condition in its surroundings which has been
+suggested to it through the violent stimulus. The ability to attend to
+such stimuli is evidently an inherited capacity, and is possessed by
+animals as well as by children. It is also the only form of attention
+exercised by very young children, and for some time the child seems to
+have little choice but to attend to the ever varying stimuli, the
+attention being drawn now to a bright light, now to a loud voice,
+according to the violence of the impressions. On account of the apparent
+lack of control over the direction of attention, this type is spoken of
+as spontaneous, or involuntary, attention.
+
+=Place and Value.=--It is only, however, during his very early years
+that man lacks a reasonable control even over relatively strong
+stimulations. As noted above, the mind acquires an ability to
+concentrate itself upon a single problem in the midst of relatively
+violent stimulations. Moreover, in the midst of various strong
+stimulations, it is able to select the one which it desires, to the
+exclusion of all others. At a relatively early age, for instance, the
+youth is able, in his games, to focus his attention upon the ball, and
+pays little attention to the shouts and movements of the spectators. On
+the other hand, however, it is also true that man never loses this
+characteristic of attending in an involuntary, or reflex, way to any
+strong stimulus. Indeed, without the possession of this hereditary
+tendency, it is hard to see how he could escape any dangers with which
+his body might be threatened while his attention is strongly engaged an
+another problem.
+
+=Educational Precautions.=--That young children naturally tend to give
+their attention to strong stimuli, is a matter of considerable moment to
+the primary teacher. It is for this cause, among others, that reasonable
+quiet and order should prevail in the class-room during the recitation.
+When the pupil is endeavouring to fix his attention upon a selected
+problem, say the relation of the square foot to the square yard, any
+undue stimulation of his senses from the school-room environment could
+not fail to distract his attention from the problem before him. For the
+same reason, the external conditions should be such as are not likely to
+furnish unusual stimulations, as will be the case if the class-room is
+on a busy street and must be ventilated by means of open windows.
+Finally, in the use of illustrative materials, the teacher should see
+that the concrete matter will not stimulate the child unduly in ways
+foreign to the lesson topic. For example, in teaching a nature lesson on
+the crow, the teacher would find great difficulty in keeping the
+children's attention on the various topics of the lesson, if he had
+before the class a live crow that kept cawing throughout the whole
+lesson period. Nor would it seem a very effective method of attracting
+attention to the problem of a lesson, if the teacher were continually
+shouting and waving his arms at the pupils.
+
+
+NON-VOLUNTARY ATTENTION
+
+=Nature of Non-voluntary Attention.=--On account of the part played by
+interest in the focusing of attention, it is possible to distinguish a
+second type of spontaneous attention in which the mind seems directly
+attracted to an object of thought because of a natural satisfaction
+gained from contemplating the subject. The lover, apparently without any
+determination, and without any external stimulus to suggest the topic,
+finds his attention ever centring itself upon the image of his fair
+lady. The young lad, also, without any apparent cause, turns his
+thoughts constantly to his favourite game. Here the impulse to attend is
+evidently from within, rather than from without, and arises from the
+interest that the mind has in the particular experience. This type of
+attention is especially manifest when trains of ideas pass through the
+mind without any apparent end in view, one idea suggesting another in
+accordance with the prevailing mood. The mind, in a half passive state,
+thinks of last evening, then of the house of a friend, then of the
+persons met there, then of the game played, etc. In the same way the
+attention of the student turns without effort to his favourite school
+subject, and its various aspects may pass in view before him without
+any effort or determination on his part. Because in this type of
+attention the different thoughts stand out in consciousness without any
+apparent choice, or selection, on the part of the mind, it is described
+as non-voluntary attention.
+
+
+VOLUNTARY ATTENTION
+
+=Nature of Voluntary Attention.=--The most important form of attention,
+however, is that in which the mind focuses itself upon an idea, not as a
+result of outside stimulation, but with some further purpose in view.
+For instance, when a person enters a room in which a strange object
+seems to be giving out musical notes automatically, he may at first give
+spontaneous attention to the sounds coming from the instrument. When,
+however, he approaches the object later with a desire to discover the
+nature of its mechanism, his attention is focused upon the object with a
+more remote aim, or end, in view, to discover where the music comes
+from. So also, when the lad mentioned in Chapter II fixed his attention
+on the lost coin, he set this object before his attention with a further
+end in view--how to regain it. Because the person here _determines_ to
+attend to, or think about, a certain problem, in order that he may reach
+a certain consciously set end, this form of attention is described as
+voluntary, or active, attention.
+
+=Near and Remote Ends.=--It is to be noted, however, that the
+interesting end toward which the mind strives in voluntary attention may
+be relatively near or remote. A child examining an automatic toy does it
+for the sake of discovering what is in the toy itself; an adult in order
+to see whether it is likely to interest his child. A student gives
+attention to the problem of the length of the hypotenuse because he is
+interested in the mathematical problem itself, the contractor because he
+desires to know how much material will be necessary for the roof of the
+building. One child may apply himself to mastering a reading lesson
+because the subject itself is interesting to him, another because he
+desires to take home a perfect report at the end of the week, and a
+third because a sense of obligation tells him that teacher and parents
+will expect him to study it.
+
+=How we Attend to a Problem.=--Since voluntary attention implies mental
+movement directed to the attainment of some end, the mind does not
+simply keep itself focused on the particular problem. For instance, in
+attempting to solve the problem that the exterior angle of a triangle
+equals the sum of the two interior and opposite angles, no progress
+toward the attainment of the end in view could be made by merely holding
+before the mind the idea of their equality. It is, in fact, impossible
+for the attention to be held for any length of time on a single topic.
+This will be readily seen if one tries to hold his attention
+continuously upon, say, the tip of a pencil. When this is attempted,
+other ideas constantly crowd out the selected idea. The only sense,
+therefore, in which one holds his attention upon the problem in an act
+of voluntary attention is, that his attention passes forward and back
+between the problem and ideas felt to be associated with it. Voluntary
+attention is, therefore, a mental process in which the mind shifts from
+one idea to another in attaining to a desired end, or problem. In this
+shifting, or movement, of voluntary attention, however, two significant
+features manifest themselves. First, in working forward and back from
+the problem as a controlling centre, attention brings into consciousness
+ideas more or less relevant to the problem. Secondly, it selects and
+adjusts to the problem those that actually make for its solution, and
+banishes from consciousness whatever is felt to be foreign to obtaining
+the desired end.
+
+=Example of Controlled Attention.=--To exemplify a process of voluntary
+attention we may notice the action of the mind in solving such a problem
+as:
+
+     Two trains started at the same moment from Toronto and Hamilton
+     respectively, one going at the rate of thirty miles an hour and the
+     other at the rate of forty miles an hour. Supposing the distance
+     between Toronto and Hamilton to be forty miles, in how many minutes
+     will the trains meet?
+
+Here the pupil must first fix his attention upon the problem--the number
+of minutes before the trains will meet. This at once forms both a centre
+and a standard for measuring other related ideas. In this way his
+attention passes to the respective rates of the two trains, thirty and
+forty miles per hour. Then perhaps he fixes attention on the thought
+that one goes a mile in two minutes and the other a mile in 1-1/2
+minutes. But as he recognizes that this is leading him away from the
+problem, resistance is offered to the flow of attention in this
+direction, and he passes to the thought that in a _minute_ the former
+goes 1/2 mile and the later 2/3 of a mile. From this he passes to the
+thought that in one minute they together go 1-1/6 miles. Hereupon
+perhaps the idea comes to his mind to see how many miles they would go
+in an hour. This, however, is soon felt to be foreign to the problem,
+and resistance being set up in this direction, the attention turns to
+consider in what time the two together cover 40 miles. Now by dividing
+40 miles by 1-1/6, he obtains the number 34-2/7 and is satisfied that
+his answer is 34-2/7 minutes. The process by which the attention here
+selected and adjusted the proper ideas to the problem might be
+illustrated by the following Figure:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Here "P" represents the problem; a, b, c, d, and e, ideas accepted as
+relevant to the problem; and b', d' ideas suggested by b and d, but
+rejected as not adjustable to the problem.
+
+=Factors in Process.=--The above facts demonstrate, however, that the
+mind can take this attitude toward any problem only if it has a certain
+store of old knowledge relative to it. Two important conditions of
+voluntary attention are therefore, first, that the mind should have the
+necessary ideas, or knowledge, with which to attend and, secondly, that
+it would select and adjust these to the purpose in view. Here the
+intimate connection of voluntary attention to the normal learning
+process is apparent. The step of preparation, for instance, is merely
+putting the mind in the proper attitude to attend voluntarily to an end
+in view, namely the lesson problem; while the so-called
+analytic-synthetic process of learning involves the selecting and
+adjusting movements of voluntary attention.
+
+=Spontaneous and Voluntary Attention Distinguished.=--In describing
+voluntary attention as an active form of attention, psychologists assume
+that since the mind here wills, or resolves, to attend, in order to gain
+a certain end in view; therefore voluntary attention must imply a much
+greater degree of effort, or strain, than other types. That such is
+always the case, however, is at times not very apparent. If one may
+judge by the straining of eye or ear, the poise of the body, the holding
+of the breath, etc., when a person gives involuntary attention to any
+sudden impression, as a strange noise at night, it is evident that the
+difference of effort, or strain, in attending to this and some selected
+problem may not, during the time it continues, be very marked.
+
+It is of course true that in voluntary attention the mind must choose
+its own object of attention as an end, or aim, while in the involuntary
+type the problem seems thrust upon us. This certainly does imply a
+deliberate choice in the former, and to that extent may be said to
+involve an effort not found in the latter. In like manner, when seeking
+to attain the end which has been set up, the mind must select the
+related ideas which will solve its problem. This in turn may demand the
+grasping of a number of complex relations. To say, however, that all
+striving to attain an end is lacking in a case of involuntary attention
+would evidently be fallacious. When the mind is startled by a strange
+noise, the mind evidently does go out, though in a less formal way, to
+interpret a problem involuntarily thrust upon it. When, for instance, we
+receive the violent impression, the mind may be said to ask itself,
+"What strange impression is this?" and to that extent, even here, faces
+a selected problem. The distinguishing feature of voluntary attention,
+therefore, is the presence of a consciously conceived end, or aim, upon
+which the mind deliberately sets its attention as something to be
+thought _about_.
+
+
+ATTENTION IN EDUCATION
+
+=Voluntary Attention and Learning.=--From what has been seen, it is
+evident that, when a pupil in his school approaches any particular
+problem, the learning process will represent a process of voluntary
+attention. This form of attention is, therefore, one of special
+significance to the teacher, since a knowledge of the process will cast
+additional light upon the learning process. The first condition of
+voluntary attention is the power to select some idea as an end, or
+problem, for attention. It was seen, however, that the focusing of
+attention upon any problem depends upon some form of desirable change to
+be effected in and through the set problem. For instance, unless the
+recovery of the coin is conceived as producing a desirable change, it
+would not become a deliberately set problem for attention. It is
+essential, therefore, that the end which the child is to choose as an
+object of attention should be one conceived as demanding a desired
+change, or adjustment. For instance, to ask a child to focus his
+attention upon two pieces of wood merely as pieces of wood is not likely
+to call forth an active effort of attention. To direct his attention to
+them to find out how many times the one is contained in the other, on
+the other hand, focuses his attention more strongly upon them; since the
+end to be reached will awaken his curiosity and set an interesting
+problem.
+
+=Non-voluntary Attention in Education.=--On account of the ease with
+which attention seems to centre itself upon its object in non-voluntary
+attention, it is sometimes erroneously claimed that this is the type of
+attention to be aimed at in the educative process, especially with young
+children. Such a view is, however, a fallacious one, and results from a
+false notion of the real character of both non-voluntary and voluntary
+attention. In a clear example of non-voluntary attention, the mind
+dwells upon the ideas merely on account of their inherent
+attractiveness, and passes from one idea to its associated idea without
+any purposeful end in view. This at once shows its ineffectiveness as a
+process of learning. When the young lover's thoughts revert in a
+non-voluntary way to the fair one, he perhaps passes into a state of
+mere reminiscence, or at best of idle fancy. Even the student whose
+thoughts run on in a purposeless manner over his favourite subject, will
+merely revive old associations, or at best make a chance discovery of
+some new knowledge. In the same way, the child who delights in musical
+sounds may be satisfied to drum the piano by the hour, but this is
+likely to give little real advance, unless definite problems are set up
+and their attainment striven for in a purposeful way.
+
+=Voluntary Attention and Interest.=--A corollary of the fallacy
+mentioned above is the assumption that voluntary attention necessarily
+implies some conflict with the mind's present desire or interest. It is
+sometimes said, for instance, that in voluntary attention, we compel our
+mind to attend, while our interest would naturally direct our attention
+elsewhere. But without a desire to effect some change in or through the
+problem being attended to, the mind would not voluntarily make it an
+object of attention. The misconception as to the relation of voluntary
+attention to interest is seen in an illustration often given as an
+example of non-voluntary attention. It is said, rightly enough, that if
+a child is reading an interesting story, and is just at the point where
+the plot is about to unravel itself, there will be difficulty in
+diverting his attention to other matters. This, it is claimed, furnishes
+a good example of the power of non-voluntary attention. But quite the
+opposite may be the case. When called upon, say by his parent, to lay
+aside the book and attend to some other problem, the child, it is true,
+shows a desire to continue reading. But this may be because he has a
+definite aim of his own in view--to find out the fate of his hero. This
+is a strongly felt need on his part, and his mind refuses to be
+satisfied until, by further attention to the problem before him, he has
+attained to this end. The only element of truth in the illustration is
+that the child's attention is strongly reinforced through the intense
+feeling tone associated with the selected, or determined, aim--the fate
+of his hero. The fact is, therefore, that a process of voluntary
+attention may have associated with its problem as strong an interest as
+is found in the non-voluntary type.
+
+=Voluntary Attention Depends on Problem.=--It is evident from the
+foregoing that the characteristic of voluntary attention is not the
+absence or the presence of any special degree of interest, but rather
+the conception of some end, or purpose, to be reached in and through the
+attentive process. In other words, voluntary attention is a state of
+mind in which the mental movements are not drifting without a chart, but
+are seeking to reach a set haven. A person who is greatly interested in
+automobiles, for instance, on seeing a new machine, may allow his
+attention to run now to this part of the machine, now to that, as each
+attracts him in turn. Here no fixed purpose is being served by the
+attentive process, and attention may pass from part to part in a
+non-voluntary way, the person's general interest in automobiles being
+sufficient to keep the attention upon the subject. Suddenly, however, he
+may notice something apparently new in the mechanism of the machine, and
+a desire arises to understand its significance. This at once becomes an
+end to which the mind desires to attain, and voluntary attention
+proceeds to direct the mental movements toward its attainment. To
+suppose, however, that the interest, manifest in the former mental
+movements, is now absent, would evidently be fallacious. The difference
+lies in this, that at first the attention seemed fixed on the object
+through a general interest only, and drifted from point to point in a
+purposeless way, while in the second case an interesting end, or
+purpose, controlled the mental movements, and therefore made each
+movement significant in relation to the whole conscious process.
+
+=Attention and Knowledge.=--Mention has already been made of the
+relation of attention to interest. It should be noted, further, that the
+difference in our attention under different circumstances is largely
+dependent upon our knowledge. The stonecutter, as he passes the fine
+mansion, gives attention to the fretted cornice; the glazier, to the
+beautiful windows; the gardener, to the well-kept lawn and beds. Even
+the present content of the mind has its influence upon attention. The
+student on his way to school, if busy with his spelling lesson, is
+attracted to the words and letters on posters and signs. If he is
+reviewing his botany, he notes especially the weeds along the walk; if
+carrying to his art teacher, with a feeling of pride, the finished
+landscape drawing, his attention goes out to the shade and colour of
+field and sky. That such a connection must exist between knowledge and
+attention is apparent from what has been already noted concerning the
+working of the law of apperception.
+
+=Physical Conditions of Attention.=--From what was learned above
+regarding the relation of nervous energy to active attention, it is
+evident that the ability to attend to a problem at any given time will
+depend in part upon the physical condition of the organism. If,
+therefore, the nervous energy is lowered through fatigue or sickness,
+the attention will be weakened. For this reason the teaching of
+subjects, such as arithmetic, grammar, etc., which present difficult
+problems, and therefore make large demands upon the attention of the
+scholars, should not be undertaken when the pupils' energy is likely to
+be at a minimum. Similarly, unsatisfactory conditions in the
+school-room, such as poor ventilation, uncomfortable seats, excessive
+heat or cold, all tend to lower the nervous energy and thus prevent a
+proper concentration of attention upon the regular school work.
+
+=Precautions Relating to Voluntary Attention.=--Although voluntary
+attention is evidently the form of attention possessing real educational
+value, certain precautions would seem necessary concerning its use. With
+very young children the aim for attending should evidently not be too
+remote. In other words, the problem should involve matter in which the
+children have a direct interest. For this reason it is sometimes said
+that young children should set their own problems. This is of course a
+paradox so far as the regular school work is concerned, though it does
+apply to the pre-school period, and also justifies the claim that with
+young children the lesson problem should be closely connected with some
+vital interest. It would be useless, for instance, to try to interest
+young children in the British North America Act by telling them that the
+knowledge will be useful when they come to write on their entrance
+examinations. The story of Sir Isaac Brock, on the other hand, wins
+attention for itself through the child's patriotism and love of story.
+Again, the problem demanding attention should not, in the case of young
+children, be too long or complex. For example, a young child might
+easily attend to the separate problems of finding out, (1) how many
+marbles he must have to give four to James and three to William; (2) how
+many times seven can be taken from twenty-eight; (3) how many marbles
+James would have if he received four marbles four times; and (4) how
+many James would have if he received three marbles three times. But if
+given the problem "to divide twenty-eight marbles between James and
+William, giving James four every time he gives William three," the
+problem may be too complex for his present power of attention. A young
+child has not the control over his knowledge necessary to continue any
+long process of selecting attention. A relatively short period of
+attention to any problem, therefore, exhausts the nervous energy in the
+centres connected with a particular set of experiences. It is for this
+reason that the lessons in primary classes should be short and varied.
+One of the objections, therefore, to a narrow curriculum is that
+attention would not obtain needed variety, and that a narrowness in
+interest and application may result. On the other hand, it is well to
+note that the child must in time learn to concentrate his attention for
+longer periods and upon topics possessing only remote, or indirect,
+interest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE FEELING OF INTEREST
+
+
+=Nature of Feeling.=--Feeling has already been described (Chapter XIX)
+as the pleasurable or painful side of any state of consciousness. We
+may recall how it was there found that any conscious state, or
+experience, for instance, being conscious of the prick of a pin, of
+success at an examination, or of the loss of a friend, is not merely a
+state of knowledge, or awareness, but is also a state of feeling. It is
+a state of feeling because it _affects_ us, that is, because being a
+state of _our_ consciousness, it appeals to us pleasurably or painfully
+in a way that it can to no one else.
+
+=Neural Conditions of Feeling.=--It has been seen that every conscious
+state, or experience, has its affective, or feeling, tone, and also that
+every experience involves the transmission of nervous energy through a
+number of connected brain cells. On this basis it is thought that the
+feeling side of any conscious state is conditioned by the degree of the
+resistance encountered as the nervous energy is transmitted. If the
+centres involved in the experience are not yet properly organized, or if
+the stimulation is strong, the resistance is greater and the feeling
+more intense. A new movement of the limbs in physical training, for
+example, may at first prove intensely painful, because the centres
+involved in the exercise are not yet organized. So also, because a very
+bright light stimulates the nerves violently, it causes a painful
+feeling. That morphine deadens pain is to be explained on the
+assumption that it decreases nervous energy, and thus lessens the
+resistance being encountered between the nervous centres affected at the
+time.
+
+=Feeling and Habit.=--That the intensity of a feeling is conditioned by
+the amount of the resistance seems evident, if we note the relation of
+feeling to habit. The first time the nurse-in-training attends a wounded
+patient, the experience is marked by intense feeling. After a number of
+such experiences, however, this feeling becomes much less. In like
+manner, the child who at first finds the physical exercise painful, as
+he becomes accustomed to the movements, finds the pain becoming less and
+less intense. In such cases it is evident that practice, by organizing
+the centres involved in the experience, decreases the resistance between
+them, and thus gradually decreases the intensity of the feeling. When
+finally the act becomes habitual, the nervous impulse traverses only
+lower centres, and therefore all feeling and indeed all consciousness
+will disappear, as happens in the habitual movements of the limbs in
+walking and of the arms during walking.
+
+
+CLASSES OF FEELINGS
+
+=Sensuous Feeling.=--As already noted, while feelings vary in intensity
+according to the strength of the resistance, they also differ in kind
+according to the arcs traversed by the impulse. Experiencing a burn on
+the hand would involve nervous impulses, or currents, other than those
+involved in hearing of the death of a friend. The one experience also
+differs in feeling from the other. Our feeling states are thus able to
+be divided into certain important classes with more or less distinct
+characteristics for each. In one class are placed those feelings which
+accompany sensory impulses. The sensations arising from the
+stimulations of the sense organs, as a sweet or bitter taste, a strong
+smell, the touch of a hot, sharp, rough, or smooth object, etc., all
+present an affective, or feeling, side. So also feeling enters into the
+general or organic sensations arising from the conditions of the bodily
+organs; as breathing, the circulation of the blood, digestion, the
+tension of the muscles, hunger, thirst, etc. The feeling which thus
+enters as a factor into any sensation is known as sensuous feeling.
