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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18345-8.txt b/18345-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e43f300 --- /dev/null +++ b/18345-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4686 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, +January 14, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, January 14, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 8, 2006 [EBook #18345] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 315 + + + + +NEW YORK, JANUARY 14, 1882. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIII., No. 315. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + + PAGE + I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Watchman's Detecter. 5023 + + Integrating Apparatus. 5023 + + A Canal Boat Propelled by Air. 5023 + + Head Linings of Passenger Cars. 5023 + + Improved Mortar Mixer. 2 figures. 5023 + + Practical Notes on Plumbing. By J.P. DAVIES. Figs. + 37 to 53. Tinning iron pipes, copper or brass work, bits, + etc.--Spirit brush.--Soldering iron to lead.--Dummies for + pipe bending.--Bends and set-offs.--Bending with water. + --Sand bending.--Bending with balls or bobbins.--Three-ball + or lead driving ball and double ball bending.--Bending with + windlass and brass ball.--Hydraulic or cup leather and ball + bending.--Bending by splitting, or split made bends. + --Pulling up bends.--Set-offs.--Bad bends.--Bad falls in + bends.--Bends made into traps or retarders.--Bends made + with the "snarling dummy." 5024 + + The Grossenhain Shuttle Driver. 1 figure. 5025 + + + II. ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, ETC.--The Electro-Magnetic + Apparatus of Dr. Pacinotti. 8 figures. The Pacinotti + electro-magnetic machine of 1860.--The Elias + electro-motor of 1842. 5015 + + The Elias Electro-Motor. 5016 + + Bjerknes's Experiments. 7 figures. 5016 + + The Arc Electric Light. By LEO DAFT. 5018 + + Hedges' Electric Lamps. 4 figures. 5019 + + Electric Railway Apparatus at the Paris Electrical + Exhibition. 17 figures. Lartigue's switch controller, + elevation and sections.--Position of commutators during + the maneuver.--Pedal for sending warning to railway + crossing, with elevation and end and plan views.--Electric + Alarm.--Lartigue's bellows pedal, with plan and + sections.--Brunot's Controller.--Guggemos' correspondence + apparatus.--Annunciator apparatus.--Lartigue's controller + for water tanks.--Vérité controller for water tanks. 5019 + + The Telephonic Halls of the Electrical Exhibition. + 1 figure. 5022 + + The Action of Cold on the Voltaic Arc. 5022 + + +III. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Industrial Art for Women. 5026 + + Photography upon Canvas. 1 figure. 5026 + + Detection of Starch Sugar Sirup Mixed with Sugar + House Molasses. 5026 + + False Vermilion. 5026 + + The Position of Manganese in Modern Industry.--By + M.V. DESHAEYS. Ferro-manganese.--Cupro-manganese.-- + Manganese bronzes.--Metallic manganese.--Manganese + German silver.--Phosphorus bronze. 5027 + + The Economical Washing of Coal Gas and Smoke.--M. + Chevalet's method. 5027 + + Determination of Nitrogen in Hair, Wool, Dried Blood, + Flesh Meal, and Leather Scraps. By Dr. C. KRAUCH. 5028 + + Testing White Beeswax for Ceresine and Paraffine. By + A. PELTZ. 5028 + + The Prevention of Alcoholic Fermentation by Fungi. + By Prof. E. REICHARD. 5028 + + New Reaction of Glycerine. 5028 + + Lycopodine. 5028 + + Conchinamine. 5028 + + Chinoline. 5028 + + Preparation of Coniine. 5028 + + Strontianite. 5028 + + + IV. MISCELLANEOUS.--Household and Other Recipes. + Christmas plum pudding.--Plum pudding sauce.-- + National plum pudding and sauce.--Egg nog.--Egg + flip.--Roast Turkey.--Woodcock and Snipe.--Canvas-back + duck.--Pheasants.--Wild ducks.--Wild fowl + sauce.--Brown fricassee of rabbits.--Orange pudding. + --Venison pastry.--Christmas red round.--Plum + porridge.--Sugared pears.--Table beer.--Mince meat. + --Pumpkin pie.--Brandy punch.--Boeuf a la mode.-- + Punch jelly.--Orange salad.--Cranberry jelly.--Plum + cake.--Black cake.--Potatoes. 5029 + + The Bayeux Tapestry Comet. 5030 + + Synthetic Experiments on the Artificial Reproduction + of Meteorites. 5030 + + + V. HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.--Parangi; a newly described + disease. 5029 + + A Castor Oil Substitute. 5029 + + Lack of Sun Light. 5030 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC APPARATUS OF DR. PACINOTTI. + + +In admiring the recent developments of electric science as evidenced +by the number of important inventions which have during the past few +years been given to the world, especially in those branches of applied +science which deal more particularly with the generation of +electricity and the production of the electric light, there is often +too great a tendency to forget, or, at least, to pass over in +comparative silence the claims which the great pioneer workers and +discoverers undoubtedly have to a large share of the merit of this +scientific development. + +It is, of course, obviously impossible in anything approaching a +retrospect of the science of magneto-electric induction or its +application to illumination to pass slightly over the names of +Oersted, of Ampère, of Davy, and of Faraday, but, in other respects, +their work is too often lost sight of in the splendid modern +developments of their discoveries. Again, there is another group of +discoverer-inventors who occupy an intermediate position between the +abstract discoverers above named and the inventors and adapters of +still more recent times. To this group belong the names of Pixii and +Saxton, Holmes and Nollet, Wilde, Varley, Siemens, Wheatstone, and +Pacinotti, who was the first to discover a means of constructing a +machine capable of giving a continuous current always in the same +direction, and which has since proved itself to be the type of nearly +all the direct current electric machines of the present day, and +especially those such as the Gramme and Brush and De Meritens +machines, in which the rotating armature is of annular form; and when +it is considered what a large number of the well known electric +generators are founded upon this discovery, it must be a matter of +general gratification that the recent International Jury of the Paris +Exhibition of Electricity awarded to Dr. Antonio Pacinotti one of +their highest awards. + +The original machine designed by Dr. Pacinotti in the year 1860, and +which we illustrate on the present page, formed one of the most +interesting exhibits in the Paris Exhibition, and conferred upon the +Italian Section a very distinctive feature, and we cannot but think +that while all were interested in examining it, there must have been +many who could not help being impressed with the fact that it took +something away from the originality of design in several of the +machines exhibited in various parts of the building. + +This very interesting machine was first illustrated and described by +its inventor in the _Nuovo Cimento_ in the year 1864, under the title +"A Description of a Small Electro-Magnetic Machine," and to this +description we are indebted for the information and diagrams contained +in this notice, but the perspective view is taken from the instrument +itself in the Paris Exhibition. + +In this very interesting historical communication the author commences +by describing a new form of electro-magnet, consisting of an iron ring +around which is wound (as in the Gramme machine) a single helix of +insulated copper wire completely covering the ring, and the two ends +of the annular helix being soldered together, an annular magnet is +produced, enveloped in an insulated helix forming a closed circuit, +the convolutions of which are all in the same direction. If in such a +system any two points of the coil situated at opposite ends of the +same diameter of the ring be connected respectively with the two poles +of a voltaic battery, the electric current having two courses open to +it, will divide into two portions traversing the coil around each half +of the ring from one point of contact to the other, and the direction +of the current, in each portion will be such as to magnetize the iron +core, so that its magnetic poles will be situated at the points where +the current enters and leaves the helix, and a straight line joining +these points may be looked upon as the magnetic axis of the system. +From this construction it is clear that, by varying the position of +the points of contact of the battery wires and the coil, the position +of the magnetic axis will be changed accordingly, and can be made to +take up any diametrical position with respect to the ring, of which +the two halves (separated by the diameter joining the points of +contact of the battery wires with the coil) may be regarded as made up +of two semicircular horseshoe electro-magnets having their similar +poles joined. To this form of instrument the name "Transversal electro +magnet" (_Eletro calamita transversale_) was given by its inventor, to +whom is undoubtedly due the merit of having been the first to +construct an electro-magnet the position of whose poles could be +varied at will by means of a circular commutator. + +[Illustration: PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.--MADE IN 1860.] + +By applying the principle to an electro-magnetic engine, Dr. Pacinotti +produced the machine which we illustrate on the present page. The +armature consists of a turned ring of iron, having around its +circumference sixteen teeth of equal size and at equal angular +distance apart, as shown in Fig. 1, forming between them as many +spaces or notches, which are filled up by coiling within them helices +of insulated copper wire, r r r, in a similar manner to that adopted +in winding the Brush armature, and between them are fixed as many +wooden wedges, m m, by which the helices are firmly held in their +place. All the coils are wound round the ring in the same direction, +and the terminating end of each coil is connected to the commencing +end of the next or succeeding helix, and the junctions so made are +attached to conducting wires which are gathered together close to the +vertical shaft on which the armature ring is fixed, passing through +holes at equal distances apart in a wooden collar fixed to the same +shaft, and being attached at their lower extremities to the metallic +contact pieces of the commutator, c, shown at the lower part of Fig. +3, which is an elevation of the machine, while Fig. 4 is a plan of the +same apparatus. + +The commutator consists of a small boxwood cylinder, carrying around +its cylindrical surface two rows of eight holes, one above the other, +in which are fitted sixteen contact pieces of brass which slightly +project above the surface of the wood, the positions of those in the +upper circle alternating or "breaking joint" with those in the lower, +and each contact piece is in metallic connection with its +corresponding conducting wire, and, therefore, with the junction of +two of the helices on the armature. Against the edge of the commutator +are pressed by means of adjustable levers two small brass contact +rollers, k k, which are respectively connected with the positive and +negative poles of the voltaic battery (either through or independent +of the coils of a fixed electro-magnet, to which we shall presently +refer), and the magnetic axis of the ring will lie in the same plane +as the line joining the points of contact of the battery and rotating +helix, this axis remaining nearly fixed notwithstanding the rotation +of the iron ring in which the magnetism is induced. + +In the apparatus figured in Figs. 3 and 4, the armature rotates +between the two vertical limbs, A B, of a fixed electro-magnet +furnished with extended pole pieces, A A, B B (Fig. 4), each of which +embraces about six of the armature coils. The fixed electro-magnet is +constructed of two vertical iron cylindrical bars, A and B, united at +their lower extremities by a horizontal iron bar, F F, the one being +rigidly and permanently attached to it, while the other is fastened to +it by a screw, G, passing through a slot so that the distance of the +pole pieces from one another and from the armature ring is capable of +adjustment. + +The connections of the machine, which are shown in Fig. 3, are made as +follows: The positive current, entering by the attachment screw, h, +passes by a wire to the right hand commutator screw, l, to the +right-hand roller, k, through the commutator to the ring, around +which it traverses to the left-hand roller, k¹, and screw, l¹, to +the magnet coil, A, and thence through the coil of the magnet, B, to +the terminal screw, h, on the right hand of the figure. This method +of coupling up is of very great historical interest, for it is the +first instance on record of the magnet coils and armature of a machine +being included in one circuit, giving to it the principle of +construction of a dynamo-electric machine, and antedating in +publication, by two years, the interesting machines of Siemens, +Wheatstone, and Varley, and preceding them in construction by a still +longer period. + +With this apparatus Dr. Pacinotti made the following interesting +experiments with the object of determining the amount of mechanical +work produced by the machine (when worked as an electro-magnetic +engine), and the corresponding consumption of the elements of the +battery: Attached to the spindle of the machine was a small pulley, Q +Q (Fig. 3), for the purpose of driving, by means of a cord, another +pulley on a horizontal spindle carrying a drum on which was wound a +cord carrying a weight, and on the same spindle was also a brake and +brake-wheel, the lever of which was loaded so as just to prevent the +weight setting into motion the whole system, consisting of the two +machines, when no current was flowing. In this condition, when the +machine was set in motion by connecting the battery, the mechanical +work expended in overcoming the friction of the brake was equal to +that required to raise the weight; and, in order to obtain the total +work done, all that was necessary was to multiply the weight lifted by +the distance through which it was raised. The consumption of the +battery was estimated at the same time by interposing in the circuit a +sulphate of copper voltameter, of which the copper plate was weighed +before and after the experiment. The following are some of the results +obtained by Dr. Pacinotti in experimenting after the manner just +described. With the current from a battery of four small Bunsen +elements, the machine raised a weight of 3.2812 kilos to a height of +8.66 m. (allowing for friction), so that the mechanical work was +represented by 28.45 m. During the experiment the positive plate of +the voltameter lost in weight 0.224 gramme, the negative gaining 0.235 +gramme, giving an average of chemical work performed in the voltameter +of 0.229 gramme, and multiplying this figure by the ratio between the +equivalent of zinc to that of copper, and by the number of the +elements of the battery, the weight of zinc consumed in the battery +was computed at 0.951 gramme, so that to produce one kilogrammeter of +mechanical work 33 milligrammes of zinc would be consumed in the +battery. In another experiment, made with five elements, the +consumption of zinc was found to be 36 milligrammes for every +kilogrammeter of mechanical work performed. In recording these +experiments, Dr. Pacinotti points out that although these results do +not show any special advantage in his machine over those of other +construction, still they are very encouraging, when it is considered +that the apparatus with which the experiments were made were full of +defects of workmanship, the commutator, being eccentric to the axis, +causing the contacts between it and the rollers to be very imperfect +and unequal. + +In his communication to the _Nuovo Cimento_, Dr. Pacinotti states that +the reasons which induced him to construct the apparatus on the +principle which we have just described, were: (1) That according to +this system the electric current is continuously traversing the coils +of the armature, and the machine is kept in motion not by a series of +intermittent impulses succeeding one another with greater or less +rapidity, but by a constantly acting force producing a more uniform +effect. (2) The annular form of the revolving armature contributes +(together with the preceding method of continuous magnetization) to +give regularity to its motion and at the same time reduces the loss of +motive power, through mechanical shocks and friction, to a minimum. +(3) In the annular system no attempt is made suddenly to magnetize and +demagnetize the iron core of the rotating armature, as such changes of +magnetization would be retarded by the setting up of extra currents, +and also by the permanent residual magnetism which cannot be entirely +eliminated from the iron; and with this annular construction such +charges are not required, all that is necessary being that each +portion of the iron of the ring should pass, in its rotation, through +the various degrees of magnetization in succession, being subjected +thereby to the influence of the electro-dynamic forces by which its +motion is produced. (4) The polar extension pieces of the fixed +electro-magnet, by embracing a sufficiently large number of the iron +projecting pieces on the armature ring, continue to exercise an +influence upon them almost up to the point at which their +magnetization ceases when passing the neutral axis. (5) By the method +of construction adopted, sparks, while being increased in number, are +diminished in intensity, there being no powerful extra currents +produced at the breaking of the circuit, and Dr. Pacinotti points out +that when the machine is in rotation a continuous current is induced +in the circuit which is opposed to that of the battery; and this leads +to what, looked at by the light of the present state of electric +science, is by far the most interesting part of Dr. Pacinotti's paper, +published, as it was, more than seventeen years ago. + +In the part to which we refer, Dr. Pacinotti states that it occurred +to him that the value of the apparatus would be greatly increased if +it could be altered from an electro-magnetic to a magneto-electric +machine, so as to produce a continuous current. Thus, if the +electro-magnet, A B (Figs. 3 and 4), be replaced by a permanent +magnet, and the annular armature were made to revolve, the apparatus +would become a magneto-electric generator, which would produce a +continuous induced current always in the same direction, and in +analyzing the action of such a machine Dr. Pacinotti observes that, as +the position of the magnetic field is fixed, and the iron armature +with its coils rotates within it, the action may be regarded as the +same as if the iron ring were made up of two fixed semicircular +horseshoe magnets with their similar poles joined, and the coils were +loose upon it and were caused to rotate over it, and this mode of +expressing the phenomenon was exactly what we adopted when describing +the Gramme machine, without having at that time seen what Dr. +Pacinotti had written fifteen years before. + +In explanation of the physical phenomena involved in the induction of +the electric currents in the armature when the machine is in action as +a generator, Dr. Pacinotti makes the following remarks: Let us trace +the action of one of the coils in the various positions that it can +assume in one complete revolution; starting from the position marked +N, Fig. 2, and moving toward S, an electric current will be developed +in it in one direction while moving through the portion of the circle, +N a, and after passing the point, a, and while passing through the +arc, a S, the induced current will be in the opposite direction, +which direction will be maintained until the point, b, is reached, +after which the currents will be in the same direction as between N +and a; and as all the coils are connected together, all the currents +in a given direction will unite and give the combined current a +direction indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2, and in order to collect +it (so as to transmit it into the external circuit), the most eminent +position for the collectors will be at points on the commutator at +opposite ends of a diameter which is perpendicular to the magnetic +axis of the magnetic field. With reference to Fig. 2, we imagine +either that the two arrows to the right of the figure are incorrectly +placed by the engraver, or that Dr. Pacinotti intended this diagram to +express the direction of the current throughout the whole circuit, as +if it started from a, and after traversing the external circuit +entered again at b, thus completing the whole cycle made up of the +external and internal circuits. + +Dr. Pacinotti calls attention to the fact that the direction of the +current generated by the machine is reversed by a reversal of the +direction of rotation, as well as by a shifting of the position of the +collectors from one side to the other of their neutral point, and +concludes his most interesting communication by describing experiments +made with it in order to convert it into a magneto-electric machine. +"I brought," he says, "near to the coiled armature the opposite poles +of two permanent magnets, and I also excited by the current from a +battery the fixed electro-magnets (see Figs. 3 and 4), and by +mechanical means I rotated the annular armature on its axis. By both +methods I obtained an induced electric current, which was continuous +and always in the same direction, and which, as was indicated by a +galvanometer, proved to be of considerable intensity, although it had +traversed the sulphate of copper voltameter which was included in the +circuit." + +Dr. Pacinotti goes on to show that there would be an obvious advantage +in constructing electric generating machines upon this principle, for +by such a system electric currents can be produced which are +continuous and in one direction without the necessity of the +inconvenient and more or less inefficient mechanical arrangements for +commutating the currents and sorting them, so as to collect and +combine those in one direction, separating them from those which are +in the opposite; and he also points our the reversibility of the +apparatus, showing that as an electro-magnetic engine it is capable of +converting a current of electricity into mechanical motion capable of +performing work, while as a magneto-electric machine it is made to +transform mechanical energy into an electric current, which in other +apparatus, forming part of its external circuit, is capable of +performing electric, chemical, or mechanical work. + +All these statements are matters of everyday familiarity at the +present day, but it must be remembered that they are records of +experiments made twenty years ago, and as such they entitle their +author to a very distinguished place among the pioneers of electric +science, and it is somewhat remarkable that they did not lead him +straight to the discovery of the "action and reaction" principle of +dynamo-electric magnetic induction to which he approached so closely, +and it is also a curious fact that so suggestive and remarkable a +paper should have been written and published as far back as 1864, and +that it should not have produced sooner than it did a revolution in +electric science.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR. + + +We lately published a short description of a very interesting +apparatus which may be considered in some sense as a prototype of the +Gramme machine, although it has very considerable, indeed radical +differences, and which, moreover, was constructed for a different +purpose, the Elias machine being, in fact, an electromotor, while the +Gramme machine is, it is almost unnecessary to say, an electric +generator. This apparent resemblance makes it, however, necessary to +describe the Elias machine, and to explain the difference between it +and the Gramme. Its very early date (1842), moreover, gives it an +exceptional interest. The figures on the previous page convey an exact +idea of the model that was exhibited at the Paris Electrical +Exhibition, and which was contributed by the Ecole Polytechnique of +Delft in the Dutch Section. This model is almost identical with that +illustrated and described in a pamphlet accompanying the exhibit. The +perspective illustrations show the machine very clearly, and the +section explains the construction still further. The apparatus +consists of an exterior ring made of iron, about 14 in. in diameter +and 1.5 in wide. It is divided into six equal sections by six small +blocks which project from the inner face of the ring, and which act as +so many magnetic poles. On each of the sections between the blocks is +rolled a coil, of one thickness only, of copper wire about 0.04 in. in +diameter, inclosed in an insulating casing of gutta percha, giving to +the conductor thus protected a total thickness of 0.20 in.; this wire +is coiled, as shown in the illustration. It forms twenty-nine turns in +each section, and the direction of winding changes at each passage in +front of a pole piece. The ends of the wire coinciding with the +horizontal diameter of the ring are stripped of the gutta percha, and +are connected to copper wires which are twisted together and around +two copper rods, which are placed vertically, their lower ends +entering two small cavities made in the base of the apparatus. The +circuit is thus continuous with two ends at opposite points of the +same diameter. The ring is about 1.1 in. thick, and is fixed, as +shown, to two wooden columns, B B, by two blocks of copper, a. + +[Illustration: THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.--MADE IN 1842.] + +It will be seen from the mode of coiling the wire on this ring, that +if a battery be connected by means of the copper rods, the current +will create six consecutive poles on the various projecting blocks. +The inner ring, E, is about 11 in. in outside diameter, and is also +provided with a series of six projecting pieces which pass before +those on the exterior ring with very little clearance. Between these +projections the space between the inner face of the outer, and the +outer face of the inner ring, is 0.40 in. The latter is movable, and +is supported by three wooden arms, F, fixed to a boss, G, which is +traversed by a spindle supported in bearings by the columns, A and C. +A coil is rolled around the ring in exactly the same way as that on +the outer ring, the wire being of the same size, and the insulation of +the same thickness. The ends of the wire are also bared at points of +the diameter opposite each other, and the coil connected in pairs so +as to form a continuous circuit. At the two points of junction they +are connected with a hexagonal commutator placed on the central +spindle, one end corresponding to the sides 1, 3, and 5, and the other +to the sides 2, 4, and 6. Two copper rods, J, fixed on the base to two +plates of copper furnished with binding screws, are widened and +flattened at their upper ends to rest against opposite parallel sides +of the hexagon. It will be seen that if the battery is put in circuit +by means of the binding screws, the current in the interior ring will +determine six consecutive poles, the names of which will change as the +commutator plates come into contact successively with the sides of the +hexagon. Consequently, if at first the pole-pieces opposite each other +are magnetized with the same polarity, a repulsion between them will +be set up which will set the inner ring in motion, and the effect will +be increased on account of the attraction of the next pole of the +outer ring. At the moment when the pole piece thus attracted comes +into the field of the pole of opposite polarity, the action of the +commutator will change its magnetization, while that of the pole-piece +on the fixed ring always remains the same; the same phenomenon of +repulsion will be produced, and the inner ring will continue its +movement in the same direction, and so on. To the attractive and +repulsive action of the magnetic poles has to be added the reciprocal +action of the coils around the two rings, the action of which is +similar. From this brief explanation the differences between the Elias +machine and the Gramme will be understood. The Dutch physicist did not +contemplate the production of a current; he utilized two distinct +sources of electricity to set the inner ring in motion, and did not +imagine that it was possible, by suppressing one of the inducing +currents and putting the ring in rapid rotation, to obtain a +continuous current. Moreover, if ever this apparent resemblance had +been real, the merit of the Gramme invention would not have been +affected by it. It has happened very many times that inventors living +in different countries, and strangers to one another, have been +inspired with the same idea, and have followed it by similar methods, +either simultaneously or at different periods, without the application +having led to the same results. It does not suffice even for the seed +to be the same; it must have fallen in good ground, and be cultivated +with care; here it scarcely germinates, there it produces a vigorous +plant and abundant fruit.