+
+=Ideal Feeling.=--Other feelings enter into our ideas and thoughts. The
+perception or imagination of an accident is accompanied with a painful
+feeling, the memory or anticipation of success with a feeling of joy,
+the thought of some particular person with a thrill of love. Such
+feelings are known as ideal feelings. When a child tears his flesh on a
+nail, he experiences sensuous feeling, when he shrinks away, as he
+perceives the teeth of a snarling dog, he experiences an ideal feeling,
+known as the emotion of fear.
+
+=Interest.=--A third type of feeling especially accompanies an active
+process of attention. In our study of attention, it was seen that any
+process of attention is accompanied by a concentration of nervous energy
+upon the paths or centres involved in the experience, thus organizing
+the paths more completely and thereby decreasing the resistance. The
+impulse to attend to any experience is, therefore, accompanied with a
+desirable feeling, because a new adjustment between nerve centres is
+taking place and resistance being overcome. This affective, or feeling,
+tone which accompanies a process of attention is known as the feeling of
+interest.
+
+=Interest and Attention.=--In discussions upon educational method, it is
+usually affirmed that the attention will focus upon a problem to the
+extent to which the mind is interested. While this statement may be
+accepted in ordinary language, it is not psychologically true that I
+first become interested in a strange presentation, and then attend to it
+afterwards. In such a case it is no more true to say that I attend
+because I am interested, than to say that I am interested because I
+attend. In other words, interest and attention are not successive but
+simultaneous, or, as sometimes stated, they are back and front of the
+same mental state. This becomes evident by noting the nervous conditions
+which must accompany interest and attention. When one is attending to
+any strange phenomenon, say a botanist to the structure of a rare plant,
+it is evident that there are not only new groupings of ideas in the
+mind, but also new adjustments being set up between the brain centres.
+This implies in turn a lessening of resistance between the cells, and
+therefore the presence of the feeling tone known as interest.
+
+=Interest, Attention, and Habit.=--Since the impulse to attend to a
+presentation is conditioned by a process of adjustment, or organization,
+between brain centres, it is evident that, while the novel presentations
+call forth interest and attention, repetition, by habituating the
+nervous arcs, will tend to deaden interest and attention. For this
+reason the story, first heard with interest and attention, becomes stale
+by too much repetition. The new toy fails to interest the child after
+the novelty has worn off. It must be noted, however, that while
+repetition usually lessens interest, yet when any set of experiences are
+repeated many times, instead of lessening interest the repetition may
+develop a new interest known as the interest of custom. Thus it is that
+by repeating the experience the man is finally compelled to visit his
+club every evening, and the boy to play his favourite game every day.
+This secondary interest of custom arises because repetition has finally
+established such strong associations within the nervous system that they
+now have become a part of our nature and are thus able to make a new
+demand upon interest and attention.
+
+
+INTEREST IN EDUCATION
+
+=Uses of Term: A. Subjective; B. Objective.=--That the educator
+describes interest as something that causes the mind to give attention
+to what is before it, when in fact interest and attention are
+psychologically merely two sides of a single process, is accounted for
+by the fact that the term "interest" may be used with two quite
+different meanings. Psychologically, interest is evidently a feeling
+state, that is, it represents a phase of consciousness. My _interest_ in
+football, for instance, represents the _feeling_ of worth which
+accompanies attention to such experiences. In this sense interest and
+attention are but two sides of the single experience, interest
+representing the feeling, and attention the effort side of the
+experience. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be used
+subjectively. More, often, however, the term is applied rather to the
+thing toward which the mind directs its attention, the object being said
+to possess interest for the person. In this sense the rattle is said to
+have interest for the babe; baseball, for the young boy; and the latest
+fashions, for the young lady. Since the interest is here assumed to
+reside in the object, it seems reasonable to say that our attention is
+attracted through interest, that is, through an interesting
+presentation. As thus applied, the term interest is said to be used
+objectively.
+
+=Types of Objective Interest.=--The interest which various objects and
+occupations thus possess for the mind may be of two somewhat different
+types. In some cases the object possesses a direct, or intrinsic,
+interest for the mind. The young child, for instance, is spontaneously
+attracted to bright colours, the boy to stories of adventure, and the
+sentimental youth or maiden to the romance. In the case of any such
+direct interests, however, the feeling with which the mind contemplates
+the object may transfer itself at least partly to other objects
+associated more or less closely with the direct object of interest. It
+is thus that the child becomes interested in the cup from which his food
+is taken, and the lover in the lap dog which his fair one fondles. As
+opposed to the _direct interest_ which an object may have for the mind,
+this transferred type is known as _indirect interest_.
+
+=Importance of Transference of Interest.=--The ability of the mind thus
+to transfer its interests to associated objects is often of great
+pedagogical value. Abstract forms of knowledge become more interesting
+to young children through being associated with something possessing
+natural interest. A pupil who seems to take little interest in
+arithmetic may take great delight in manual training. By associating
+various mathematical problems with his constructive exercises, the
+teacher can frequently cause the pupil to transfer in some degree his
+primary interest in manual training to the associated work in
+arithmetic. In the same way the child in the primary grade may take more
+delight in the alphabet when he is able to make the letters in sand or
+by stick-laying. It may be said, in fact, that much of man's effort is a
+result of indirect interest. What is called doing a thing from a sense
+of duty is often a case of applying ourselves to a certain thing because
+we are interested in avoiding the disapproval of others. The child also
+often applies himself to his tasks, not so much because he takes a
+direct interest in them, but because he wishes to gain the approval and
+avoid the censure of teacher and parents.
+
+=Native and Acquired Interest.=--Interest may also be distinguished on
+the basis of its origin. As noted above, certain impressions seem to
+demand a spontaneous interest from the individual. For this cause the
+child finds his attention going out immediately to bright colours, to
+objects which give pleasure, such as candy, etc., or to that which
+causes personal pain. On the other hand, objects and occupations which
+at first seem devoid of interest may, after a certain amount of
+experience has been gained, become important centres of interest. A
+young child may at first show no interest in insects unless it be a
+feeling of revulsion. Through the visit of an entomologist to his home,
+however, he may gain some knowledge of insects. This knowledge, by
+arousing an apperceptive tendency in the direction of insect study,
+gradually develops in him a new interest which lasts throughout his
+whole life. It is in this way that the various school subjects widen the
+narrow interests of the child. By giving him an insight into various
+phases of his social environment, the school curriculum awakens in him
+different centres of interest, and thus causes him to become in the
+truest sense a part of the social life about him. This fact is one of
+the strongest arguments, also, against a narrow public school course of
+study in a society which is itself a complex of diversified interests.
+
+=Interest versus Interests.=--On account of the evident connection of
+interest and attention, the teacher may easily err in dealing with the
+young pupil. It is allowable, as pointed out above, that the teacher
+should take advantage of any native interest to secure the attention
+and effort of the child in his school work. This does not mean, however,
+that children are to be given only problems in which they are naturally
+interested. It must be remembered, as seen in a former paragraph, that,
+according to the interest of custom, any line of school work, when
+intelligently followed, may soon build up a centre of interest for
+itself. For this reason a proper study of arithmetic should develop an
+interest in arithmetic; a study of history, an interest in history; and
+a study of geography, an interest in geography. The saying that school
+work should follow a child's interest might, therefore, be better
+expressed by saying that the child's interests should follow the school
+work. It is only, in fact, as any one becomes directly interested in his
+pursuits, that the highest achievement can be reached. It is not the
+workman who is always looking forward to pay-day, who develops into an
+artist, or the teacher who is waiting for the summer holiday, who is a
+real inspiration to her pupils. In like manner, it is only as the child
+forms centres of interest in connection with his school work, that his
+life and character are likely to be affected permanently thereby.
+
+=Development of Interests.=--The problem for the educator is, therefore,
+not so much to follow the interest of the child, as it is to develop in
+him permanent centres of interest. For this reason the following facts
+concerning the origin and development of interests should be understood
+by the practical educator. First among these is the fact that certain
+instinctive tendencies of early childhood may be made a starting-point
+for the development of permanent valuable interest. The young child has
+a tendency to collect or an instinct of ownership, which may be taken
+advantage of in directing him to make collections of insects, plants,
+coins, stamps, and thus prove of permanent educative value. His
+constructive tendencies, or desire to do with what comes into his hand,
+as well as his imitative instincts, may be turned to account in building
+up an interest in various occupations. His social instinct, also,
+provides a means for developing permanent emotional interests as
+sympathy, etc. In like manner, the character of the child's surroundings
+tends to create in him various centres of interest. The young child, for
+instance, who is surrounded with beautiful objects, is almost sure to
+develop an interest in works of art, while the child who is early
+provided with fable and story will develop an interest in history.
+
+=When to Develop Interests.=--It is to be noted further concerning many
+of these forms of interest, that youth is the special period for their
+development. The child who does not, during his early years, have an
+opportunity to develop his social tendencies, is not likely later in
+life to acquire an interest in his fellow-men. In the same manner, if
+youth is spent in surroundings void of aesthetic elements, manhood will
+be lacking in artistic interests. It is in youth also that our
+intellectual interests, such as love of reading, of the study of nature,
+of mathematics, must be laid.
+
+=Interests Must be Limited.=--While emphasizing the importance of
+establishing a wide range of interests when educating a child, the
+teacher must remember that there is danger in a child acquiring too wide
+a range. This can result only in a dissipation of effort over many
+fields. While this prevents narrowness of vision and gives versatility
+of disposition, it may prevent the attainment of efficiency in any
+department, and make of the youth the proverbial "Jack-of-all-trades."
+
+A study of the feeling of interest has been made at this stage on
+account of its close connection with the problem of attention, and in
+fact with the whole learning process. An examination of the other
+classes of feeling will be made at a later stage in the course.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+SENSE PERCEPTION
+
+
+=Sensation and Perception Distinguished.=--Sensation and perception are
+two terms applied usually without much distinction of meaning to our
+recognition of the world of objects. When, for instance, a man draws
+near to a stove, he may say that it gives him a _sensation_ of heat, or
+perhaps that he _perceives_ it to be hot. In psychology, however, the
+term sensation has been used in two somewhat different meanings. By some
+the term is used to signify a state of consciousness conditioned merely
+upon the stimulation of a sense organ, as the eye, ear, etc., by its
+appropriate stimulus. To others, however, sensation signifies rather a
+mental image experienced by the mind as it reacts upon and interprets
+any sensory impression. Perception, on the other hand, signifies the
+recognition of an external object as presented to the mind here and now.
+
+=Sensation Implies Externality.=--When, however, a sensory image, such
+as smooth, yellow, cold, etc., arises in consciousness as a result of
+the mind reacting when an external stimulus is applied to some sense
+organ, it is evident that, at least after very early infancy, one never
+has the image without at once referring it to some external cause. If,
+for instance, a person is but half awake and receives a sound sensation,
+he does not ask himself, "What mental state is _this_?" but rather,
+"What is _that_?" This shows an evident tendency to refer our sensations
+at once to an external cause, or indicates that our sensations always
+carry with them an implicit reference to an external object. Leaving,
+therefore, to the scientific psychologist to consider whether it is
+possible to have a pure sensation, we shall treat sensation as the
+recognition of a quality which is at least vaguely referred to an
+external object. In other words, sensation is a medium by which we are
+brought into relation with real things existing independently of our
+sensations.
+
+=Perception Involves Sensation Element.=--Moreover, an object is
+perceived as present here and now only because it is revealed to us
+through one or more of the senses. When, for instance, I reach out my
+hand in the dark room and receive a sensation of touch, I perceive the
+table as present before me. When I receive a sensation of sound as I
+pass by the church, I perceive that the organ is being played. When I
+receive a colour sensation from the store window, I say that I perceive
+oranges. Perception, therefore, involves the referring of the sensuous
+state, or image, to an external thing, while in adult life sensation is
+never accepted by our attention as satisfactory unless it is referred to
+something we regard as immediately presenting itself to us by means of
+the sensation. It is on account of this evident interrelation of the two
+that we speak of a process of sense perception.
+
+=Perception an Acquired Power.=--On the other hand, however,
+investigation will show that this power to recognize explicitly the
+existence of an external object through the presentation of a sensation,
+was not at first possessed by the mind. The ability thus to perceive
+objects represents, therefore, an acquirement on the part of the
+individual. If a person, although receiving merely sensations of colour
+and light, is able to say, "Yonder is an orange," he is evidently
+interpreting, or giving meaning to, the present sensations largely
+through past experience; for the images of colour and light are
+accepted by the mind as an indication of the presence of an external
+thing from which could be derived other images of taste, smell, etc.,
+all of which go to make up the idea "orange." An ordinary act of
+perception, therefore, must involve not merely sensation, but also an
+interpretation of sensation through past experience. It is, in fact,
+because the recognition of an external object involves this conscious
+interpretation of the sensuous impressions, that people often suffer
+delusion. When the traveller passing by a lone graveyard interprets the
+tall and slender shrub laden with white blossoms as a swaying ghost, the
+misconception does not arise from any fault of mere vision, but from the
+type of former knowledge which the other surroundings of the moment call
+up, these evidently giving the mind a certain bias in its interpretation
+of the sensuous, or colour, impressions.
+
+=Perception in Adult Life.=--In our study of general method, sense
+perception was referred to as the most common mode of acquiring
+particular knowledge. A description of the development of this power to
+perceive objects through the senses should, therefore, prove of
+pedagogical value. But to understand how an individual acquires the
+ability to perceive objects, it is well to notice first what takes place
+in an ordinary adult act of perception, as for instance, when a man
+receives and interprets a colour stimulus and says that he perceives an
+orange. If we analyse the person's idea of an orange we find that it is
+made up of a number of different quality images--colour, taste, smell,
+touch, etc., organized into a single experience, or idea, and accepted
+as a mental representation of an object existing in space. When,
+therefore, the person referred to above says that he perceives an
+orange, what really happens is that he accepts the immediate colour and
+light sensation as a sign of the whole group of qualities which make up
+his notion of the external object, orange, the other qualities essential
+to the notion coming back from past experience to unite with the
+presented qualities. Owing to this fact, any ordinary act of perception
+is said to contain both presentative and representative elements. In the
+above example, for instance, the colour would be spoken of as a
+presentative element, because it is immediately presented to the mind in
+sensuous terms, or through the senses. Anything beyond this which goes
+to make up the individual's notion orange, and is revived from past
+experience, is spoken of as representative. For the same reason, the
+sensuous elements involved in an ordinary act of perception are often
+spoken of as immediate, and the others as mediate elements of knowledge.
+
+=Genesis of Perception.=--To trace the development of this ability to
+mingle both presentative and representative elements of knowledge into a
+mental representation, or idea, of an external object, it is necessary
+to recall what has been noted regarding the relation of the nervous
+system to our conscious acts. When the young child first comes in
+contact with the world of strange objects with which he is surrounded,
+the impressions he receives therefrom will not at first have either the
+definite quality or the relation to an external thing which they later
+secure. As a being, however, whose first tendencies are those of
+movement, he grasps, bites, strokes, smells, etc., and thus goes out to
+meet whatever his surroundings thrust upon him. Gradually he finds
+himself expand to take in the existence of a something external to
+himself, and is finally able, as the necessary paths are laid down in
+his nervous system, to differentiate various quality images one from the
+other; as, touch, weight, temperature, light, sound, etc. This will at
+once involve, however, a corresponding relating, or synthetic, attitude
+of mind, in which different quality images, when experienced together as
+qualities of some vaguely felt thing, will be organized into a more or
+less definite knowledge, or idea, of that object, as illustrated in the
+figure below. As the child in time gains the ability to _attend_ to the
+sensuous presentations which come to him, and to discriminate one
+sensation from another, he discovers in the vaguely known thing the
+images of touch, colour, taste, smell, etc., and finally associates them
+into the idea of a better known object, orange.
+
+[Illustration: A. Unknown thing. B. Sensory stimuli. C. Sensory images.
+D. Idea of object.]
+
+=Control of Sensory Image as Sign.=--Since the various sense impressions
+are carried to the higher centres of the brain, they will not only be
+interpreted as sensory images and organized into a knowledge of external
+objects, but, owing to the retentive power of the nervous tissue, will
+also be subject to recall. As the child thus gains more and more the
+ability to organize and relate various sensory images into mental
+representations, or ideas, of external objects, he soon acquires such
+control over these organized groups, that when any particular sensation
+image out of a group is presented to the mind, it will be sufficient to
+call up the other qualities, or will be accepted as a sign of the
+presence of the object. When this stage of perceptual power is reached,
+an odour coming from the oven enables a person to perceive that a
+certain kind of meat is within, or a noise proceeding from the tower is
+sufficient to make known the presence of a bell. To possess the ability
+thus to refer one's sensations to an external object is to be able to
+perceive objects.
+
+=Fulness of Perception Based on Sensation.=--From the foregoing account
+of the development of our perception of the external world, it becomes
+evident that our immediate knowledge, or idea, of an individual object
+will consist only of the images our senses have been able to discover
+either in that or other similar objects. To the person born without the
+sense of sight, for instance, the flower-bed can never be known as an
+object of tints and colours. To the person born deaf, the violin cannot
+really be known as a _musical_ instrument. Moreover, only the person
+whose senses distinguish adequately variations in colour, sound, form,
+etc., is able to perceive fully the objects which present themselves to
+his senses. Even when the physical senses seem equally perfect, one man,
+through greater power of discrimination, perceives in the world of
+objects much that totally escapes the observation of another. The result
+is that few of us enter as fully as we might into the rich world of
+sights, sounds, etc., with which we are surrounded, because we fail to
+gain the abundant images that we might through certain of our senses.
+
+
+FACTORS INVOLVED IN SENSATION
+
+Passing to a consideration of the senses as organs through which the
+mind is made aware of the concrete world, it is to be noted that a
+number of factors precede the image, or mental interpretation, of the
+impression. When, for instance, the mind becomes cognizant of a musical
+note, an analysis of the whole process reveals the following factors:
+
+1. The concrete object, as the vibrating string of a violin.
+
+2. Sound waves proceeding from the vibrating object to the sense organ.
+
+3. The organ of sense--the ear.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+4. The nerves--cells and fibres involved in receiving and conveying the
+sense stimulus.
+
+5. The interpreting cells.
+
+6. The reacting mind, which interprets the impression as an image of
+sound.
+
+The different factors are somewhat arbitrarily illustrated in the
+accompanying diagram, the arrows indicating the physical stimulation and
+the conscious response:
+
+Of the six factors involved in the sensation, 1 and 2 are purely
+physical and belong to the science of acoustics; 3, 4, and 5 are
+physiological; 6 is conscious, or psychological. It is because they
+always involve the immediate presence of some physical object, that the
+sensation elements involved in ordinary perception are spoken of as
+immediate, or presentative, elements of knowledge.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS
+
+Our various sensations are usually divided into three classes as
+follows:
+
+1. Sensations of the special senses, including: sight, sound, touch
+(including temperature), taste, and smell.
+
+2. Motor, or muscular, sensations.
+
+3. Organic sensations.
+
+=Sensations of the Special Senses.=--As a study of the five special
+senses has been made by the student-teacher under the heading of
+physiology, no attempt will be made to explain the structure of these
+organs. It must be noted, however, that not all senses are equally
+capable of distinguishing differences in quality. For example, it seems
+quite beyond our power to recall the tastes and odours of the various
+dishes of which we may have partaken at a banquet, while on the other
+hand we may recall distinctly the visual appearance of the room and the
+table. It is worthy of note, also, that in the case of smell, animals
+are usually much more discriminative than man. Certain of our senses
+are, therefore, much more intellectual than others. By this is meant
+that for purposes of distinguishing the objects themselves, and for
+providing the mind with available images as materials for further
+thought, our senses are by no means equally effective. Under this
+heading the special senses are classified as follows:
+
+Higher Intellectual Senses: sight, hearing, touch.
+
+Lower Intellectual Senses: taste and smell.
+
+=Muscular Sensations.=--Under motor, or muscular, sensations are
+included the feelings which accompany consciousness of muscular
+exertion, or movement. In distinction from the other sense organs, the
+muscles are stimulated by having nervous energy pass outward over the
+motor nerves to the muscles. As the muscles are thus stimulated to
+movement, sensory nerves in turn convey inward from the muscles sensory
+impressions resulting from these movements. The important sensations
+connected with muscular action are those of strain, force, and
+resistance, as in lifting or pushing. By means of these motor
+sensations, joined with the sense of touch, the individual is able to
+distinguish especially weight, position, and change of position. In
+connection with the muscular sense, may be recalled that portion of the
+Montessori apparatus known as the weight tablets. These wooden tablets,
+it will be noted, are designed to educate the muscular sense to
+distinguish slight differences in weight. The muscular sense is chiefly
+important, however, in that delicate distinctions of pressure, movement,
+and resistance must be made in many forms of manual expression. The
+interrelation between sensory impression and motor impulse within the
+nervous system, as illustrated in the figures on page 200, is already
+understood by the reader. For an adequate conscious control of
+movements, especially when one is engaged in delicate handwork, as
+painting, modelling, wood-work, etc., there must be an ability to
+perceive slight differences in strain, pressure, and movement. Moreover,
+the most effective means for developing the muscular sense is through
+the expressive exercises referred to above.
+
+=Organic Sensations.=--The organic sensations are those states of
+consciousness that arise in connection with the processes going on
+within the organism, as circulation of the blood, digestion; breathing,
+or respiration; hunger; thirst; etc. The significance of these
+sensations lies in the fact that they reveal to consciousness any
+disturbances in connection with the vital processes, and thus enable the
+individual to provide for the preservation of the organism.
+
+
+EDUCATION OF THE SENSES
+
+=Importance.=--When it is considered that our general knowledge must be
+based on a knowledge of individuals, it becomes apparent that children
+should, through sense observation, learn as fully as possible the
+various qualities of the concrete world. Only on this basis can they
+build their more general and abstract forms of knowledge. For this
+reason the child in his study of objects should, so far as safety
+permits, bring all of his senses to bear upon them and distinguish as
+clearly as possible all their properties. By this means only can he
+really know the attributes of the objects constituting his environment.
+Moreover, without such a full knowledge of the various properties and
+qualities of concrete objects, he is not in a position to turn them
+fully to his own service. It is by distinguishing the feeling of the
+flour, that the cook discovers whether it is suited for bread-making or
+pastry. It is by noting the texture of the wood, that the artisan can
+decide its suitability for the work in hand. In fine, it was only by
+noting the properties of various natural objects that man discovered
+their social uses.
+
+=How to be Effected.=--One of the chief defects of primary education in
+the past has been a tendency to overlook the importance of giving the
+child an opportunity to exercise his senses in discovering the
+properties of the objects constituting his environment. The introduction
+of the kindergarten, objective methods of teaching, nature study, school
+gardening, and constructive occupations have done much, however, to
+remedy this defect. One of the chief claims in favour of the so-called
+Montessori Method is that it provides especially for an education of the
+senses. In doing this, however, it makes use of arbitrarily prepared
+materials instead of the ordinary objects constituting the child's
+natural environment. The one advantage in this is that it enables the
+teacher to grade the stimulations and thus exercise the child in making
+series of discriminations, for instance, a series of colours, sounds,
+weights, sizes, etc. Notwithstanding this advantage, however, it seems
+more pedagogical that the child should receive this needful exercise of
+the senses by being brought into contact with the actual objects
+constituting his environment, as is done in nature study, constructive
+exercises, art, etc.
+
+=Dangers of Neglecting the Senses.=--The former neglect of an adequate
+exercise of the senses during the early education of the child was
+evidently unpedagogical for various reasons. As already noted, other
+forms of acquiring knowledge, such as constructive imagination,
+induction, and deduction, must rest primarily upon the acquisitions of
+sense perception. Moreover, it is during the early years of life that
+the plasticity and retentive power of the nervous system will enable the
+various sense impressions to be recorded for the future use of the mind.
+Further, the senses themselves during these early years show what may be
+termed a hunger for contact with the world of concrete objects, and a
+corresponding distaste for more abstract types of experience.
+
+=Learning Through all the Senses.=--In recognizing that the process of
+sense perception constitutes a learning process, or is one of the modes
+by which man enters into new experience, the teacher should further
+understand that the same object may be interpreted through different
+senses. For example, when a child studies a new bird, he may note its
+form and colour through the eye, he may recognize the feeling and the
+outline through muscular and touch sensations, he may discover its song
+through the ear, and may give muscular expression to its form in
+painting or modelling. In the same way, in learning a figure or letter,
+he may see its form through the eye, hear its sound through the ear,
+make the sound and trace the form by calling various muscles into play,
+and thus secure a number of muscular sensations relative to the figure
+or letter. Since all these various experiences will be co-ordinated and
+retained within the nervous system, the child will not only know the
+object better, but will also be able to recall more easily any items of
+knowledge concerning it, on account of the larger number of connections
+established within the nervous system. One chief fact to be kept in mind
+by the teacher, therefore, in using the method of sense perception, is
+to have the pupil study the object through as many different senses as
+possible, and especially through those senses in which his power of
+discrimination and recall seems greatest.
+
+=Use of Different Images in Teaching.=--The importance to the teacher of
+an intimate knowledge of different types of imagery and of a further
+acquaintance with the more prevailing images of particular pupils, is
+evident in various ways. In the first place, different school subjects
+may appeal more especially to different types of imagery. Thus a study
+of plants especially involves visual, or sight, images; a study of
+birds, visual and auditory images; oral reading and music, auditory
+images; physical training, motor images; constructive work, visual,
+tactile, and motor images; a knowledge of weights and measures, tactile
+and motor images. On account of a native difference in forming images,
+also, one pupil may best learn through the eye, another through the ear,
+a third through the muscles, etc. In learning the spelling of words, for
+example, one pupil may require especially to visualize the word, another
+to hear the letters repeated in their order, and a third to articulate
+the letters by the movement of the organs of speech, or to trace them in
+writing. In choosing illustrations, also, the teacher will find that one
+pupil best appreciates a visual illustration, a second an auditory
+illustration, etc. Some young pupils, for instance, might best
+appreciate a pathetic situation through an appeal to such sensory images
+as hunger and thirst.
+
+=An Illustration.=--The wide difference in people's ability to interpret
+sensuous impressions is well exemplified in the case of sound stimuli.
+Every one whose ear is physically perfect seems able to interpret a
+sound so far as its mere quality and quantity are concerned. In the case
+of musical notes, however, the very greatest difference is found in the
+ability of different individuals to distinguish pitch. So also the
+distinguishing of distance and direction in relation to sound is an
+acquired ability, in which different people will greatly differ.
+Finally, to interpret the external relations involved in the sound, that
+is, whether the cry is that of an insect or a bird, or, if it is the
+former, from what kind of bird the sound is proceeding, this evidently
+is a phase of sense interpretation in which individuals differ very
+greatly. Yet an adequate development of the sense of hearing might be
+supposed to give the individual an ability to interpret his surroundings
+in all these ways.
+
+=Power of Sense Perception Limited: A. By Interest.=--It should be
+noted, however, that so far as our actual life needs are concerned,
+there is no large demand for an all-round ability to interpret sensuous
+impressions. For practical purposes, men are interested in different
+objects in quite different ways. One is interested in the colour of a
+certain wood, another in its smoothness, a third in its ability to
+withstand strain, while a fourth may even be interested in more hidden
+relations, not visible to the ordinary sense. This will justify one in
+ignoring entirely qualities in the object which are of the utmost
+importance to others. From such a practical standpoint, it is evidently
+a decided gain that a person is not compelled to see everything in an
+object which its sensuous attributes might permit one to discover in it.
+In the case of the man with the so-called untrained sense, therefore, it
+is questionable whether the failure to see, hear, etc., is in many cases
+so much a lack of ability to use the particular sense, as it is a lack
+of practical interest in this phase of the objective world. In such
+processes as induction and deduction, also, it is often the external
+relations of objects rather than their sensory qualities that chiefly
+interest us. Indeed, it is sometimes claimed that an excessive amount of
+mere training in sense discrimination might interfere with a proper
+development of the higher mental processes.
+
+=B. By Knowledge.=--From what has been discovered regarding the learning
+process, it is evident that the development of any sense, as sight,
+sound, touch, etc., is not brought about merely by exercising the
+particular organ. It has been learned, for instance, that the person who
+is able to observe readily the plant and animal life as he walks through
+the forest, possesses this skill, not because his physical eye, but
+because his mind, has been prepared to see these objects. In other
+words, it is because his knowledge is active along such lines that his
+eye beholds these particular things. The chief reason, therefore, why
+the exercise of any sense organ develops a power to perceive through
+that sense, is that the exercise tends to develop in the individual the
+knowledge and interest which will cause the mind to react easily and
+effectively on that particular class of impressions. A sense may be
+considered trained, therefore, to the extent to which the mind acquires
+knowledge of, and interest in, the objective elements.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+MEMORY AND APPERCEPTION
+
+
+=Nature of Memory.=--Mention has been made of the retentive power of the
+nervous system, and of a consequent tendency for mental images to
+revive, or _re-present_, themselves in consciousness. It must now be
+noted that such a re-presentation of former experiences is frequently
+accompanied with a distinct recognition that the present image or images
+have a definite reference to past time. In other words, the present
+mental fact is able to be placed in the midst of other events believed
+to make up some portion of our past experience. Such an ideal revival of
+a past experience, together with a recognition of the fact that it
+formerly occurred within our experience, is known as an act of memory.
+
+=Neural Conditions of Memory.=--When any experience is thus reproduced,
+and recognized as a reproduction of a previous experience, there is
+physiologically a transmission of nervous energy through the same brain
+centres as were involved in the original experience. The mental
+reproduction of any image is conditioned, therefore, by the physical
+reproduction of a nervous impulse through a formerly established path.
+That this is possible is owing to the susceptibility of nervous tissue
+to take on habit, or to retain as permanent modifications, all
+impressions received. From this it is evident that when we say we retain
+certain facts in our mind, the statement is not in a sense true; for
+there is no knowledge stored up in consciousness as so many ideas. The
+statement is true, therefore, only in the sense that the mind is able
+to bring into consciousness a former experience by reinstating the
+necessary nervous impulses through the proper nervous arcs. What is
+actually retained, however, is the tendency to reinstate nervous
+movements through the same paths as were involved in the original
+experience. Although, therefore, retention is usually treated as a
+factor in memory, its basis is, in reality, physiological.
+
+=Memory Distinguished from Apperception.=--The distinguishing
+characteristics of memory as a re-presentation in the mind of a former
+experience is evidently the mental attitude known as recognition.
+Memory, in other words, always implies a belief that the present mental
+state really represents a fact, or event, which formed a part of our
+past experience. In the apperceptive process as seen in an ordinary
+process of learning, on the other hand, although it seems to involve a
+re-presentation of former mental images in consciousness, this distinct
+reference of the revived imagery to past time is evidently wanting.
+When, for instance, the mind interprets a strange object as a
+pear-shaped, thin-rinded, many-seeded fruit, all these interpreting
+ideas are, in a sense, revivals of past experience; yet none carry with
+them any distinct reference to past time. In like manner, when I look at
+an object of a certain form and colour and say that it is a sweet apple,
+it is evidently owing to past experience that I can declare that
+particular object to be sweet. It is quite clear, however, that in such
+a case there is no distinct reference of the revived image of sweetness
+to any definite occurrence in one's former experience. Such an
+apperceptive revival, or re-presentation of past experience, because it
+includes merely a representation of mental images, but fails to relate
+them to the past, cannot be classed as an act of memory.
+
+=But Involves Apperceptive Process.=--While, however, the mere revival
+of old knowledge in the apperceptive process does not constitute an act
+of memory, memory is itself only a special phase of the apperceptive
+process. When I think of a particular anecdote to-day, and say I
+remember having the same experience on Sunday evening last, the present
+mental images cannot be the very same images as were then experienced.
+The former images belonged to the past, while those at present in
+consciousness are a new creation, although dependent, as we have seen,
+upon certain physiological conditions established in the past. In an act
+of memory, therefore, the new presentation, like all new presentations,
+must be interpreted in terms of past experience, or by an apperceiving
+act of attention. Whenever in this apperceptive act there is, in
+addition to the interpretation, a further feeling, or sense, of
+familiarity, the presentation is accepted by the mind as a reproduction
+from past experience, or is recognized as belonging to the past. When,
+on the way down the street, for instance, impressions are received from
+a passing form, and a resulting act of apperceiving attention, besides
+reading meaning into them, awakens a sense of familiarity, the face is
+recognized as one seen on a former occasion. Memory, therefore, is a
+special mode of the apperceptive process of learning, and includes, in
+addition to the interpreting of the new through the old, a belief that
+there is an identity between the old and the new.
+
+
+FACTORS OF MEMORY
+
+In a complete example of memory the following factors may be noted:
+
+1. The original presentation--as the first perception of an object or
+scene, the reading of a new story, the hearing of a particular voice,
+etc.
+
+2. Retention--this involves the permanent changes wrought in the nervous
+tissue as a result of the presentation or learning process and, as
+mentioned above, is really physiological.
+
+3. Recall--this implies the re-establishment of the nervous movements
+involved in the original experiences and an accompanying revival of the
+mental imagery.
+
+4. Recognition--under this heading is included the sense of familiarity
+experienced in consciousness, and the consequent belief that the present
+experience actually occurred at some certain time as an element in our
+past experience.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF MEMORY
+
+=A. Physical Conditions.=--One of the first conditions for an effective
+recollection of any particular experience will be, evidently, the
+strength of the co-ordinations set up in the nervous system during the
+learning process. The permanent changes brought about in the nervous
+tissue as a result of conscious experience is often spoken of as the
+physical basis of memory. The first consideration, therefore, relative
+to the memorizing of knowledge is to decide the conditions favourable to
+establishing such nervous paths during the learning process. First among
+these may be mentioned the condition of the nervous tissue itself. As
+already seen, the more plastic and active the condition of this tissue,
+the more susceptible it is to receive and retain impressions. For this
+reason anything studied when the body is tired and the mind exhausted is
+not likely to be remembered. It is for the same reason, also, that
+knowledge acquired in youth is much more likely to be remembered than
+things learned late in life. The intensity and the clearness of the
+presentation also cause it to make a stronger impression upon the system
+and thus render its retention more permanent. This demands in turn that
+attention should be strongly focused upon the presentations during any
+learning process. By adding to the clearness and intensity of any
+impressions, attention adds to the likelihood of their retention. The
+evident cause of the scholar's ability to learn even relatively late in
+life is the fact that he brings a much greater concentration of
+attention to the process than is usually found in others. Repetition
+also, since it tends to break down any resistance to the paths which are
+being established in the nervous system during the learning process, is
+a distinct aid to retention. For this reason any knowledge acquired
+should be revived at intervals. This is especially true of the school
+knowledge being acquired by young children, and their acquisitions must
+be occasionally reviewed and used in various ways, if the knowledge is
+to become a permanent possession. A special application of the law of
+repetition may be noted in the fact that we remember better any topic
+learned, say, in four half-hours put upon it at different intervals,
+than we should by spending the whole two hours upon it at one time.
+
+Another condition favourable to recall is the recency of the original
+experience. Anything is more easily recalled, the more recently it has
+been learned. The physiological cause for this seems to be that the
+nervous co-ordinations being recent, they are much more likely to
+re-establish themselves, not having yet been effaced or weakened through
+the lapse of time.
+
+=B. Mental Conditions.=--It must be noted, however, that although there
+is evidently the above neural concomitant of recall, yet it is not the
+nervous system, but the mind, that actually recalls and remembers. The
+real condition of recall, therefore, is mental, and depends largely
+upon the number of associations formed between the ideas themselves in
+the original presentation. According to the law of association,
+different ideas arise in the mind in virtue of certain connections
+existing between the ideas themselves. It would be quite foreign to our
+present purpose to examine the theories held among philosophic
+psychologists regarding the principle of the association of ideas. It is
+evident, however, that ideas often come to our minds in consequence of
+the presence in consciousness of a prior idea. When we see the name
+"Queenston Heights," it suggests to us Sir Isaac Brock; when we see a
+certain house, it calls to mind the pleasant evening spent there; and
+when we hear the strains of solemn music, it brings to mind the memories
+of the dead. Equally evident is the fact that anything experienced in
+isolation is much harder to remember than one experienced in such a way
+that it may enter into a larger train of ideas. If, for instance, any
+one is told to call up in half an hour telephone 3827, it is more than
+likely that the number will be forgotten, if the person goes on with
+other work and depends only on the mere impression to recall the number
+at the proper time. This would be the case also in spite of the most
+vivid presentation of the number by the one giving the order or the
+repetition of it by the person himself. If, however, the person says,
+even in a casual way, "Call up 1867," and the person addressed
+associates the number with the Confederation of the Dominion, there is
+practically no possibility of the number going out of his mind. An
+important mental condition for recall, therefore, is that ideas should
+be learned in as large associations, or groups, as possible. It is for
+the above reason that the logical and orderly presentation of the topics
+in any subject and their thorough understanding by the pupil give more
+complete control over the subject-matter. When each lesson is taught as
+a disconnected item of knowledge, there seems nothing to which the ideas
+are anchored, and recall is relatively difficult. When, on the other
+hand, points of connection are established between succeeding lessons,
+and the pupil understands these, one topic suggests another, and the
+mind finds it relatively easy to recall any particular part of the
+related ideas.
+
+
+TYPES OF RECALL
+
+=A. Involuntary.=--In connection with the working of the principle of
+association, it is interesting to note that practically two types of
+recall manifest themselves. As a result of their suggestive tendency,
+the ideas before consciousness at any particular time have a tendency to
+revive old experiences which the mind may recognize as such. Here there
+is no effort on the part of the voluntary attention to recall the
+experience from the past, the operation of the law of association being,
+as it were, sufficient to thrust the revived image into the centre of
+the field of consciousness, as when the sight of a train recalls a
+recent trip.
+
+=B. Voluntary.=--At times the mind may set out with the deliberate aim,
+or purpose, of reviving some forgotten experience. This is because
+attention is at the time engaged upon a definite problem, as when the
+student writing on his examination paper strives to recall the
+conditions of the Constitutional Act. This type is known as voluntary
+memory. Such a voluntary attempt at recall is, however, of the same
+character as the involuntary type in that both involve association. What
+the mind really strives for is to start a train of ideas which shall
+suggest the illusive ideas involved in the desired answer. Such a
+process of recall might be illustrated as follows:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Here a, b, c, d, e represent the forgotten series of ideas to be
+recalled. A, B, C, D, E represent other better known ideas, some of
+which are associated with the desired ones. By having the mind course
+over the better known facts--A, B, C, D, E, attention may finally focus
+upon the relation A, a, B, and thus start up the necessary revival of a,
+b, c, d, e.
+
+=Attention May Hinder Memory.=--While active attention is thus able
+under proper conditions to reinforce memory, yet occasionally attention
+seems detrimental to memory. That such is the case will become evident
+from the preceding figure. If the experience a, b, c, d, e, is directly
+associated only with A, B, but the mind believes the association to
+centre in C, D, E, attention is certain to keep focused upon the
+sub-group--C, D, E. At an examination in history, for example, we may
+desire to recall the circumstances associated with the topic, "The Grand
+Remonstrance," and feel vaguely that this is connected with a
+revolutionary movement. This may cause us, however, to fix attention,
+not upon the civil war, but upon the revolution of 1688. In this case,
+instead of forcing a nervous impulse into the proper centres, attention
+is in reality diverting it into other channels. When, a few minutes
+later, we have perhaps ceased our effort to remember, the impulse seems
+of itself to stimulate the proper centres, and the necessary facts come
+to us apparently without any attentive effort.
+
+
+LOCALIZATION IN TIME
+
+It has been pointed out that in an act of memory there must be a
+recognition of the present experience as one which has occurred in a
+series of past events. The definite reference of a memory image to a
+past series is sometimes spoken of as localization. The degree to which
+a memory image is localized in the past differs greatly, however, in
+different cases. Your recollection of some interesting personal event in
+your past school history may be very definitely located as to time,
+image after image reinstating themselves in memory in the order of their
+actual occurrence. Such a similar series of events must have taken place
+when, by means of handling a number of objects, you learned different
+number and quantity relations or, by drawing certain figures, discovered
+certain geometrical relations. At the present time, however, although
+you remember clearly the general relations, you are utterly unable to
+recall the more incidental facts connected with their original
+presentation, or even localize the remembered knowledge at all
+definitely in past time. Nothing, in fact, remains as a permanent
+possession except the general, or scientific, truth involved in the
+experience.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF MEMORIES
+
+=A. Mechanical.=--The above facts would indicate that in many cases the
+mind would find it more effective to omit from conscious recall what may
+appear irrelevant in the original presentation, and fix attention upon
+only the essential features. From this standpoint, two somewhat
+different types of memory are to be found among individuals. With many
+people, it seems as if a past experience must be revived in every
+detail. If such a one sets out to report a simple experience, such as
+seeing a policeman arrest a man on the street, he must bring in every
+collateral circumstance, no matter how foreign to the incident. He must
+mention, for example, that he himself had on a new straw hat, that his
+companion was smoking a cigar, was accompanied by his dog, and was
+talking about his crops, at the time they observed the arrest. This type
+is known as a mechanical memory. Very good examples of such will be seen
+in the persons of "Farmer Philip" in Tennyson's _Brook_ and the
+"landlady" in Shakespeare's _King Henry IV_.
+
+=B. Logical.=--In another type of memory, the mind does not thus
+associate into the memory experience every little detail of the original
+experience. The outstanding facts, especially those which are bound by
+some logical sequence, are the only ones which enter into permanent
+association. Such a type of mind, therefore, in recalling the past,
+selects out of the mass of experiences the incidents which will
+constitute a logical revival, and leaves out the trivial and incidental.
+This type is usually spoken of as a logical memory. This type of memory
+would, in the above incident, recall only the essential facts connected
+with the arrest, as the cause, the incidents, and the result.