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +BJERKNES'S EXPERIMENTS. + + +As a general thing, too much trust should not be placed in words. In +the first place, it frequently happens that their sense is not well +defined, or that they are not understood exactly in the same way by +everybody, and this leads to sad misunderstandings. But even in case +they are precise, and are received everywhere under a single +acceptation, there still remains one danger, and that is that of +passing from the word to the idea, and of being led to believe that, +because there is a word, there is a real thing designated by this +word. + +Let us take, for example, the word _electricity_. If we understand by +this term the common law which embraces a certain category of +phenomena, it expresses a clear and useful idea; but as for its +existence, it is not permitted to believe _a priori_ that there is a +distinct agent called electricity which is the efficient cause of the +phenomena. We ought never, says the old rule of philosophy, to admit +entities without an absolute necessity. The march of science has +always consisted in gradually eliminating these provisory conceptions +and in reducing the number of causes. This fact is visible without +going back to the ages of ignorance, when every new phenomenon brought +with it the conception of a special being which caused it and directed +it. In later ages they had _spirits_ in which there was everything: +volatile liquids, gases, and theoretical conceptions, such as +phlogiston. At the end of the last century, and at the beginning of +our own, ideas being more rational, the notion of the "fluid" had been +admitted, a mysterious and still vague enough category (but yet an +already somewhat definite one) in which were ranged the unknown and +ungraspable causes of caloric, luminous, electric, etc., phenomena. +Gradually, the "fluid" has vanished, and we are left (or rather, we +were a short time ago) at the notion of forces--a precise and +mathematically graspable notion, but yet an essentially mysterious +one. We see this conception gradually disappearing to leave finally +only the elementary ideas of matter and motion--ideas, perhaps, which +are not much clearer philosophically than the others, particularly +that of matter taken _per se_, but which, at least, are necessary, +since all the others supposed them. + +Among those notions that study and time are reducing to other and +simpler ones, that of electricity should be admitted; for it presents +itself more and more as one of the peculiar cases of the general +motion of matter. It will be to the eternal honor of Fresnel for +having introduced into science and mathematically constituted the +theory of undulations (already proposed before him, however), thus +giving the first example of the notion of motion substituted for that +of force. Since the principle of the conservation of energy has taken +the eminent place in science that it now occupies, and we have seen a +continual transformation of one series of phenomena into another, the +mind is at once directed to the aspect of a new fact toward an +explanation of this kind. Still, it is certain that these hypotheses +are difficult of justification; for those motions that are at present +named molecular, and that we cannot help presuming to be at the base +of all actions, are _per se_ ungraspable and can only be demonstrated +by the coincidence of a large number of results. There is, however, +another means of rendering them probable, and that is by employing +analogy. If, by vibrations which are directly ascertainable, we can +reproduce the effects of electricity, there will be good reason for +admitting that the latter is nothing else than a system of vibration +differing only, perhaps, in special qualities, such as dimensions, +direction, rapidity, etc. + +Such is the result that is attained by the very curious experiments +that are due to Mr. Bjerknes. These constitute an _ensemble_ of very +striking results, which are perfectly concordant and exhibit very +close analogies with electrical effects, as we shall presently see. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +They are based on the presence of bodies set in vibration in a liquid. +The vibrations produced by Mr. Bjerknes are of two kinds--pulsations +and oscillations. The former of these are obtained by the aid of small +drums with flexible ends, as shown to the left in Fig. 1. A small pump +chamber or cylinder is, by means of a tube, put in communication with +one of these closed drums in which the rapid motion of a piston +alternately sucks in and expels the air. The two flexible ends are +successively thrust outward and attracted toward the center. In an +apparatus of this kind the two ends repulse and attract the liquid at +the same time. Their motions are of the same phase; if it were desired +that one should repulse while the other was attracting, it would be +necessary to place two drums back to back, separated by a stiff +partition, and put them in connection with two distinct pump chambers +whose movements were so arranged that one should be forcing in while +the other was exhausting. A system of this nature is shown to the +right in Fig. 1. + +The vibrations are obtained by the aid of small metal spheres fixed in +tubular supports by movable levers to which are communicated the +motions of compression and dilatation of the air in the pump chamber. +They oscillate in a plane whose direction may be varied according to +the arrangement of the sphere, as seen in the two apparatus of this +kind shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 will give an idea of the general +arrangement. The two pistons of the air-pumps are connected to cranks +that may be fixed in such a way as to regulate the phases as may be +desired, either in coincidence or opposition. The entire affair is put +in motion by a wheel and cord permitting of rapid vibrations being +obtained. The air is let into the apparatus by rubber tubing without +interfering with their motions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +We may now enter into the details of the experiments: + +The first is represented in Fig. 2. In a basin of water there is +placed a small frame carrying a drum fixed on an axle and capable of +revolving. It also communicates with one of the air cylinders. The +operator holds in his hand a second drum which communicates with the +other cylinder. The pistons are adjusted in such a way that they shall +move parallel with each other; then the ends of the drums inflate and +collapse at the same time; the _motions are of the same phase_; but if +the drums are brought near each other a very marked attraction occurs, +the revolving drum follows the other. If the cranks are so adjusted +that the pistons move in an opposite direction, the _phases are +discordant_--there is a repulsion, and the movable drum moves away +from the other. The effect, then, is analogous to that of two magnets, +with about this difference, that here it is the like phases that +attract and the different phases that repel each other, while in +magnets like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other. + +It is necessary to remark that it is indifferent which face of the +drum is presented, since both possess the same phase. The drum +behaves, then, like an insulated pole of a magnet, or, better, like a +magnet having in its middle a succeeding point. In order to have two +poles a double drum must be employed. The experiment then becomes more +complicated; for it is necessary to have two pump chambers with +opposite phases for this drum alone, and one or two others for the +revolving drum. The effects, as we shall see, are more easily shown +with the vibrating spheres. + +This form has the advantage that the vibrating body exhibits the two +phases at the same time; relatively to the liquid, one of its ends +advances while the other recedes. Thus with a vibrating sphere +presented to the movable drum, there may be obtained repulsion or +attraction, according as the side which is approached is concordant or +discordant with the end of the drum that it faces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +With the arrangement shown in Fig. 3 there may be performed an +interesting series of experiments. The two spheres supported by the +frame are set in simultaneous vibration, and the frame, moreover, is +free to revolve about its axis. The effect is analogous to that which +would be produced by two short magnets carried by the same revolving +support; on presenting the vibrating sphere to the extremities the +whole affair is attracted or repulsed, according to its phase and +according to the point at which it is presented; on replacing the +transverse support by a single sphere (as indicated in the figure by a +dotted line) we obtain the analogue of a short magnet carried on a +pivot like a small compass needle. This sphere follows the pole of a +vibrating sphere which is presented to it, as the pole of a magnet +would do, with this difference always, that in the magnet, like poles +repel, while in oscillating bodies like phases attract. + +In all the preceding experiments the bodies brought in presence were +both in motion and the phenomena were analogous to those of permanent +magnetism. We may also reproduce those which result from magnetism by +induction. For this purpose we employ small balls of different +materials suspended from floats, as shown in Fig. 4 (a, b, c). +Let us, for example, take the body, b, which is a small metal +sphere, and present to it either a drum which is caused to pulsate, on +an oscillating sphere, and it will be attracted, thus representing the +action of a magnet upon a bit of soft iron. A curious experiment may +serve to indicate the transition between this new series and the +preceding. If we present to each other two drums of opposite phases, +but so arranged that one of them vibrates faster than the other, we +shall find, on carefully bringing them together, that the repulsion +which manifested itself at first is changing to attraction. On +approaching each other the drum having the quicker motion finally has +upon the other, the same action as if the latter were immovable; and +the effect is analogous to that which takes place between a strong and +weak magnet presented by their like poles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +By continuing these experiments we arrive at a very important point. +Instead of the body, b (Fig. 4), let us take c. As the figure +shows, this is a sphere lighter than water, kept in the liquid by a +weight. If we present to it the vibrating body, it will be repelled, +and we shall obtain the results known by the name of diamagnetism. +This curious experiment renders evident the influence of media. As +well known, Faraday attributed such effects to the action of the air; +and he thought that magnetic motions always resulted from a difference +between the attraction exerted by the magnet upon the body under +experiment, and the attraction exerted by the air. If the body is more +sensitive than the air, there is direct magnetism, but if it is less +so, there is diamagnetism. Water between the bodies, in the Bjerknes +experiments, plays the same role; it is this which, by its vibration, +transmits the motions and determines the phases in the suspended body. +If the body is heavier than water its motion is less than that of the +liquid, and, consequently, relatively to the vibrating body, it is of +like phase; and if it is lighter, the contrary takes place, and the +phases are in discordance. These effects may be very well verified by +the aid of the little apparatus shown in Fig. 5, and which carries two +bars, one of them lighter and the other heavier than water. On +presenting to them the vibrating body, one presents its extremity and +takes an axial direction, while the other arranges itself crosswise +and takes the equatorial direction. These experiments may be varied in +different ways that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon in this +place, as they may be seen at the Electrical Exhibition. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +Very curious effects are also obtained with the arrangement shown in +Fig. 6. Between the two drums there is introduced a body sustained by +a float such as represented at a, Fig. 4. Various results may, then, +be obtained according to the combinations adopted. Let us suppose that +the phases are alike, and that the interposed body is heavier than +water; in this case it is repelled as far as the circumference of the +drums, at which point it stops. If the phases are different, the +influenced body behaves in the opposite manner and stops at the +center. If the body is lighter than water the effects are naturally +changed. Placed between two like phases, it is attracted within a +certain radius and repelled when it is placed further off; if the +phases are unlike, it is always repelled. We may easily assure +ourselves that these effects are analogous to those which are produced +on bodies placed between the poles of wide and powerful magnets. It +is useless to repeat that the analogies are always inverse. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +Mr. Bjerknes has carried the examination of these phenomena still +further in studying experimentally the actions that occur in the +depths of the liquid; and for this purpose he has made use of the +arrangement shown in Fig. 7. By the side of the vibrating body there +is placed a light body mounted on a very flexible spring. This assumes +the motion of that portion of the fluid in which it is immersed, and, +by the aid of a small pencil, its direction is inscribed upon a plate +located above it. By placing this registering apparatus in different +directions the entire liquid may be explored. We find by this means +figures that are perfectly identical with magnetic phantoms. All the +circumstances connected with these can be reproduced, the vibrating +sphere giving the phantom of a magnet with its two poles. We may even +exhibit the mutual action of two magnets. The figures show with +remarkable distinctness--much more distinct, perhaps, than those that +are obtained by true magnets. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +However, it must not be thought that these so interesting facts are +the result of groping in the dark and the outcome of some fortunate +experiment; for they have, on the contrary, been foreseen and +predetermined. Mr. Bjerknes is especially a mathematician, and it was +a study, through calculation, of the vibratory motion of a body or +system of bodies in a medium that led him to the results that he +afterwards materialized. + +After the production, by Mr. Lejeune, of his solutions, Mr. Bjerknes +in 1865 entered upon a complete study of the subject, and recognized +the fact that the result of such motions was the production of regular +mechanical actions. He calculated the directions of these, and, along +about 1875, perceived the possibility of reproducing the effects of +permanent magnetism. More recently, in 1879, he saw that magnetism by +derivation might likewise be explained by those hypotheses, and +figured by actions of this kind. It was not till then that he +performed the experiments, and submitted a body to the results of +calculation. + +The same process has led him to the conclusion that the action of +currents might be represented in the same manner; only, instead of +bodies in vibration, it would require bodies in alternating rotation. +The effects are much more difficult to ascertain, since it is +necessary to employ viscid liquids. + +Meanwhile, the experiments have been performed. Up to the present time +attractions and repulsions have not been shown, and I do not know +whether Mr. Bjerknes has obtained them. But, by the process pointed +out, the lines of action (electric phantoms, if I may so express +myself) have been traced, and they are very curious. By supposing the +current perpendicular to the plate, and in the presence of the pole of +a magnet, the influences produced around it are very well seen, and +the figures are very striking, especially in the case of two currents. +Mr. Bjerknes does not appear as yet to have obtained from these +experiments all that he expects from them. And yet, such as they are, +they have already led him to important conclusions. Thus, calculation, +confirmed by application, has led him to renounce the formula proposed +by Ampère and to adopt that of Regnard as modified by Clausius. Is he +right? This is what more prolonged experimentation will allow to be +seen. + +These researches, however, are beset with difficulties of a special +nature, and the use of viscid liquids is a subject for discussion. Mr. +Bjerknes desired to employ them for reproducing the effects that he +had obtained from water, but he found that the lines of force were no +longer the same, and that the phenomena were modified. It is +necessary, then, to hold as much as possible to liquids that are +perfect. The experimenter is at present endeavoring to use these +liquids by employing cylinders having a fluted surface; but it is +clear that this, too, is not without its difficulties. + +This series of experiments offers a rare example of the verification +of algebraic calculation by direct demonstration. In general, we may +employ geometry, which gives a graphic representation of calculation +and furnishes a valuable control. Sometimes we have practical +application, which is a very important verification in some respects, +but only approximate in others. But it is rare that we employ, as Mr. +Bjerknes has done, a material, direct, and immediate translation, +which, while it brings the results into singular prominence, permits +of comparing them with known facts and of generalizing the views upon +which they are based. + +Hypotheses as to the nature of electricity being as yet only tolerably +well established, we should neglect nothing that may contribute to +give them a solid basis. Assuming that electricity _is_ a vibratory +motion (and probably there is no doubt about it), yet the fact is not +so well established with regard to it as it is to that of light. Every +proof that comes to support this idea is welcome, and especially so +when it is not derived from a kind of accident, but is furnished by a +calculated and mathematical combination. Viewed from this double +standpoint, the experiments of Mr. Bjerknes are very remarkable, and, +I may add, they are very curious to behold, and I recommend all +visitors to the Exhibition to examine them.--_Frank Geraldy, in La +Lumiere Electrique._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ARC ELECTRIC LIGHT.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A recent address before the New York Electric Light + Association.] + +BY LEO DAFT. + + +I shall experience one difficulty in addressing you this evening, +which is, that although I do not wish to take up your time with purely +elementary matter, I wish to make the subject clear to those who may +not be familiar with its earlier struggles. + +If we begin at the beginning we have to go back to the time when +Faraday made the discovery that light could be produced by the +separation of two carbon rods conducting a current of considerable +tension. That is the historical point when electric lighting first +loomed up as a giant possibility of the near future. This occurred +about the year 1846. In some experiments he found that although the +circuit could not be interrupted by any considerable interval when +metallic terminals were used without breaking the current, when carbon +was substituted the interval could be largely increased, and a light +of dazzling brilliancy appeared between the points. + +This remarkable effect appears to be produced by the rarefaction of +the air, due to the great heat evolved by the combustion of the +carbon, and also to the passage of incandescent particles of carbon +from pole to pole, thus reducing the resistance, otherwise too great +for the current tension. + +That was the beginning of electric lighting; and perhaps it will be +well to bridge the long and comparatively uninteresting interval which +elapsed between this discovery and the equally important one which +alone gave it commercial value--I refer to the production of suitable +currents by mechanical means. That is to say, the substitution of +energy obtained from coal in the form of steam power reduced the cost +to a fraction of what it necessarily was when the galvanic elements +were used. Here is the point; the cost of zinc today is something over +fifty times that of coal, while its energy as a vitalizing agent is +only about five times greater, leaving a very large margin in favor of +the "black diamonds." This is not the only advantage, for the +resulting impulse in the case of mechanical production is much more +uniform in action, and therefore better suited to the end in view, +while the amount of adjustment and attention required is beyond +comparison in favor of the latter means. + +The machines adopted were of the magneto variety, and many ingenious +machines of this class were operated with more or less success, being, +however, quickly abandoned upon the introduction of the +dynamo-machine, which gave currents of much greater electromotive +force from the same amount of material, the advantage being chiefly +due to the large increase of magnetic intensity in the field magnets. +At this period lights of enormous power were produced with ease and by +the use of costly lamps. With complicated mechanism a new era in +artificial illumination seemed close at hand, but a grave difficulty +stood in the way--namely, the proper distribution or subdivision of +the light. It was quickly found that the electric difficulty of +subdividing the light, added to the great cost of the lamps then made, +was an apparently insurmountable obstacle to its general adoption, and +the electric light was gradually taking its place as a brilliant +scientific toy, when the world was startled by the introduction of the +Jablochkoff candle, which may fairly claim to have given a greater +impetus to the new light than any previous invention, a stimulus +without which it is even probable that electric lighting might have +slumbered for another decade. + +The Jablochkoff candle embodies a very beautiful philosophical +principle, and though its promises have not been fulfilled in general +practice, we must not forget that we owe it much for arousing +scientific men from a dangerous lethargy. + +Up to this time the light had always been produced by approximation of +carbon rods with their axes in the same plane; but the Jablochkoff +candle consisted of like rods arranged parallel to each other and +about one-eighth of an inch apart, the intervening space being filled +with plaster of Paris, and the interval at the top bridged by a +conducting medium. The object of the plaster, which is a fairly good +insulating material at ordinary temperatures, is to prevent the +passage of the current except at the top, where the conducting +material just referred to assisted the formation of the arc at that +point, and the resulting intense heat maintained the plaster in a +moderately conducting state until the whole carbon was consumed. Here, +then, was literally an electric "candle," which could be operated +without the costly and unsteady lamps, and fortunately its birthplace +was Paris--then the center of philosophical research; from that period +the future of electric lighting was assured. + +When we reflect that owing to the greater disruptive energy of the +positive terminal, the carbon so connected to an ordinary dynamo +machine is consumed very much faster than the negative--sometimes in +the ratio of 3 to 1--it will be clear that some other means of +consuming the Jablochkoff candle had to be used, since the arc would +cease to exist in a very short time by reason of the unequal +consumption of the carbons, and the subsequent increase of the +intervening space beyond the limit of the current tension. + +This difficulty M. Gramme overcame with characteristic ingenuity by +adding to the ordinary system a "distributer" capable of delivering +plus and minus currents alternately, thus equalizing the consumption, +besides being able to supply a large number of candles on the multiple +circuit system, each circuit supporting four or five lamps. Thus it +will be seen that a result was attained which at least gave such men +as Siemens, Gramme, and their peers, if such there be, confidence in +the future and a courage which quickly placed the new science safely +beyond the limits of the laboratory. I will not occupy your time by +stating the apparent reasons why the Jablochkoff candle has not fully +sustained its brilliant promise--it will, perhaps, be sufficient to +state that it is now superseded practically, though it must always +occupy an honorable place in scientific annals. + +Let us now for a few moments consider what the electric light really +accomplished at about this period, I mean from an economical +standpoint. It appears from some data furnished by an engineer +commissioned by the French Government that the machines were then +capable of maintaining a light equal to from 220 to 450 candles, +measured by comparison with the Carcel burner, per horse power +absorbed--a very good showing considering the youth of the discovery, +but presenting rather a gloomy aspect when we consider that according +to Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat, which is 772 foot pounds, or +the power required to raise one pound of water one degree--and for +lack of anything better, we are obliged to accept that at this +moment--the whole force contained in one pound of coal would maintain +a light equal to 13,000 candles for one hour! That is the ultimate +force, and what we are now able to accomplish is but a small fraction +of this amount. + +Unfortunately we are but common mortals, and cannot, like Mr. Keely, +lightly throw off the trammels of natural law; we must, therefore, +endeavor to close this gap by patient study and experiment. + +The limited time at my disposal, and a keen consideration for your +feelings, will not permit me to follow the long series of struggles +between mind and matter immediately following Jablochkoff's brilliant +invention; suffice it to say, that the few years just passed have +yielded beyond comparison the most marvelous results in the scientific +history of the world, and it will be superfluous to remind you that a +great part of this has undoubtedly been due to the researches made in +an effort to reduce electric lighting to a commercial basis. To say +that this has been fully accomplished is but to repeat a well known +fact; and in proof of this I quote a high scientific authority by +stating that a result so high as 4,000 candles evolved for 40,000 +foot-pounds absorbed has recently been obtained--an efficiency six or +seven times greater than the record of six years ago. In accepting +this statement we must not lose sight of the extreme probability that +such effects were evolved under conditions rarely if ever found in +common practice. Of course, I now refer to the arc system. The volume +of light so generated is incomparably greater than by any other known +method, though in subdivision the limit is sooner reached. + +Mr. Hawkesworth--Let me ask you a question, please. Supposing that it +required a one-horse power to produce an arc light of, say, 2,000 +candles, would it be possible to produce ten arc lights of 200 candles +each? + +Mr. Daft--No, sir; I will tell you why. It would, if no other element +than the simple resistance of the arcs opposed the passage of a +current; then a machine that would produce an inch arc in one light, +if placed on a circuit of sixteen lamps would give to each an arc +one-sixteenth of an inch long naturally; but another difficulty here +presents itself in the shape of a resisting impulse of considerable +electromotive force in the opposite direction, apparently caused by +the intense polarity of the two terminals. The resistance of the arc +itself varies much according to the volume of current used being +usually small with a large quantity of current, and greater with a +current of tension; but this opposing element is always found, and +appears to be the only real obstacle in the way of infinite +subdivision. + +Almost every objection which human ingenuity could suggest has been +urged against lighting by electricity, but fortunately electricians +have been able in most cases either to meet the difficulty or prove it +groundless. + +In this connection I am led to speak of the common idea that electric +light is injurious to the eyes, first, because of its unsteady +character, and secondly, by reason of the great excess of the more +refrangible rays. Both objections undoubtedly hold good where the +alleged causes exist; but we can now show you a light which is +certainly as steady as the ordinary gaslight--indeed more steady in an +apartment where even feeble currents of air circulate; and I am sure +you will readily acknowledge that the latter objection is disposed of +when I assure you that our light presents the only example with which +I am acquainted of an exact artificial reproduction of the solar +light, as shown by decomposition. The two spectra, placed side by +side, show in the most conclusive manner the identity in composition +of our light with that of the sun. + +The remarkable coolness of the electric light, as compared with its +volume by gas, is also due in a great measure to the conspicuous +absence of that large excess of less refrangible, or heat-radiating +principle, which distinguishes almost equally all other modes of +artificial illumination. After the foregoing statement it may seem a +paradox to claim that the electric arc develops the greatest heat with +which we have yet had to deal, but this is so; and the heat has an +intensity quite beyond the reach of accurate measurement by any +instrument now known--it has been variously estimated anywhere between +5,000° and 50,000° F. It is sufficient for our present purpose to know +that the most refractory substances quickly disappear when brought +under its influence--even the imperial diamond must succumb in a short +time. In order to reconcile this fact with its coolness as an +illuminating agent, we have to take into consideration the extreme +smallness of the point from which the light radiates in the electric +arc. A light having the power of many thousand candles will expose but +a fraction of the surface for heat radiation which is shown by one +gas-jet, and, as I have endeavored to explain, these rays contain very +much less of the heating principle than those from gas or other +artificial light. + +The purity of electric light has another important aspect, which can +scarcely be overestimated--namely, the facility with which all the +most delicate shades of color can be distinguished. I understand from +persons better skilled than myself in such matters that this can be +done almost as readily by electric as by day light, and I have little +doubt that the slight difference in this respect will entirely +disappear when people become somewhat more familiar with the different +conditions--the effect of such shades viewed by electric light being +more like that with comparatively feeble direct sunlight than the +subdued daylight usually prevailing in stores