+
+
+MEMORY IN EDUCATION
+
+=Value of Memory.=--It is evident that without the ability to reinstate
+past experiences in our conscious life, such experiences could not serve
+as intelligent guides for our present conduct. Each day, in fact, we
+should begin life anew so far as concerns intelligent adaptation, our
+acquired aptitude being at best only physical. It will be understood,
+therefore, why the ability to recall past experiences is accepted as an
+essential factor in the educative process. It will be noted, indeed, in
+our study of the history of education, that, at certain periods, the
+whole problem of education seemed to be to memorize knowledge so
+thoroughly that it might readily be reinstated in consciousness. Modern
+education, however, has thrown emphasis upon two additional facts
+regarding knowledge. These are, first, that the ability to use past
+knowledge, and not the mere ability to recall it, is the mark of a truly
+educated man. The second fact is that, when any experience is clearly
+understood at the time of its presentation, the problem of remembering
+it will largely take care of itself. For these reasons, modern education
+emphasizes clearness of presentation and ability to apply, rather than
+the mere memorizing of knowledge. It is a question, however, whether the
+modern educator may not often be too negligent concerning the direct
+problem of the ability to recall knowledge. For this reason, the
+student-teacher may profitably make himself acquainted with the main
+conditions of retention and recall.
+
+=The Training of Memory.=--An important problem for the educator is to
+ascertain whether it is possible to develop in the pupil a general power
+of memory. In other words, will the memorizing of any set of facts
+strengthen the mind to remember more easily any other facts whatsoever?
+From what has been noted regarding memory, it is evident that, leaving
+out of consideration the physical condition of the organism, the most
+important conditions for memory at the time are attention to, and a
+thorough understanding of, the facts to be remembered. From this it
+must appear that a person's ability to remember any facts depends
+primarily, not upon the mere amount of memorizing he has done in the
+past, but upon the extent to which his interests and old knowledge cause
+him to attend to, understand, and associate the facts to be remembered.
+There seems no justification, therefore, for the method of the teacher
+who expected to strengthen the memories of her pupils for their school
+work by having them walk quickly past the store windows and then attempt
+to recall at school what they had seen. In such cases the boys are found
+to remember certain objects, because their interests and knowledge
+enable them to notice these more distinctly at the time of the
+presentation. The girls, on the other hand, remember other objects,
+because their interests and knowledge cause them to apprehend these
+rather than the others.
+
+
+APPERCEPTION
+
+=Apperception a Law of Learning.=--In the study of the lesson process,
+Chapter III, attention was called to the fact that the interpretation
+which the mind places upon any presentation depends in large measure
+upon the mind's present content and interest. It is an essential
+characteristic of mind that it always attempts to give meaning to any
+new impression, no matter how strange that impression may be. This end
+is reached, however, only as the mind is able to apply to the
+presentation certain elements of former experience. Even in earliest
+infancy, impressions do not come to the organism as total strangers; for
+the organism is already endowed with instinctive tendencies to react in
+a definite manner to certain stimuli. As these reactions continue to
+repeat themselves, however, permanent modifications, as previously
+noted, are established in the nervous system, including both sensory and
+motor adjustments. Since, moreover, these sensory and motor adjustments
+give rise to ideas, they result in corresponding associations of mental
+imagery. As these neural and mental elements are thus organized into
+more and more complex masses, the recurrence of any element within an
+associated mass is able to reinstate the other elements. The result is
+that when a certain sensation is received, as, for instance, a sound
+stimulus, it reinstates sensory impressions and motor reactions together
+with their associated mental images, thus enabling the mind to assert
+that a dog is barking in the distance. In such a case, the present
+impression is evidently joined with, and interpreted through, what has
+already formed a part of our experience. What is true of this particular
+case is true of all cases. New presentations are always met and
+interpreted by some complex experiences with which they have something
+in common, otherwise the stimuli could not be attended to at all. This
+ability of the mind to interpret new presentations in terms of old
+knowledge on account of some connection they bear to that content, is
+known as _apperception_. In other words, apperception is the law of the
+mind to attend to such elements in a new presentation as possess some
+degree of _familiarity_ with the already assimilated experience,
+although there may be no distinct recognition of this familiarity.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF APPERCEPTION
+
+=A. Present Knowledge.=--Since the mind can apperceive only that for
+which it is prepared through former experience, the interpretation of
+the same presentations will be likely to differ greatly in different
+individuals. The book lying before him is to the young child a place in
+which to find pictures, to the ignorant man a source of mysterious
+information, and to the scholar a symbolic representation of certain
+mathematical knowledge. In the same manner, the object outside the
+window is a noxious weed to the farmer, a flower to the naturalist, and
+a medicinal plant to the physician or the druggist. From this it is
+clear that the interpretation of the impressions must differ according
+to the character of our present knowledge. In other words, the more
+important the aspects read into any presentation, the more valuable will
+be the present experience. Although when the child apperceives a stick
+as a horse, and the mechanic apperceives it as a lever, each
+interpretation is valuable within its own sphere, yet there is evidently
+a marked difference in the ultimate significance of the two
+interpretations. Education is especially valuable, in fact, in that it
+so adds to the experience of the child that he may more fully apperceive
+his surroundings.
+
+=B. Present Interests and Needs.=--But apperception is not solely
+dependent upon present knowledge. The interests and needs of the
+individual reflect themselves largely in his apperceptive tendencies.
+While the boy sees a tent in the folded paper, the girl is more likely
+to find in it a screen. To the little boy the lath is a horse, to the
+older boy it becomes a sword. Feelings and interest, therefore, as well
+as knowledge, dominate the apperceptive process. Nor should this fact be
+overlooked by the teacher. The study of a poem would be very incomplete
+and unsatisfactory if it stopped with the apprehension of the ideas.
+There must be emotional appreciation as well; otherwise the study will
+result in entire indifference to it. In introducing, for instance, the
+sonnet, "Mysterious Night" (page 394, _Ontario Reader, Book IV_), the
+teacher might ask: "Why can we not see the stars during the day?" The
+answer to this question would put the pupils in the proper intellectual
+attitude to interpret the ideas of the poem, but that is not enough. A
+recall of such an experience as his contemplation of the starry sky on a
+clear night will put the pupil in a suitable emotional attitude. He is a
+rare pupil who has not at some time gazed in wonder at the immense
+number and magnificence of the stars, or who has not thought with awe
+and reverence of the infinite power of the Creator of "such countless
+orbs." A recall of these feelings of wonder, awe, and reverence will
+place the pupil in a suitable mood for the emotional appreciation of the
+poem. It is in the teaching of literature that the importance of a
+proper feeling attitude on the part of the pupil is particularly great.
+Without it the pupil is coldly indifferent toward literature and will
+never cultivate an enthusiasm for it.
+
+
+FACTORS IN APPERCEPTION
+
+=Retention and Recall.=--The facts already noted make it plain that
+apperception involves two important factors. First, apperception implies
+retention and recall. Unless our various experiences left behind them
+the permanent effects already noted in describing the retentive power of
+the nervous organism and the consequent possibility of recall, there
+could be no adjustment to new impressions on the basis of earlier
+experiences.
+
+=Attention.=--Secondly, apperception involves attention. Since to
+apperceive is to bring the results of earlier experience to bear
+actively upon the new impression, it must involve a reactive, or
+attentive, state of consciousness; for, as noted in our study of the
+learning process, it is only by selecting elements out of former
+experience that the new impression is given definite meaning in
+consciousness. For the child to apperceive the strange object as a
+"bug-in-a-basket," demands from him therefore a process of attention in
+which the ideas "bug" and "basket" are selected from former experience
+and read into the new impression, thereby giving it a meaning in
+consciousness. A reference to any of the lesson topics previously
+considered will provide further examples of these apperceptive factors.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+IMAGINATION
+
+
+=Nature of.=--In our study of the various modes of acquiring individual
+notions, attention was called to the fact that knowledge of a particular
+object may be gained through a process of imagination. Like memory,
+imagination is a process of re-presentation, though differing from it in
+certain important regards.
+
+1. Although imagination depends on past experiences for its images,
+these images are used to build up ideal representations of objects
+without any reference to past time.
+
+2. In imagination the associated elements of past experience may be
+completely dissociated. Thus a bird may be imagined without wings, or a
+stone column without weight.
+
+3. The dissociated elements may be re-combined in various ways to
+represent objects never actually experienced, as a man with wings, or a
+horse with a man's head.
+
+Imagination is thus an apperceptive process by which we construct a
+mental representation of an object without any necessary reference to
+its actual existence in time.
+
+=Product of Imagination, Particular.=--It is to be noted that in a
+process of imagination the mind always constructs in idea a
+representation of a _particular_ object or individual. For instance, the
+ideal picture of the house I imagine situated on the hill before me is
+that of a particular house, possessing definite qualities as to height,
+size, colour, etc. In like manner, the future visit to Toronto, as it
+is being run over ideally, is constructed of particular persons, places,
+and events. So also when reading such a stanza as:
+
+    The milk-white blossoms of the thorn
+      Are waving o'er the pool,
+    Moved by the wind that breathes along,
+      So sweetly and so cool;
+
+if the mind is able to combine into a definite outline of a particular
+situation the various elements depicted, then the mental process of the
+reader is one of imagination. It is not true, of course, that the
+particular elements which enter into such an ideal representation are
+always equally vivid. Yet one test of a person's power of imagination is
+the definiteness with which the mind makes an ideal representation stand
+out in consciousness as a distinct individual.
+
+
+TYPES OF IMAGINATION
+
+=A. Passive.=--In dissociating the elements of past experience and
+combining them into new particular forms, the mind may proceed in two
+quite different ways. In some cases the mind seemingly allows itself to
+drift without purpose and almost without sense, building up fantastic
+representations of imaginary objects or events. This happens especially
+in our periods of day-dreaming. Here various images, evidently drawn
+from past experience, come before consciousness in a spontaneous way and
+enter into most unusual forms of combination, with little regard even to
+probability. In these moods the timid lad becomes a strong hero, and his
+rustic Audrey, a fair lady, for whose sake he is ever performing untold
+feats of valour. Here the ideas, instead of being selected and combined
+for a definite purpose through an act of voluntary attention, are
+suggested one after the other by the mere law of association. Because
+in such fantastic products of the imagination the various images appear
+in consciousness and combine themselves without any apparent control or
+purpose, the process is known as passive imagination, or phantasy. Such
+a type, it is evident, will have little significance as an actual
+process of learning.
+
+=B. Active, or Constructive.=--Opposed to the above type is that form of
+imagination in which the mind proceeds to build up a particular ideal
+representation with some definite purpose, or end, in view. A student,
+for example, who has never seen an aeroplane and has no direct knowledge
+of the course to be traversed, may be called upon in his composition
+work to describe an imaginary voyage through the air from Toronto to
+Winnipeg. In such an act of imagination, the selecting of elements to
+enter into the ideal picture must be chosen with an eye to their
+suitability to the end in view. When also a child is called upon in
+school to form an ideal representation of some object of which he has
+had no direct experience, as for instance, a mental picture of a
+volcano, he must in the same way, under the guidance of the teacher,
+select and combine elements of his actual experience which are adapted
+to the building up of a correct mental representation of an actual
+volcano. This type of imagination is known as active, or constructive,
+imagination.
+
+=Factors in Constructive Imagination.=--In such a purposeful, or active,
+process of imagination the following factors may be noticed:
+
+1. The purpose, end, or problem calling for the exercise of the
+imagination.
+
+2. A selective act of attention, in which the fitness or unfitness of
+elements of past experience, or their adaptability to the ideal
+creation, is realized.
+
+3. A relating, or synthetic, activity combining the selected elements
+into a new ideal representation.
+
+
+USES OF IMAGINATION
+
+=Imagination in Education.=--One important application of imagination in
+school work is found in connection with the various forms of
+constructive occupation. In such exercises, it is possible to have the
+child first build up ideally the picture of a particular object and then
+have him produce it through actual expression. For example, a class
+which has been taught certain principles of cutting may be called upon
+to conceive an original design for some object, say a valentine. Here
+the child, before proceeding to produce the actual object, must select
+from his knowledge of valentines certain elements and interpret them in
+relation to his principles of cutting. This ideal representation of the
+intended object is, therefore, a process of active, or constructive,
+imagination. In composition, also, the various events and situations
+depicted may be ideal creations to which the child gives expression in
+language. In geography and nature study likewise, constant use must be
+made of the imagination in gaining a knowledge of objects which have
+never come within the actual experience of the child. In science there
+is a further appeal to the child's imagination. When, for instance, he
+studies such topics as the law of gravity, chemical affinity, etc., the
+imagination must fill in much that falls outside the sphere of actual
+observation. In history and literature, also, the student can enter into
+the life and action of the various scenes and events only by building up
+ideal representations of what is depicted through the words of the
+author.
+
+=Imagination in Practical Life.=--In addition to the large use of
+constructive imagination in school work, this process will be found
+equally important in the after affairs of life. It is by use of the
+imagination that the workman is able to see the changes we desire made
+in the decoration of the room or in the shape of the flower-beds. It is
+by the use of imagination, also, that the general is able to outline the
+plan of campaign that shall lead his army to victory. Without
+imagination, therefore, the mind could not set up those practical aims
+toward the attainment of which most of life's effort is directed. In the
+dominion of conduct, also, imagination has its important part to play.
+It is by viewing in his imagination the effect of the one course of
+action as compared with the other, that man finally decides what
+constitutes the proper line of conduct. Even when indifferent as to his
+moral conduct, man pictures to himself what his friends may say and
+think of certain lines of action. For the enjoyment of life, also, the
+exercise of imagination has a place. It is by filling up the present
+with ideals and hopeful anticipations for the future, that much of the
+monotony of our work-a-day hours is relieved.
+
+=Development of Imagination.=--A prime condition of a creative
+imagination is evidently the possession of an abundance of mental
+materials which may be dissociated and re-combined into new mental
+products. These materials, of course, consist of the images and ideas
+retained by the mind from former experiences. One important result,
+therefore, of providing the young child with a rich store of images of
+sight, sound, touch, movement, etc., is that it provides his developing
+imagination with necessary materials. But the mere possession of
+abundant materials in the form of past images will not in itself develop
+the imagination. Here, as elsewhere, it is only by exercising
+imagination that ability to imagine can be developed. Opportunity for
+such an exercise of the imagination, moreover, may be given the child in
+various ways. As already noted, a chief function of play is that it
+stimulates the child to use his imagination in reconstructing the
+objects about him and clothing them with many fancied attributes. In
+supplementary reading and story work, also, the imagination is actively
+exercised in constructing the ideal situations, as they are being
+presented in words by the book or the teacher. Nature study, likewise,
+by bringing before the child the secret processes of nature, as noting,
+for instance, the life history of the butterfly, the germination of
+seeds, etc., will call upon him to use his imagination in various ways.
+On the other hand, to deprive a young child of all such opportunities
+will usually result in preventing a proper development of the
+imagination.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+THINKING
+
+
+=Nature of Thinking.=--In the study of general method, as well as in
+that of the foregoing mental processes, it has been taken for granted
+that our minds are capable of identifying different objects on the basis
+of some common feature or features. This tendency of the mind to
+identify objects and group individual things into classes, depends upon
+its capacity to detect similarity and difference, or to make
+comparisons. When the mind, in identifying objects, events, qualities,
+etc., discovers certain relations between its various states, the
+process is especially known as that of thinking. In its technical sense,
+therefore, thought implies a more or less explicit apprehension of
+relation.
+
+=Thinking Involved in all Conscious States.=--It is evident, however,
+that every mental process must involve thinking, or a grasping of
+relations. When, by my merely touching an object, my mind perceives it
+is an apple, this act of perception, as already seen, takes place
+because elements of former experience come back as associated factors.
+This implies, evidently, that the mind is here relating elements of its
+past experience with the present touch sensation. Perception of external
+objects, therefore, implies a grasping of relations. In the same way,
+if, in having an experience to-day, one recognizes it as identical with
+a former experience, he is equally grasping a relation. Every act of
+memory, therefore, implies thinking. Thus in all forms of knowledge the
+mind is apprehending relations; for no experience could have meaning
+for the mind except as it is discriminated from other experiences. In
+treating thinking as a distinct mental process, however, it is assumed
+that the objects of sense perception, memory, etc., are known as such,
+and that the mind here deals more directly with the relations in which
+ideas stand one to another. As a mental process, thinking appears in
+three somewhat distinct forms, known as conception, judgment, and
+reasoning.
+
+
+CONCEPTION
+
+=The Abstract Notion.=--It was seen that at least in adult life, the
+perception of any object, as this particular orange, horse, cow, etc.,
+really includes a number of distinct images of quality synthesised into
+the unity of a particular idea or experience. Because of this union of a
+number of different sensible qualities in the notion of a single
+individual, the mind may limit its attention upon a particular quality,
+or characteristic, possessed by an object, and make this a distinct
+problem of attention. Thus the mind is able to form such notions as
+length, roundness, sweetness, heaviness, four-footedness, etc. When such
+an attribute is thought of as something distinct from the object, the
+mental image is especially known as an abstract idea, or notion, and the
+process as one of abstraction.
+
+=The Class Notion.=--One or more of such abstracted qualities may,
+moreover, be recognized as common to an indefinite number of objects.
+For instance, in addition to its ability to abstract from the perception
+of a dog, the abstract notions four-footedness, hairy, barking, etc.,
+the mind further gives them a general character by thinking of them as
+qualities common to an indefinite number of other possible individuals,
+namely, the class four-footed, hairy, barking objects. Because the idea
+representing the quality or qualities is here accepted by the mind as a
+means of identifying a number of objects, the idea is spoken of as a
+class notion, and the process as one of classification, or
+generalization. Thus it appears that, through its ability to detect
+sameness and difference, or discover relations, the mind is able to form
+two somewhat different notions. By mentally abstracting any quality and
+regarding it as something distinct from the object, it obtains an
+abstract notion, as sweetness, bravery, hardness, etc.; by synthesising
+and symbolizing the images of certain qualities recognized in objects,
+it obtains a general, or class, notion by which it may represent an
+indefinite number of individual things as, triangle, horse, desert, etc.
+Thus abstract notions are supposed to represent qualities; class
+notions, things. Because of its reference to a number of objects, the
+class notion is spoken of especially as a general notion, and the
+process of forming the notion as one of generalization. These two types
+of notions are technically known as concepts, and the process of their
+formation as one of conception.
+
+=Formal Analysis of Process.=--At this point may be recalled what was
+stated in Chapter XV concerning the development of a class notion.
+Mention was there made of the theory that in the formation of such
+concepts, or class notions, as cow, dog, desk, chair, adjective, etc.,
+the mind must proceed through certain set stages as follows:
+
+     1. Comparison: The examination of a certain number of particular
+     individuals in order to discover points of similarity and
+     difference.
+
+     2. Abstraction: The distinguishing of certain characteristics
+     common to the objects.
+
+     3. Generalization: The mental unification, or synthesis, of these
+     common characteristics noted in different individuals into a class
+     notion represented by a name, or general term.
+
+=But Conception is Involved in Perception.=--From what has been seen,
+however, it is evident that the development of our concepts does not
+proceed in any such formal way. If the mind perceives an individual
+object with any degree of clearness, it must recognize the object as
+possessing certain qualities. If, therefore, the child can perceive such
+an object as a dog, it implies that he recognizes it, say, as a hairy,
+four-footed creature. To recognize these qualities, however, signifies
+that the mind is able to think of them as something apart from the
+object, and the child thus has in a sense a general notion even while
+perceiving the particular dog. Whenever he passes to the perception of
+another dog, he undoubtedly interprets this with the general ideas
+already obtained from this earlier percept of a dog. To say, therefore,
+that to gain a concept he compares the qualities found in several
+individual things is not strictly true, for if his first percept becomes
+a type by which he interprets other dogs, his first experience is
+already a concept. What happens is that as this concept is used to
+interpret other individuals, the person becomes more conscious of the
+fact that his early experience is applicable to an indefinite number of
+objects. So also, when an adult first perceives an individual thing, say
+the fruit of the guava, he must apprehend certain qualities in relation
+to the individual thing. Thereupon his idea of this particular object
+becomes in itself a copy for identifying other objects, or a symbol by
+which similar future impressions may be given meaning. In this sense the
+individual idea, or percept, will serve to identify other particular
+experiences. Such being the case, this early concept of the guava has
+evidently required no abstraction of qualities beyond apprehending them
+while perceiving the one example of the fruit. This, however, is but to
+say that the perception of the guava really implied conception.
+
+=Comparison of Individuals Necessary for Correct Concepts.=--It is, of
+course, true that the correctness of the idea as a class symbol can be
+verified only as we apply it in interpreting a number of such individual
+things. As the person meets a further number of individuals, he may even
+discover the presence of qualities not previously recognized. A child,
+for instance, may have a notion of the class triangle long before he
+discovers that all triangles have the property of containing two right
+angles. When this happens, he will later modify his first concept by
+synthesising into it the newly discovered quality. Moreover, if certain
+features supposed to be common are later found to be accidental, if, for
+instance, a child's concept of the class fish includes the quality
+_always living in water_, his meeting with a flying fish will not result
+in an utterly new concept, but rather in a modification of the present
+one. Thus the young child, who on seeing the Chinese diplomat, wished to
+know where he had his laundry, was not without a class concept, although
+that concept was imperfect in at least one respect.
+
+=Concept and Term.=--A point often discussed in connection with
+conception is whether a general notion can be formed without language.
+By some it is argued that no concept could exist in the mind without the
+name, or general term. It was seen, however, that our first perception
+of any object becomes a sort of standard by which other similar
+experiences are intercepted, and is, therefore, general in character.