and warehouses. + +Again, it has frequently been urged that persons working by electric +light have thus induced inflammation of the eyes. No doubt this is so +with light containing the highly refrangible rays in excess; but it is +difficult to see how such an effect can occur with light composed as +is the light with which the eyes are constructed to operate in perfect +harmony. + +As you are aware, there are other methods of obtaining light by +electric energy, and in order to make a fair comparison of one which +has lately attracted a great deal of attention and capital, I will +relate to you the result of observations made during a recent visit to +the office of an eminent electrician. The light was that known as +incandescent--a filament of carbon raised to a light-emitting heat in +vacuo. The exclusion of the air is necessary to prevent the otherwise +rapid destruction of the carbon by combination with oxygen. At the +time of my visit there were 62 lamps in circuit. According to their +statement each lamp was of 16-candle power--I accept their statement +as correct; this will give us an aggregate of 992 candles. The +generator was vitalized by an engine rated by the attendants in charge +at 6-horse power. I found that it was a 5×7 cylinder, working with +very little expansion 430 revolutions per minute, with 90 pounds of +live steam, in a boiler not 15 feet from the engine. I have every +reason to believe that the steam was delivered at the cylinder with an +almost inappreciable loss on 90 pounds. Under those conditions I think +it is perfectly fair to assume (you have the data, so that you can +calculate it afterwards) that 750,000 foot pounds were consumed in +producing those 60 lights, aggregating 992 candles. In the kind of +engine they had, 750,000 foot pounds requires a consumption of about +100 pounds of coal per hour. It was an ordinary high speed engine. +That 750,000 foot pounds, I assume, required 100 pounds of coal. That +is the only weak point in my data; I do not know that to be true; but +I never saw an engine of that form yet capable of delivering 1-horse +power with less consumption than four to five pounds of coal per horse +power per hour. I want to be as fair as I can in the matter. I wish to +compare this, as they have taken particular pains to compare it, with +gas, at the present cost of gas. + +The hundred pounds of coal will produce 400 feet of gas; 400 feet of +gas will evolve the effect of 1,500 candles. So you see the position +we are in. In consuming that coal directly by destructive distillation +you can produce 1,500 candles light; by converting it into power, and +then again into light by incandescence, you produce 992! Expressing +this in other words, we may say that in producing the light from coal +by the incandescent system you lose one-third of the power as compared +with gas, by actually converting the coal into gas, and delivering it +in the ordinary manner. Those are facts. It has been suggested to me +that I am too liberal in my estimate of coal consumed--that those +engines consume more than four or five pounds per horse power per +hour; but I prefer to give them the benefit of the doubt. + +Mr. Rothschild--If I understood you correctly, this electric light +costs more than gas? + +Mr. Daft--_Must_ do by this system. You cannot do better, so far as +our philosophy goes. But this whole system of illumination, as now +practiced is a financial fallacy. + +Mr. Rothschild--That is what Professor Sawyer says. + +Mr. Daft--The same amount of energy converted into light by our arc +system will produce 30,000 candles. We are perfectly willing to +demonstrate that at any time. I am free to admit that the minute +subdivision obtained by the Edisonian, Swan, or Fox system--they do +not differ materially--is a great desideratum; but this cannot bridge +the financial gulf. + +Mr. Lendrum--Now please state what we have accomplished. + +Mr. Daft--Certainly; and in so doing I prefer to give our results as +actually occurring in everyday work; and in this connection let me +remind you that in no branch of physics are the purely experimental +effects so well calculated to deceive, if not fairly conditioned. As +we have seen, it is claimed on excellent authority that the equivalent +of 4,000 candles appeared in an arc by expending 40,000 foot pounds of +energy at the generator, but with everyday conditions it is at present +idle to expect such efficiency. Commercially we can give by our own +system 3,000 candles for 40,000 foot pounds absorbed; this may be done +for an indefinite length of time and leave nothing to be desired on +the score of steadiness. Unfortunately there is no unit of photometric +measurement generally recognized in this country, each electrician +having so far adopted one to suit his own convenience; but in making +the foregoing statement I wish it to be understood that our efficiency +would appear still greater if measured by some of the methods now +employed. For our own satisfaction we have endeavored to be at least +approximately accurate, at the same time wishing to avoid the +affectation of extreme precision, such, for example, as adding twenty +or thirty candles to measurements of so many thousands, and we are +satisfied that the most critical expert tests will prove our claim to +be within the mark. The limit of subdivision is only reached when the +difficulty of further increasing the electromotive force of the +machines, involving great care in insulation and a host of other +troubles arising, so to speak, at very high pressure, is balanced by +the objections to working in multiple arc; this appears to occur now +at something below 40 lights, but will in all probability be greatly +extended within a short time. The machines are so constructed that the +local currents, usually productive of dangerous heating, are turned to +useful account, so that the point where radiation exceeds production +is soon reached, and provided the machines are not speeded beyond the +proper limit, they may be run continuously without the slightest +indication of lost vitality. I need scarcely remind you that this is a +most important feature, and by no means a common one. + +The lamps used in our system I believe to be the simplest known form +of regulator; indeed it seems scarcely possible that anything less +complicated could perform the necessary work; as a matter of fact we +may confidently assert that it cannot be made less liable to +derangement. It has frequently been placed on circuit by persons +totally inexperienced in such matters, and still has yielded results +which we are quite willing to quote at any time. + +I will not now trespass on your patience further than will enable me +to state that experiments now in hand indicate conclusively that +domestic electric lighting of the immediate future will be +accomplished in a manner more beautiful and wondrous than was ever +shadowed in an Arabian Night's dream. I hesitate somewhat to make +these vague allusions, since so many wild promises, for which I am not +responsible, remain unfulfilled, but the time is surely near at hand +when a single touch will illuminate our homes with a light which will +combine all the elements of beauty, steadiness, softness, and absolute +safety, to a degree as yet undreamed of. I do not ask you to accept +this without question, but only to remember that within the last +decade wires have been taught to convey not only articulate sounds, +but the individual voices you know amidst a thousand, and even light +and heat have each been made the medium of communicating our thoughts +to distant places! + +Not the least remarkable phenomenon in this connection is the +intellectual condition of the people who have welcomed these marvelous +achievements and allowed them to enter into their everyday life, thus +removing the greatest barriers of the past and paving the way for that +philosophical millennium inevitably awaiting those who may be +fortunate enough to survive the next decade. + + * * * * * + + +SUCCESS OF THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS, NEW YORK. + +The travel over the elevated steam street railways of New York city +for month of October, 1881, was the heaviest yet recorded, aggregating +7,121,961 passengers, as against 5,881,474, for the corresponding +month of 1880, an increase of 1,240,487, representing just about the +entire population of the city. + + * * * * * + + + + +HEDGES' ELECTRIC LAMPS. + + +We illustrate a very curious and interesting form of electric +regulator which is exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of Electricity by +Mr. Killingworth Hedges, whose name will be known to our readers as +the author of a little book on the electric light. Mr. Hedges' lamp +belongs to the same category of electric regulators as the lamp of M. +Rapieff, and to one form of M. Reynier's lamp, that is to say, the +position of the ends of the carbons, and therefore of the arc, is +determined not by clockwork or similar controlling mechanism, but by +the locus of the geometrical intersection of the axes of the carbon +rods, the positions of which axes being determined by simple +mechanical means. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1 and 2 HEDGES' ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS +ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +Referring to Fig. 1, A and B are two troughs rectangular in cross +section attached to the supports in such positions that their axes are +inclined to one another so as to form the letter V, as shown in the +figure. Within these troughs slide freely the two carbon pencils, +which are of circular cross section, meeting, when no current is +passing, at the lower point, E. The carbon-holder, B, to the right of +the figure, is rigidly attached to the framing of the lamp, but the +trough, A, which carries the negative carbon, is attached to the +framing by a pivot shown in the figure, and on this pivot the carbon +holder can rock, its motion being controlled by the position of the +armature of an electro-magnet, M, the coils of which are included in +the circuit of the apparatus. By this means, the moment the current is +established through the lamp, the armature is attracted, and the +points of the two carbons are separated, thus forming the arc. The +positive carbon, B, is held from sliding and dropping through the +trough by the gentle pressure against it of the smaller carbon rod, +C¹, which also slides in a trough or tube fixed in such a position +that the point of contact between the two rods is sufficiently near +the arc for the smaller rod to be slowly consumed as the other is +burnt away; the latter in that way is permitted to slide gradually +down the trough as long as the lamp is in action. The negative +carbon-holder, A, is provided with a little adjustable platinum stop, +E, which by pressing against the side of the conical end of the +negative carbon, holds the latter in its place and prevents it sliding +down the trough except under the influence of the slow combustion of +the cone during the process of producing the arc. The position of the +stop with respect to the conical end is determined by a small +adjusting screw shown in the figure. This arrangement of stop is +identical in principle with that adopted by Messrs. Siemens Brothers +in their "abutment pole" lamp, and is found to work very well in +practice on the negative electrodes, but is inapplicable on the +positive carbons on account of the higher temperature of the latter, +which is liable to destroy the metallic stop by fusion, and it is for +this reason that the positive carbon in Mr. Hedges' lamp is controlled +by the method we have already described. For alternating currents, +however, the abutment stop may be used on both electrodes. + +[Illustration: Figs. 3 and 4.] + +In order to maintain a good electrical contact between the fixed +conducting portions of the lamp and the sliding carbons, Mr. Hedges +fits to each carbon-holder a little contact piece, F F, hinged to its +respective trough at its upper end, and carrying at its lower or free +end a somewhat heavy little block of brass grooved out to fit the +cylindrical side of the carbon, against which it presses with an even +pressure. This arrangement offers another advantage, namely, that the +length of that portion of the carbon rods which is conveying the +current is always the same notwithstanding the shortening of their +total length by combustion; the resistance of the carbon electrodes +is, therefore, maintained constant, and, for the reason that the +contact piece presses against the rods very near their lower ends, +that resistance is reduced to a minimum. In this way very long +carbons, such, for instance, as will burn for ten or sixteen hours, +can be used without introducing any increase of resistance into the +circuit. The length of the arc can be determined by the adjustment of +the screw, G, by which the amount of movement of the armature is +limited. + +Fig. 2 represents a modified form of Mr. Hedges' lamp designed for +installation when it is desirable to burn a number of lamps in series. +In this arrangement the carbons are separated by the attractive +influence of a solenoid upon an iron plunger, to which is attached (by +a non-magnetic connection) the armature of an electro-magnet, the +coils (which are of fine wire) forming a shunt circuit between the two +terminals of the lamp, and so disposed with respect to the armature as +to influence it in an opposite direction to that of the solenoid. When +the circuit of the lamp is completed with the electric generator the +carbons are drawn apart by the action of the solenoid on the plunger, +and the distance to which they are separated is determined by the +difference of attractive force exercised upon the armature by the +solenoid and the magnet; but as the latter forms a short circuit to +that of the arc, it follows that should the resistance of the arc +circuit increase either through the arc becoming too long or through +imperfection in the carbons or contacts, a greater percentage of +current will flow through the magnet coils, and the arc will be +shortened, thereby reducing its resistance and regulating it to the +strength of the current. In other words, the distance between the +carbons, that is to say, the length of the arc, is determined by the +position of the armature of the electro-magnet between its magnets and +the solenoid, which position is in its turn determined by the +difference between the strength of current passing through the coil of +the solenoid and that of the magnet. + +Mr. Killingworth Hedges exhibits also a third form of his lamp, in +most respects similar to the lamp figured in Fig. 1, but in which the +ends of the two carbons rest against the side of a small cylinder of +fireclay or other refractory material, which is mounted on a +horizontal axis and can be rotated thereon by a worm and worm-wheel +actuated by an endless cord passing over a grooved pulley. In the lamp +one of the carbon-holders is rigidly fixed to the framing of the +apparatus, and the other is mounted on a point so as to enable the +length of the arc playing over the clay cylinder to be regulated by +the action of an electro-magnet attracting an armature in opposition +to the tension of an adjustable spring. + +In the same exhibit will be found specimens of Mr. Hedges' two-way +switches, which have been designed to reduce the tendency to sparking +and consequent destruction which so often accompanies the action of +switches of the ordinary form. The essential characteristic of this +switch, which we illustrate in elevation in Fig. 3 and in plan in Fig. +4, lies first in the circular form of contact-piece shown in Fig. 4, +and next in the fact that the space between the two fixed +contact-pieces is filled up with a block composed of compressed +asbestos, the surface of which is flush with the upper surfaces of the +two contact-pieces. The circular contact-piece attached to the switch +lever can be turned round so as to present a fresh surface when that +which has been in use shows indications of being worn, and a good firm +contact with the fixed contact-pieces is insured by the presence of a +spiral spring shown in the upper figure, and which, owing to an error +in engraving, appears more like a screw than a spring. In order to +prevent bad connection through dust or other impurities collecting +within the joint, the electrical connection between the fulcrum of the +switch lever and the circular contact-piece is made through the bent +spring shown edgeways in Fig. 3.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Lartigue's Switch Controller Fig. +2--Transverse Section Fig. 3--Longitudinal Section Fig. 4.--Position +of the Commutators during the Manuever Fig. 5.--Pedal for Sending +Warning to Railway Crossing--Elevation. Fig. 7.--End View. + +Fig. 8.--Electric Alarm. Fig. 12.--Guggemos's Correspondence +Apparatus--External View. Fig. 13.--Interior of the Same. Fig. +14.--Annunciator Apparatus. Fig. 15.--Controller for Water Tanks +(Lartigue System). + +RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway +Crossing--Plan View. Fig. 9.--Lartigue's Bellows Pedal--Longitundinal +Section Fig. 10.--General Plan. + +Fig. 16.--Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System). RAILWAY +APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +_Lartigue's Switch Controller._--The object of this apparatus is to +warn the switch tender in case the switch does not entirely respond to +the movement of the maneuvering lever. + +The apparatus, which is represented in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, 3, +and 4, consists of the following parts: + +(1.) A mercurial commutator, O, which is fixed on a lever, B, +connected with a piece, A, which is applied against the external +surface of the web of the main rails, opposite the extremity of the +switch plates; + +(2.) A bar, C, which traverses the web of the rail and projects on the +opposite side, and which carries a nut, D, against which the switch +plate abuts; + +(3.) An electrical alarm and a pile, located near the switch lever. +As long as one of the two plates of the switch is applied against the +rail, one of the two commutators is inclined and no current passes. A +space of one millimeter is sufficient to bring the commutator to a +horizontal position and to cause the electric alarm to ring +continuously. If the apparatus gets out of order, it is known at once; +for if the alarm does not work during the maneuver of the switch, the +tender will be warned that the electric communications are +interrupted, and that he must consequently at once make known the +position of his switch until the necessary repairs have been made. + +_Pedals for Transmitting Signals to Crossings._--On railways having a +double track and doing a large amount of business it becomes very +necessary to announce to the flagmen at railway crossings the approach +of trains, so as to give them time to stop all crossing of the tracks. +On railway lines provided with electro-semaphores there may be used +for this purpose those small apparatus that have been styled semaphore +repeaters. + +Mr. Lartigue has invented two automatic apparatus, by means of which +the train itself signals its approach. + +1. The first of these, which is generally placed at about 6,000 feet +from the point to be covered, consists (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8) of a +very light pedal fixed to the inside of the rail, and acting upon a +mercurial commutator. A spring, R, carried upon the arm, a, of a +lever, A, projects slightly above the level of the rail, while the +other arm, b, carries a commutator. + +The spring, R, on being depressed tilts the box containing the +mercury, closes the circuit, and causes an alarm, S, located at the +crossing, to immediately ring. In this alarm (Fig. 8) a piece, P, is +disconnected by the passage of the current into the electro-magnet, E, +which attracts the armature, a, and, a permanent current being set +up, the apparatus operates like an ordinary alarm, until the piece, P, +is placed by hand in its first position again. + +2. The second apparatus, exhibited by the Railway Company of the +North, and also the invention of Mr. Lartigue, bears the name of the +"Bellows Pedal." It consists (Figs. 9 and 10) of a pedal, properly so +called, P, placed along the rail, one of its extremities forming a +lever and the other being provided with a counterpoise, C. When a +train passes over the pedal, the arm, B, fixed to its axle, on falling +closes the circuit of an ordinary electrical alarm, and at the same +time the bellows, S, becomes rapidly filled with air, and, after the +passage of the train, is emptied again very slowly under the action of +the counterpoise. The contact is thus kept up for some few minutes. +This apparatus works very satisfactorily, but is cumbersome and +relatively high-priced. + +_The Brunot Controller as a Controller of the Passage of Trains._--The +Brunot Controller, which has been employed for several years on the +Railway of the North, is designed to control the regularity of the +running of trains, and to make automatically a contradictory +verification of the figures on the slips carried by the conductors. In +Fig. 11 we give a longitudinal section of the apparatus. It consists +of a wooden case containing a clockwork movement, H, upon the axle of +which is mounted a cardboard disk, C, divided into hours and minutes, +and regulated like a watch, that is to say, making one complete +revolution in twelve hours. The metallic pencil, c, which is capable +of displacing itself on the cardboard in a horizontal direction +opposite a groove on the other side of the disk, traces, when pressure +is brought to bear on it, a spiral curve. The transverse travel of +the pencil is effected in ninety-six hours. The displacement of the +pencil is brought about by means of a cam. Under the influence of the +jarring of the train in motion, a weight, P, suspended from a flexible +strip, l, strikes against the pencil, c, which traces a series of +points. During stoppages there is, of course, an interruption in the +tracing of the curve. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Brunot's Controller. RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE +PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +Up to this point no electricity is involved--the apparatus is simply a +controller of regularity. Mr. Brunot has conceived the idea of +utilizing his apparatus for controlling the passage of trains at +certain determined points on the line; for example, at the top of +heavy grades. For this purpose it has only been necessary to add to +the apparatus that we have just described an electro-magnet, E, +connected electrically with a fixed contact located on the line. When +the current passes, that is to say, at the moment the circuit is +closed by the passage of a train, the armature, A, is attracted, and +the pencil marks a point on the cardboard disk. This modification of +the apparatus has not as yet been practically applied. + +_Electrical Corresponding Apparatus._--The object of these apparatus +is to quickly transmit to a distance a certain number of phrases that +have been prepared in advance. The Company of the North employs two +kinds of correspondence apparatus--the Guggemos and the annunciator +apparatus. + +1. _The Guggemos Apparatus._--This apparatus serves at once as a +manipulator and receiver, and consists of an inner movement surmounted +by a dial, over the face of which moves an index hand. Around the +circumference of the dial there is arranged a series of circular +cases, C, containing the messages to be received, and similar +triangular cases, containing the messages to be forwarded, radiating +from the center of the dial. Between each of these there is a button, +b. + +Fig. 13 represents the interior of an apparatus for twenty messages. +It consists of a key-board, M, an electro-magnet, B, a clock-work +movement, Q, an escapement, s, and an interrupter, F G. + +When one of the buttons, b, is pressed, one of the levers of the +key-board arrangement touches the disk, M, which is insulated from the +other portions of the key-board, and the current then passes from the +terminal C to M, and there bifurcating, one portion of it goes to the +bobbins of the apparatus and thence to the earth, while the other goes +to actuate the correspondence apparatus. The index-hands of the two +apparatus thereupon begin their movement simultaneously, and only stop +when the pressure is removed from the button and the current is +consequently interrupted. H is a ratchet-wheel, which, like the +key-board, is insulated from the rest of the apparatus. The button, K, +located over each of the dials, serves to bring the index-needles back +to their position under the cross shown in Fig. 12. The key, X, serves +for winding up the clock-work movement. + +_The Annunciator Apparatus._--This apparatus, which performs the same +role as the one just described, is simply an ingenious modification of +the annunciator used in hotels, etc. + +It consists of a wooden case, containing as many buttons as there are +phrases to be exchanged. Over each button, b, there is a circular +aperture, behind which drops the disk containing the phrase. Between +the buttons and the apertures are rectangular plates, P, in which are +inscribed the answers given by pressing on the button of the receiving +tablet--a pressure which, at the same time, removes the corresponding +disk from the aperture. Two disks located at the upper part carry +these inscriptions: "Error, I repeat;" "Wait." The tablets on +exhibition have eight disks, and can thus be used for exchanging six +different phrases. In the interior, opposite each aperture, there is a +Hughes magnet, between the arms of which there oscillates a vertical +soft-iron rod, carrying a disk. The maneuver "is simple." By pressing +upon a button there is sent into the bobbins of the magnet +corresponding to this button a current which causes the disk to appear +before one of the apertures, while at the same time an alarm begins to +ring. The same maneuver performed by the agent at the receiving-post +has the effect of causing the disk to disappear. The two contact +springs in communication at each aperture with the alarm and the line +are connected by a strip of ebonite, M, against the center of which +presses the button. + +_Electrical Controllers for Water-Tanks._--The object of these +apparatus is to warn the person in charge of a water-tank that the +latter is full, and that he must stop the engine-pump; or, that the +tank is empty, and that he must at once proceed to fill it. The +Company of the North has on exhibition two such apparatus--one of them +Lartigue's, and the other Vérité's. + +1. _The Lartigue Controller_ (Fig. 15).--This apparatus consists of a +long lever, A, which carries at one of its extremities a funnel, E, +having a very narrow orifice and which is placed under the overflow +pipe of the tank. The lever is kept normally in a horizontal position +by a counterpoise; but, as soon as the overflow runs into the funnel, +the weight of the water tilts the lever, and the mercurial commutator, +F, closes the circuit of a pile, which actuates an alarm-bell located +near the pump and engine. The two stops, a and _a'_, limit the play +of the lever. + +2. _The Vérité Controller_ (Fig. 16).--This apparatus consists of a +float, F, provided with a catch, C, calculated in such a way as to act +only when the float has reached a certain definite height. At that +moment it lifts the extremity of the weighted lever, E, which in +falling back acts upon the extremity, a, of another lever, N, +pivoted at the point, O. The piece, P, which is normally in contact +with the magnet, A, being suddenly detached by this movement of the +lever, N, the induced current which is then produced causes the +display, near the pump, of a disk, Q, upon which is inscribed the word +"Full." This is a signal to stop pumping. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TELEPHONIC HALLS OF THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION. + + +Telephonic communication between the Opera and the Exhibition of +Electricity is obtained by means of twenty conducting wires, which are +divided between two halls hung with carpets to deaden external noises. +We represent in the accompanying engraving one of these halls, and the +one which is lighted by the Lane-Fox system of lamps. As may be seen, +there are affixed against the hangings, all around the room, long +mahogany boards, to which are fastened about twenty small tablets +provided with hooks, from which are suspended the telephones. The +latter are connected with the underground conductors by extensible +wires which project from the wooden wainscot of which we have just +spoken, so that it is very easy for the auditors to put the telephones +to their ears. + +[Illustration: ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL +EXHIBITION.] + +As the telephones are connected in series of eight with the same +couple of microphone transmitters, and as each of these transmitting +couples occupies a different position on the stage, it results that +the effects are not the same at different points of each hall. Those +telephones, for example, which correspond with the foot-lights of the +theater are more affected by the sounds of the large instnuments of +the orchestra than those which occupy the middle of the foot-lights; +but, as an offset to this, the latter are affected by the voice of the +prompter. In order to equalize the effects as much as possible, Mr. +Ader has arranged it so that the two transmitters of each series shall +be placed under conditions that are diametrically opposite. Thus, the +transmitter at the end of the foot-lights, on the left side, +corresponds with the transmitter of the series to the right, nearest +to the middle of the stage; and the arrangement is the same, but in an +inverse direction, for the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights +to the right. But the series which produces the best effects is, as +may be readily comprehended, that which corresponds with the +transmitters occupying the middle of the right and left rows. These +considerations easily explain the different opinions expressed by +certain auditors in relation to the predominant sounds that they have +heard, and why it is that some of them who have listened in different +parts of the same hall have not had the same impressions. Naturally, +the fault has beeen laid to the telephones; but, although these may +vary in quality, it is more particularly to the arrangement of the +transmitters on the stage that are to be attributed the differences +that are noted. + +As the Opera does not give representations every day, Mr. Ader has had +the idea of occupying the attention of the public on Tuesday, +Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday with the telephonic effects of +flourishes of trumpets, which imitate pretty well the effects of +French horns. These experiments have taken place in the hall in which +is installed the little theater, and we must really say that in the +effects produced French horns count for nothing.