+From this it is evident that a rudimentary type of conception exists
+prior to language. In the case of the young child, as he gains a mental
+image of his father, the experience evidently serves as a centre for
+interpreting other similar individuals. We may notice that as soon as he
+gains control of language, other men are called by the term papa. This
+does not imply an actual confusion in identity, but his use of the term
+shows that the child interprets the new object through a crude concept
+denoted by the word papa. It is more than probable, moreover, that this
+crude concept developed as he became able to recognize his father, and
+had been used in interpreting other men before he obtained the term,
+papa. On the other hand, it is certain that the term, or class name, is
+necessary to give the notion a definite place in consciousness.
+
+
+FACTORS INVOLVED IN CONCEPT
+
+It will appear from the foregoing that a concept presents the following
+factors for consideration:
+
+1. The essential quality or qualities found in the individual things,
+and supposed to be abstracted sooner or later from the individuals.
+
+2. The concept itself, the mental image or idea representative of the
+abstracted quality; or the unification of a number of abstracted
+qualities, when the general notion implies a synthesis of different
+qualities.
+
+3. The general term, or name.
+
+4. The objects themselves, which the mind can organize into a class,
+because they are identified as possessing common characteristics. When,
+however, a single abstracted quality is taken as a symbol of a class of
+objects, for example, when the quality bitterness becomes the symbol for
+the class of bitter things, there can be no real distinction between the
+abstracted quality and the class concept. In other words, to fix
+attention upon the quality bitterness as a quality distinct from the
+object in which it is found, is at the same time to give it a general
+character, recognizing it as something which may be found in a number of
+objects--the class bitter things. Here the abstract term is in a sense
+a general notion representative of a whole class of objects which agree
+in the possession of the quality.
+
+=Intension of Concepts.=--Certain of our general notions are, however,
+much more complex than others. When a single attribute such as
+four-footedness is generalized to represent the class four-footed
+objects, the notion itself is relatively simple. In other words, a
+single property is representative of the objects, and in apprehending
+the members of the class all other properties they chance to possess may
+be left out of account. In many cases, however, the class notion will
+evidently be much more complex. The notion dog, for instance, in
+addition to implying the characteristic four-footedness, may include
+such qualities as hairy, barking, watchful, fearless, etc. This greater
+or less degree of complexity of a general notion is spoken of as its
+intensity. The notion dog, for instance, is more intensive than the
+notion four-footed animals; the notion lawyer, than the notion man.
+
+=Extension of Concepts.=--It is to be noted further that as a notion
+increases in intension it becomes limited to a smaller class of objects.
+From this standpoint, notions are said to differ in extension. The class
+lawyer, for instance, is not so extensive as the class man; nor the
+class dog, as the class four-footed objects. It will appear from the
+above that an abstract notion viewed as a sign of a class of objects is
+distinguished by its extension, while a class notion, so far as it
+implies a synthesis of several abstracted qualities, is marked rather by
+its intension.
+
+
+AIMS OF CONCEPTUAL LESSONS
+
+So far as school lessons aim to establish and develop correct class
+notions in the minds of the pupils, three somewhat distinct types of
+work may be noted:
+
+
+1. TO DEFINE CLASSES
+
+In some lessons no attempt is made to develop an utterly new class
+notion, or concept; the pupils in fact may already know the class of
+objects in a general way and be acquainted with many of their
+characteristics. The object of the lesson is, therefore, to render the
+concept more scientific by having it include the qualities which
+essentially mark it as a class and especially separate it from other
+co-ordinate classes. In studying the grasshopper; for instance, in
+entomology, the purpose is not to give the child a notion of the insect
+in the ordinary sense of the term. This the pupil may already have. The
+purpose is rather to enable him to decide just what general
+characteristics distinguish this from other insects. The lesson may,
+therefore, leave out of consideration features which are common to all
+grasshoppers, simply because they do not enter into a scientific
+differentiation of the class.
+
+
+2. TO ENLARGE A CONCEPT
+
+In many lessons the aim seems to be chiefly to enlarge certain concepts
+by adding to their intensiveness. The pupil, for instance, has a
+scientific concept of a triangle, that is, one which enables him to
+distinguish a triangle from any other geometrical figure. He may,
+however, be led to see further that the three angles of every triangle
+equal two right angles. This is really having him discover a further
+attribute in relation to triangles, although this knowledge is not
+essential to the concept as a symbol of the members of the class. In the
+same way, in grammar the pupil is taught certain attributes common to
+verbs, as mood and tense, although these are not essential attributes
+from the standpoint of distinguishing the verb as a special class of
+words.
+
+
+3. TO BUILD UP NEW CONCEPTS
+
+=A. Presentation of Unknown Individuals.=--In many lessons the chief
+object seems to be, however, to build up a new concept in the mind of
+the child. This would be the case when the pupil is presented with a
+totally unknown object, say a platypus, and called upon to examine its
+characteristics. In such lessons two important facts should be noticed.
+First, the child finds seemingly little difficulty in accepting a single
+individual as a type of a class, and is able to carry away from the
+lesson a fairly scientific class notion through a study of the one
+individual. In this regard the pupil but illustrates what has been said
+of the ability of the child to use his early percepts as standards to
+interpret other individuals. The pupil is able the more easily to form
+this accurate notion, because he no doubt has already a store of
+abstract notions with which to interpret the presentation, and also
+because his interest and attention is directed into the proper channels
+by the teacher.
+
+=B. Division of Known Classes.=--A second common mode of developing new
+concepts in school work is in breaking up larger classes into
+co-ordinate sub-classes. This, of course, involves the developing of new
+concepts to cover these sub-classes. In such cases, however, the new
+notions are merely modified forms of the higher class notion. When, for
+example, the pupil gains general notions representative of the classes,
+proper noun and common noun, the new terms merely add something to the
+intension of the more extensive term noun. This will be evident by
+considering the difference between the notions noun and proper noun.
+Both agree in possessing the attribute _used to name_. The latter is
+more intensive, however, because it signifies _used to name a particular
+object_. Although in such cases the lesson seems in a sense to develop
+new general notions, they represent merely an adding to the intension
+of a notion already possessed by the child.
+
+=Use of the Term.=--A further problem regarding the process of
+conception concerns the question of the significance of a name. When a
+person uses such a term as dog, whale, hepatica, guava, etc., to name a
+certain object, what is the exact sense, or meaning, in which the name
+is to be applied? A class name, when applied scientifically to an
+object, is evidently supposed to denote the presence in it of certain
+essential characteristics which belong to the class. It is clear,
+however, that the ordinary man rarely uses these names with any
+scientific precision. A man can point to an object and say that it is a
+horse, and yet be ignorant of many of the essential features of a horse.
+In such cases, therefore, the use of the name merely shows that the
+person considers the object to belong to a certain class, but is no
+guarantee that he is thinking of the essential qualities of the class.
+It might be said, therefore, that a class term is used for two somewhat
+different purposes, either to denote the object merely, or to signify
+scientifically the attributes possessed by the object. It is in the
+second respect that danger of error in reasoning arises. So far as a
+name represents the attributes of a class, it will signify for us just
+those attributes which we associate with that class. So long, therefore,
+as the word fish means to us an animal living in the water, we will
+include in the class the whale, which really does not belong to the
+class, and perhaps exclude from the class the flying fish, although it
+is scientifically a member of the class.
+
+
+THE DEFINITION
+
+It has been noted that, when man discovers common characteristics in a
+number of objects, he tends on this basis to unite such objects into a
+class. It is to be noted in addition, however, that in the same manner
+he is also able, by examining the characteristics of a large class of
+objects, to divide these into smaller sub-classes. Although, for
+example, we may place all three-sided figures into one class and call
+them triangles, we are further able to divide these into three
+sub-classes owing to certain differences that may be noted among them.
+Thus an important fact regarding classification is that while a class
+may possess some common quality or qualities, yet its members may be
+further divided into sub-classes and each of these smaller classes
+distinguished from the others by points of difference. Owing to this
+fact, there are two important elements entering into a scientific
+knowledge of any class, first, to know of what larger class it forms a
+part, and secondly, to know what characteristics distinguish it from the
+other classes which go with it to make up this larger class. To know the
+class equilateral triangle, for instance, we must know, first, that it
+belongs to the larger class triangle, and secondly, that it differs from
+other classes of triangles by having its three sides equal. For this
+reason a person is able to know a class scientifically without knowing
+all of its common characteristics. For instance, the large class of
+objects known as words is subdivided into smaller classes known as parts
+of speech. Taking one of these classes, the verb, we find that all verbs
+agree in possessing at least three common characteristics, they have
+power to assert, to denote manner, and to express time. To distinguish
+the verb, however, it is necessary to note only that it is a word used
+to assert, since this is the only characteristic which distinguishes it
+from the other classes of words. When, therefore, we describe any class
+of objects by first naming the larger class to which it belongs, and
+then stating the characteristics which distinguish it from the other
+co-ordinate classes, we are said to give a definition of the class, or
+to define it. The statement, "A trimeter is a verse of three measures,"
+is a definition because it gives, first, the larger class (verse) to
+which the trimeters belong, and secondly, the difference (of three
+measures) which distinguishes the trimeter from all other verses. The
+statement, "A binomial is an algebraic expression consisting of two
+terms," is a definition, because it gives, first, the larger class
+(algebraic expression) to which binomials belong, and secondly, the
+difference (consisting of two terms) which distinguishes binomials from
+other algebraic expressions.
+
+
+JUDGMENT
+
+=Nature of Judgment.=--A second form, or mode, of thinking is known as
+judgment. Our different concepts were seen to vary in their intension,
+or meaning, according to the number of attributes suggested by each. My
+notion _triangle_ may denote the attributes three-sided and
+three-angled; my notion _isosceles triangle_ will in that case include
+at least these two qualities plus equality of two of the sides. This
+indicates that various relations exist between our ideas and may be
+apprehended by the mind. When a relation between two concepts is
+distinctly apprehended in thought, or, in other words, when there is a
+mental assertion of a union between two ideas, or objects of thought,
+the process is known as _judgment_. Judgment may be defined, therefore,
+as the apprehension, or mental affirmation, of a relation between two
+ideas. If the idea, or concept, _heaviness_ enters as a mental element
+into my idea _stone_, then the mind is able to affirm a relation between
+these concepts in the form, "Stone is heavy." In like manner when the
+mind asserts, "Glass is transparent" or "Horses are animals," there is
+a distinct apprehension of a relation between the concepts involved.
+
+=Judgment Distinguished from Statement.=--It should be noted that
+judgment is the mental apprehension of a relation between ideas. When
+this relation is expressed in actual words, it is spoken of as a
+proposition, or a predication. A proposition is, therefore, the
+statement of a judgment. The proposition is composed of two terms and
+the copula, one term constituting the subject of the proposition and the
+other the predicate. Although a judgment may often be expressed in some
+other form, it can usually be converted into the above form. The
+proposition, "Horses eat oats," may be expressed in the form, "Horses
+are oat-eaters"; the proposition, "The sun melts the snow," into the
+form, "The sun is a-thing-which-melts-snow."
+
+=Relation of Judgment to Conception.=--It would appear from the above
+examples that a judgment expresses in an explicit form the relations
+involved within the concept, and is, therefore, merely a direct way of
+indicating the state of development of any idea. If my concept of a dog,
+for example, is a synthesis of the qualities four-footed, hairy, fierce,
+and barking, then an analysis of the concept will furnish the following
+judgments:
+
+            { A four-footed thing.
+            { A hairy thing.
+A dog is    { A fierce thing.
+            { A barking thing.
+
+Because in these cases a concept seems necessary for an act of judgment,
+it is said that judgment is a more advanced form of thinking than
+conception. On the other hand, however, judgment is implied in the
+formation of a concept. When the child apprehends the dog as a
+four-footed object, his mind has grasped four-footedness as a quality
+pertaining to the strange object, and has, in a sense, brought the two
+ideas into relation. But while judgment is implied in the formation of
+the concept, the concept does not bring explicitly to the mind the
+judgments it implies. The concept snow, for instance, implies the
+property of whiteness, but whiteness must be apprehended as a distinct
+idea and related mentally with the idea snow before we can be said to
+have formed, or thought, the judgment, "Snow is white." Judgment is a
+form of thinking separate from conception, therefore, because it does
+thus bring into definite relief relations only implied in our general
+notions, or concepts. One value of judgment is, in fact, that it enables
+us to analyse our concepts, and thus note more explicitly the relations
+included in them.
+
+=Universal and Particular Judgments.=--Judgments are found to differ
+also as to the universality of their affirmation. In such a judgment as
+"Man is mortal," since mortality is viewed as a quality always joined to
+manhood, the affirmation is accepted as a universal judgment. In such a
+judgment as "Men strive to subdue the air," the two objects of thought
+are not considered as always and necessarily joined together. The
+judgment is therefore particular in character. All of our laws of
+nature, as "Air has weight," "Pressure on liquids is transmitted in
+every direction," or "Heat is conducted by metals," are accepted as
+universal judgments.
+
+=Errors in Judgment due to: A. Faulty Concepts.=--It may be seen from
+the foregoing that our judgments, when explicitly grasped by the mind
+and predicated in language, reflect the accuracy or inaccuracy of our
+concepts. Whatever relations are, as it were, wrapped up in a concept
+may merge at any time in the form of explicit judgments. If the fact
+that the only Chinamen seen by a child are engaged in laundry work
+causes this attribute to enter into his concept Chinaman, this will lead
+him to affirm that the restaurant keeper, Wan Lee, is a laundry-man. The
+republican who finds two or three cases of corruption among democrats,
+may conceive corruption as a quality common to democrats and affirm that
+honest John Smith is corrupt. Faulty concepts, therefore, are very
+likely to lead to faulty judgments. A first duty in education is
+evidently to see that children are forming correct class concepts. For
+this it must be seen that they always distinguish the essential features
+of the class of objects they are studying. They must learn, also, not to
+conclude on account of superficial likeness that really unlike objects
+belong to the same class. The child, for instance, in parsing the
+sentence, "The swing broke down," must be taught to look for essential
+characteristics, and not call the word _swing_ a gerund because it ends
+in "ing"; which, though a common characteristic of gerunds, does not
+differentiate it from other classes of words. So, also, when the young
+nature student notes that the head of the spider is somewhat separated
+from the abdomen, he must not falsely conclude that the spider belongs
+to the class insects. In like manner, the pupil must not imagine, on
+account of superficial differences, that objects really the same belong
+to different classes, as for example, that a certain object is not a
+fish, but a bird, because it is flying through the air; or that a whale
+is a fish and not an animal, because it lives in water. The pupil must
+also learn to distinguish carefully between the particular and universal
+judgment. To affirm that "Men strive to subdue the air," does not imply
+that "John Smith strives to subdue the air." The importance of this
+distinction will be considered more fully in our next section.
+
+=B. Feeling.=--Faulty concepts are not, however, the only causes for
+wrong judgments. It has been noted already that feeling enters largely
+as a factor in our conscious life. Man, therefore, in forming his
+judgments, is always in danger of being swayed by his feelings. Our
+likes and dislikes, in other words, interfere with our thinking, and
+prevent us from analysing our knowledge as we should. Instead,
+therefore, of striving to develop true concepts concerning men and
+events and basing our judgments upon these, we are inclined in many
+cases to allow our judgments to be swayed by mere feeling.
+
+=C. Laziness.=--Indifference is likewise a common source of faulty
+judgments. To attend to the concept and discover its intension as a
+means for correct judgment evidently demands mental effort. Many people,
+however, prefer either to jump at conclusions or let others do their
+judging for them.
+
+=Sound Judgments Based on Scientific Concepts.=--To be able to form
+correct judgments regarding the members of any class, however, the child
+should know, not only its common characteristics, but also the essential
+features which distinguish its members from those of co-ordinate
+classes. To know adequately the equilateral triangle, for instance, the
+pupil must know both the features which distinguish it from other
+triangles and also those in which it agrees with all triangles. To know
+fully the mentha family of plants, he must know both the characteristic
+qualities of the family and also those of the larger genus labiatae.
+From this it will be seen that a large share of school work must be
+devoted to building up scientific class notions in the minds of the
+pupils. Without this, many of their judgments must necessarily be
+faulty. To form such scientific concepts, however, it is necessary to
+relate one concept with another in more indirect ways than is done
+through the formation of judgments. This brings us to a consideration of
+_reasoning_, the third and last form of thinking.
+
+
+REASONING
+
+=Nature of Reasoning.=--Reasoning is defined as a mental process in
+which the mind arrives at a new judgment by comparing other judgments.
+The mind, for instance, is in possession of the two judgments, "Stones
+are heavy" and "Flint is a stone." By bringing these two judgments under
+the eye of attention and comparing them, the mind is able to arrive at
+the new judgment, "Flint is heavy." Here the new judgment, expressing a
+relation between the notions, _flint_ and _heavy_, is supposed to be
+arrived at, neither by direct experience, nor by an immediate analysis
+of the concept _flint_, but more indirectly by comparing the other
+judgments. The judgment, or conclusion, is said, therefore, to be
+arrived at mediately, or by a process of reasoning. Reasoning is of two
+forms, deductive, or syllogistic, reasoning, and inductive reasoning.
+
+
+DEDUCTION
+
+=Nature of Deduction.=--In deduction the mind is said to start with a
+general truth, or judgment, and by a process of reasoning to arrive at a
+more particular truth, or judgment, thus:
+
+    Stone is heavy;
+    Flint is a stone;
+.'. Flint is heavy.
+
+Expressed in this form, the reasoning process, as already mentioned, is
+known as a syllogism. The whole syllogism is made up of three parts,
+major premise, minor premise, and conclusion. The three concepts
+involved in the syllogism are known as the major, the minor, and the
+middle term. In the above syllogism, _heavy_, the predicate of the major
+premise, is the major term; _flint_, the subject of the minor premise,
+is the minor term; and _stone_, to which the other two are related in
+the premises, is known as the middle term. Because of this previous
+comparison of the major and the minor terms with the middle term,
+deduction is sometimes said to be a process by which the mind discovers
+a relation between two concepts by comparing them each with a third
+concept.
+
+=Purpose of Deduction.=--It is to be noted, however, as pointed out in
+Chapter XV, that deductive reasoning takes place normally only when the
+mind is faced with a difficulty which demands solution. Take the case of
+the boy and his lost coin referred to in Chapter II. As he faces the
+problem, different methods of solution may present themselves. It may
+enter his mind, for instance, to tear up the grate, but this is rejected
+on account of possible damage to the brickwork. Finally he thinks of the
+tar and resorts to this method of recovery. In both of the above cases
+the boy based his conclusions upon known principles. As he considered
+the question of tearing up the grate, the thought came to his mind,
+"Lifting-a-grate is a-thing-which-may-cause-damage." As he considered
+the use of the tar, he had in mind the judgment, "Adhesion is a property
+of tar," and at once inferred that tar would solve his problem. In such
+practical cases, however, the mind seems to go directly from the problem
+in hand to a conclusion by means of a general principle. When a woman
+wishes to remove a stain, she at once says, "Gasoline will remove it."
+Here the mind, in arriving at its conclusion, seems to apply the
+principle, "Gasoline removes spots," directly to the particular
+problem. Thus the reasoning might seem to run as follows:
+
+    Problem: What will remove this stain?
+    Principle: Gasoline will remove stains.
+    Conclusion: Gasoline will remove this stain.
+
+Here the middle term of the syllogism seems to disappear. It is to be
+noted, however, that our thought changes from the universal idea
+"stains," mentioned in the statement of the principle, to the particular
+idea "this stain" mentioned in the problem and in the conclusion. But
+this implies a middle term, which could be expressed thus:
+
+    Gasoline will remove stains;
+    This is a stain;
+.'. Gasoline will remove _this_.
+
+The syllogism is valuable, therefore, because it displays fully and
+clearly each element in the reasoning process, and thus assures the
+validity of the conclusion.
+
+=Deduction in School Recitation.=--It will be recalled from what was
+noted in our study of general method, that deduction usually plays an
+important part during an ordinary developing lesson. In the step of
+preparation, when the pupil is given a particular example in order to
+recall old knowledge, the example suggests a problem which is intended
+to call up certain principles which are designed to be used during the
+presentation. In a lesson on the "Conjunctive Pronoun," for instance, if
+we have the pupil recall his knowledge of the conjunction by examining
+the particular word "if" in such a sentence as, "I shall go if they
+come," he interprets the word as a conjunction simply because he
+possesses a general rule applicable to it, or is able to go through a
+process of deduction. In the presentation also, when the pupil is called
+on to examine the word _who_ in such a sentence as, "The man who met us
+is very old," and decides that it is both a conjunction and a pronoun,
+he is again making deductions, since it is by his general knowledge of
+conjunctions and pronouns that he is able to interpret the two functions
+of the particular word _who_. Finally, as already noted, the application
+of an ordinary recitation frequently involves deductive processes.
+
+
+INDUCTION
+
+=Nature of Induction.=--Induction is described as a process of reasoning
+in which the mind arrives at a conclusion by an examination of
+particular cases, or judgments. A further distinguishing feature of the
+inductive process is that, while the known judgments are particular in
+character, the conclusion is accepted as a general law, or truth. As in
+deduction, the reasoning process arises on account of some difficulty,
+or problem, presented to the mind, as for example:
+
+    What is the effect of heat upon air?
+    Will glass conduct electricity?
+    Why do certain bodies refract light?
+
+To satisfy itself upon the problem, the mind appeals to actual
+experience either by ordinary observation or through experimentation.