--_La Lumiere +Electrique._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ACTION OF COLD ON THE VOLT + + +When the voltaic arc plays between two metallic rheophores, of copper +for instance, each formed of a U-tube traversed by a rapid current of +cold water, and placed horizontally opposite each other, the following +facts are observed: The luminous power of the arc is considerably +weakened; it is reduced to a mere luminous point even when a current +of 50 to 75 Bunsen elements of the large pattern is employed. The arc +is very unstable and the least breath is sufficient to extinguish it. +If a leaf of paper is placed above the arc at the distance of 0.004 to +0.005 meter a black point is produced in a few moments, which spreads +and becomes a perforation, but the paper does not ignite. The arc +consists of a luminous globule, moving between the two rheophores up +and down and back again. The form of this globule, as well as its +extreme mobility, causes it to resemble a drop of water in a +spheroidal state. If we approach to the voltaic arc the south pole of +a magnet the arc is attracted to such a degree that it leaves the +rheophores and is extinguished. The same facts are observed in an +intense form on presenting the north pole of a magnet to the arc. The +quantity of ozone seems greater than when the arc is not refrigerated. +It is to be noted that notwithstanding the refrigeration of the +rheophores the flame of the arc is slightly green, proving that a +portion of the copper is burning. It becomes a question whether the +arc would be produced on taking as rheophores two tubes of platinum in +which is caused to circulate, e.g., alcohol cooled to -30°.--_D. +Tommasi._ + + * * * * * + + + + +WATCHMAN'S DETECTER. + + +We herewith illustrate an exceedingly simple form of detecter, to show +if the night watchmen perform their visits regularly and punctually. +In the case, C, is a clockwork apparatus driving the axle, S, at the +end of which is a worm which gears into the wheel of the drum, D. The +rotation of D, thus obtained unrolls a strip of paper from the other +drum, D. This paper passes over the poles of as many electro-magnets +as there are points to be visited, and underneath the armatures of +these electro-magnets. Each armature has a sharp point fixed on its +under side, and when a current passing through the coils causes the +attraction of the armature, this point perforates the paper. The +places to be visited are connected electrically with the binding +screws shown, and the watchman has merely to press a button to make +the electric circuit complete. It has been found in practice that +plain paper answers every purpose, as the clock giving an almost +uniform motion enables the reader, after having seen the perforated +slips once or twice, to determine fairly well the time which elapses +between each pressure of the button.--_The Engineer._ + +[Illustration: WATCHMAN'S DETECTER] + + * * * * * + + + + +INTEGRATING APPARATUS. + + +At a recent meeting of the London Physical Society, Mr. C. Vernon Boys +read a paper on "Integrating Apparatus." After referring to his +original "cart" machine for integrating, described at a former meeting +of the society, he showed how he had been led to construct the new +machine exhibited, in which a cylinder is caused to reciprocate +longitudinally in contact with a disk, and give the integral by its +rotation. Integrators were of three kinds: (1) radius machines; (2) +cosine machines; (3) tangent machines. Sliding friction and inertia +render the first two kinds unsuitable where there are delicate forces +or rapid variation in the function to be integrated. Tangent machines +depend on pure rolling, and the inertia and friction are +inappreciable. They are, therefore, more practical than the other +sort. It is to this class that Mr. Boys' machines belong. The author +then described a theoretical tangent integrator depending on the +mutual rolling of two smoke rings, and showed how the steering of a +bicycle or wheelbarrow could be applied to integrate directly with a +cylinder either the quotient or product of two functions. If the +tangent wheel is turned through a right angle at starting, the machine +will integrate reciprocals, or it can be made to integrate functions +by an inverse process. If instead of a cylinder some other surface of +evolution is employed as an integrating surface, then special +integrations can be effected. He showed a polar planimeter in which +the integrating surface is a sphere. A special use of these +integrators is for finding the total work done by a fluid pressure +reciprocating engine. The difference of pressure on the two sides of +the piston determines the tangent of the inclination of the tangent +wheel which runs on the integrating cylinder; while the motion of the +latter is made to keep time with that of the piston. In this case the +number of evolutions of the cylinder measures the total amount of work +done by the engine. The disk cylinder integrator may also be applied +to find the total amount of work transmitted by shafting or belting +from one part of a factory to another. An electric current meter may +be made by giving inclination to the disk, which is for this purpose +made exceedingly small and delicate, by means of a heavy magnetic +needle deflected by the current. This, like Edison's, is a direction +meter; but a meter in which no regard is paid to the direction of the +current can be made by help of an iron armature of such a shape that +the force with which it is attracted to fill the space between the +poles of an electro-magnet is inversely as its displacement. Then by +resisting this motion by a spring or pendulum the movement is +proportional to the current, and a tangent wheel actuated by this +movement causes the reciprocating cylinder on which it runs to +integrate the current strength. Mr. Boys exhibited two such electric +energy meters, that is, machines which integrate the product of the +current strength by the difference of potential between two points +with respect to time. In these the main current is made to pass +through a pair of concentric solenoids, and in the annular space +between these is hung a solenoid, the upper half of which is wound in +the opposite direction to the lower half. By the use of what Mr. Boys +calls "induction traps" of iron, the magnetic force is confined to a +small portion of the suspended solenoid, and by this means the force +is independent of the position. The solenoid is hung to one end of a +beam, and its motion is resisted by a pendulum weight, by which the +energy meters may be regulated like clocks to give standard measure. +The beam carries the tangent wheels, and the rotation of the cylinder +gives the energy expanded in foot-pounds or other measures. The use of +an equal number of turns in opposite directions on the movable +solenoid causes the instrument to be uninfluenced by external magnetic +forces. Mr. Boys showed on the screen an image of an electric arc, and +by its side was a spot of light, whose position indicated the energy, +and showed every flicker of the light and fluctuation of current in +the arc. He showed on the screen that if the poles are brought too +near the energy expended is less, though the current is stronger, and +that if the poles are too far apart, though the electromotive force is +greater the energy is less; so that the apparatus may be made to find +the distance at which the greatest energy, and so the greatest heat +and light, may be produced. + +At the conclusion of the paper, Prof. W.G. Adams and Prof. G.C. Foster +could not refrain from expressing their high admiration of the +ingenious and able manner in which Mr. Boys had developed the subject. + + * * * * * + + + + +A CANAL BOAT PROPELLED BY AIR. + + +A novelty in canal boats lies in Charles River, near the foot of +Chestnut street, which is calculated to attract considerable +attention. It is called a pneumatic canal boat and was built at +Wiscasset, Me., as devised by the owner, Mr. R.H. Tucker, of Boston, +who claims to hold patents for its design in England and the United +States. The specimen shown on Charles River, which is designed to be +used on canals without injuring the banks, is a simple structure, +measuring sixty-two feet long and twenty wide. It is three feet in +depth and draws seventeen inches of water. It is driven entirely by +air, Root's blower No. 4 being used, the latter operated by an +eight-horse-power engine. The air is forced down a central shaft to +the bottom, where it is deflected, and, being confined between keels, +passes backward and upward, escaping at the stern through an orifice +nineteen feet wide, so as to form a sort of air wedge between the boat +and the surface of the water. The force with which the air strikes the +water is what propels it. The boat has a speed of four miles an hour, +but requires a thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop its full +capabilities. The patentee claims a great advantage in doing away with +the heavy machinery of screws and side-wheels, and believes that the +contrivance gives full results, in proportion to the power employed. +It is also contrived for backing and steering by air propulsion. +Owing to the slight disturbance which it causes to the water, it is +thought to be very well adapted for work on canals without injury to +the sides.--_Boston Journal._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HEAD LININGS OF PASSENGER CARS. + + +The veneer ceilings are considered as much superior to cloth as cloth +was to the roof-ceiling. They are remarkably chaste, and so solid and +substantial that but little decoration is necessary to produce a +pleasing effect. The agreeable contrast between the natural grain of +the wood and the deeper shade of the bands and mouldings is all that +is necessary to harmonize with the other parts of the interiors of +certain classes of cars--smoking and dining cars, for example. But in +the case of parlor and dining-room cars, the decorations of these +ceilings should be in keeping with the style of the cars, by giving +such a character to the lines, curves, and colors, as will be +suggestive of cheerfulness and life. While these head linings are +deserving of the highest commendation as an important improvement upon +previous ones, they are still open to some objections. One barrier to +their general adoption is their increased cost. It is true that +superior quality implies higher prices, but when the prices exceed so +much those of cloth linings, it is difficult to induce road managers +to increase expenses by introducing the new linings, when the great +object is to reduce expenses. Another objection to wood linings is +their liability to injury from heat and moisture, a liability which +results from the way in which they are put together. A heated roof or +a leak swells the veneering, and in many cases takes it off in strips. +To obviate these objections, I have, during the past eighteen months, +been experimenting with some materials that would be less affected by +these causes, and at the same time make a handsome ceiling. About a +year ago I fitted up one car in this way, and it has proved a success. +The material used is heavy tar-board pressed into the form of the roof +and strengthened by burlaps. It is then grained and decorated in the +usual manner, and when finished has the same appearance as the +veneers, will wear as well, and can be finished at much less +cost.--_D.D. Robertson._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED MORTAR MIXER. + + +The engravings herewith illustrate a new form of mixing or pugging +machine for making mortar or any other similar material. It has been +designed by Mr. R.R. Gubbins, more especially for mixing emery with +agglutinating material for making emery wheels; and a machine is at +work on this material in the manufactory of the Standard Emery Wheel +Company, Greek Street, Soho. The machine is shown in perspective in +Fig. 1 with the side door of the mixing box let down as it is when the +box is being emptied; and in Fig. 2 it is shown in transverse section. +The principle of the machine is the employment of disks fixed at an +angle of about 45 deg. on shafts revolving in a mixing box, to which a +slow reciprocating movement of short range is given. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2--IMPROVED MORTAR MIXING +MACHINE.] + +In our illustrations, C is a knife-edge rail, upon which run grooved +wheels supporting the pugging box. To the axle of one grooved wheel a +connecting rod from crank arm, F is attached to effect the to-and-fro +motion of the mixing box, B. G is the door of the box, B, hinged at H, +and secured by hinged pins carrying fly nuts. A cover and hopper and +also a trap may be supplied to the box, B, for continuously feeding +and discharging the material operated upon. L, L, are the pugging +blades or discs on shafts, M. The shafts, M, pass through a slot in +the box, B, and the packing of these shafts is effected by the face +plate sliding and bearing against the face on the standard of the +machine. P is a guide piece on the standard, against which bears and +slides the piece, Q, bolted on to box, B, to support and guide the +box, B, in its movement. The forked ends of a yoke engage with the +collars, S, on the shafts, M, this yoke being set by a screw so that +the shafts may be easily removed. The machine is driven from the +pulleys and shaft, T, through gearing, T2 and T3, and by the Ewart's +chain on the wheel and pinion, V and U.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 311, page 4960.] + + + + +PRACTICAL NOTES ON PLUMBING.[1] + + [Footnote 1: From the London _Building News_.] + +BY P.J. DAVIES, H.M.A.S.P., ETC. + + +TINNING IRON PIPES, COPPER OR BRASS-WORK, BITS, ETC. + +Previously, I described the method of tinning the bit, etc., with +resin; but before this work on joints can be considered complete, I +find it necessary to speak of tinning the ends of iron pipes, etc., +which have within the last fifty years been much used in conjunction +with leaden pipes. This is done as follows: Take some spirits of salts +(otherwise known as hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, hydrogen +chloride, HCl), in a gallipot, and put as much sheet-zinc in it as the +spirit will dissolve; you have then obtained chloride of zinc (ZnCl). +A little care is required when making this, as the acid is decomposed +and is spread about by the discharged hydrogen, and will rust anything +made of iron or steel, such as tools, etc. It also readily absorbs +ammoniacal gas, so that, in fact, sal ammoniac may also be dissolved +in it, or sal ammoniac dissolved in water will answer the purpose of +the chloride of zinc. + +Having the killed spirits, as it is sometimes called, ready, file the +end of your iron or bit and plunge this part into the spirits, then +touch your dipped end with some fine solder, and dip it again and +again into the spirits until you have a good tinned face upon your +iron, etc.; next you require a spirit-brush. + + +SPIRIT-BRUSH. + +You can make this by cutting a few bristles out of a broom or brush, +push them into a short piece of compo tube, say 1/4 in., and hammer up +the end to hold the bristles; next cut the ends of the bristles to +about 3/8 in. long, and the brush is ready for use. + + +SOLDERING IRON TO LEAD. + +Suppose you want to make a joint round a lead and iron pipe. First +file the end of your iron pipe as far up as you would shave it if it +were lead, and be sure to file it quite bright and free from grease; +heat your soldering-iron; then, with your spirit-brush, paint the +prepared end of your iron, and with your bit, rub over the pipe plenty +of solder, until the pipe is properly tinned, not forgetting to use +plenty of spirits; this done, you can put your joint together, and +wipe in the usual manner. Caution.--Do not put too much heat on your +iron pipe, either when tinning or making the joint, or the solder will +not take or stand. + + +DUMMIES FOR PIPE-BENDING. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 38. and 38B.] + +Figs. 38 and 38B. This tool I had better describe before +proceeding to the method of bending. To make it take a piece of, say, +½ in. iron pipe, 3 ft. long, or the length required, bent a little at +one end, as shown at A B in Fig. 38 and Fig. 38B. Tin the end +about 2 in. up, make a hole with a small plumbing-iron in some sand, +and place the tinned end of the iron pipe, B, into this hole; fill the +hole up with good hot lead, and the dummy, after it has been rasped up +a little, is ready for use. It will be found handy to have three or +four different lengths, and bent to different angles, to suit your +work. A straight one (Fig. 38B.) made to screw into an iron +socket or length of gas-pipe, will be found very handy for getting +dents out of long lengths of soil-pipe. + + +BENDS AND SET-OFFS. + +Before you begin bending solid pressed pipes always put the thickest +part of your pipe _at the back_. Lead, in a good plumber's hands, may +be twisted into every conceivable shape; but, as in all other trades, +there is a right and a wrong way of doing everything, and there are +many different methods, each having a right and wrong way, which I +shall describe. I shall be pleased if my readers will adopt the style +most suitable for their particular kind of work; of course I shall say +which is the best for the class of work required. + +For small pipes, such as from ½ in. to 1 in. "_stout_ pipe," you may +pull them round without trouble or danger; but for larger sizes, say, +from 1¼ in. to 2 in., some little care is necessary, even in stout +pipes. + +Fig. 37 illustrates a badly made bend, and also shows how it comes +together at the throat, X, and back, E; L is the enlarged section of X +E, looking at the pipe endways. The cause of this contraction is +pulling the bend too quickly, and too much at a time, without dressing +in the sides at B B as follows: After you have pulled the pipe round +until it just begins to flatten, take a soft dresser, or a piece of +soft wood, and a hammer, and turn the pipe on its side as at Fig. 37; +then strike the bulged part of the pipe from X B toward E, until it +appears round like section K. Now pull your pipe round again as +before, and keep working it until finished. If you find that it +becomes smaller at the bend, take a long bolt and work the throat part +out until you have it as required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.] + + +BENDING WITH WATER (LIGHT PIPES). + +Fig. 39. This style of bending is much in use abroad, but not much +practiced in London, though a splendid method of work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.] + +It is a well known fact that, practically speaking, for such work, +water is incompressible, but may be turned and twisted about to any +shape, provided it is inclosed in a solid case--Fig. 39 is that case. +The end, A, is stopped, and the stopcock, B, soldered into the other +end. Now fill up this pipe quite full with warm water and shut the +cock, take the end, A, and pull round the pipe, at the same time +dressing the molecules of lead from the throat, C, toward D E, which +will flow if properly worked. + +You can hammer away as much as you please, but be quick about it, so +that the water does not cool down, thereby contracting; in fact, you +should open the cock now and then, and recharge it to make sure of +this. + + +SAND BENDING. + +This is a very old method of bending lead pipes, and answers every +purpose for long, easy bends. Proceed in this way: The length of the +pipe to be 5 ft., fill and well ram this pipe solid with sand 2 ft. +up, then have ready a metal-pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe one +foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold sand, ramming it as +firmly as possible, stop the end and work it round as you did the +water bend, but do not strike it too hard in one place, or you will +find it give way and require to be dummied out again, or if you cannot +get the dent out with the dummy send a ball through (see "Bending with +Balls"). + + +BENDING WITH BALLS OR BOBBINS. + +This style of work is much practiced on small pipes, such as 2 in. to +3 in., especially by London plumbers. Method: Suppose your pipe to be +2 in., then you require your ball or bobbin about 1/16 in. less than +the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull the +pipe round until it just begins to flatten, as at Fig. 37, put the +ball into the pipe, and with some short pieces of wood (say, 2 in. +long by 1½ in. diameter) force the ball through the dented part of the +pipe, or you may use several different-sized balls, as at A B C, Fig. +40, and ram them through the pipe with a short mandrel, as at D M. You +will require to proceed very carefully about this ramming, or +otherwise you will most likely drive the bobbins through the back at L +K J. You must also watch the throat part, G H I, to keep it from +kinking or buckling-up; dress this part from the throat toward the +back, in order to get rid of the surplus in the throat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.] + + +THREE-BALL OR LEAD DRIVING BALL AND DOUBLE-BALL BENDING. + +Fig. 41 shows a method of bending with three balls, one of lead being +used as a driver attached to a piece of twine. This is a country +method, and very good, because the two balls are kept constantly to +the work. First, put the two balls just where you require the bend, +then pull the pipe slightly round; take the leaden ball and drop it +on the ball, B, then turn the pipe the other end up and drop it on A, +and do so until your bend is the required shape. You must be careful +not to let your leaden ball touch the back of the pipe. Some use a +piece of smaller leaden pipe run full of lead for the ball, C, and I +do not think it at all a bad method, as you can get a much greater +weight for giving the desired blow to your _boxwood_ balls. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.] + + +BENDING WITH WINDLASS AND BRASS BALL. + +This is an excellent method of bending small pipes. Fig. 42 will +almost describe itself. A is a brass or gun metal ball having a copper +or wire rope running through it, and pulled through the flattened part +of the pipe as shown. It will be quite as well to tack the bend down +to the bench, as at B, when pulling the ball through; well dress the +lead from front to back to thicken the back. I have seen some plumbers +put an extra thickness of lead on the back before beginning to bend. +Notice: nearly all solid pressed pipes are thicker on one side than +the other (as before remarked), always place the thickest part at the +back. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.] + + +HYDRAULIC OR CUP-LEATHER AND BALL BENDING. + +Fig 43. This is my own method of pipe-bending, and is very useful when +properly handled with plenty of force, but requires great care and +practice. You must have a union sweated on the end, A, Fig. 43, and +the ball, B, to fit the pipe. The cup-leather, E, should have a plate +fixed on the front to press the ball forward. Pull up the pipe as you +please, and pump the ball through; it will take all the dents out, and +that too very quickly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.] + + +BENDING BY SPLITTING OR SPLIT-MADE BENDS. + +This method of bending is much practiced in the provinces, and, for +anything I know to the contrary, is one of the best methods in use, as +by it you are likely to get a good substance of metal on the back of +the bend whether the plumber be a good or a bad workman. Proceed as +follows: Cut the pipe down the center to suit the length of your bend, +as shown at A B, Fig. 44. It will be quite as well if you first set +out this bend on the bench, then you may measure round the back, as +from C to L, to obtain the distance of the cut, which should always be +three or four inches longer than the bend. You may also in this way +obtain the correct length for the throat, G H I; here you will see +that you have a quantity of lead to spare, i.e., from A to E, all of +which has to be got rid of in uncut bends--some plumbers shift from +front to back, but how many? Not one in twenty. After you have cut the +pipe, open the throat part, bend out the sides, and pull this part +round a little at a time, then with a dummy, Fig. 38, work the +internal part of the throat outward to as nearly the shape as you can. +Go carefully to work, and do not attempt to work up the sides, A D B, +until your throat is nearly to the proper shape, after which you may +do so with a small boxwood dresser or bossing-stick (It is not +necessary to explain minutely what a bosser or dressing-stick is, as +they can be bought at almost any lead-merchants--the dresser is shown +at E, Fig. 1; the bossing-stick is somewhat similar, the only +difference being that it has a rounded face instead of flat.) Keep the +dummy up against the sides when truing it. If you have proceeded +properly with this throat part, you will not require to work up the +sides or edges, as in working the throat back the sides will come up +by themselves. Next take the back, pull it round a little at a time, +the dummy being held inside, with your dresser work the two edges and +sides slowly round, and the back will follow. Never strike the back +from the underside with the dummy. After you have made a dozen or two +you will be able to make them as fast as you please, but do not hurry +them at first, as the greater part of this work is only to be learned +by patient application, perseverance, and practice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.] + +After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but +before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the +edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch +his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so +that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a +gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge +attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look +like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine +solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a +well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to +A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being +especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A. +Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no +importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared, +that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will +have a "higgledy-piggledy" appearance. Some difference of opinion +exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will +make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one +will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained +in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it +is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint +with the ladle and plumbing-iron. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.] + +It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one +joint on the back. + + +PULLING UP BENDS. + +In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them. +Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you +require the bend, lay it (_with the seam at the side_) upon a pillow, +made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust; +have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length +of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about ½ in. smaller than the pipe, and +a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few +burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough +to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat +is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the +end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place +a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then +pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the +throat. Now, with a _hot_ dummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round +like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made, +occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow +on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides +run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from +inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back +with a view to thickening the back. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.] + + +SET-OFFS. + +A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and +made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always +make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found +to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make +the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff +from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different +shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double +bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent +dummy shown at Fig. 38. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.] + + +BAD BENDS. + +These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at +Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD +to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next +strike the back part of the pipe, E, _with the same force_, and if it +dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of +these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed +together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.--Care must be +taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.] + + +BAD FALLS IN BENDS. + +The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as +much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for +pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad +bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such +bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is +not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for +soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good +fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends +requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for +opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future +paragraph on "Preparing for Fixing." + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.] + + +BENDS MADE INTO TRAPS OR RETARDERS. + +It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when +running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another +course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been +done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I, +after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing +new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with +provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it +has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in +his "Sanitary Engineering," says it was introduced and has been used +for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.] + +I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at +South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a +medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of +their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as +joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into +this Exhibition--in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the +Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article +on Fixing, in a future part. + + +BENDS MADE WITH THE "SNARLING DUMMY." + +This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy +made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of +working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents, +strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction +gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape +required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of +in working up embossed vases, etc. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.] + +_(To be continued)_ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER. + + +The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires +the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors +at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are +adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary +one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling +mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines +constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature, +because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever. + +[Illustration: THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.] + +The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen +Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is +new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it +more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schönherr, Crompton, +and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors, +a1, a2, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary +motion of which acts upon the box, c, by means of the lever, b, +the box being caused to descend again by the spring, d. Parallel +with the breast beam there is mounted an axle, e, and upon one of +the extremities of this is fixed the sector, a1, while the other +extremity carries two fixed disks, f1, f2, two loose disks, +f3, f4, and the sector, a2, which is connected with the +latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake, g. The pawls, +h1 and h2, are supported on a lever, i, on a level with the +disks, and are connected with the cam, l, by the spring, k. This +cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against +the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls +on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors, +a1 and a2, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the +desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls, h, are connected +by wires with the bent levers, m, of the draught machine, which +carry also the pawls, n. The upper position of the pawls, h, is +limited by the direct resting of the levers, m, on the tappet, o, +and the lower position by the resting of the pawls, n. The plates, +p, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means +of the eccentric, q, the crank, r, and the bent lever, s. The +raised plates abut against the corresponding levers, m, and thus +bring about the descent of the pawls, h, which are suspended from +these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the +pawls, n, upon the tappet, o, until the lowering of the +corresponding plate has set the pawl, n, free. The lever, m, then +gives way to the action of the spring, t, and the pawl, h, rises +again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is +effected by the motion of the bent lever, s. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDUSTRIAL ART FOR WOMEN--CARPET DESIGNING. + + +A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the +possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women. + +Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical +Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the +proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could +be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex +to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative +industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first +woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country. +She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no +school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial +purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught +theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two, +however, in many branches of industrial design women have been +pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated +from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now +working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print +factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers +for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a +china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted +for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light, +pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far +exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe, +particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars' +worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made +in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent. +One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing +department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign +markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing +than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair +knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving. +Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible, +for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent +instruction in this branch of industrial art is given. + +There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may +be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price +of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for +an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels +or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as +good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For +moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists +are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to +$100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the +manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be +purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist +to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the +work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75 +extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for +making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three +per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and +Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the +elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the +designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time +from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries +run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from +$2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from +$1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per +week. + +Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial +art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls +might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French +said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and +disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial +art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of +decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the +time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical +designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art +might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department, +explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public +schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and +high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American +people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing +they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The +beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that +she had ever witnessed in the old countries. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTOGRAPHY UPON CANVAS. + + +One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of +Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If +you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will +produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The +success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not +produce colored work--or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part +to do so--but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic +portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the +dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering +with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself +maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true +lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs. +Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear +to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path, +and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be +purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an +enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about +"painted photographs," and in these days of cheap club portraits there +is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a +well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is +willing to concede that the picture has merit. + +"We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it," said +one of our hosts; "it seems to contain so much fatty matter." The +German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for +photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and +rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several +pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and +there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large +horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that +all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of +water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its +running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process, +and this is the first operation. + +Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put +the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in +any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It +is of _papier mâché_, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly, +only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is +adopted: + +Bromide of potassium................... 3 parts. +Iodide of potassium.................... 1 part. +Bromide of cadmium..................... 1 " +Water................................ 240 parts. + +Four assistants are required in the operation, and the same number +when it comes to sensitizing and developing, all of which processes +are commenced in the same way. The bath is tilted so that the liquid +collects at one end, and near this end two assistants hold across the +bath a stout glass rod; then the canvas is dipped into the liquid, and +drawn out by two other assistants over the glass rod. In this way the +canvas is thoroughly saturated, and, at the same time, drained of +superfluous liquid. + +The canvas is hung up to dry; but as sometime must elapse before this +particular piece will be ready for sensitizing, we proceed with +another canvas which is fit and proper for that process. The room, we +should have mentioned, is provided with windows of yellow glass; but +as there is plenty of light nevertheless, the fact hardly strikes one +on entering. The sensitizing, with a solution of nitrate of silver, is +conducted with a glass rod in the same way as before, the solution +being thus compounded: + +Nitrate of silver........................ 4 parts. +Citric acid.............................. 1 part. +Water.................................. 140 parts. + +Again the canvas is dried, and then comes its exposure. + +This is done in a room adjoining. We lift a curtain and enter a space +that reminds one of the underground regions of a theater. There are +curtained partitions and wooden structures on every hand; dark murky +corners combined with brilliant illumination. Messrs. Winter use the +electric light for enlarging, a lamp of Siemens' driven by a six-horse +power engine. The lamp is outside the enlarging room, and three large +lenses, or condensers, on three sides of the light, permit the making +of three enlargements at one end at the same time. (See Fig.) + +[Illustration] + +The condenser collects the rays, and these shine into a camera +arrangement in which the small negative is contained. The enlarged +image is then projected, magic lantern fashion, upon the screen, to +which is fastened the sensitized canvas. The screen in question is +upon a tramway--there are three tramways and three screens in all, as +shown in our sketch--and for this reason it is easy to advance and +retire the canvas, for the purpose of properly focusing it. + +Even with the electric light now employed, it is necessary to expose a +considerable time to secure a vigorous impression. From ten minutes to +half an hour is the usual period, determined by the assistant, whose +experienced eye is the only guide. We should estimate the distance of +the cameras from the enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen or +fifteen feet in the instance we saw, and when the canvas was taken +down, a distinct outline of the image was visible on its surface. + +By the way, we ought to mention that the canvas is in a decidedly limp +state during these operations. It has just sufficient stiffness to +keep smooth on the screen, and that is all; the treatment it has +received appears to have imparted no increase of substance to it. +Again it is brought into the red-brick washing apartment, and again +treated in one of the white enameled baths as before. This time it is +the developer that is contained in the bath, and the small limp +tablecloth--for that is what it looks like--after being drawn over the +glass rod, is put back into the bath, and the developing solution +rocked to and fro over it. The whiteness of the bath lining assists +one in forming a judgment of the image as it now gradually develops +and grows stronger. Here is the formula of the developer: + +Pyrogallic acid......................... 10 parts. +Citric acid............................. 45 " +Water...................................410 " + +The developer--which, it will be noted, is very acid--is warmed before +it is used, say to a temperature of 30° to 40° C.; nevertheless, the +development does not proceed very quickly. As we watched, exactly +eight minutes elapsed before Mr. Winter cried out sharply, "That will +do." Immediately one of the assistants seizes the wet canvas, crumples +it up without more ado, as if it were dirty linen, and takes it off to +a wooden washing trough, where it is kneaded and washed in true +washerwoman fashion. Water in plenty is sluiced over it, and after +more vigorous manipulation still, it is passed from trough to trough +until deemed sufficiently free from soluble salts to tone. The +toning--done in the ordinary way with gold--removes any unpleasant +redness the picture possesses, and then follows the fixing operation +in hyposulphite. As canvas is more permeable than paper, these two +last processes are quickly got through. + +The final washing of the canvas is very thorough. Again it is treated +with all the vigor with which a good laundry-maid attacks dirty linen, +the canvas, in the end, being consigned to a regular washing-machine, +in which it is systematically worked for some time. + +When the canvas picture at last is finished, it presents a very rough +appearance, by reason of the tiny fibers that stand erect all over the +surface. To lay these, and also to improve the surface generally, the +canvas is waxed, the fabric is stretched, and a semi-fluid mass rubbed +into it, heat being used in the process, which not only gives +brilliancy, but seems also to impart transparency to the shadows of +the picture. The result is a pleasant finish, without vulgar glare or +glaze, the high lights remaining beautifully pure and white. + +Of course, the price of these canvas enlargements varies with the +amount of artistic work subsequently put upon them; but the usual +charge made by Messrs. Winter for a well-finished life-size portrait, +three quarter length, is sixty florins, or about £5 sterling as the +exchange now stands. Besides working for photographers, Messrs. Winter +are reproducing a large number of classic paintings and cartoons by +photography on canvas in this way (some of them almost absolutely +untouched), and these, as may be supposed, are finding a very large +sale among dealers. Such copies must necessarily be of considerable +value to artists and collectors, and altogether it would seem that +Messrs. Winter have hit upon a novel undertaking, which bids fair to +make them a handsome return for the outlay (large as it undoubtedly +has been) made upon their Vienna establishment.--_Photo. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DETECTION OF STARCH SUGAR SIRUP MIXED WITH SUGAR-HOUSE +MOLASSES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A Paper read before the American Chemical Society, + September 2, 1881.] + +BY P. CASAMAJOR. + + +In previous communications I have given processes for detecting the +adulteration of cane-sugar by starch-sugar. The adulteration of +sugar-house sirups by starch glucose is still more extensively +practiced than that of sugar, and a great portion of sirups sold by +retailers in this market is adulterated with starch glucose. This form +of adulteration may be very easily detected by the use of strong +methylic alcohol, in which the alcoholometer of Tralles or of Gay +Lussac will indicate about 93½°. + +A straight sugar-house sirup when mixed with three times its volume of +this strong methylic alcohol will dissolve by stirring, giving a very +slight turbidity, which remains suspended; while sirups containing the +usual admixture of starch sugar give a very turbid liquid, which +separates, when left at rest, into two layers, the lower being a thick +viscous deposit containing the glucose sirup. + +Considerable quantities are sold of a thin sirup, of about 32° Baumé, +in which the proportion of sugar to the impurities is greater than in +common sugar-house molasses. When a sirup of this kind is stirred with +three times its volume of methylic alcohol, a marked turbidity and +deposition will take place, which consists of pure sugar. The crystals +are hard and gritty. They adhere to the sides of the glass, and are +deposited on the bottom. There is no resemblance between this +precipitate and that due to starch sugar sirup. + +It may not be useless to mention that if a straight sugar-house sirup +of about 40° B. density is stirred with three times its volume of +_ethylic_ alcohol of about 93½° the sirup will not dissolve. Hence +ethylic alcohol of this strength is not suitable for distinguishing a +sirup mixed with starch glucose from a _straight_ sugar-house sirup. + +The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may be easily +detected by the optical saccharometer when the sirup has the usual +density of about 40° B., and when starch sugar has been added in the +usual quantities. + +For making the test the usual weight should be taken (16.35 grammes +for Duboscq's saccharometer, and 26.048 grammes for Ventzke's +instrument). The direct test should show a percentage of sugar not +higher than the number of Baumé degrees indicating the density, and it +may be from 2 to 3 per cent. lower. To understand this, we must refer +to the composition of cane-sugar molasses of 40° B.: + +Sugar.......................................37.5 +Insoluble impurities........................37.5 +Water.......................................25 + +If the direct test should indicate 55 per cent. of sugar, and if the +molasses were straight, the composition would be-- + +Sugar...........................................55 +Soluble impurities..............................20 +Water...........................................25 + +Now, a product of this composition would not be a clear sirup at 40° +B., but a mixture of sirup and crystals. Therefore, if the product is +a clear sirup at 40° B., and it tests 55 per cent., it cannot be +_straight_. + +The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may also be +detected by the copper test. The possibility of applying this test, as +well as those already indicated, rests on the fact that starch glucose +is always added in very large quantities for the purposes of +adulteration. A very small addition could not be satisfactorily +detected. + +The detection by the copper test rests on the observation that very +nearly one-half of the soluble impurities in sugar-house molasses +consists of glucose in the shape of inverted sugar. We have seen above +that for a molasses of 40° B. the soluble impurities amount to about +37½ per cent. We may, then, lay down the rule: that the percentage of +glucose shown by the copper test cannot, in a straight sugar-house +molasses, be much greater than one-half of the number expressing the +density in Baumé degrees. The reason is obvious from what has been +said of the test by the optical saccharometer. + + * * * * * + + +FALSE VERMILION.--A curious case has been noticed in Germany, +where a small cargo of vermilion was purchased, and, upon being +analyzed, turned out to be red oxide of lead colored by eosine. This +is an entirely novel sophistication. The eosine was separated from the +oxide of lead by digesting the product for twenty-four hours in very +strong alcohol. A much shorter time is sufficient to color the spirit +enough to enable an expert chemist to detect the presence of this +splendid organic coloring matter. Another kind of "vermilion" consists +entirely of peroxide of iron, prepared especially to imitate the +brilliant and costly sulphide of mercury, which it does very well, and +is largely used in England, France, and America. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE POSITION OF MANGANESE IN MODERN INDUSTRY. + +BY M.V. DESHAYES. + + +No body among the metals and the metalloids (silicium, titanium, +tungsten, chromium, phosphorus, etc.) has occupied a more prominent +position in modern metallurgy than _manganese_, and it is chiefly due +to its great affinity for oxygen. When this substance was discovered, +more than a century ago (1774), by the celebrated Swedish chemist and +mineralogist, Gahn, by treating the black oxide of manganese in the +crucible, no one would have thought that the new element, so delicate +by itself, without any direct industrial use, would become, in the +middle of the nineteenth century, one of the most powerful and +necessary instruments for the success of the Bessemer process, as well +for its deoxidizing properties as for the qualities which it imparts +to steel, increasing its resistance, its durability, and its +elasticity, as has been shown elsewhere. + +Without entering into a complete history (for it is beyond the task +which we have here assumed),[1] it will not be without interest to +recall how, when manganese was first obtained in a pure state, that it +was supposed that it would remain simply an object of curiosity in the +laboratory; but when its presence was proved in spiegeleisen and when +it came to be considered an essential ingredient in the best German +and English works for cutlery steel (where it is thrown into the +crucible as the peroxide), then we find that its qualities become +better and better appreciated; and it is surprising that no +technologist ever devoted his attention to the production of manganese +alloys. + + [Footnote 1: See _Engineering_, May 27, 1881] + +It was not till after the investigations of Dr. Percy, Tamm, Prieger, +and Bessemer, who employed crucibles for the production of these +alloys, that Hendersen received the idea of utilizing it in the +Siemens furnace. So important a compound could not remain unemployed. +The works at Terre Noire produced, by the Martin furnace, for a number +of years, ferro-manganese of 70 to 80 per cent. Shortly afterward, +when competition in the market was established, the works at Carniola +and at Carinthia, some English factories, and more especially the +works at Saint-Louis, near Marseilles, of Terre Noire, of Montluçon, +etc., successfully adopted the manufacture of _ferro-manganese with +the blast furnace_, which is without doubt the method best adapted for +the reduction of metallic oxides, as well in consideration of the +reactions as from an economical point of view. Before very long it was +possible to produce, by the blast furnace, alloys of 40, 60, 80, and +even 86 per cent., in using the hot air apparatus of Siemens, Cowper, +and Witwell, with the employment of good coke, and principally by +calculating the charges for the fusion in such a manner as to obtain +an extra basic and refractory slag. + +Following in the same path, the Phoenix Co., of Ruhrort, sent, in +1880, to the Metallurgical Exposition of Dusseldorf, samples of +ferro-manganese obtained in a blast furnace, with an extra basic slag +in which the silica was almost entirely replaced by alumina. The works +of L'Esperance, at Oberhausen, exhibited similar products, quite pure +as to sulphur and phosphorus, and they had a double interest at the +exhibition, in consideration of the agitation over the Thomas and +Gilchrist process (see the discussions which were raised at the +meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute). This process unfortunately +requires for its prompt success the use of a very large quantity of +spiegel or of ferro-manganese, in order to sufficiently carburize and +deoxidize the burnt iron, which is the final product of the blowing. + +The production of ferro-manganese by the blast furnace depends upon +the following conditions. + + 1. A high temperature. + + 2. On a proper mixture of the iron ores and the manganese. + + 3. On the production of slag rich in bases. + +These different conditions may be obtained with but slight variations +at the different works, but the condition of a high temperature is one +of the most important considerations, not only for the alloys of +manganese, but equally as well for the alloys of iron, manganese, +silicium, those of chromium, of tungsten, etc. It is also necessary to +study the effects produced either in the crucible or in the blast +furnace, and to examine the ores which for a long while have been +regarded as not reducible. + +The works of Terre Noire especially made at the same time, in the +blast furnace, ferro-silicon with manganese, alloys which are daily +becoming more important for the manufacture of steels tempered soft +and half soft without blowing. + +These alloys, rich in silicon, present the peculiarity of being poor +in carbon, the amount of this latter element varying with the +proportions of manganese. In addition to the alloys used in the iron +and steel industry, we shall proceed to relate the recent progress +obtained in the metallurgy of other materials (especially copper) by +the use of _cupro-manganese_: + ++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------ +| | Mn. | C. | Si. | S. | P. | +| |per cent.| | | | | ++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+ +| A | 18 to 20| 2 to 3| 10 to 12| Traces | |Extra Quality for soft metals. +| B | 15 to 18| 3.00 | 10 to 8 | scarcely|About |} Medium Quality +| C | 15 to 10| 3.25 | 8 to 6 | percep- |0.100.