+These observations or experiments, which necessarily deal with
+particular instances, are supposed to provide a number of particular
+judgments, by examining which a satisfactory conclusion is ultimately
+reached.
+
+=Example of Induction.=--As an example of induction, may be taken the
+solution of such a problem as, "Does air exert pressure?" To meet this
+hypothesis we must evidently do more than merely abstract the manifest
+properties of an object, as is done in ordinary conception, or appeal
+directly to some known general principle, as is done in deduction. The
+work of induction demands rather to examine the two at present known but
+disconnected things, _air_ and _pressure_, and by scientific observation
+seek to discover a relation between them. For this purpose the
+investigator may place a card over a glass filled with water, and on
+inverting it find that the card is held to the glass. Taking a glass
+tube and putting one end in water, he may place his finger over the
+other end and, on raising the tube, find that water remains in the tube.
+Soaking a heavy piece of leather in water and pressing it upon the
+smooth surface of a stone or other object, he finds the stone can be
+lifted by means of the leather. Reflecting upon each of these
+circumstances the mind comes to the following conclusions:
+
+    Air pressure holds this card to the glass,
+    Air pressure keeps the water in the tube,
+    Air pressure holds together the leather and the stone,
+.'. Air exerts pressure.
+
+=How Distinguished from, A. Deduction, and B. Conception.=--Such a
+process as the above constitutes a process of reasoning, first, because
+the conclusion gives a new affirmation, or judgment, "Air exerts
+pressure," and secondly, because the judgment is supposed to be arrived
+at by comparing other judgments. As a process of reasoning, however, it
+differs from deduction in that the final judgment is a general judgment,
+or truth, which seems to be based upon a number of particular judgments
+obtained from actual experience, while in deduction the conclusion was
+particular and the major premise general. It is for this reason that
+induction is defined as a process of going from the particular to the
+general. Moreover, since induction leads to the formation of a universal
+judgment, or general truth, it differs from the generalizing process
+known as conception, which leads to the formation of a concept, or
+general idea. It is evident, however, that the process will enrich the
+concept involved in the new judgment. When the mind is able to affirm
+that air exerts pressure, the property, exerting-pressure, is at once
+synthesised into the notion air. This point will again be referred to in
+comparing induction and conception as generalizing processes.
+
+In speaking of induction as a process of going from the particular to
+the general, this does not signify that the process deals with
+individual notions. The particulars in an inductive process are
+particular cases giving rise to particular judgments, and judgments
+involve concepts, or general ideas. When, in the inductive process, it
+is asserted that air holds the card to the glass, the mind is seeking to
+establish a relation between the notions air and pressure, and is,
+therefore, thinking in concepts. For this reason, it is usually said
+that induction takes for granted ordinary relations as involved in our
+everyday concepts, and concerns itself only with the more hidden
+relations of things. The significance of induction as a process of going
+from the particular to the general, therefore, consists in the fact that
+the conclusion is held to be a wider judgment than is contained in any
+of the premises.
+
+=Particular Truth Implies the General.=--Describing the premises of an
+inductive process as particular truths, and the conclusion as a
+universal truth, however, involves the same fiction as was noted in
+separating the percept and the concept into two distinct types of
+notions. In the first place, my particular judgment, that air presses
+the card against the glass, is itself a deduction resting upon other
+general principles. Secondly, if the judgment that air presses the card
+against the glass contains no element of universal truth, then a
+thousand such judgments could give no universal truth. Moreover, if the
+mind approaches a process of induction with a problem, or hypothesis,
+before it, the general truth is already apprehended hypothetically in
+thought even before the particular instances are examined. When we set
+out, for instance, to investigate whether the line joining the bisecting
+points of the sides of a triangle is parallel with the base, we have
+accepted hypothetically the general principle that such lines are
+parallel with the base. The fact is, therefore, that when the mind
+examines the particular case and finds it to agree with the hypothesis,
+so far as it accepts this case as a truth, it also accepts it as a
+universal truth. Although, therefore, induction may involve going from
+one particular experiment or observation to another, it is in a sense a
+process of going from the general to the general.
+
+That accepting the truth of a particular judgment may imply a universal
+judgment is very evident in the case of geometrical demonstrations. When
+it is shown, for instance, that in the case of the particular isosceles
+triangle ABC, the angles at the base are equal, the mind does not
+require to examine other particular triangles for verification, but at
+once asserts that in every isosceles triangle the angles at the base are
+equal.
+
+=Induction and Conception Interrelated.=--Although as a process,
+induction is to be distinguished from conception, it either leads to an
+enriching of some concept, or may in fact be the only means by which
+certain scientific concepts are formed. While the images obtained by
+ordinary sense perception will enable a child to gain a notion of water,
+to add to the notion the property, boiling-at-a-certain-temperature, or
+able-to-be-converted-into-two-parts-hydrogen-and-one-part-oxygen, will
+demand a process of induction. The development of such scientific
+notions as oxide, equation, predicate adjective, etc., is also dependent
+upon a regular inductive process. For this reason many lessons may be
+viewed both as conceptual and as inductive lessons. To teach the adverb
+implies a conceptual process, because the child must synthesise certain
+attributes into his notion adverb. It is also an inductive lesson,
+because these attributes being formulated as definite judgments are,
+therefore, obtained inductively. The double character of such a lesson
+is fully indicated by the two results obtained. The lesson ends with the
+acquisition of a new term, adverb, which represents the result of the
+conceptual process. It also ends with the definition: "An adverb is a
+word which modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb," which indicates
+the general truth or truths resulting from the inductive process.
+
+=Deduction and Induction Interrelated.=--In our actual teaching
+processes there is a very close inter-relation between the two processes
+of reasoning. We have already noted on page 322 that, in such inductive
+lessons as teaching the definition of a noun or the rule for the
+addition of fractions, both the preparatory step and the application
+involve deduction. It is to be noted further, however, that even in the
+development of an inductive lesson there is a continual interplay
+between induction and deduction. This will be readily seen in the case
+of a pupil seeking to discover the rule for determining the number of
+repeaters in the addition of recurring decimals. When he notes that
+adding three numbers with one, one, and two repeaters respectively,
+gives him two repeaters in his answer, he is more than likely to infer
+that the rule is to have in the answer the highest number found among
+the addenda. So far as he makes this inference, he undoubtedly will
+apply it in interpreting the next problem, and if the next numbers have
+one, one, and three repeaters respectively, he will likely be quite
+convinced that his former inference is correct. When, however, he meets
+a question with one, two, and three repeaters respectively, he finds his
+former inference is incorrect, and may, thereupon, draw a new inference,
+which he will now proceed to apply to further examples. The general fact
+to be noted here, however, is that, so far as the mind during the
+examination of the particular examples reaches any conclusion in an
+inductive lesson, it evidently applies this conclusion to some degree in
+the study of the further examples, or thinks deductively, even during
+the inductive process.
+
+=Development of Reasoning Power.=--Since reasoning is essentially a
+purposive form of thinking, it is evident that any reasoning process
+will depend largely upon the presence of some problem which shall
+stimulate the mind to seek out relations necessary to its solution.
+Power to reason, therefore, is conditioned by the ability to attend
+voluntarily to the problem and discover the necessary relations. It is
+further evident that the accuracy of any reasoning process must be
+dependent upon the accuracy of the judgments upon which the conclusions
+are based. But these judgments in turn depend for their accuracy upon
+the accuracy of the concepts involved. Correct reasoning, therefore,
+must depend largely upon the accuracy of our concepts, or, in other
+words, upon the old knowledge at our command. On the other hand,
+however, it has been seen that both deductive and inductive reasoning
+follow to some degree a systematic form. For this reason it may be
+assumed that the practice of these forms should have some effect in
+giving control of the processes. The child, for instance, who habituates
+himself to such thought processes as AB equals BC, and AC equals BC,
+therefore AB equals AC, no doubt becomes able thereby to grasp such
+relations more easily. Granting so much, however, it is still evident
+that close attention to, and accurate knowledge of, the various terms
+involved in the reasoning process is the sure foundation of correct
+reasoning.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+FEELING
+
+
+=Sensuous and Ideal Feeling.=--We have noted (Chapter XXIV), that in
+addition to the general feeling tone accompanying an act of attention,
+and already described as a feeling of interest, there are two important
+classes of feeling known respectively as sensuous and ideal feeling.
+When a person says: "I feel tired" or "I feel hungry," he is referring
+to the feeling side of certain organic sensations. When he says: "The
+air feels cold" or "The paper feels smooth," he is referring to the
+feeling side of temperature and touch sensations. These are, therefore,
+examples of sensuous feeling. On the other hand, to say "I feel angry"
+or "I feel afraid," is to refer to a feeling state which accompanies
+perhaps the perception of some object, the recollection or anticipation
+of some act, or the inference that something is sure to happen, etc.
+These latter states are therefore known as ideal feelings.
+
+=Quality of Feeling States.=--The qualities of our various feeling
+states are distinguished under two heads, pleasure and pain. It might
+seem at first sight that our feeling states will fall into a much larger
+number of classes distinguished by differences in quality, or tone. The
+taste of an orange, the smell of lavender, the touch of a hot stove, the
+appreciation of a fine piece of music, and the appreciation of a lofty
+poem, seem at first sight to yield different feelings. The supposed
+difference in the quality of the feelings is due, however, to a
+difference in the knowledge elements accompanying the feelings, or to
+the fact that they are discriminated as different experiences. The idea
+of the music or the poem is of a higher grade than the sensory image of
+taste, and accordingly the feelings _appear_ to be different. The
+feelings may, of course, differ in intensity, but in _quality_ they are
+either pleasant or unpleasant.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF FEELING TONE
+
+=A. Neural.=--The quality, or tone, of a feeling will vary according to
+the intensity of the impression. Great heat stimulates the nerves
+violently and the resultant feeling state is painful; warmth gives a
+moderate stimulation and the resultant tone is pleasant. Excessive cold
+also, because it stimulates violently, produces a painful feeling. Since
+the intensity of a stimulus varies according to the resistance
+encountered in the nervous arc, the quality of a feeling state must,
+therefore, vary according to the resistance. It is for this reason that
+an experience, at first very painful, may lose much of its tone by
+repetition. By repetition the nerve centres are adapted to the
+experience, resistance is lessened, and the accompanying pain
+diminished. In this way, some work or exercise, which is at first
+positively unpleasant, may at least become endurable as the organism
+becomes adapted to the occupation. From this point of view, it is
+sometimes said that any impressions to which we are perfectly adapted
+give pleasurable feelings, while, in other cases the resultant tone will
+be painful.
+
+=B. Mental.=--The law of perfect adaptation also explains why ideal
+feelings may at one time result in a pleasant, and at another time in a
+painful, feeling tone. According to the principle of apperception, the
+new experience must organize itself with whatever thoughts and feelings
+are now occupying consciousness. It necessarily happens that a given
+experience does not always equally harmonize with our present thoughts
+and feelings. The recognition of a friend under ordinary circumstances
+is agreeable, but amid certain associations or in a certain environment,
+such recognition would be disagreeable. So, too, while an original
+experience may have been agreeable, the memory of it may now be
+disagreeable; and vice versa. For instance, the memory of a former
+success or prosperity may, in the midst of present failure and poverty,
+be disagreeable; while the recollection of former failure and defeat may
+now, in the midst of success and prosperity, be agreeable. What is it
+that makes a sensation, a perception, a memory, or an apprehended
+relation pleasant under some circumstances and unpleasant under others?
+The rule appears to be that when the experience harmonizes with our
+present train of thought, when it promotes our present interests and
+intentions, it is pleasant; but when, on the other hand, it does not
+harmonize with our train of thought or thwarts or impedes our interests
+and purposes, it is unpleasant.
+
+=Function of Pleasure and Pain.=--From what has been noted concerning
+co-ordination between the adaptation of the organism to impression and
+the quality of the accompanying feeling, it is evident that pleasure and
+pain each have their part to play in promoting the ultimate good of the
+individual. Pain is beneficial, because it lets us know that there is
+some misadjustment to our environment, and thereby warns us to remove or
+cease doing what is proving injurious. In this connection, it may be
+noted that no disease is so dangerous as one that fails to make its
+presence known through pain. Pleasure also is valuable in so far as it
+results from perfect adaptation to a perfect environment, since it
+induces the individual to continue beneficial acts. It must be
+remembered, however, that so far as heredity or education has adapted
+our organism to improper stimuli, pleasure is no proof that the good of
+the organism is being advanced. In such cases, redemption can come to
+the fallen world only through suffering.
+
+=Feeling and Knowing.=--Since the intensity of a feeling state is
+conditioned by the amount of resistance, an intense state of feeling is
+likely to be accompanied by a lowering of intellectual activity. For
+this reason excessive hunger, heat or cold, intense joy, anger or
+sorrow, are usually antagonistic to intellectual work. The explanation
+for this seems to be that so much of our nervous energy is consumed in
+overcoming the resistance in the centres affected, that little is left
+for ordinary intellectual processes. This does not, of course, imply
+that no one can do intellectual work under such conditions; nor that the
+intellectual man is always devoid of strong feelings, although such is
+often the case. Occasionally, however, a man is so strongly endowed with
+nervous energy, that even after overcoming the resistance being
+encountered, he still has a residue of energy to devote to ordinary
+intellectual processes.
+
+=Feeling and Will.=--Although, as pointed out in the last paragraph,
+there is a certain antagonism between knowing and feeling, it has also
+been seen that every experience has its knowing as well as its feeling
+side. Because of this co-ordination, the qualities of our feeling states
+become known to us, or are able to be distinguished by the mind. As a
+result of this recognition of a difference in our feeling states, we
+learn to seek states of pleasure and to avoid states of pain or, in
+other words, our mere states of feeling become desires. This means that
+we become able to contrast a present feeling with other remembered
+states, and seek either to continue the present desired state or to
+substitute another for the present undesirable feeling. In the form of
+desire, therefore, our feelings become strong motives, which may
+influence the will to certain lines of action.
+
+
+SENSUOUS FEELINGS
+
+While the sensations of the special senses, namely, sight, sound, touch,
+taste, and smell, have each their affective, or feeling, side, a minute
+study of these feelings is not necessary for our present purpose. It may
+be noted, however, that in the more intellectual senses, namely, sight,
+hearing, and touch, feeling tone is less marked, although strong feeling
+may accompany certain tactile sensations. In the lower senses of taste
+and smell, the feeling tone is more pronounced. Under muscular sensation
+we meet such marked feeling tones as fatigue, exertion, and strain,
+while associated with the organic sensations are such feelings as hunger
+and thirst, and the various pains which usually accompany derangement
+and disease of the bodily organs. Some of these feelings are important,
+because they are likely to influence the will by developing into desires
+in the form of appetites. Many sensuous feelings are important also
+because they especially warn the mind regarding the condition of the
+organism.
+
+
+EMOTION
+
+=Nature of Emotion.=--An emotion differs from sensuous feeling, not in
+its content, but in its higher intensity, its greater complexity, and
+its more elaborate motor response. It may be defined as a succession of
+interconnected feelings with a more complex physical expression than a
+simple feeling. On reading an account of a battle, one may feel sad and
+express this sadness only in a gloomy appearance of the face. But if
+one finds that in this battle a friend has been killed, the feeling is
+much intensified and may become an emotion of grief, expressing itself
+in some complex way, perhaps in tears, in sobbing, in wringing the
+hands. Similarly, a feeling of slight irritation expressed in a frowning
+face, if intensified, becomes the emotion of anger, expressed in tense
+muscles, rapidly beating heart, laboured breathing, perhaps a torrent of
+words or a hasty blow.
+
+=Emotion and Instinct.=--Feeling and instinct are closely related. Every
+instinct has its affective phase, that is, its satisfaction always
+involves an element of pleasure or pain. The satisfaction of the
+instincts of curiosity or physical activity illustrates this fact. On
+the other hand, every emotion has its characteristic instinctive
+response. Fear expresses itself in all persons alike in certain
+characteristic ways inherited from a remote ancestry; anger expresses
+itself in other instinctive reactions; grief in still others.
+
+
+CONDITIONS OF EMOTION
+
+An analysis of a typical emotion will serve to show the conditions under
+which it makes its appearance. Let us take first the emotion of fear.
+Suppose a person is walking alone on a dark night along a deserted
+street. His nervous currents are discharging themselves uninterruptedly
+over their wonted channels, his current of thought is unimpeded.
+Suddenly there appears a strange and frightful object in his pathway.
+His train of thought is violently checked. His nervous currents, which a
+moment ago were passing out smoothly and without undue resistance into
+muscles of legs, arms, body, and face, are now suddenly obstructed, or
+in other words encounter violent resistance. He stands still. His heart
+momentarily stops beating. A temporary paralysis seizes him. As the
+nervous currents thus encounter resistance, the feeling tone known as
+fear is experienced. At the same time the currents burst their barriers
+and overflow into new channels that are easy of access, the motor
+centres being especially of this character. Some of the currents,
+therefore, run to the involuntary muscles, and in consequence the heart
+beats faster, the breathing becomes heavier, the face grows pale, a cold
+sweat breaks forth, the hair "stands on end." Other currents, through
+hereditary influences, pass to the voluntary muscles, and the person
+shrieks, and turns and flees.
+
+Or take the emotion of anger. Some fine morning in school everything is
+in good order, everybody is industriously at work, the lessons are
+proceeding satisfactorily. The current of the teacher's experience is
+flowing smoothly and unobstructedly. Presently a troublesome boy, who
+has been repeatedly reproved for misconduct, again shows symptoms of
+idleness and misbehaviour. The smooth current of experience being
+checked, here also both a new feeling tone is experienced and the wonted
+nerve currents flow out into other brain centres. The teacher stops his
+work and gazes fixedly at the offending pupil. His heart beats rapidly,
+the blood surges to his face, his breathing becomes heavy, his muscles
+grow tense. In these reactions we have the nervous currents passing out
+over involuntary channels. Then, perhaps, the teacher unfortunately
+breaks forth into a torrent of words or lays violent hands upon the
+offender. Here the nervous currents are passing outward over the
+voluntary system.
+
+These illustrations indicate that three important conditions are present
+at the appearance of the emotion, namely, (1) the presence of an
+unusual object in consciousness, (2) the consequent disturbance of the
+smooth flow of experience or, in physiological terms, the temporary
+obstruction of the ordinary pathways of nervous discharge through the
+great resistance encountered, and (3) the new feeling state with its
+concomitant overflow of the impulses into new motor channels, some of
+which lead to the involuntary muscles and others to the voluntary. The
+emotion proper consists in the feeling state which arises as a result of
+the resistance encountered by the nervous impulses as the smooth flow of
+experience is checked. The idea that I shall die some day arouses no
+emotion in me, because it in no way affects my ordinary thought
+processes, and therefore it in no way disturbs my nervous equilibrium.
+The perception of a wild animal about to kill me, because it suddenly
+thwarts and impedes the smooth flow of my experience through a
+suggestion of danger, produces an intense feeling and a diffused and
+intense derangement of the nervous equilibrium.
+
+=Development of Emotions.=--The question of paramount importance
+in connection with emotion is how to arouse and develop desirable
+emotions. The close connection of the three phases of the mind's
+manifestation--knowing, feeling, and willing, gives the key to the
+question. Feeling cannot be developed alone apart from knowing and
+willing. In fact, if we attend carefully to the knowing and willing
+activities, the feelings, in one sense, take care of themselves. Two
+principles, therefore, lie at the basis of proper emotional development:
+
+1. The mind must be allowed to dwell upon only those ideas to which
+worthy emotions are attached. We must refuse to think those thoughts
+that are tinged with unworthy feelings. The Apostle Paul has expressed
+this very eloquently when he says in his Epistle to the Philippians:
+"Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are
+honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure,
+whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report; if
+there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things."
+
+2. The teacher's main duty in the above regard is to provide the pupil
+with a rich fund of ideas to which desirable feelings cling. An
+impressive manner, an enthusiastic attitude toward subjects of study, an
+evident interest in them, and apparent appreciation of them, will also
+aid much in inspiring pupils with proper feelings, for feelings are
+often contagious in the absence of very definite ideas. How often have
+we been deeply moved by hearing a poem impressively read even though we
+have very imperfectly grasped its meaning. The feelings of the reader
+have been communicated to us through the principle of contagion.
+Similarly, in history, art, and nature study, emotions may be stirred,
+not only through the medium of the ideas presented, but also by the
+impressiveness, the enthusiasm, and the interest exhibited by the
+teacher in presenting them.
+
+3. We must give expression to these emotions we wish to develop.
+Expression means the probability of the recurrence of the emotion, and
+gradually an emotional habit is formed. An unselfish disposition is
+cultivated by performing little acts of kindness and self-denial
+whenever the opportunity offers. The expression of a desirable emotion,
+moreover, should not stop merely with an experience of the organic
+sensations or the reflex reactions accompanying the emotion. To listen
+to a sermon and react only by an emotional thrill, a quickened heart
+beat, or a few tears, is a very ineffective kind of expression. The
+only kind of emotional expression that is of much consequence either to
+ourselves or others is conduct. Only in so far as our emotional
+experiences issue in action that is beneficial to those about us, are
+they of any practical value.