|} +| D | 5 to 10| 3.50 | 4 to 6 | tible. | |Ordinary for hard metals. ++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------ + +The first alloys of manganese and copper were made in 1848, by Von +Gersdorff; soon after Prof. Schrötter of Vienna made compounds +containing 18 or 20 per cent. of manganese by reducing in a crucible +the oxides of copper and manganese mixed with wood charcoal and +exposing to a high heat. + +These alloys were quite ductile, very hard, very tenacious, and +capable of receiving a beautiful polish; their color varies from white +to rose color, according to the respective proportions of the two +bodies; they are particularly interesting on account of the results +which were obtained by adding them to certain metallic fusions. + +It is well known that in the fining of copper by oxidation there is +left in the fined metal the suboxide of copper, which must then be +removed by the refining process, using carbon to reduce the copper to +its metallic state. M. Manhès, taking advantage of the greater +affinity of manganese for oxygen, found that if this last element was +introduced into the bath of copper during the operation of refining, +the copper suboxide would be reduced and the copper obtained in its +metallic condition. For this purpose during these last years real +cupro-manganese has been prepared, occupying the same position to +copper as the spiegel or the ferro-manganese does toward the +manufacture of steel. M. Manhès used these same alloys for the fusion +of bronze and brass, and recommended the following proportions: + + 3 to 4 kilog. of cupro-manganese for 100 kilog. of bronze. + 0.250 to 1 do. do. do. brass. + 0.150 to 1.2 do. do. do. copper. + +In every case the alloy is introduced at the moment of pouring, as is +the case in the Bessemer or Martin process, taking care to cover the +fusion with charcoal in order to prevent the contact with air, +together with the use of some kind of a flux to aid in the +scorification of the manganese. + +According to M. Manhès a slight proportion of manganese added to +bronze appears to increase its resistance and its ductility, as is +shown in the following table, provided, however, that these different +alloys have been subjected to the same operations from a physical +point of view; that is, pouring, rolling, etc. + +--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+ + | | | | Weight | | + | Cu. | Sn. | Mn. | of | Elongation | + | | | | fracture | | +--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+ +Ordinary Bronze | 90 | 10 | | 20 kil. | 4.00 | +Bronze with Manganese, A, | 90 | 10 | 0.5 | 24 " | 15.00 | + Do. do. B, | 90 | 10 | 1.0 | 26 " | 20.00 | +--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+ + +The White Brass Co., of London, exhibited at Paris, in 1878, manganese +bronzes of four grades of durability, destined for different uses and +corresponding to about 20 to 25 kilos of the limit of elasticity, and +36 to 37 kilos of resistance to fracture; the number 0 is equivalent +after rolling to a resistance to fracture of 46.5 kilos, and 20 to 25 +per cent. of elongation. + +Such results show beyond contradiction the great interest there is in +economically producing alloys of copper, manganese, tin, zinc, etc. In +addition, they may be added to metallic fusions, for deoxidizing and +also to communicate to the commercial alloys (such as bronze, brass, +etc.) the greatest degree of resistance and tenacity. + +While many investigators have tried to form alloys of copper and +manganese by combining them in the metallic state (that is to say, by +the simultaneous reduction of their oxides), the Hensler Bros., of +Dillenburg, have found it best to first prepare the _metallic +manganese_ and then to alloy it in proper proportions with other +metals. Their method consisted of reducing the pure pyrolusite in +large plumbago crucibles, in the presence of carbon and an extra basic +flux; the operation was carried on in a strong coke fire, and at the +end of about six hours the _crude manganese_ is poured out, having the +following composition: + + Manganese 90 to 92 + Carbon 6 to 6.5 + Iron 0.5 to 1.5 + Silicon 0.5 to 1.2 + +By refining, the manganese can be brought up to 94 to 95 per cent. of +purity. It is from this casting of pure manganese that is obtained the +substance used as a base for the alloys. This metal is white, +crystalline, when exposed to the damp air slowly oxidizes, and readily +combines with copper to form the _cupro-manganese_ of the variety +having the composition-- + + Copper 70 + Manganese 30 + +Cast in ingots or in pigs it becomes an article of commerce which may +be introduced in previously determined proportions into bronze, gun +metal, bell metal, brass, etc. It may also be used, as we have already +mentioned, for the refining of copper according to Manhès's process. + +Tests made from this standpoint at the works of Mansfield have shown +that the addition of 0.45 per cent. of cupro-manganese is sufficient +to give tenacity to the copper, which, thus treated, will not contain +more than 0.005 to 0.022 of oxygen, the excess passing off with the +manganese into the scorias. + +On the other hand, the addition of cupro-manganese is recommended, +when it is desirable to cast thin pieces of the metal, such as tubes, +caldrons, kitchen utensils, which formerly could only be obtained by +beating and stamping. + +The tenacity obtained for tubes of only three centimeters in diameter +and 1.75 millimeters in thickness is such that they are able to +withstand a pressure of 1,100 pounds to the square inch. + +The _manganese bronze_, which we have previously referred to, and +which is used by the White Brass Company of London, is an alloy of +copper, with from one to ten per cent. of manganese; the highest +qualities of resistance, ductility, tenacity, and durability are +obtained with one to four per cent. of manganese, while with twelve +per cent. the metal becomes too weak for industrial uses. + + +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+ + | Manganese | | | Weight of | | + | bronze. | Copper.| Manganese.| fracture in | Elongation.| + | | | | kilos per | | + | | | | square mm. | | + +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+ + | A | 96.00 | 4.00 | 19.00 | 14.60 | + | B | 95.00 | 5.00 | 20.62 | 10.00 | + | C | 94.00 | 6.00 | 20.80 | 14.60 | + | D | 90.00 | 10.00 | 16.56 | 5.00 | + +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+ + +The preceding table gives some of the experimental results obtained +with the testing machine at Friedrich-Wilhelmshütte on the crude cast +ingots; the resistance is increased, as with copper, by rolling or +hammering. + +The _manganese German silver_ consists of + + Copper................ 70.00 + Manganese............. 15.00 + Zinc.................. 15.00 + +But as this alloy often breaks in rolling, the preference is given to +the following proportions: + + Copper................ 80.00 + Manganese............. 15.00 + Zinc.................. 5.00 + +This results in a white, ductile metal, which is easily worked and +susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish, like the alloys of +nickel, which it may in time completely replace. + +The _bronzes of manganese, tin, and zinc_ were perhaps the first upon +which important investigations were made; they were obtained by adding +to an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin (ordinary bronze) a definite +quantity of the cupro-manganese of the type indicated above (Cu 70, Mn +30). By this means the resistance is increased fully nine per cent., +probably in the same way as the copper, that is, by the deoxidizing +effect of the manganese, as both the copper and the tin are always +more or less oxidized in ordinary bronzes. + +Manganese combines with tin just the same as it does with copper, and +the proportion which is recommended as giving the highest resistances +is three to six per cent. of cupro-manganese. + +However, notwithstanding the use of cupro-manganese, the tin, as in +ordinary bronzes, has a tendency to liquate in those portions of the +mould which are the hottest, and which become solid the last, +especially in the case of moulds having a great width. + +From a series of experiments made at Isabelle Hütte, it has been found +that the metal which has the greatest resisting qualities was obtained +from + + Copper......................85.00 + Manganese................... 6.00 + Zinc........................ 5.00 + +5 per cent. of cupro-manganese = manganese 1.00 remaining in the +metal. + +The best method of procedure is first to melt the copper in a +crucible, and then to add the tin and the zinc; finally the +cupro-manganese is added just at the moment of pouring, as in the +Manhès process; then the reaction on the oxides is very effective, +there is a boiling with scintillation similar to the action produced +in the Bessemer and Martin process when ferro-manganese is added to +the bath of steel. + +The following are some of the results obtained from thirteen alloys +obtained in this manner. These samples were taken direct from the +casting and were tested with the machine at Friedrich-Wilhelms-hütte, +and with the one at the shops of the Rhine Railroad. Their resistance +was considerably increased, as with the other alloys, by rolling or +hammering. + +-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+ + | | | | | | | Weight | | + | | | | | |Limit of | of | Elong-| + |Nature| | | | |elasticity|fracture| ation,| + | of | | | | Cupro- |in kilos |in kilos| per- | +Numbers|mould.|Copper| Tin.| Zinc. |manganese|per mm. | per mm.|centage| +-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+ + 1 | Sand | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | | 11.30 | 16.00 | -- | + 2 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 4.00 | 13.00 | 16.10 | 2.00 | + 3 | Cast.| 87.00| 8.70| 4.30 | 4.00 | -- | 19.40 | -- | + 4 | -- | 85.00| 6.90| 5.00 | 6.00 | -- | 18.80 | 6.00 | + 5 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 6.00 | -- | 19.75 | 7.00 | + 6 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 10.00 | -- | 17.15 | 4.00 | + 7 | Sand | 87.00| 5.20| 4.33 | 3.47 | -- | 19.70 | 8.70 | + 8 | -- | 87.00| 5.20| 4.33 | 3.47 | -- | 19.70 | 8.90 | + 9 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 3.00 | 16.80 | 22.00 | -- | + 10 | -- | 74.00|10.00| 5.00 | 3.30 | 13.80 | 18.70 | -- | + | | | |(7.66 Pb)| | | | | + 11 | -- | 78.70| 8.00| ( 8 Pb) | 3.30 | 13.80 | 20.70 | -- | + 12 | -- | 82.00| 9.80| 4.90 | 3.30 | 14.75 | 19.75 | -- | + 13 | -- | 86.20|16.50| -- | 3.30 | 14.30 | 24.70 | -- | +-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+ + +The results of the tests of ductility which are here given, with +reference to the _cupro-manganese_, _manganese bronze_, the _alloys_ +with _zinc_ and _tin_, are taken from M.C. Hensler's very valuable +communication to the Berlin Society for the Advancement of the +Industrial Arts. + +These various alloys, as well as the _phosphorus bronze_, of which we +make no mention here, are at present very largely used in the +manufacture of technical machines, as well as for supports, valves, +stuffing-boxes, screws, bolts, etc., which require the properties of +resistance and durability. They vastly surpass in these qualities the +brass and like compounds which have been used hitherto for these +purposes.--_Bull. Soc. Chim., Paris_, xxxvi. p. 184. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ECONOMICAL WASHING OF COAL GAS AND SMOKE. + + +In a recent number of the _Journal des Usines à Gaz_ appears a note by +M. Chevalet, on the chemical and physical purification of gas, which +was one of the papers submitted to the Société Technique de +l'Industrie du Gaz en France at the last ordinary meeting. This +communication is noticeable, apart from the author's conclusions, for +the fact that the processes described were not designed originally for +use in gas manufacture, but were first used to purify, or rather to +remove the ammonia which is to be found in all factory chimneys, and +especially in certain manufactories of bone-black, and in spirit +distilleries. It is because of the success which attended M. +Chevalet's treatment of factory smoke that he turned his attention to +coal gas. The communication in which M. Chevalet's method is described +deals first with chimney gases, in order to show the difficulties of +the first class of work done by the author's process. Like coal gas, +chimney gases contain in suspension solid particles, such as soot and +ashes. Before washing these gases in a bath of sulphuric acid, in +order to retain the ammonia, there were two problems to be solved. It +was first of all necessary to cool the gases down to a point which +should not exceed the boiling-point of the acid employed in washing; +and then to remove the solid particles which would otherwise foul the +acid. In carrying out this mechanical purification it was impossible, +for two reasons, to make use of apparatus of the kind used in gas +works; the first obstacle was the presence of solid particles carried +forward by the gaseous currents, and the other difficulty was the +volume of gas to be dealt with. In the example to which the author's +attention was directed he had to purify 600 cubic meters of chimney +gas per minute, or 36,000 cubic meters per hour, while the gas +escaped from the flues at a temperature of from 400° to 500° C. (752° +to 932° Fahr.), and a large quantity of cinders had frequently to be +removed from the main chimney flues. After many trials a simple +appliance was constructed which successfully cooled the gases and +freed them from ashes. This consisted of a vertical screen, with bars +three mm. apart, set in water. This screen divided the gases into thin +sheets before traversing the water, and by thus washing and +evaporating the water the gases were cooled, and threw down the soot +and ashes, and these impurities fell to the bottom of the water bath. +The gases after this process are divested of the greater part of any +tarry impurities which they may have possessed, and are ready for the +final purification, in which ammonia is extracted. This is effected by +means of a series of shallow trays, covered with water or weak acid, +and pierced with a number of fine holes, through which the gas is made +to bubble. The washing apparatus is therefore strangely similar in +principle to that designed by Mr G. Livesey. M. Chevalet states that +this double process is applicable to gas works as well as to the +purification of smoke, with the difference that for the latter purpose +the washing trays are filled with acid for the retention of ammonia, +while in the former application gas liquor or water is used. The +arrangement is said to be a practical success.--_Journal of Gas +Lighting._ + + * * * * * + + +DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN IN HAIR, WOOL, DRIED BLOOD, FLESH MEAL, +AND LEATHER SCRAPS. + +BY DR. C. KRAUCH. + + +Differences obtained in the estimation of nitrogen in the above +substances are frequently the source of much annoyance. The cause of +these discrepancies is chiefly due to the lack of uniformity in the +material, and from its not being in a sufficiently fine state during +the combustion. The hair which is found in commerce for the +manufacture of fertilizers, is generally mixed with sand and dust. +Wool dust often contains old buttons, pieces of wood, shoe pegs, and +all sorts of things. The flesh fertilizers are composed of light +particles of flesh mixed with the heavier bone dust. + +Even after taking all possible precautions to finely comminute these +substances by mechanical means, still only imperfect results are +obtained, for the impurities, that is to say, the sand, can never be +so intimately mixed with the lighter particles that a sample of 0.5 to +0.8 gramme, such as is used in the determination of nitrogen, will +correspond to the correct average contents. In substances such as +dried blood, pulverization is very tedious. A very good method of +overcoming these difficulties, and of obtaining from the most mixed +substances a perfectly homogeneous mass, is that recommended by +Grandeau[1] of decomposing with sulphuric acid--a method which as yet +does not seem to be generally known. From a large quantity of the +substance to be examined, the coarse stones, etc., are removed by +picking or sifting, and the prepared substance, or in cases where the +impurities cannot be separated, the original substance, is treated +with sulphuric acid; after it is decomposed, the acid is neutralized +with calcium carbonate, and the nitrogen is determined in this mass. + + [Footnote 1: _Handbook d. Agrict. Chem. Analyst._, p. 18.] + +In order to operate rapidly, it is best to use as little sulphuric +acid as possible. If too much sulphuric acid is used, necessarily a +large amount of calcium carbonate is essential to get it into proper +condition for pulverizing. Under such circumstances the percentage of +nitrogen becomes very low, and a slight error will become +correspondingly high. + +20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 10 c.c. are sufficient for +30 to 40 grammes of material. After the substance and liquid have been +thoroughly stirred in a porcelain dish, they are warmed on a water +bath and continually stirred until the mass forms a homogeneous +liquid. The sirupy liquid thus obtained is then mixed with 80 to 100 +grammes of pulverized calcium carbonate (calcspar), dried for fifteen +minutes at 40 to 60° C., and after standing for one to two hours the +dish and its contents are weighed. From the total weight the weight of +the dish is subtracted, which gives the weight of the calcium sulphate +and the calcium carbonate, and the known weight of the wool dust, etc. +This material is then intimately ground, and 2 to 3 grammes of it are +taken for the determination of the nitrogen, which is then calculated +for the original substance. + +Although the given quantities of water and sulphuric acid hardly +appear sufficient for such a large quantity of hair or wool, still in +the course of a few minutes to a quarter of an hour, after continual +stirring, there is obtained a liquid which, after the addition of the +calcium carbonate, is readily converted into a pulverized mass. +Frequently a smaller quantity of sulphuric acid will suffice, +especially if the material is moist. The chief merit of this process +is that in a short time a large quantity of material, having a uniform +character, is obtained. Its use is, therefore, recommended for general +employment. + +When the coarser stones, etc., are weighed, and the purified portion +decomposed, absolutely correct results are obtained, and in this way +the awkward discrepancies from different analysts may be +avoided.--_Chemiker Zeitung_, v. 7, p. 703. + + * * * * * + + + + +TESTING WHITE BEESWAX FOR CERESINE AND PARAFFINS. + +BY A. PELTZ. + + +The method which is here recommended originated with Dr. M. Buchner, +and consists in preparing a concentrated solution of alcoholic caustic +potash--one part caustic potash to three of 90 per cent. alcohol--and +then boiling one to two grammes of the suspected wax in a small flask +with the above solution. The liquid is poured into a glass cylinder to +prevent solidification of the contents, and it is then placed for +about one half hour in boiling water. With pure wax the solution +remains clear white; when ceresine and paraffine are present, they +will float on the surface of the alkali solution as an oily layer, and +on cooling they will appear lighter in color than the saponified mass, +and thus they may be quantitatively estimated. The author likewise +gives a superficial method for the determination of the purity of +beeswax. It depends on the formation of wax crystals when the fused +wax solidifies. These crystals form on the surface on cooling, and are +still visible after solidification when examining the surface from the +side. The test succeeds best when the liquid wax is poured into a +shallow tin mould After cooling another peculiar property of the wax +becomes apparent. While the beeswax fills a smaller volume, that is, +separates from the sides of the mould, the Japanese wax, without +separating from the sides, becomes covered with cracks on cooling +which have a depth corresponding to the thickness of the wax.--_Neuste +Erfindungen und Erfahrungen_, viii., p. 430. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PREVENTION OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION BY FUNGI. + +BY PROF. E. REICHARD. + + +The manager of a well directed brewery, which was built according to +the latest improvements and provided with ice-cooling arrangements, +found that the alcoholic fermentation of lager beer did not advance +with proper regularity. The beer did not clarify well, it remained +turbid and had a tendency to assume a disagreeable odor and taste. +Microscopic examination of the yeast, however, showed the same to be +bottom yeast. After some time its action apparently diminished, or +rather, the fermentation, which began well, ceased, and at the same +time a white foam formed in the center of the vat. The manager +observing this, again submitted it to microscopic examination. The +instrument revealed a number of much smaller forms of fungi, similar +to those of young yeast, and some which were excessively large, a +variety never found in bottom yeast. Fully appreciating the +microscopic examination, and aware of the danger which the spread of +the fungi could cause, the manager resorted to all known means to +retard its pernicious influence. Fresh yeast was employed, and the +fermenting vats throughly cleaned, both inside and out, but the +phenomena reappeared, showing that the transmission took place through +the air. A microscopic examination of a gelatinous coating on the wall +of the fermenting room further explained the matter. Beginning at the +door of the ice cellar, the walls were covered with a gelatinous mass, +which, even when placed beneath the microscope, showed no definite +organic structure; however it contained numerous threads of fungi. +Notwithstanding the precautions which were taken for cleanliness, +these germs traveled from the ceiling through the air into the +fermenting liquid and there produced a change, which would ultimately +have caused the destruction of all the beer. + +For a third time and by altogether different means, it was +demonstrated that the air was the bearer of these germs. The whole +atmosphere was infected, and a simple change of air was by no manner +of means sufficient, as has already been shown. In addition, these +observations throw considerable light on the means by which contagious +diseases are spread, for often a room, a house, or the entire +neighborhood appears to be infected. It must also be remembered how, +in times of plague, large fires were resorted as to a method of +purifying the air. + +With the infinite distribution of germs, and as they are always +present in all places where any organic portions of vegetable or +animal matter are undergoing decomposition, it becomes, under certain +circumstances, exceedingly difficult, and at times even impossible, to +trace the direct effect of these minute germs. The organism is exposed +to the destructive action of the most minute creation; several changes +in this case give to them the direct effect of the acting germs. The +investigation of the chemist does not extend beyond the chemical +changes; nevertheless these phenomena are directly explained by the +microscope, without which, in the present case, the discovery of the +cause would have remained unknown.--_Arch. der Pharm._, 214, 158. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW REACTION OF GLYCERINE. + + +If two drops of phenic acid are diluted with three thousand to five +thousand parts of water, a distinct blue color is produced by one drop +of solution of perchloride of iron. + +The addition of six or eight drops of glycerine entirely removes the +color, and if any glycerine was present in the liquid the reaction +does not take place at all. By this test the presence of 1 per cent. +of glycerine can be detected. It may be applied to the analysis of +wines, beers, etc., but when there is much sugar, extractive or +coloring matter, the test can only be applied after evaporating, +dissolving the residue in alcohol and ether, evaporating again, and +then redissolving in water. Alkaline solutions must be first +acidulated.--_Pharm. Zeit. für Russ._ + + * * * * * + + + + +LYCOPODINE. + + +While the phanerogams or flowering plants annually contribute to the +list of newly discovered alkaloids, with the exception of muscarine +and amanitine, no alkaloid has as yet been definitely recognized among +the cryptogams. + +Karl Bödeker, of Göttingen, has opened the road in this direction, and +gives in a paper sent to Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 15, +1881, the following account of an alkaloid, which, from the name of +the plant in which it occurs, he calls lycopodine. + +The plant yielding the alkaloid, _Lycopodium complanatum_, belongs to +the group of angiospermous cryptogams. It is distributed throughout +the whole of north and middle Europe, and contains the largest +proportion of aluminum of any known plant. Its bitter taste led the +author to suspect an alkaloid in it. + +To prepare the alkaloid the dried plant is chopped up and twice +exhausted with boiling alcohol of 90 per cent. The residue is squeezed +out while hot, and the extract, after being allowed to settle awhile, +is decanted off, and evaporated to a viscid consistency over a water +bath. This is then repeatedly kneaded up with fresh quantities of +lukewarm water until the washings cease to taste bitter, and to give a +reddish brown coloration when treated with a strong aqueous solution +of iodine. The several washings are collected and precipitated with +basic lead acetate, the precipitate filtered off, and the lead in the +filtrate removed by sulphureted hydrogen. The filtrate from the lead +sulphide is evaporated down over a water bath, then made strongly +alkaline with a solution of caustic soda, and repeatedly shaken up +with fresh quantities of ether so long as the washings taste bitter +and give a precipitate with iodine water. After distilling off the +ether, the residue is treated with strong hydrochloric acid, the +neutral or slightly acid solution filtered off from resinous +particles, slowly evaporated to crystallization, and the crystals +purified by repeated recrystallization. To prepare the pure base a +very concentrated solution of this pure hydrochlorate is treated with +an excess of a very concentrated solution of caustic soda, and pieces +of caustic potash are added, whereupon the free alkaloid separates out +at first as a colorless resinous stringy mass, which, however, upon +standing, turns crystalline, forming monoclinic crystals similar to +tartaric acid or glycocol. The crystals are rapidly washed with water, +and dried between soft blotting paper. + +Thus prepared, lycopodine has a composition which may be represented +by the formula C_{32}H_{52}N_{2}O_{3}. It melts at 114° to 115° C. +without loss of weight. It is tolerable soluble in water and in ether, +and very soluble indeed in alcohol, chloroform, benzol, or amyl +alcohol. Lycopodine has a very pure bitter taste. + +The author has formed several salts of the base, all of a crystalline +nature, and containing water of crystallization. + +The hydrochlorate gives up a part of its water of crystallization at +the ordinary temperature under a desiccator over sulphuric acid, and +the whole of it upon heating.--_Chemist and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CONCHINAMINE. + + +Some years ago, O. Hesse, when preparing chinamine from the renewed +bark of _Cinchona succirubra_, found in the mother liquid a new +alkaloid, which he then briefly designated as conchinamine. He has +lately given his attention to the separation and preparation of this +alkaloid, and gives in Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 31, 1881, +the following description of it: + +_Preparation._--The alcoholic mother lye from chinamine is evaporated +down and protractedly exhausted with boiling ligroine, whereby +conchinamine and a small quantity of certain amorphous bases are +dissolved out. Upon cooling the greater part of the amorphous bases +precipitates out. The ligroine solution is then first treated with +dilute acetic acid, and then with a dilute solution of caustic soda, +whereupon a large quantity of a resinous precipitate is formed. This +is kneaded up with lukewarm water to remove adherent soda, and then +dissolved in hot alcohol. The alcoholic solution is saturated with +nitric acid, which has been previously diluted with half its volume of +water, and the whole set aside for a few days to crystallize. The +crystals of conchinamine nitrate are purified by recrystallization +from boiling water. On dissolving these pure crystals of the nitrate +in hot alcohol of 60 per cent., and adding ammonia, absolute pure +conchinamine separates out on cooling. + +_Composition._--Conchinamine may be represented by the formula +C_{19}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, without water of crystallization. + +_Properties._--Conchinamine is easily soluble in hot alcohol of 60 per +cent., and in ether and ligroine, from which solutions it crystallizes +in quadrilateral shining prisms. It is extremely soluble in +chloroform, but almost insoluble in water. It melts at 121° C., +forming crystalline stars on cooling. + +_Salts._--The salts of conchinamine, like the base itself, have much +in common with chinamine, but are, as a rule, more easily +crystallizable. They are prepared by neutralizing an alcoholic +solution of the base with the acid in question.--_Chemist and +Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CHINOLINE. + + +The valuable properties of which chinoline has been found to be +possessed have led to its admission as a therapeutic agent, and the +discoverer of these properties, Jul. Donath, of Baja, in Hungary, in a +paper sent to the _Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft_, +September 12, 1881, gives the following further details as to this +interesting substance. + +_Antiseptic Properties._--Chinoline appears to be an excellent +antiseptic. The author found that 100 grammes of a Bucholze's solution +for the propagation of bacteria, charged with 0.20 g. of chinoline +hydrochlorate, had remained perfectly clear and free from bacteria +after standing forty-six days exposed to the air, while a similar +solution, placed under the same conditions, without chinoline, had +turned muddy and contained bacteria after only twelve days' standing. + +_Antizymotic Properties._--Chinoline, even in the proportion of 5 per +cent., does not prevent alcoholic fermentation, while in as small a +quantity as 0.20 per cent. it does not prevent lactic acid +fermentation. + +_Physiological Effects._--The author gave a healthy man during several +days various doses of chinoline tartrate, which in no way affected the +individual operated on, nor was any trace of chinoline found in his +urine. The author, therefore, considers that the base is oxidized by +the blood to carbopyridinic acid, which is a still more powerful +antiseptic than chinoline itself. Chinoline taken internally would, +therefore, be a useful and safe agent in cases of internal putrid +fungoid or other growth. + +_Chemical Reactions._--Chinoline yields very characteristic reactions +with a number of chemical reagents, for a description of which we +refer to the original paper.