+
+=Elimination of Emotions.=--Since certain of our emotions, such as anger
+and fear, are, in general, undesirable states of feeling, a question
+arises how such emotions may be prevented. It is sometimes said that, if
+we can inhibit the expression, the emotion will disappear, that is, if I
+can prevent the trembling, I will cease to be afraid. From what has just
+been learned, however, the emotion and its expression being really
+concomitant results of the antecedent obstruction of ordinary nervous
+discharges, emotion cannot be checked by checking the expression, but
+both will be checked if the nervous impulses can be made to continue in
+their wonted courses in spite of the disturbing presentations. The real
+secret of emotional control lies, therefore, in the power of voluntary
+attention. The effect of attention is to cause the nervous energy to be
+directed without undue resistance into its wonted channels, this, in
+turn, preventing its overflow into new channels. By thus directing the
+energy into wonted and open channels, attention prevents both the
+movements and the feeling that are concomitants of a disturbance of
+nervous equilibrium. By meeting the attack of the dog in a purposeful
+and attentive manner, we cause the otherwise damming-up nervous energy
+to continue flowing into ordinary channels, and in this way prevent both
+the feeling of fear and also the flow of the energy into the motor
+centres associated with the particular emotion. But while it is not
+scientifically correct in a particular case to say that we may inhibit
+the feeling by inhibiting the movements, it is of course true that, by
+avoiding a present emotional outburst, we are less likely in the future
+to respond to situations which tend to arouse the emotional state. On
+the other hand, to give way frequently to any emotional state will make
+it more difficult to avoid yielding to the emotion under similar
+conditions.
+
+
+OTHER TYPES OF FEELING
+
+=Mood.=--Our feelings and emotions become organized and developed in
+various ways. The sum total of all the feeling tones of our sensory and
+ideational processes at any particular time gives us our _mood_ at that
+time. If, for instance, our organic sensations are prevailingly
+pleasant, if the ideas we dwell upon are tinged with agreeable feeling,
+our mood is cheerful. We can to a large extent control our current of
+thought, and can as we will, except in case of serious bodily
+disturbances, attend, or not attend, to our organic sensations.
+Consequently we are ourselves largely responsible for the moods we
+indulge.
+
+=Disposition.=--A particular kind of mood frequently indulged in
+produces a type of emotional habit, our _disposition_. For instance, the
+teacher who permits the occurrences of the class-room to trouble him
+unnecessarily, and who broods over these afterwards, soon develops a
+worrying disposition. As we have it in our power to determine what
+habits, emotional and otherwise, we form, we alone are responsible for
+the dispositions we cultivate.
+
+=Temperament.=--Some of us are provided with nervous systems that are
+predisposed to particular moods. This predisposition, together with
+frequent indulgence in particular types of mood, gives us our
+_temperament_. The responsibility for this we share with our ancestors,
+but, even though predisposed through heredity to unfortunate moods, we
+can ourselves decide whether we shall give way to them. Temperaments
+have been classified as _sanguine_, _melancholic_, _choleric_, and
+_phlegmatic_. The sanguine type is inclined to look on the bright side
+of things, to be optimistic; the melancholic tends to moodiness and
+gloom; the choleric is easily irritated, quick to anger; the phlegmatic
+is not easily aroused to emotion, is cold and sluggish. An individual
+seldom belongs exclusively to one type.
+
+=Sentiments.=--Certain emotional tendencies become organized about an
+object and constitute a _sentiment_. The sentiment of love for our
+mother had its basis in our childhood in the perception of her as the
+source of numberless experiences involving pleasant feeling tones. As we
+grew older, we understood better her solicitude for our welfare and her
+sacrifices for our sake--further experiences involving a large feeling
+element. Thus there grew up about our mother an organized system of
+emotional tendencies, our sentiment of filial love. Such sentiments as
+patriotism, religious faith, selfishness, sympathy, arise and develop in
+the same way. Compared with moods, sentiments are more permanent in
+character and involve more complex knowledge elements. Moreover, they do
+not depend upon physiological conditions as do moods. One's organic
+sensations may affect one's mood to a considerable extent, but will
+scarcely influence one's patriotism or filial love.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+THE WILL
+
+VOLUNTARY CONTROL OF ACTION
+
+
+=Types of Movement.=--Closely associated with the problem of voluntary
+attention is that of voluntary movement, or control of action. It is an
+evident fact that the infant can at first exercise no conscious control
+over his bodily movements. He has, it is true, certain reflex and
+instinctive tendencies which enable him to react in a definite way to
+certain special stimuli. In such cases, however, there is no conscious
+control of the movements, the bodily organs merely responding in a
+definite way whenever the proper stimulus is present. The eye, for
+instance, must wink when any foreign matter affects it; wry movements of
+the face must accompany the bitter taste; and the body must start at a
+sudden noise. At other times, bodily movements may be produced in a more
+spontaneous way. Here the physical energy stored within the system gives
+rise to bodily activity and causes those random impulsive movements so
+evident during infancy and early childhood. When these movements, which
+are the only ones possible to very early childhood, are compared with
+the movements of a workman placing the brick in the wall or of an artist
+executing a delicate piece of carving, there is found in the latter
+movements the conscious idea of a definite end, or object, to be
+reached. To gain control of one's movements is, therefore, to acquire an
+ability to direct bodily actions toward the attainment of a given end.
+Thus a question arises as to the process by which a child attains to
+this bodily control.
+
+=Ideas of Movements Acquired.=--Although, as pointed out above, a
+child's early instinctive and impulsive movements are not under
+conscious control, they nevertheless become conscious acts, in the sense
+that the movements are soon realized in idea. The movements, in other
+words, give rise to conscious states, and these in turn are retained as
+portions of past experience. For instance, although the child at first
+grasps the object only impulsively, he nevertheless soon obtains an
+idea, or experience, of what it means to grasp with the hand. So, also,
+although he may first stretch the limb impulsively or make a wry face
+reflexively, he secures, in a short time, ideas representative of these
+movements. As the child thus obtains ideas representative of different
+bodily movements, he is able ultimately, by fixing his attention upon
+any movement, to produce it in a voluntary way.
+
+=Development of Control: A. Ideo-motor Action.=--At first, on account of
+the close association between the thought centres and the motor centres
+causing the act, the child seems to have little ability to check the
+act, whenever its representative idea enters consciousness. It is for
+this reason that young children often perform such seemingly
+unreasonable acts as, for instance, slapping another person, kicking and
+throwing objects, etc. In such cases, however, it must not be assumed
+that these are always deliberate acts. More often the act is performed
+simply because the image of the act arises in the child's mind, and his
+control of the motor discharge is so weak that the act follows
+immediately upon the idea. This same tendency frequently manifests
+itself even in the adult. As one thinks intently of some favourite game,
+he may suddenly find himself taking a bodily position used in playing
+that game. It is by the same law also that the impulsive man tends to
+act out in gesture any act that he may be describing in words. Such a
+type of action is described as ideo-motor action.
+
+=B. Deliberate Action.=--Because the child in time gains ideas of
+various movements and an ability to fix his attention upon them, he thus
+becomes able to set one motor image against another as possible lines of
+action. One image may suggest to slap; the other to caress; the one to
+pull the weeds in the flower bed; the other, to lie down in the hammock.
+But attention is ultimately able, as noted in the last Chapter, so to
+control the impulse and resistance in the proper nervous centres that
+the acts themselves may be indefinitely suspended. Thus the mind becomes
+able to conceive lines of action and, by controlling bodily movement,
+gain time to consider the effectiveness of these toward the attainment
+of any end. When a bodily movement thus takes place in relation to some
+conscious end in view, it is termed a deliberate act. One important
+result of physical exercises with the young child is that they develop
+in him this deliberate control of bodily movements. The same may be said
+also of any orderly modes of action employed in the general management
+of the school. Regular forms of assembly and dismissal, of moving about
+the class-room, etc., all tend to give the child this same control over
+his acts.
+
+=Action versus Result.=--As already noted, however, most of our
+movements soon develop into fixed habits. For this reason our bodily
+acts are usually performed more or less unconsciously, that is, without
+any deliberation as to the mere act itself. For this reason, we find
+that when bodily movements are held in check, or inhibited, in order to
+allow time for deliberation, attention usually fixes itself, not upon
+the acts themselves, but rather upon the results of these acts. For
+instance, a person having an axe and a saw may wish to divide a small
+board into two parts. Although the axe may be in his hand, he is
+thinking, not how he is to use the axe, but how it will result if he
+uses this to accomplish the end. In the same way he considers, not how
+to use the saw, but the result of using the saw. By inhibiting the motor
+impulses which would lead to the use of either of these, the individual
+is able to note, say, that to use the axe is a quick, but inaccurate,
+way of gaining the end; to use the saw, a slow, but accurate, way. The
+present need being interpreted as one where only an approximate division
+is necessary, attention is thereupon given wholly to the images tending
+to promote this action; resistance is thus overcome in these centres,
+and the necessary motor discharges for using the axe are given free
+play. Here, however, the mind evidently does not deliberate on how the
+hands are to use the axe or the saw, but rather upon the results
+following the use of these.
+
+
+VOLITION
+
+=Nature of Will.=--When voluntary attention is fixed, as above, upon the
+results of conflicting lines of action, the mind is said to experience a
+conflict of desires, or motives. So long as this conflict lasts,
+physical expression is inhibited, the mind deliberating upon and
+comparing the conflicting motives. For instance, a pupil on his way to
+school may be thrown into a conflict of motives. On the one side is a
+desire to remain under the trees near the bank of the stream; on the
+other a desire to obey his parents, and go to school. So long as these
+desires each press themselves upon the attention, there results an
+inhibiting of the nervous motor discharge with an accompanying mental
+state of conflict, or indecision. This prevents, for the time being, any
+action, and the youth deliberates between the two possible lines of
+conduct. As he weighs the various elements of pleasure on the one hand
+and of duty on the other, the one desire will finally appear the
+stronger. This constitutes the person's choice, or decision, and a line
+of action follows in accordance with the end, or motive, chosen. This
+mental choice, or decision, is usually termed an act of will.
+
+=Attention in Will.=--Such a choice between motives, however, evidently
+involves an act of voluntary attention. What really goes on in
+consciousness in such a conflict of motives is that voluntary attention
+makes a single problem of the twofold situation--school versus play. To
+this problem the attention marshals relative ideas and selects and
+adjusts them to the complex problem. Finally these are built into an
+organized experience which solves the problem as one, say, of going to
+school. The so-called choice is, therefore, merely the mental solution
+of the situation; the necessary bodily action follows in an habitual
+manner, once the attention lessens the resistance in the appropriate
+centres.
+
+=Factors in Volitional Act.=--Such an act of volition, or will, is
+usually analysed in the following steps:
+
+1. Conflicting desires
+
+2. Deliberation--weighing of motives
+
+3. Choice--solving the problem
+
+4. Expression.
+
+As a mental process, however, an act of will does not include the fourth
+step--expression. The mind has evidently willed, the moment a
+conclusion, or choice, is reached in reference to the end in view. If,
+therefore, I stand undecided whether to paint the house white or green,
+an act of will has taken place when the conclusion, or mental decision,
+has been reached to paint the house green. On the other hand, however,
+only the man who forms a decision and then resolutely works out his
+decision through actual expression, will be credited with a strong will
+by the ordinary observer.
+
+=Physical Conditions of Will.=--Deliberation being but a special case of
+giving voluntary attention to a selected problem, it involves the same
+expenditure of nervous energy in overcoming resistance within the brain
+centres as was seen to accompany any act of voluntary attention. Such
+being the case, our power of will at any given time is likely to vary in
+accordance with our bodily condition. The will is relatively weak during
+sickness, for instance, because the normal amount of nervous energy
+which must accompany the mental processes of deliberation and choice is
+not able to be supplied. For the same reason, lack of food and sleep,
+working in bad air, etc., are found to weaken the will for facing a
+difficulty, though we may nevertheless feel that it is something that
+ought to be done. An added reason, therefore, why the victim of alcohol
+and narcotics finds it difficult to break his habit is that the use of
+these may permanently lessen the energy of the nervous organism. In
+facing the difficult task of breaking an old habit, therefore, this
+person has rendered the task doubly difficult, because the indulgence
+has weakened his will for undertaking the struggle of breaking an old
+habit. On the other hand, good food, sleep, exercise in the fresh air,
+by quickening the blood and generating nervous energy, in a sense
+strengthens the will in undertaking the duties and responsibilities
+before it.
+
+
+ABNORMAL TYPES OF WILL
+
+=The Impulsive Will.=--One important problem in the education of the
+will is found in the relation of deliberation to choice. As is the case
+in a process of learning, the mind in deliberating must draw upon past
+experiences, must select and weigh conflicting ideas in a more or less
+intelligent manner, and upon this basis finally make its choice. A first
+characteristic of a person of will, therefore, is to be able to
+deliberate intelligently upon any different lines of action which may
+present themselves. But in the case of many individuals, there seems a
+lack of this power of deliberation. On every hand they display almost a
+childlike impulsiveness, rushing blindly into action, and always
+following up the word with the blow. This type, which is spoken of as an
+impulsive will, is likely to prevail more or less among young children.
+It is essential, therefore, that the teacher should take this into
+account in dealing with the moral and the practical actions of these
+children. It should be seen that such children in their various
+exercises are made to inhibit their actions sufficiently to allow them
+to deliberate and choose between alternative modes of action. For this
+purpose typical forms of constructive work will be found of educational
+value. In such exercises situations may be continually created in which
+the pupil must deliberate upon alternative lines of action and make his
+choice accordingly.
+
+=The Retarded Will.=--In some cases a type of will is met in which the
+attention seems unable to lead deliberation into a state of choice. Like
+Hamlet, the person keeps ever weighing whether _to be or not to be_ is
+the better course. Such people are necessarily lacking in achievement,
+although always intending to do great things in the future. This type of
+will is not so prevalent among young children; but if met, the teacher
+should, as far as possible, encourage the pupil to pass more rapidly
+from thought to action.
+
+=The Sluggish Will.=--A third and quite common defect of will is seen
+where the mind is either too ignorant or too lazy to do the work of
+deliberating. While such characters are not impulsive, they tend to
+follow lines of action merely by habit, or in accordance with the
+direction of others, and do little thinking for themselves. The only
+remedy for such people is, of course, to quicken their intellectual
+life. Unless this can be done, the goodness of their character must
+depend largely upon the nobility of those who direct the formation of
+their habits and do their thinking for them.
+
+=Development of Will.=--By recalling what has been established
+concerning the learning process, we may learn that most school
+exercises, when properly conducted, involve the essential facts of an
+act of will. In an ordinary school exercise, the child first has before
+him a certain aim, or problem, and then must select from former
+experience the related ideas which will enable him to solve this
+problem. So far, however, as the child is led to select and reject for
+himself these interpreting ideas, he must evidently go through a process
+similar to that of an ordinary act of will. When, for example, the child
+faces the problem of finding out how many yards of carpet of a certain
+width will cover the floor of a room, he must first decide how to find
+the number of strips required. Having come to a decision on this point,
+he must next give expression to his decision by actually working out
+this part of the problem. In like manner, he must now decide how to
+proceed with the next step in his problem and, having come to a
+conclusion on this point, must also give it expression by performing
+the necessary mathematical processes. It is for this reason, that the
+ordinary lessons and exercises of the school, when presented to the
+children as actual problems, constitute an excellent means for
+developing will power.
+
+=The Essentials of Moral Character.=--It must be noted finally, that
+will power is a third essential factor in the attainment of real moral
+character, or social efficiency. We have learned that man, through the
+possession of an intelligent nature, is able to grasp the significance
+of his experience and thus form comprehensive plans and purposes for the
+regulation of his conduct. We have noted further that, through the
+development of right feeling, he may come to desire and plan for the
+attainment of only such ends as make for righteousness. Yet, however
+noble his desires, and however intelligent and comprehensive his plans
+and purposes, it is only as he develops a volitional personality, or
+determination of character which impels toward the attainment of these
+noble ends through intelligent plans, that man can be said to live the
+truly efficient life.
+
+    Self-reverence, self-knowledge, self-control,
+    These three alone lead life to sovereign power.
+
+In this connection, also, we cannot do better than quote Huxley's
+description of an educated man, as given in his essay on _A Liberal
+Education_, a description which may be considered to crystallize the
+true conception of an efficient citizen:
+
+     That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so
+     trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will,
+     and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism,
+     it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold, logic engine,
+     with all its parts of equal strength, and in smooth working order;
+     ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any kind of work, and
+     spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind; whose
+     mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths
+     of nature, and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted
+     ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained
+     to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender
+     conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature
+     or of art, to hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+CHILD STUDY
+
+
+=Scope and Purpose of Child Study.=--By child study is meant the
+observation of the general characteristics and the leading individual
+differences exhibited by children during the periods of infancy,
+childhood, and adolescence. Its purpose is to gather facts regarding
+childhood and formulate them into principles that are applicable in
+education. From the teacher's standpoint, the purpose is to be able to
+adapt intelligently his methods in each subject to the child's mind at
+the different stages of its development.
+
+In the education of the child we have our eyes fixed, at least partly,
+upon his future. The aim of education is usually stated in terms of what
+the child is to _become_. He is to become a socially efficient
+individual, to be fitted to live completely, to develop a good moral
+character, to have his powers of mind and body harmoniously developed.
+All these aims look toward the future. But what the child _becomes_
+depends upon what he _is_. Education, in its broadest sense, means
+taking the individual's present equipment of mind and body and so using
+it as to enable him to become something else in the future. The teacher
+must be concerned, therefore, not only with what he wishes the child to
+_become_ in the future, but also with what he _is_, here and now.
+
+=Importance to the Teacher.=--The adaptation of matter and method to the
+child's tendencies, capacities, and interests, which all good teaching
+demands, is possible only through an understanding of his nature. The
+teacher must have regard, not only to the materials and the method used
+in training, but also to the being who is to be trained. A knowledge of
+child nature will prevent expensive mistakes and needless waste.
+
+A few typical examples will serve to illustrate the immense importance a
+knowledge of child nature is to his teacher.
+
+1. As has been already explained, when the teacher knows something about
+the instincts of children, he will utilize these tendencies in his
+teaching and work with them, not against them. He will, wherever
+possible, make use of the play instinct in his lessons, as for example,
+when he makes the multiplication drill a matter of climbing a stairway
+without stumbling or crossing a stream on stones without falling in. He
+will use the instinct of physical activity in having children learn
+number combinations by manipulating blocks, or square measure by
+actually measuring surfaces, or fractions by using scissors and strips
+of cardboard, or geographical features by modelling in sand and clay. He
+will use the imitative instinct in cultivating desirable personal
+habits, such as neatness, cleanliness, and order, and in modifying
+conduct through the inspiring presentation of history and literature. He
+will provide exercise for the instinct of curiosity by suggesting
+interesting problems in geography and nature study.
+
+2. When the teacher understands the principle of eliminating undesirable
+tendencies by substitution, he will not regard as cardinal sins the
+pushing, pinching, and kicking in which boys give vent to their excess
+energy, but will set about directing this purposeless activity into more
+profitable channels. He will thus substitute another means of
+expression for the present undesirable means. He will, for instance,
+give opportunity for physical exercises, paper-folding and cutting,
+cardboard work, wood-work, drawing, colour work, modelling, etc., so far
+as possible in all school subjects. He will try to transform the boy who
+teases and bullies the smaller boys into a guardian and protector. He
+will try to utilize the boy's tendency to collect useless odds and ends
+by turning it into the systematic and purposeful collection of plants,
+insects, specimens of soils, specimens illustrating phases of
+manufactures, postage stamps, coins, etc.
+
+3. When the teacher knows that the interests of pupils have much to do
+with determining their effort, he will endeavour to seize upon these
+interests when most active. He will thus be saved such blunders as
+teaching in December a literature lesson on _An Apple Orchard in the
+Spring_, or assigning a composition on "Tobogganing" in June, because he
+realizes that the interest in these topics is not then active. Each
+season, each month of the year, each festival and holiday has its own
+particular interests, which may be effectively utilized by the
+presentation of appropriate materials in literature, in composition, in
+nature study, and in history. A current event may be taken advantage of
+to teach an important lesson in history or civics. For instance, an
+election may be made the occasion of a lesson on voting by ballot, a
+miniature election being conducted for that purpose.
+
+4. When the teacher appreciates the extent of the capacities of
+children, he will not make too heavy demands upon their powers of
+logical reasoning by introducing too soon the study of formal grammar or
+the solution of difficult arithmetical problems. When he knows that the
+period from eight to twelve is the habit-forming period, he will
+stress, during these years such things as mechanical accuracy in the
+fundamental rules in arithmetic, the memorization of gems of poetry, and
+the cultivation of right physical and moral habits. When he knows the
+influence of motor expression in giving definiteness, vividness, and
+permanency to ideas, he will have much work in drawing, modelling,
+constructive work, dramatization, and oral and written expression.
+
+
+METHODS OF CHILD STUDY
+
+=A. Observation.=--From the teacher's standpoint the method of
+observation of individual children is the most practicable. He has the
+material for his observations constantly before him. He soon discovers
+that one pupil is clever, another dull; that one excels in arithmetic,
+another in history; that one is inclined to jump to conclusions, another
+is slow and deliberate. He is thus able to adapt his methods to meet
+individual requirements. But however advantageous this may be from the
+practical point of view, it must be noted that the facts thus secured
+are individual and not universal. Such child study does not in itself
+carry one very far. To be of real value to the teacher, these particular
+facts must be recognized as illustrative of a general law. When the
+teacher discovers, for instance, that nobody in his class responds very
+heartily to an abstract discussion of the rabbit, but that everybody is
+intensely interested when the actual rabbit is observed, he may regard
+the facts as illustrating the general principle that children need to be
+appealed to through the senses. Likewise when he obtains poor results in
+composition on the topic, "How I Spent My Summer Holidays," but
+excellent results on "How to Plant Bulbs," especially after the pupils
+have planted a bed of tulips on the front lawn, he may infer the law,
+that the best work is obtained when the matter is closely associated
+with the active interests of pupils. By watching the children when they
+are on the school grounds, the teacher may observe how far the
+occupations of the home, or a current event, such as a circus, an
+election, or a war, influences the play of the children. Thus the method
+of observation requires that not only individual facts should be
+obtained, but also that general principles should be inferred on the
+basis of these. Care must be taken, however, that the facts observed
+justify the inference.
+
+=B. Experiment.=--An experiment in any branch of science means the
+observation of results under controlled conditions. Experimental child
+study must, to a large extent, therefore, be relegated to the
+psychological laboratory. Such experiments as the localization of
+cutaneous impressions, the influence of certain operations on fatigue,
+or the discovery of the length of time necessary for a conscious
+reaction, can be successfully carried out only with more or less
+elaborate equipment and under favourable conditions. However, the school
+offers opportunity for some simple yet practical experiments in child
+study. The teacher may discover experimentally what is the most
+favourable period at which to place a certain subject on the school
+programme, whether, for instance, it is best to take mechanical
+arithmetic when the minds of the pupils are fresh or when they are
+weary, or whether the writing lesson had better be taught immediately
+after the strenuous play at recess or at a time when the muscles are
+rested. He may find out the response of the pupils to problems in
+arithmetic closely connected with their lives (for example, in a rural
+community problems relating to farm activities), as compared with their
+response to problems involving more or less remote ideas. He may
+discover to what extent concentration in securing neat exercises in one
+subject, composition for instance, affects the exercises in other
+subjects in which neatness has not been explicitly demanded. This latter
+experiment might throw some light upon the much debated question of
+formal discipline. In all these cases the teacher must be on his guard
+not to accept as universal principles what he has found to be true of a
+small group of pupils, until at least he has found his conclusions
+verified by other experimenters.
+
+=C. Direct Questions.=--This method involves the submission of questions
+to pupils of a particular age or grade, collecting and classifying their
+answers, and basing conclusions upon these. Much work in this direction
+has been done in recent years by certain educators, and much
+illuminating and more or less useful material has been collected. A good
+deal of light has been thrown upon the apperceptive material that
+children have possession of by noting their answers to such questions
+as: "Have you ever seen the stars? A robin? A pig? Where does milk come
+from? Where do potatoes come from?" etc., etc. The practical value of
+this method lies in the insight it gives into the interests of children,
+the kind of imagery they use, and the relationships they have set up
+among their ideas. Every teacher has been surprised at times at the
+absurd answers given by children. These absurdities are usually due to
+the teacher's taking for granted that the pupils have possession of
+certain old knowledge that is actually absent. The moral of such
+occurrences is that he should examine very carefully what "mind stuff"
+the pupils have for interpreting the new material.
+
+=D. Biographical Studies of Individual Children.=--Many books have been
+written describing the development of individual children. These
+descriptions doubtless contain much that is typical of all children, but
+one must be careful not to argue too much from an individual case. Such
+records are valuable as confirmatory evidence of what has already been
+observed in connection with other children, or as suggestive of what may
+be looked for in them.
+
+
+PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
+
+The period covered by child study may be roughly divided into three
+parts, namely, (1) infancy, extending from birth to three years of age,
+(2) childhood, from three to twelve, and (3) adolescence, from twelve to
+eighteen. While children during each of these periods exhibit striking
+dissimilarities one from another, there are nevertheless many
+characteristics that are fairly universal during each period.
+
+
+1. INFANCY
+
+=A. Physical Characteristics.=--One of the striking features of infancy
+is the rapidity with which command of the bodily organs is secured.
+Starting with a few inherited reflexes, the child at three years of age
+has attained fairly complete control of his sense organs and bodily
+movements, though he lacks that co-ordination of muscles by which
+certain delicate effects of hand and voice are produced. The relative
+growth is greater at this than at any subsequent period. Another
+prominent characteristic is the tendency to incessant movement. The
+constant handling, exploring, and analysing of objects enhances the
+child's natural thirst for knowledge, and he probably obtains a larger
+stock of ideas during the first three years of his life than during any
+equal period subsequently.
+
+=B. Mental Characteristics.=--A conspicuous feature of infancy is the
+imitative tendency, which early manifests itself. Through this means
+the child acquires many of his movements, his language power, and the
+simple games he plays. Sense impressions begin to lose their fleeting
+character and to become more permanent. As evidence of this, few
+children remember events farther back than their third year, while many
+can distinctly recall events of the third and fourth years even after
+the lapse of a long period of time. The child at this period begins to
+compare, classify, and generalize in an elementary way, though his ideas
+are still largely of the concrete variety. His attention is almost
+entirely non-voluntary; he is interested in objects and activities for
+themselves alone, and not for the sake of an end. He is, as yet, unable
+to conceive remote ends, the prime condition of voluntary attention. His
+ideas of right and wrong conduct are associated with the approval and
+disapproval of those about him.
+
+
+2. CHILDHOOD
+
+=A. Physical Characteristics.=--In the earlier period of childhood, from
+three to seven years, bodily growth is very rapid. Much of the vital
+force is thus consumed, and less energy is available for physical
+activity. The child has also less power of resistance and is thus
+susceptible to the diseases of childhood. His movements are for the same
+reason lacking in co-ordination. In the later period, from seven to
+twelve years, the bodily growth is less rapid, more energy is available
+for physical activity, and the co-ordination of muscles is greater. The
+brain has now reached its maximum size and weight, any further changes
+being due to the formation of associative pathways along nerve centres.
+This is, therefore, pre-eminently the habit-forming period. From the
+physical standpoint this means that those activities that are
+essentially habitual must have their genesis during the period between
+seven and twelve if they are to function perfectly in later life. The
+mastery of a musical instrument must be begun then if technique is ever
+to be perfect. If a foreign language is to be acquired, it should be
+begun in this period, or there will always be inaccuracies in
+pronunciation and articulation.
+
+=B. Mental Characteristics.=--The instinct of curiosity is very active
+in the earlier period of childhood, and this, combined with greater
+language power, leads to incessant questionings on the part of the
+child. He wants to know what, where, why, and how, in regard to
+everything that comes under his notice, and fortunate indeed is that
+child whose parent or teacher is sufficiently long-suffering to give
+satisfactory answers to his many and varied questions. To ignore the
+inquiries of the child, or to return impatient or grudging answers may
+inhibit the instinct and lead later to a lack of interest in the world
+about him. The imitative instinct is also still active and reveals
+itself particularly in the child's play, which in the main reflects the
+activities of those about him. He plays horse, policeman, school,
+Indian, in imitation of the occupations of others. Parents and teachers
+should depend largely upon this imitative tendency to secure desirable
+physical habits, such as erect and graceful carriage, cleanliness of
+person, orderly arrangement of personal belongings, neatness in dress,
+etc. The imagination is exceedingly active during childhood, fantastic
+and unregulated in the earlier period, under better control and
+direction in the later. It reveals itself in the love of hearing,
+reading, or inventing stories. The imitative play mentioned above is one
+phase of imaginative activity. The child's ideas of conduct, in this
+earlier stage of childhood, are derived from the pleasure or pain of
+their consequences. He has as yet little power of subordinating his
+lower impulses to an ideal end, and hence is not properly a moral being.
+Good conduct must, therefore, be secured principally through the
+exercise of arbitrary authority from without.
+
+In the later period of childhood, acquired interests begin to be formed
+and, coincident with this, active attention appears. The child begins to
+be interested in the product, not merely in the process. The mind at
+this period is most retentive of sense impressions. This is consequently
+the time to bring the child into immediate contact with his environment
+through his senses, in such departments as nature study and field work
+in geography. Thus is laid the basis of future potentialities of
+imagery, and through it appreciation of literature. On account of the
+acuteness of sense activity at this period, this is also the time for
+memorization of fine passages of prose and poetry. The child's thinking
+is still of the pictorial rather than of the abstract order, though the
+powers of generalization and language are considerably extended. The
+social interests are not yet strong, and hence co-operation for a common
+purpose is largely absent. His games show a tendency toward
+individualism. When co-operative games are indulged in, he is usually
+willing to sacrifice the interests of his team to his own personal
+glorification.
+
+
+3. ADOLESCENCE
+
+=A. Physical Characteristics.=--In early adolescence the characteristic
+physical accompaniments of early childhood are repeated, namely, rapid
+growth and lack of muscular co-ordination. From twelve to fifteen, girls
+grow more rapidly than boys and are actually taller and heavier than
+boys at corresponding ages. From fifteen onward, however, the boys
+rapidly outstrip the girls in growth. Lack of muscular co-ordination is
+responsible for the awkward movements, ungainly appearance, ungraceful
+carriage, with their attendant self-consciousness, so characteristic of
+both boys and girls in early adolescence.
+
+=B. Mental Characteristics.=--Ideas are gradually freed from their
+sensory accompaniments. The child thinks in symbols rather than in
+sensory images. Consequently there is a greater power of abstraction and
+reflective thought. This is therefore the period for emphasizing those
+subjects requiring logical reasoning, for example, mathematics, science,
+and the reflective aspects of grammar, history, and geography.
+
+From association with others or from literature and history, ideals
+begin to be formed which influence conduct. This is brought about
+largely through the principle of suggestion. In the early years of
+adolescence children are very susceptible to suggestions, but the
+suggestive ideas must be introduced by a person who is trusted, admired,
+or loved, or under circumstances inspiring these feelings; hence the
+importance to the adolescent of having teachers of strong and inspiring
+personality. However, if the suggestive idea is to influence action, it
+must be introduced in such a way as not to set up a reaction against it.
+Reaction will be set up if the idea is antagonistic to the present
+ideas, feelings, or aims, or if it is so persistently thrust upon the
+child that he begins to suspect that he is being unduly influenced. To
+avoid reaction the parent or teacher should introduce suggestive ideas
+indirectly. For instance, while the mind is concentrated upon one set of
+ideas, a suggestive idea that would otherwise be distasteful may be
+tolerated. It may lie latent for a time, and when it recurs it may be
+regarded as original, under which condition it is likely to issue in
+action.
+
+The adolescent stage is the period of greatest emotional development,
+and care should therefore be exercised to have the child's mind dwell
+upon only those ideas with which worthy emotions are associated. The
+emotional bent, whether good or bad, is determined to a large extent
+during this period of adolescence. So far as morality is the
+subordination of primitive instincts to higher ideas, the child now
+becomes a moral being. His conduct is now determined by reason and by
+ideals, and the primitive pleasure-pain motives disappear. It follows
+that coercion and arbitrary authority have little place in discipline at
+this period. Social interests are prominent, evidenced by the tendency
+to co-operate with others for a common end. The games of the period are
+mainly of the co-operative variety and are marked by a willingness to
+sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the team, or side.
+
+
+INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
+
+While, as noted above, all children have certain common characteristics
+at each of the three periods of development, it is even more apparent
+that every child is in many respects different from every other child.
+He has certain peculiarities that demand particular treatment. It is
+evident that it would be impossible to enumerate all the individual
+differences in children. The most that can be done is to classify the
+most striking differences and endeavour to place individual children in
+one or other of these classes.
+
+=A. Differences in Thought.=--One of the obvious classifications of
+pupils is that of "quick" and "slow." The former learns easily, but
+often forgets quickly; the latter learns slowly, but usually retains
+well. The former is keen and alert; the latter, dull and passive. The
+former frequently lacks perseverance; the latter is often tenacious and
+persistent. The former unjustly wins applause for his cleverness; the
+latter, equally unjustly, wins contempt for his dulness. The teacher
+must not be unfair to the dull plodder, who in later years may
+frequently outstrip his brilliant competitor in the race of life.
+
+Some pupils think better in the abstract, others, in the concrete. The
+former will analyse and parse well in grammar, distinguish fine shades
+of meaning in language, manage numbers skilfully, or work out chemical
+equations accurately. The latter will be more successful in doing
+things, for instance, measuring boards, planning and planting a garden
+plot, making toys, designing dolls' clothes, and cooking. The schools of
+the past have all emphasized the ability to think in the abstract, and
+to a large extent ignored the ability to think in the concrete. This is
+unfair to the one class of thinkers. From the ranks of those who think
+in the abstract have come the great statesmen, poets, and philosophers;
+from the ranks of those who think in the concrete have come the
+carpenters, builders, and inventors. It will be admitted that the world
+owes as great a debt from the practical standpoint to the latter class
+as to the former. Let the school not despise or ignore the pupil who,
+though unable to think well in abstract studies, is able to do things.
+
+=B. Differences in Action.=--There is a marked difference among children
+in the ability to connect an abstract direction with the required act.
+This is particularly seen in writing, art, and constructive work,
+subjects in which the aim is the formation of habit, and in which
+success depends upon following explicitly the direction given. The
+teacher will find it economical to give very definite instruction as to
+what is to be done in work in these subjects. It is equally important
+that instructions regarding conduct should be definite and unmistakable.
+
+As explained in the last Chapter, there are two extreme and contrasting
+types of will exhibited by children, namely, the impulsive type and the
+obstructed type. In the former, action occurs without deliberation
+immediately upon the appearance of the idea in consciousness. This type
+is illustrated in the case of the pupil who, as soon as he hears a
+question, thoughtlessly blurts out an answer without any reflection
+whatever. In the adult, we find a similar illustration when, immediately
+upon hearing a pitiable story from a beggar, he hands out a dollar
+without stopping to investigate whether or not the action is
+well-advised. It is useless to plead in extenuation of such actions that
+the answer may be correct or the act noble and generous. The probability
+is equally great that the opposite may be the case. The remedy for
+impulsive action is patiently and persistently to encourage the pupil to
+reflect a moment before acting. In the case of the obstructed type of
+will, the individual ponders long over a course of action before he is
+able to bring himself to a decision. Such is the child whom it is hard
+to persuade to answer even easy questions, because he is unable to
+decide in just what form to put his answer. On an examination paper he
+proceeds slowly, not because he does not know the matter, but because he
+finds it hard to decide just what facts to select and how to express
+them. The bashful child belongs to this type. He would like to answer
+questions asked him, to talk freely with others, to act without any
+feeling of restraint, but is unable to bring himself to do so. The
+obstinate child is also of this type. He knows what he ought to do, but
+the opposing motives are strong enough to inhibit action in the right
+direction. As already shown, the remedy for the obstructed will is to
+encourage rapid deliberation and choice and then immediate action,
+thrusting aside all opposing motives. Show such pupils that in cases
+where the motives for and against a certain course of action are of
+equal strength, it often does not matter which course is selected. One
+may safely choose either and thus end the indecision. The "quick" child
+usually belongs to the impulsive type; the "slow" child, to the
+obstructed type. The former is apt to decide and act hastily and
+frequently unwisely; the latter is more guarded and, on the whole, more
+sound in his decision and action.
+
+=C. Differences in Temperament.=--All four types of temperament given in
+the formal classification are represented among children in school. The
+_choleric_ type is energetic, impulsive, quick-tempered, yet forgiving,
+interested in outward events. The _phlegmatic_ type is impassive,
+unemotional, slow to anger, but not of great kindness, persistent in
+pursuing his purposes. The _sanguine_ type is optimistic,
+impressionable, enthusiastic, but unsteady. The _melancholic_ type is
+pessimistic, introspective, moody, suspicious of the motives of others.
+Most pupils belong to more than one class. Perhaps the two most
+prominent types represented in school are (1) that variety of the
+sanguine temperament which leads the individual to think himself, his
+possessions, and his work superior to all others, and (2) that variety
+of the melancholic temperament which leads the individual to fancy
+himself constantly the victim of injustice on the part of the teacher or
+the other pupils. A pupil of the first type always believes that his
+work is perfectly done; he boasts that he is sure he made a hundred per
+cent. on his examinations; what he has is always, in his own estimation,
+better than that of others. When the teacher suggests that his work
+might be better done, the pupil appears surprised and aggrieved. Such a
+child should be shown that he is right in not being discouraged over his
+own efforts, but wrong in thinking that his work does not admit of
+improvement. A pupil of the second type is continually imagining that
+the teacher treats him unjustly, that the other pupils slight or injure
+him, that, in short, he is an object of persecution. Such a pupil should
+be shown that nobody has a grudge against him, that the so-called
+slights are entirely imaginary, and that he should take a sane view of
+these things, depending more upon judgment than on feeling to estimate
+the action of others toward him.
+
+=D. Sex Differences.=--Boys differ from girls in the predominance of
+certain instincts, interests, and mental powers. In boys the fighting
+instinct, and capacities of leadership, initiative, and mastery are
+prominent. In girls the instinct of nursing and fondling, and the
+capacities to comfort and relieve are prominent. These are revealed in
+the games of the playground. The interests of the two sexes are
+different, since their games and later pursuits are different. In a
+system of co-education it is impossible to take full cognizance of this
+fact in the work of the school. Yet it is possible to make some
+differentiation between the work assigned to boys and that assigned to
+girls. For instance, arithmetical problems given to boys might deal with
+activities interesting to boys, and those to girls might deal with
+activities interesting to girls. In composition the differentiation will
+be easier. Such a topic as "A Game of Baseball" would be more suitable
+for boys, and on the other hand "How to Bake Bread" would make a
+stronger appeal to girls. Similarly in literature, such a poem as _How
+They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix_ would be particularly
+interesting to boys, while _The Romance of a Swan's Nest_ would be of
+greater interest to girls. As to mental capacities, boys are usually
+superior in those fields where logical reasoning is demanded, while
+girls usually surpass boys in those fields involving perceptive powers
+and verbal memory. For instance, boys succeed better in mathematics,
+science, and the reflective phases of history; girls succeed better in
+spelling, in harmonizing colours in art work, in distinguishing fine
+shades of meaning in language, and in memorizing poetry. The average
+intellectual ability of each sex is nearly the same, but boys deviate
+from the average more than girls. Thus while the most brilliant pupils
+are likely to be boys, the dullest are also likely to be boys. It is a
+scientific fact that there are more individuals of conspicuously clever
+mind, but also more of weak intellect, among men than there are among
+women.
+
+=A Caution.=--While it has been stated that the teacher should take
+notice of individual differences in his pupils, it may be advisable also
+to warn the student-teacher against any extravagant tendency in the
+direction of such a study. A teacher is occasionally met who seems to
+act on the assumption that his chief function is not to educate but to
+study children. Too much of his time may therefore be spent in the
+conducting of experiments and the making of observations to that end.
+While the data thus secured may be of some value, it must not be
+forgotten that control of the subject-matter of education and of the
+method of presenting that subject-matter to the normal child, together
+with an earnest, enthusiastic, and sympathetic manner, are the prime
+qualifications of the teacher as an instructor.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+SUGGESTED READINGS FROM BOOKS OF REFERENCE
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter I.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter II.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter I.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter I.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+Bagley        Educational Values, Chapters I, II, III.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter III.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter I.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XIV.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter I.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XI.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters II, XV.
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapters VI, VII.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter XVIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter III.
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part II.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapters I, IV.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter XIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter I.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV.
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VII.
+Dewey         The School and Society, Part II.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter II.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VII.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VI.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapters IV, IX.
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter VI.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, V, IX.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+Betts         Psychology, Chapter XVI.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter XIII.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter IX.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter VII.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters XIX, XX.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter XXII.
+McMurry       The Method of the Recitation, Chapters VIII, X.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters V, VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter III.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters XXI, XXII.
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter IV.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters IV, VIII, X.
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+Landon        The Principles and Practice of Teaching, Chapter VI.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter XII.
+Strayer       A Brief Course in the Educative Process, Chapter XI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter I.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Education, Chapter I.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter II.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter I.
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter II.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter III.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter II.
+Halleck       Education of the Central Nervous System.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV.
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter X.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter III.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter IV.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter III.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter VII.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter V.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapters III, IV.
+Thorndike     Principles of Teaching, Chapter VIII.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter XIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter IV.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter II.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter V.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter XXI.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XIII.
+James         Talks to Teachers, Chapter X.
+Welton        The Psychology of Education, Chapter VII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters V, VI.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VI.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapters IV, VII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter IX.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IV, XI.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter VIII.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter III.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapter VIII.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter IX.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter VIII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters X, XII.
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapters IX, X.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter X.
+Colvin        The Learning Process, Chapter XXII.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter IX.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters XIII, XIV.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapters XII, XIV.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapters XI, XII.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+Angell        Psychology, Chapters XX, XXII.
+Betts         The Mind and Its Education, Chapter XV.
+Pillsbury     Essentials of Psychology, Chapter XIII.
+Thorndike     Elements of Psychology, Chapter VI.
+
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+Bagley        The Educative Process, Chapter XII.
+Raymont       The Principles of Education, Chapter V.
+Kirkpatrick   Fundamentals of Child Study.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Ontario Normal School Manuals: Science
+of Education, by Ontario Ministry of Education
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