--_Chemist and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PREPARATION OF CONIINE. + + +Dr. J. Schorm, of Vienna, the author of this paper, after remarking +that in spite of the increase of the consumption of coniine, the +methods hitherto in vogue for preparing it yielded an article which +darkened on exposure to the air, and the salts of which crystallized +but badly, gives the following method for preparing pure coniine and +its salts: + + +_PREPARATION OF CRUDE CONIINE._ + +A.--100 kilogrammes of hemlock seed are moistened with hot water, and +after swelling up are treated with 4 kilogrammes of sodium carbonate +previously dissolved in the requisite quantity of water (caustic +alkalies cannot be used). The swollen seed is worked up uniformly with +shovels, and then placed in an apparatus of 400 kilogrammes capacity, +similar to that used in the distillation of ethereal oils, and charged +with steam under a pressure of three atmospheres. Coniine distills +over with the steam, the greater part separating out in the receiver +as an oily stratum, while a part remains dissolved in the water. The +riper the seeds, the greater is the percentage yield of oily coniine, +and the sooner is the distillation ended. The distillate is +neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the whole evaporated to a weak +sirupy consistence. When cool, this sirup yields successive crops of +sal-ammoniac crystals, which latter are removed by shaking up the mass +with twice its volume of strong alcohol, and filtering. This filtrate +is freed from alcohol by evaporation over a water bath, the +approximate quantity of a solution of caustic soda then added, and the +whole shaken up with ether. The ethereal solution is then cooled down +to a low temperature, whereby it is separated from conhydrine, which, +being somewhat difficultly soluble in ether, crystallizes out. + +B.--The bruised hemlock seed is treated in a vacuum extractor with +water acidulated with acetic acid, and the extract evaporated in vacuo +to a sirupy consistence. The sirup is treated with magnesia, and the +coniine dissolved out by shaking up with ether. + +The B method yields a less percentage of coniine than A, but of a +better quality. + + +_RECTIFICATION OF THE CRUDE CONIINE._ + +The solution of crude coniine in ether obtained by either of the above +processes is evaporated over a water bath to remove the ether, mixed +with dry potassium carbonate, and then submitted to fractional +distillation from an air bath. The portion distilling over at 168° C. +to 169° C. is pure coniine, and represents 60 per cent. of the crude +coniine. + +Coniine thus prepared is a colorless oily liquid, volatile at the +ordinary temperature, and has a specific gravity of 0.886. At a +temperature of 25°C it absorbs water, which it gives up again upon +heating. It is soluble in 90 parts of water. It is not altered by +light. + +The author has formed a number of salts from coniine thus prepared, +and finds them all crystallizable and unaffected by light.--_Berichte +der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft._--_Chem. and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +STRONTIANITE. + + +Since it has been shown by Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, that +strontium is the most powerful medium of extraction in sugar refining, +owing to its capacity of combining with three parts of saccharate, the +idea suggests itself that the same medium might be successfully +employed in the arts, and form a most interesting subject of +experiment for the chemist. + +Hitherto native strontianite, that is, the 90 to 95 per cent. pure +carbonate of strontium (not the celestine which frequently is mistaken +by the term strontianite), has not been worked systematically in +mines, but what used to be brought to the market was an inferior stone +collected in various parts of Germany, chiefly in Westphalia, where it +is found on the surface of the fields. Little also has been collected +in this manner, and necessarily the quality was subject to the +greatest fluctuations. + +By Dr. Scheibler's important discovery, a new era has begun in the +matter of strontianite. Deposits of considerable importance have been +opened in the Westphalian districts at a very great depth, and the +supply of several 10,000 tons per annum seems to be secured, whereas +only a short time ago it was not thought possible that more than a few +hundred tons could in all be provided.--_Chemist and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PARANGI--A NEWLY DESCRIBED DISEASE. + + +A peculiar contagious disease, called framboesia, or the yaws, has +long been known to exist in Africa, the West Indies, and the northern +parts of the British Islands. It is chronic in character, and is +distinguished by the development of raspberry-like tumors of +granulation tissue on different parts of the body. + +A disease of a somewhat similar, but severer type, has for many years +prevailed in Ceylon. Even less was known of this affection than of its +supposed congener, until a recent careful report upon the subject by +Mr. W.R. Kinsey, principal civil medical officer of Ceylon. + +The disease in question is called "parangi," and is defined by Mr. +Kinsey (_British Medical Journal_) as a specific disease, produced by +such causes as lead to debilitation of the system; propagated by +contagion, generally through an abrasion or sore, but sometimes by +simple contact with a sound surface; marked by an ill-defined period +of incubation, followed by certain premonitory symptoms referable to +the general system, then by the evolution of successive crops of a +characteristic eruption, which pass on in weakly subjects into +unhealthy and spreading ulcers whose cicatrices are very prone to +contraction; running a definite course; attacking all ages, and +amenable to appropriate treatment. + +The disease seems to develop especially in places where the water +supply, which in Ceylon is kept in tanks, is insufficient or poor. The +bad food, dirty habits, and generally unhygienic mode of life of the +people, help on the action of the disease. + +Parangi, when once developed, spreads generally by contagion from the +discharges of the eruptions and ulcers. The natural secretions do not +convey the poison. The disease may be inherited also. + +In the clinical history of the disease there are, according to Mr. +Kinsey, four stages. The first is that of incubation. It lasts from +two weeks to two months. A sore will be found somewhere upon the body +at this time, generally over some bony prominence. The second is the +stage of invasion, and is characterized by the development of slight +fever, malaise, dull pains in the joints. As this stage comes on the +initial sore heals. This second stage lasts only from two to seven +days, and ends with an eruption which ushers in the third stage. The +eruption appears in successive crops, the first often showing itself +on the face, the next on the body, and the last on the extremities. +This eruptive stage of the disease continues for several weeks or +months, and it ends either in convalescence or the onset of a train of +sequelæ, which may prolong the disease for years. + +Parangi may attack any one, though the poorly fed and housed are more +susceptible. One attack seems to confer immunity from another. + +Although some of the sequelæ of the disease are most painful, yet +death does not often directly result from them, nor is parangi itself +a fatal disease. Persons who have had parangi and passed safely +through it, are not left in impaired health at all, but often live to +an old age. + +The similarity of the disease, in its clinical history, to syphilis, +is striking. Mr. Kinsey, however, considers it, as we have stated, +allied to, if not identical with framboesia.--_Medical Record._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A CASTOR OIL SUBSTITUTE. + + +So far back as 1849, Mr. Alexander Ure investigated the purgative +properties of the oil of anda. The specimen with which the experiments +were tried had not been freshly prepared, and had indeed been long +regarded as a curiosity. Twelve ounces were alone available, and it +was a yellowish oil, quite bright, about the consistence of oleum +olivæ, devoid of smell, and free from the viscid qualities of castor +oil. There was a small supply of anda fruits differing a good deal in +appearance one from the other, but we are not aware whether these were +utilized and the oil expressed; as far as our recollection serves, the +subject was abandoned. It was known that the natives of Brazil used +the seeds as an efficient purgative in doses of from one to three, and +it was in contemplation to introduce this remedy into England, though +it was by no means certain that under distinctly different climatic +influences equally beneficial results might be expected. Mr. Ure +determined, by actual experiment, to ascertain the value of the oil in +his own hospital practice. He found that small doses were better than +larger ones, and in several reported cases it appeared that twenty +drops administered on sugar proved successful. Oil of anda-açu, or +assu, therefore, would stand mid-way between ol. ricini and ol. +crotonis. These researches seem to have been limited to the original +sample, although the results obtained would appear to justify a more +extended trial. M. Mello-Oliveira. of Rio Janeiro, has endeavored to +bring the remedy into notice under the name of "Huile d'Anda-Assu," +and possibly may not have been acquainted with the attempt to +introduce it into English practice. He describes the anda as a fine +tree (_Johanesia princeps_, Euphorbiaceæ), with numerous branches and +persistent leaves, growing in different parts of Brazil, and known +under the name of "coco purgatif." The fruit is quadrangular, +bilocular, with two kernels, which on analysis yield an active +principle for which the name "Johaneseine" is proposed. This is a +substance sparingly soluble in water and alcohol, and insoluble in +chloroform, benzine, ether, and bisulphide of carbon. Evidence derived +from experiments with the sulphate of this principle did not give +uniform results: one opinion being that, contrary to the view of many +Brazilian physicians, this salt had no toxic effect on either men or +animals. Local medical testimony, however, was entirely in favor of +the oil. Dr. Torrès, professor at Rio Janeiro, using a dose of two +teaspoonfuls, had been successful. Dr. Tazenda had obtained excellent +results, and Dr. Castro, with a somewhat larger dose (3 ijss.), was +even enthusiastic in its praise. It might, therefore, be desirable at +a time when new remedies are so much in vogue, not to abandon +altogether a Brazilian medicament the value of which is confirmed both +by popular native use and by professional treatment. M. Mello-Oliveira +comes to the conclusion that oleum anda assu (or açu) may be employed +wherever castor oil is indicated, and with these distinct advantages: +first, that its dose is considerably less; secondly, that it is free +from disagreeable odor and pungent taste; and thirdly, being +sufficiently fluid, it is not adherent to the mouth so as to render it +nauseous to the patient. In this short abstract the spelling of the +French original has been retained. As this therapeutic agent claimed +attention thirty years ago, and has again been deemed worthy of notice +in scientific journals, some of our enterprising pharmacists might be +inclined to add it to the list of their commercial ventures.--_Chemist +and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HOUSEHOLD AND OTHER RECIPES. + + +Mr. Jas. W. Parkinson gives in a recent number of the _Confectioner's +Journal_ the following useful recipes: + + +CHRISTMAS PLUM PUDDING. + +Stone a pound of bloom raisins; wash and clean a pound of Zante +currants; mince finely a pound of beef suet; mix with this, in a large +pan, a pound of stale bread crumbs and half a pound of sifted flour. +Beat together in another pan six eggs, and mix with them half a pint +of milk. Pour this over the suet and flour, and stir and beat the +whole well together; then add the raisins, currants, and a seasoning +of ground cinnamon, grated nutmeg, powdered ginger, and a little +ground cloves, a teaspoonful of salt, one pound of sugar, and a glass +of Jamaica rum. This pudding may now be boiled in a floured cloth or +in an ornamental mould tied up in a cloth. In either way it requires +long and constant boiling, six hours at least for one such as the +above. Every pudding in a cloth should be boiled briskly, till +finished, in plenty of water, in a large pot, so as to allow it to +move about freely. + +To take the boiled pudding out of the cloth without breaking it, dip +it into cold water for a minute or two, then place it in a round +bottomed basin that will just hold it, untie the cloth and lay bare +the pudding down to the edge of the basin; then place upon it, upside +down, the dish on which it is to be served, and invert the whole so +that the pudding may rest on the dish; lastly, lift off the basin and +remove the cloth. The use of the cold water is to chill and solidify +the surface, so that it may part from the cloth smoothly. + +Plum pudding may also be baked in a mould or pan, which must be well +buttered inside before pouring the pudding into it. Two hours' boiling +suffices. + + +PLUM-PUDDING SAUCE. + +Put into a saucepan two ounces of best butter and a tablespoonful of +flour; mix these well together with a wooden spoon, and stir in half a +pint of cold water and a little salt and pepper. Set this on the fire +and stir constantly till nearly boiling; then add half a tumbler of +Madeira wine, brandy, or Jamaica rum, fine sugar to the taste, and a +little ground cinnamon or grated nutmeg. Make the sauce very hot, and +serve over each portion of the pudding. + + +NATIONAL PLUM PUDDING. + +An excellent plum pudding is made as follows: Half a pound of flour, +half a pound of grated bread crumbs, a pound of Zante currants, washed +and picked; a pound of raisins, stoned; an ounce of mixed spices, such +as cinnamon, mace, cloves, and nutmeg; an ounce of butter, two ounces +of blanched almonds, cut small; six ounces of preserved citron and +preserved orange peel, cut into small pieces; four eggs, a little +salt, four ounces of fine sugar, and half a pint of brandy. Mix all +these well together, adding sufficient milk to bring the mixture to a +proper consistency. Boil in a floured cloth or mould for eight hours. + + +THE SAUCE FOR THE ABOVE. + +Into a gill of melted butter put an ounce of powdered sugar, a little +grated nutmeg, two wine glasses of Madeira wine and one of Curacoa. +Stir all well together, make very hot, and pour it over the pudding. + + +EGG-NOG, OR AULD MAN'S MILK. + +Separate the whites and yolks of a dozen fresh eggs. Put the yolks +into a basin and beat them to a smooth cream with half a pound of +finely pulverized sugar. Into this stir half a pint of brandy, and the +same quantity of Jamaica rum; mix all well together and add three +quarts of milk or cream, half a nutmeg (grated), and stir together. +Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth; stir lightly into them +two or three ounces of the finest sugar powder, add this to the +mixture, and dust powdered cinnamon over the top. + + +EGG FLIP. + +Beat up in a bowl half a dozen fresh eggs; add half a pound of +pulverized sugar; stir well together, and pour in one quart or more of +boiling water, about half a pint at a time, mixing well as you pour it +in; when all is in, add two tumblers of best brandy and one of Jamaica +rum. + + +ROAST TURKEY. + +The turkey is without doubt the most savory and finest flavored of all +our domestic fowls, and is justly held in the highest estimation by +the good livers in all countries where it is known. Singe, draw, and +truss the turkey in the same manner as other fowls; then fill with a +stuffing made of bread crumbs, butter, sweet herbs rubbed fine, +moistened with eggs and seasoned with pepper, salt, and grated nutmeg. +Sausage meat or a forced meat, made of boiled chicken meat, boiled ham +grated fine, chopped oysters, roasted or boiled chestnuts rubbed fine, +stewed mushrooms, or last but not the least in estimation, a dozen +fine truffles cut into pieces and sauted in the best of butter, and +added part to the stuffing and part to the sauce which is made from +the drippings (made into a good brown gravy by the addition of a +capful of cold water thickened with a little flour, with the giblets +boiled and chopped fine in it). A turkey of ten pounds will require +two and a half hours' roasting and frequent basting. Currant jelly, +cranberry jelly, or cranberry sauce should always be on the table with +roast turkey. + + +WOODCOCKS AND SNIPE. + +Some epicures say that the woodcock should never be drawn, but that +they should be fastened to a small bird spit, and should be put to +roast before a clear fire; a slice of toast, put in a pan below each +bird, in order to catch the trail; baste them with melted butter; lay +the toast on a hot dish, and the birds on the toast. They require from +fifteen to twenty minutes to roast. Snipe are dressed in the same +manner, but require less time to cook. My pet plan to cook woodcock is +to draw the bird and split it down the back, and then to broil it, +basting it with butter; chop up the intestines, season them with +pepper and salt, and saute them on a frying pan with butter; lay the +birds on toast upon a hot dish and pour the saute over them. + + +CANVAS-BACK DUCKS. + +Select young fat ducks; pick them nicely, singe, and draw them +carefully without washing them so as to preserve the blood and +consequently the full flavor of the bird; then truss it and place it +on the spit before a brisk fire, or in a pan in a hot oven for at +least fifteen or twenty minutes; then serve it hot with its own gravy, +which is formed by its own blood and juices, on a hot dish. It may +also be a little less cooked, and then carved and placed on a chafing +dish with red currant jelly, port wine, and a little butter. + + + +PHEASANTS. + +A pheasant should have a clear, steady fire, but not a fierce one. The +pheasant, being a rather dry bird, requires to be larded, or put a +piece of beef or a rump steak into the inside of it before roasting. + + + +WILD DUCKS. + +In order to serve these birds in their most succulent state and finest +flavor, let them hang in their feathers for a few days after being +shot; then pluck, clean, and draw, and roast them in a quick oven or +before a brisk fire; dredge and baste them well, and allow them twenty +minutes to roast; serve them with gravy sauce and red currant jelly, +or with a gravy sauce to which a chopped shallot and the juice of an +orange has been added. + + +WILD FOWL SAUCE. + +The following exquisite sauce is applicable to all wild fowl: Take one +saltspoon of salt, half to two-thirds salt spoon of Cayenne, one +dessert spoon lemon juice, one dessert spoon powdered sugar, two +dessert spoons Harvey sauce, three dessert spoons port wine, well +mixed and heated; score the bird and pour the sauce over it. + + +BROWN FRICASSEE OF RABBITS. + +Cut a couple of rabbits into joints, fry these in a little fresh +butter till they are of a light brown color; then put them into a +stewpan, with a pint of water, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, the +same of mushroom catchup, one of Worcester sauce, and a couple of +burnt onions, a little Cayenne and salt; stew over a slow fire till +perfectly done; then take out the meat, strain the gravy, and thicken +it with a little flour if necessary; make it quite hot, and pour it +over the rabbits. + + +ORANGE PUDDING. + +Beat up the yolks of eight eggs, grate the yellow rinds from two +oranges, add these to a quarter of a pound of finely powdered sugar, +the same weight of fresh butter, three teaspoonfuls of orange-flower +water, two glasses of sherry wine, two or three stale Naples biscuits +or lady fingers, and a teacupful of cream. Line a dish with puff +paste, pour in the ingredients, and bake for half an hour in a good +oven. + + +VENISON PASTRY. + +A neck or breast of venison is rendered very savory by treating it as +follows: Take off the skin and cut the meat off the bones into pieces +of about an inch square; put these, with the bones, into a stewpan, +cover them with veal or mutton broth, add two thirds of a teaspoon of +powdered mace, half a dozen allspice, three shallots chopped fine, a +teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of Cayenne, and a tumbler of port +wine; stew over a slow fire until the meat is half done, then take it +out and let the gravy remain on the fire ten or fifteen minutes +longer. Line a good sized dish with pastry, arrange your meat on it, +pour the gravy upon it through a sieve, adding the juice of a lemon; +put on the top crust, and bake for a couple of hours in a slow oven. + + +CHRISTMAS RED ROUND. + +Rub well into a round of beef a half pound of saltpeter, finely +powdered. Next day mix half an ounce of cloves, half an ounce of black +pepper, the same quantity of ground allspice, with half a pound of +salt; wash and rub the beef in the brine for a fortnight, adding every +other day a tablespoonful of salt. At the expiration of the fortnight, +wipe the beef quite free from the brine, and stuff every interstice +that you can find with equal portions of chopped parsley, and mixed +sweet herbs in powder, seasoned with ground allspice, mace, salt, and +Cayenne. Do not be sparing of this mixture. Put the round into a deep +earthen pan, fill it with strong ale, and bake it in a very slow oven +for eight hours, turning it in the liquor every two hours, and adding +more ale if necessary. This is an excellent preparation to assist in +the "keeping of the Christmas season." + + +PLUM PORRIDGE FOR CHRISTMAS FESTIVITIES. + +Make a good strong broth from four pounds of veal and an equal +quantity of shin of beef. Strain and skim off the fat when cold. Wash +and stone three pounds and a half of raisins; wash and well dry the +same weight of best Zante currants; take out the stones from two and a +half pounds of French prunes; grate up the crumbs of two small loaves +of wheat bread; squeeze the juice of eight oranges and four lemons; +put these, with a teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon, a grated nutmeg, +half a dozen cloves, and five pounds of sugar into your broth; stir +well together, and then pour in three quarts of sherry. Set the vessel +containing the mixture on a slow fire. When the ingredients are soft +add six bottles of hock; stir the porridge well, and as soon as it +boils it is fit for use. + + +SUGARED PEARS. + +Half a dozen of those fine pears called the "Bartlett" will make a +small dish worthy the attention of any good Christian who has a sweet +tooth in his head. Pare the fruit, cut out the cores, squeeze lemon +juice over them, which will prevent their discoloration. Boil them +gently in enough sirup to cover them till they become tender. Serve +them cold, with Naples biscuit round the dish. + + +TABLE BEER. + +Table beer of a superior quality may be brewed in the following +manner, a process well worth the attention of the gentleman, the +mechanic, and the farmer, whereby the beer is altogether prevented +from working out of the cask, and the fermentation conducted without +any apparent admission of the external air. I have made the scale for +one barrel, in order to make it more generally useful to the community +at large; however the same proportions will answer for a greater or +less quantity, only proportioning the materials and utensils. Take one +peck of good malt, ground, one pound of hops, put them in twenty +gallons of water, and boil them for half an hour; then run them into a +hair-cloth bag or sieve, so as to keep back the hops and malt from the +wort, which when cooled down to sixty-five degrees by Fahrenheit's +thermometer, add to it two gallons of molasses, with one pint, or a +little less, of good yeast. Mix these with your wort, and put the +whole into a clean barrel, and fill it up with cold water to within +six inches of the bung hole (this space is requisite to leave room for +fermentation), bung down tight. If brewed for family use, would +recommend putting in the cock at the same time, as it will prevent the +necessity of disturbing the cask afterward. In one fortnight this beer +may be drawn and will be found to improve to the last. + + +MINCE MEAT. + +This inevitable Christmas luxury is vastly improved by being mixed +some days before it is required for use; this gives the various +ingredients time to amalgamate and blend. + +Peel, core, and chop fine a pound of pippin apples, wash and clean a +pound of Zante currants, stone one pound of bloom raisins, cut into +small pieces a pound of citron, remove the skin and gristle from a +pound and a half of cold roast or boiled beef, and carefully pick a +pound of beef suet; chop these well together. Cut into small bits +three-quarters of a pound of mixed candied orange and lemon peel; mix +all these ingredients well together in a large earthen pan. Grate one +nutmeg, half an ounce of powdered ginger, quarter of an ounce of +ground cloves, quarter of an ounce of ground allspice and coriander +seed mixed, and half an ounce of salt. Grate the yellow rind of three +lemons, and squeeze the juice over two pounds of fine sugar. Put the +grated yellow rind and all the other ingredients in a pan; mix well +together, and over all pour one pint of brandy, one pint of sherry, +and one pint of hard cider; stir well together, cover the pan closely, +and when about to use the mince meat, take it from the bottom of the +pan. + + +PUMPKIN PIE. + + "What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye? + What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin pie?" + +Stew about two pounds of pumpkins, then add to it three-quarters of a +pound of sugar, and the same quantity of butter, well worked together; +stir these into the pumpkin and add a teaspoonful of powdered mace and +grated nutmeg, and a little ground cinnamon; then add a gill of +brandy, beat them well together, and stir in the yolks of eight +well-beaten eggs. Line the pie plates with puff paste, fill them with +the pumpkin mixture, grate a little nutmeg over the top, and bake. + + +BRANDY PUNCH. + +Take three dozen lemons, chip off the yellow rinds, taking care that +none of the white underlying pith is taken, as that would make the +punch bitter, whereas the yellow portion of the rinds is that in which +the flavor resides and in which the cells are placed containing the +essential oil. Put this yellow rind into a punch bowl, add to it two +pounds of lump sugar; stir the sugar and peel together with a wooden +spoon or spatula for nearly half an hour, thereby extracting a greater +quantity of the essential oil. Now add boiling water, and stir until +the sugar is completely dissolved. Squeeze and strain the juice from +the lemons and add it to the mixture; stir together and taste it; add +more acid or more sugar, as required, and take care not to render it +too watery. "Rich of the fruit and plenty of sweetness," is the maxim. +Now measure the sherbet, and to every three quarts add a pint of +cognac brandy and a pint of old Jamaica rum, the spirit being well +stirred as poured in. This punch may be bottled and kept in a cool +cellar; it will be found to improve with age. + + +BOEUF A LA MODE (FAMILY STYLE). + +The rump is the most applicable for this savory dish. Take six or +eight pounds of it, and cut it into bits of a quarter of a pound each; +chop a couple of onions very fine; grate one or two carrots; put these +into a large stewpan with a quarter of a pound of fresh butter, or +fresh and well clarified beef drippings; while this is warming, cover +the pieces of beef with flour; put them into the pan and stir them for +ten minutes, adding a little more flour by slow degrees, and taking +great care that the meat does not burn. Pour in, a little at a time, a +gallon of boiling water; then add a couple of drachms of ground +allspice, one of black pepper, a couple of bay leaves, a pinch each of +ground cloves and mace. Let all this stew on a slow fire, and very +gently, for three hours and a quarter; ascertain with a fork if the +meat be tender; if so, you may serve it in a tureen or deep dish. A +well-dressed salad is the proper accompaniment of boeuf à la mode. + + +PUNCH JELLY. + +Make a bowl of punch according to the directions for brandy punch, +only a _little_ stronger. To every pint of punch add an ounce of +gelatine dissolved in half a pint of water; pour this into the punch +while quite hot, and then fill your moulds, taking care not to disturb +it until the jelly is completely set. This preparation is a very +agreeable refreshment, but should be used in moderation. The strength +of the punch is so artfully concealed by its admixture with the +gelatine that many persons, particularly of the softer sex, have been +tempted to partake so plentifully of it as to render them somewhat +unfit for waltzing or quadrilling after supper. + + +ORANGE SALAD. + +This somewhat inappropriately-named dish is made by removing the rind +and cutting the fruit in slices crosswise and adding equal quantities +of brandy and Madeira, in proportion to the quantity of fruit thus +dressed, strewing a liberal allowance of finely-powdered sugar over +all. + + +CRANBERRY JELLY. + +Put two quarts of cranberries into a large earthen pipkin, and cover +them with water; place them on a moderate fire, and boil them until +they are reduced to a soft pulp; then strain and press them through a +hair sieve into an earthen or stone ware pan, and for each pint of +liquid pulp allow one pound of pulverized sugar; mix the pulp and +sugar together in a bright copper basin and boil, stirring constantly +for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture begins to coagulate +upon the spatula; then remove it from the fire and fill your moulds; +let them stand in a cool place to set. When wanted for use, turn it +out of the mould in the same manner as other jellies. + + +JOVE'S NECTAR. + +For three gallons, peel the yellow rind from one and a half dozen +fresh lemons, very thin, and steep the peelings for forty-eight hours +in a gallon of brandy; then add the juice of the lemons, with five +quarts of water, three pounds of loaf sugar, and two nutmegs grated; +stir it till the sugar is completely dissolved, then pour in three +quarts of new milk, _boiling hot_, and let it stand two hours, after +which run it through a jelly bag till it is fine. This is fit for +immediate use, but may be kept for years in bottles, and will be +improved by age. + + +PLUM, OR BLACK CAKE. + +For this Christmas luxury take one pound of butter and one pound of +pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream, stir in one dozen +eggs beaten to a froth, beat well together, and add one pound of +sifted flour; continue the beating for ten minutes, then add and stir +in three pounds of stoned raisins, three pounds of Zante currants, +washed, cleaned, and dried, a pound and a half of citron sliced and +cut into small pieces, three grated nutmegs, quarter of an ounce of +powdered mace, half an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and half a +teaspoonful of ground cloves; mix all well together; bake in a +well-buttered pan in a slow oven for four hours and a half. + + +BLACK CAKE (PARKINSON'S OWN). + + "If you have lips, prepare to smack them now." + --_Shakspeare, slightly altered._ + +Take one and a half pounds of the best butter, and the same weight of +pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream; stir into this two +dozen eggs, beaten to a froth; add one gill of old Jamaica rum; then +add one and a half pounds of sifted flour. Stir and beat all well +together, and add two pounds of finest bloom raisins, stoned; two +pounds of Zante currants, washed, cleaned, and dried; one pound of +preserved citron, sliced thinly and cut into small pieces; one pound +of preserved French cherries, in halves; one pound of green gages, and +one pound of preserved apricots, stoned and cut into small pieces; +half a pound of preserved orange and lemon peel, mixed, and cut into +small pieces; three grated nutmegs, half an ounce of ground mace, half +an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and a quarter ounce of ground cloves. +Mix all the ingredients well together, and bake in a well-buttered +mould or pan, in a _slow oven_, for five and a half hours. + +This cake is vastly improved by age. Those intended for the Christmas +festivities should be made at or about the first of October; then put +the cake into a round tin box, half an inch larger in diameter than +the cake; then pour over it a bottle of the best brandy mixed with +half a pint of pure lemon, raspberry, strawberry, or simple sirup, and +one or more bottles of champagne. Now put on the lid of the box, and +have it carefully soldered on, so as to make all perfectly air-tight. +Put it away in your store-room, and let stand till Christmas, only +reversing the box occasionally, in order that the liquors may permeate +the cake thoroughly. + +This heroic treatment causes the ingredients to amalgamate, and the +flavors to harmonize and blend more freely; and when, on Christmas +day, you bring out this hermit, after doing a three months' penance in +a dark cell, it will come out rich, succulent, and unctuous; you will +not only have a luxury, "fit to set before a king," or before the +Empress of India, but fit to crown a feast of the very gods +themselves, on high Olympus' top. + + +POTATOES (PARKINSON STYLE). + +Take two or three fine white potatoes, raw; peel and chop them up +_very, very fine_. Then chop up just as fine the breast of a +good-sized boiled fowl; they should be chopped as fine as unboiled +rice; mix the meat and the potatoes together, and dust a _very little_ +flour over them and a pinch or two of salt. Now put an ounce or so of +the best butter into a frying pan, and when it is hot, put in the +mixture, and stir constantly with a wooden spatula until they are +fried to a nice golden color, then immediately serve on a hot plate. + +Cold boiled ham grated fine, or boiled beef tongue chopped very fine, +may be used instead of chicken, omitting the salt. A dozen or two of +prime oysters, parboiled, drained, and chopped fine, mixed with the +potatoes prepared as above, and fried, makes a most delicious lunch or +supper dish. Try any of the above styles, and say no, if you can. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY COMET. + + +Professor Hind, of the British Nautical Almanac Office, recently sent +an interesting letter to the London _Times_ on the comet depicted in +that famous piece of embroidery known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Probably +no one of the great comets recorded in history has occasioned a more +profound impression upon mankind in the superstitious ages than the +celebrated body which appeared in the spring of the year 1066, and was +regarded as the precursor of the invasion of England by William the +Norman. As Pingre, the eminent cometographer, remarks, it forms the +subject of an infinite number of relations in the European chronicles. +The comet was first seen in China on April 2, 1066. It appeared in +England about Easter Sunday, April 16, and disappeared about June 8. +Professor Hind finds in ancient British and Chinese records abundant +grounds for believing that this visitant was only an earlier +appearance of Halley's great comet, and he traces back the appearances +of this comet at its several perihelion passages to B.C. 12. The last +appearance of Halley's comet was in 1835, and according to +Pontecoulant's calculations, its next perihelion passage will take +place May 24, 1910. + + * * * * * + + + + +LACK OF SUN LIGHT. + + +Some interesting information as to the way in which the human system +is affected under the peculiar conditions of work in mines has been +furnished by M. Fabre, from experiences connected with the coal mines +of France. He finds that the deprivation of solar light causes a +diminution in the pigment of the skin, and absence of sunburning, but +there is no globular anæmia--that is, diminution in the number of +globules in the blood. Internal maladies seem to be more rare. While +there is no essential anæmia in the miners, the blood globules are +often found smaller and paler than in normal conditions of life, this +being due to respiration of noxious gases, especially where +ventilation is difficult. The men who breathe too much the gases +liberated on explosion of powder or dynamite suffer more than other +miners from affections of the larynx, the bronchia, and the stomach. +Ventilation sometimes works injury by its cooling effect. + + * * * * * + + + + +SYNTHETIC EXPERIMENTS ON THE ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF +METEORITES. + + +By means of igneous fusion the authors have succeeded in reproducing +two types of crystalline associations, which, in their mineralogical +composition and the principal features of their structure, are +analogous, if not identical with certain oligosideric meteorites. The +only notable difference results from the habitual brecchoid state of +the meteorites, which contrasts with state of quiet solidification of +the artificial compounds.--_F. Fouqué and Michel Lévy._ + + * * * * * + + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had +gratis at this office. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the +commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be +supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/18345-8.zip b/18345-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ae8e4c --- /dev/null +++ b/18345-8.zip diff --git a/18345-h.zip b/18345-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..315f09c --- /dev/null +++ b/18345-h.zip diff --git a/18345-h/18345-h.htm b/18345-h/18345-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fffa54d --- /dev/null +++ b/18345-h/18345-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4835 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" /> + +<title> +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, January 14, 1882 +</title> + +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- + body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} + img {border: 0;} + p { text-align: justify;} + h1, h2, h3 {text-align: center;} + + hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} + hr.short {width: 25%;} + hr.long {width: 75%;} + hr.full {width: 100%;} + sup, sub {font-size: .7em;} + + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + .longcaption {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + text-align: left; } + + .center {text-align: center; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + .center table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; } + + .signature {font-variant: small-caps; + text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;} + + .toc1 { vertical-align: top; + text-align: left;} + .toc2 { text-align: left;} + .toc3 { vertical-align: bottom; + text-align: right;} + +--> +</style> +</head> + +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, +January 14, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, January 14, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 8, 2006 [EBook #18345] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="center" style="margin-left: -10%; margin-right: -10%"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p> +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 315</h1> +<h2>NEW YORK, JANUARY 14, 1882</h2> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIII., No. 315.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> +<hr /> + +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2" align="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td>PAGE.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="toc1"> I.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art01">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Watchman's Detecter.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art02">Integrating Apparatus.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art03">A Canal Boat Propelled by Air.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art04">Head Linings of Passenger Cars.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art05">Improved Mortar Mixer. 2 figures.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art06">Practical Notes on Plumbing. By <span class="smcap">J.P. Davies.</span> Figs. + 37 to 53. Tinning iron pipes, copper or brass work, + bits, etc.—Spirit brush.—Soldering iron to lead.— + Dummies for pipe bending.—Bends and set-offs.— + Bending with water.—Sand bending.—Bending with + balls or bobbins.—Three-ball or lead driving ball + and double ball bending.—Bending with windlass and + brass ball.—Hydraulic or cup leather and ball + bending.—Bending by splitting, or split made bends. + —Pulling up bends.—Set-offs.—Bad bends.—Bad + falls in bends.—Bends made into traps or retarders. + —Bends made with the "snarling dummy."</a></td><td class="toc3">5024</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art07">The Grossenhain Shuttle Driver. 1 figure.</a></td><td class="toc3">5025</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="toc1"> II.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art08">ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, ETC.—The Electro-Magnetic + Apparatus of Dr. Pacinotti. 8 figures. The Pacinotti + electro-magnetic machine of 1860.—The Elias + electro-motor of 1842.</a></td><td class="toc3">5015</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art09">The Elias Electro-Motor.</a></td><td class="toc3">5016</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art10">Bjerknes's Experiments. 7 figures.</a></td><td class="toc3">5016</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art11">The Arc Electric Light. By <span class="smcap">Leo Daft.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5018</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art12">Hedges' Electric Lamps. 4 figures.</a></td><td class="toc3">5019</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art13">Electric Railway Apparatus at the Paris Electrical + Exhibition. 17 figures. Lartigue's switch + controller, elevation and sections.—Position of + commutators during the maneuver.—Pedal for sending + warning to railway crossing, with elevation and end + and plan views.—Electric Alarm.—Lartigue's bellows + pedal, with plan and sections.—Brunot's Controller. + —Guggemos' correspondence apparatus.—Annunciator + apparatus.—Lartigue's controller for water tanks.— + Vérité controller for water tanks.</a></td><td class="toc3">5019</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art14">The Telephonic Halls of the Electrical Exhibition. + 1 figure.</a></td><td class="toc3">5022</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art15">The Action of Cold on the Voltaic Arc.</a></td><td class="toc3">5022</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="toc1">III.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art16">TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.—Industrial Art for Women.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art17">Photography upon Canvas. 1 figure.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art18">Detection of Starch Sugar Sirup Mixed with Sugar + House Molasses.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art19">False Vermilion.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art20">The Position of Manganese in Modern Industry.—By + <span class="smcap">M.V. Deshaeys.</span> Ferro-manganese.—Cupro-manganese.— + Manganese bronzes.—Metallic manganese.—Manganese + German silver.—Phosphorus bronze.</a></td><td class="toc3">5027</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art21">The Economical Washing of Coal Gas and Smoke.—M. + Chevalet's method.</a></td><td class="toc3">5027</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art22">Determination of Nitrogen in Hair, Wool, Dried + Blood, Flesh Meal, and Leather Scraps. By Dr. <span class="smcap">C. + Krauch.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art23">Testing White Beeswax for Ceresine and Paraffine. By + <span class="smcap">A. Peltz.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art24">The Prevention of Alcoholic Fermentation by Fungi. + By Prof. <span class="smcap">E. Reichard.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art25">New Reaction of Glycerine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art26">Lycopodine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art27">Conchinamine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art28">Chinoline.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art29">Preparation of Coniine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art30">Strontianite.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="toc1"> IV.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art31">MISCELLANEOUS.—Household and Other Recipes. + Christmas plum pudding.—Plum pudding sauce.— + National plum pudding and sauce.—Egg nog.—Egg + flip.—Roast Turkey.—Woodcock and Snipe.—Canvas-back + duck.—Pheasants.—Wild ducks.—Wild fowl + sauce.—Brown fricassee of rabbits.—Orange pudding. + —Venison pastry.—Christmas red round.—Plum + porridge.—Sugared pears.—Table beer.—Mince meat. + —Pumpkin pie.—Brandy punch.—Bœuf a la mode.— + Punch jelly.—Orange salad.—Cranberry jelly.—Plum + cake.—Black cake.—Potatoes.</a></td><td class="toc3">5029</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art32">The Bayeux Tapestry Comet.</a></td><td class="toc3">5030</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art33">Synthetic Experiments on the Artificial Reproduction + of Meteorites.</a></td><td class="toc3">5030</td> +</tr> + + +<tr> +<td class="toc1"> V.</td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art34">HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.—Parangi; a newly described + disease.</a></td><td class="toc3">5029</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art35">A Castor Oil Substitute.</a></td><td class="toc3">5029</td> +</tr> +<tr><td></td> +<td class="toc2"><a href="#art36">Lack of Sun Light.</a></td><td class="toc3">5030</td> +</tr> + +</table> +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC APPARATUS OF DR. PACINOTTI.</h2> + +<p>In admiring the recent developments of electric science as evidenced +by the number of important inventions which have during the past few +years been given to the world, especially in those branches of applied +science which deal more particularly with the generation of +electricity and the production of the electric light, there is often +too great a tendency to forget, or, at least, to pass over in +comparative silence the claims which the great pioneer workers and +discoverers undoubtedly have to a large share of the merit of this +scientific development.</p> + +<p>It is, of course, obviously impossible in anything approaching a +retrospect of the science of magneto-electric induction or its +application to illumination to pass slightly over the names of +Oersted, of Ampère, of Davy, and of Faraday, but, in other respects, +their work is too often lost sight of in the splendid modern +developments of their discoveries. Again, there is another group of +discoverer-inventors who occupy an intermediate position between the +abstract discoverers above named and the inventors and adapters of +still more recent times. To this group belong the names of Pixii and +Saxton, Holmes and Nollet, Wilde, Varley, Siemens, Wheatstone, and +Pacinotti, who was the first to discover a means of constructing a +machine capable of giving a continuous current always in the same +direction, and which has since proved itself to be the type of nearly +all the direct current electric machines of the present day, and +especially those such as the Gramme and Brush and De Meritens +machines, in which the rotating armature is of annular form; and when +it is considered what a large number of the well known electric +generators are founded upon this discovery, it must be a matter of +general gratification that the recent International Jury of the Paris +Exhibition of Electricity awarded to Dr. Antonio Pacinotti one of +their highest awards.</p> + +<p>The original machine designed by Dr. Pacinotti in the year 1860, and +which we illustrate on the present page, formed one of the most +interesting exhibits in the Paris Exhibition, and conferred upon the +Italian Section a very distinctive feature, and we cannot but think +that while all were interested in examining it, there must have been +many who could not help being impressed with the fact that it took +something away from the originality of design in several of the +machines exhibited in various parts of the building.</p> + +<p>This very interesting machine was first illustrated and described by +its inventor in the <i>Nuovo Cimento</i> in the year 1864, under the title +"A Description of a Small Electro-Magnetic Machine," and to this +description we are indebted for the information and diagrams contained +in this notice, but the perspective view is taken from the instrument +itself in the Paris Exhibition.</p> + +<p>In this very interesting historical communication the author commences +by describing a new form of electro-magnet, consisting of an iron ring +around which is wound (as in the Gramme machine) a single helix of +insulated copper wire completely covering the ring, and the two ends +of the annular helix being soldered together, an annular magnet is +produced, enveloped in an insulated helix forming a closed circuit, +the convolutions of which are all in the same direction. If in such a +system any two points of the coil situated at opposite ends of the +same diameter of the ring be connected respectively with the two poles +of a voltaic battery, the electric current having two courses open to +it, will divide into two portions traversing the coil around each half +of the ring from one point of contact to the other, and the direction +of the current, in each portion will be such as to magnetize the iron +core, so that its magnetic poles will be situated at the points where +the current enters and leaves the helix, and a straight line joining +these points may be looked upon as the magnetic axis of the system. +From this construction it is clear that, by varying the position of +the points of contact of the battery wires and the coil, the position +of the magnetic axis will be changed accordingly, and can be made to +take up any diametrical position with respect to the ring, of which +the two halves (separated by the diameter joining the points of +contact of the battery wires with the coil) may be regarded as made up +of two semicircular horseshoe electro-magnets having their similar +poles joined. To this form of instrument the name "Transversal electro +magnet" (<i>Eletro calamita transversale</i>) was given by its inventor, to +whom is undoubtedly due the merit of having been the first to +construct an electro-magnet the position of whose poles could be +varied at will by means of a circular commutator.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/1a.png"><img src="./images/1a_th.png" width="395" height="450" alt="PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.—MADE IN 1860." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.—MADE IN 1860.</span> +</div> + +<p>By applying the principle to an electro-magnetic engine, Dr. Pacinotti +produced the machine which we illustrate on the present page. The +armature consists of a turned ring of iron, having around its +circumference sixteen teeth of equal size and at equal angular +distance apart, as shown in Fig. 1, forming between them as many +spaces or notches, which are filled up by coiling within them helices +of insulated copper wire, <i>r r r</i>, in a similar manner to that adopted +in winding the Brush armature, and between them are fixed as many +wooden wedges, <i>m m</i>, by which the helices are firmly held in their +place. All the coils are wound round the ring in the same direction, +and the terminating end of each coil is connected to the commencing +end of the next or succeeding helix, and the junctions so made are +attached to conducting wires which are gathered together close to the +vertical shaft on which the armature ring is fixed, passing through +holes at equal distances apart in a wooden collar fixed to the same +shaft, and being attached at their lower extremities to the metallic +contact pieces of the commutator, <i>c</i>, shown at the lower part of Fig. +3, which is an elevation of the machine, while Fig. 4 is a plan of the +same apparatus.</p> + +<p>The commutator consists of a small boxwood cylinder, carrying around +its cylindrical surface two rows of eight holes, one above the other, +in which are fitted sixteen contact pieces of brass which slightly +project above the surface of the wood, the positions of those in the +upper circle alternating or "breaking joint" with those in the lower, +and each contact piece is in metallic connection with its +corresponding conducting wire, and, therefore, with the junction of +two of the helices on the armature. Against the edge of the commutator +are pressed by means of adjustable levers two small brass contact +rollers, <i>k k</i>, which are respectively connected with the positive and +negative poles of the voltaic battery (either through or independent +of the coils of a fixed electro-magnet, to which we shall presently +refer), and the magnetic axis of the ring will lie in the same plane +as the line joining the points of contact of the battery and rotating +helix, this axis remaining nearly fixed notwithstanding the rotation +of the iron ring in which the magnetism is induced.</p> + +<p>In the apparatus figured in Figs. 3 and 4, the armature rotates +between the two vertical limbs, A B, of a fixed electro-magnet +furnished with extended pole pieces, A A, B B (Fig. 4), each of which +embraces about six of the armature coils. The fixed electro-magnet is +constructed of two vertical iron cylindrical bars, A and B, united at +their lower extremities by a horizontal iron bar, F F, the one being +rigidly and permanently attached to it, while the other is fastened to +it by a screw, G, passing through a slot so that the distance of the +pole pieces from one another and from the armature ring is capable of +adjustment.</p> + +<p>The connections of the machine, which are shown in Fig. 3, are made as +follows: The positive current, entering by the attachment screw, <i>h</i>, +passes by a wire to the right hand commutator screw, <i>l</i>, to the +right-hand roller, <i>k</i>, through the commutator to the ring, around +which it traverses to the left-hand roller, <i>k¹</i>, and screw, <i>l¹</i>, to +the magnet coil, A, and thence through the coil of the magnet, B, to +the terminal screw, <i>h</i>, on the right hand of the figure. This method +of coupling up is of very great historical interest, for it is the +first instance on record of the magnet coils and armature of a machine +being included in one circuit, giving to it the principle of +construction of a dynamo-electric machine, and antedating in +publication, by two years, the interesting machines of Siemens, +Wheatstone, and Varley, and preceding them in construction by a still +longer period.</p> + +<p>With this apparatus Dr. Pacinotti made the following interesting +experiments with the object of determining the amount of mechanical +work produced by the machine (when worked as an electro-magnetic +engine), and the corresponding consumption of the elements of the +battery: Attached to the spindle of the machine was a small pulley, Q +Q (Fig. 3), for the purpose of driving, by means of a cord, another +pulley on a horizontal spindle carrying a drum on which was wound a +cord carrying a weight, and on the same spindle was also a brake and +brake-wheel, the lever of which was loaded so as just to prevent the +weight setting into motion the whole system, consisting of the two +machines, when no current was flowing. In this condition, when the +machine was set in motion by connecting the battery, the mechanical +work expended in overcoming the friction of the brake was equal to +that required to raise the weight; and, in order to obtain the total +work done, all that was necessary was to multiply the weight lifted by +the distance through which it was raised. The consumption of the +battery was estimated at the same time by interposing in the circuit a +sulphate of copper voltameter, of which the copper plate was weighed +before and after the experiment. The following are some of the results +obtained by Dr. Pacinotti in experimenting after the manner just +described. With the current from a battery of four small Bunsen +elements, the machine raised a weight of 3.2812 kilos to a height of +8.66 m. (allowing for friction), so that the mechanical work was +represented by 28.45 m. During the experiment the positive plate of +the voltameter lost in weight 0.224 gramme, the negative gaining 0.235 +gramme, giving an average of chemical work performed in the voltameter +of 0.229 gramme, and multiplying this figure by the ratio between the +equivalent of zinc to that of copper, and by the number of the +elements of the battery, the weight of zinc consumed in the battery +was computed at 0.951 gramme, so that to produce one kilogrammeter of +mechanical work 33 milligrammes of zinc would be consumed in the +battery. In another experiment, made with five elements, the +consumption of zinc was found to be 36 milligrammes for every +kilogrammeter of mechanical work performed. In recording these +experiments, Dr. Pacinotti points out that although these results do +not show any special advantage in his machine over those of other +construction, still they are very encouraging, when it is considered +that the apparatus with which the experiments were made were full of +defects of workmanship, the commutator, being eccentric to the axis, +causing the contacts between it and the rollers to be very imperfect +and unequal.</p> + +<p>In his communication to the <i>Nuovo Cimento</i>, Dr. Pacinotti states that +the reasons which induced him to construct the apparatus on the +principle which we have just described, were: (1) That according to +this system the electric current is continuously traversing the coils +of the armature, and the machine is kept in motion not by a series of +intermittent impulses succeeding one another with greater or less +rapidity, but by a constantly acting force producing a more uniform +effect. (2) The annular form of the revolving armature contributes +(together with the preceding method of continuous magnetization) to +give regularity to its motion and at the same time reduces the loss of +motive power, through mechanical shocks and friction, to a minimum. +(3) In the annular system no attempt is made suddenly to magnetize and +demagnetize the iron core of the rotating armature, as such changes of +magnetization would be retarded by the setting up of extra currents, +and also by the permanent residual magnetism which cannot be entirely +eliminated from the iron; and with this annular construction such +charges are not required, all that is necessary being that each +portion of the iron of the ring should pass, in its rotation, through +the various degrees of magnetization in succession, being subjected +thereby to the influence of the electro-dynamic forces by which its +motion is produced. (4) The polar extension pieces of the fixed +electro-magnet, by embracing a sufficiently large number of the iron +projecting pieces on the armature ring, continue to exercise an +influence upon them almost up to the point at which their +magnetization ceases when passing the neutral axis. (5) By the method +of construction adopted, sparks, while being increased in number, are +diminished in intensity, there being no powerful extra currents +produced at the breaking of the circuit, and Dr. Pacinotti points out +that when the machine is in rotation a continuous current is induced +in the circuit which is opposed to that of the battery; and this leads +to what, looked at by the light of the present state of electric +science, is by far the most interesting part of Dr. Pacinotti's paper, +published, as it was, more than seventeen years ago.</p> + +<p>In the part to which we refer, Dr. Pacinotti states that it occurred +to him that the value of the apparatus would be greatly increased if +it could be altered from an electro-magnetic to a magneto-electric +machine, so as to produce a continuous current. Thus, if the +electro-magnet, A B (Figs. 3 and 4), be replaced by a permanent +magnet, and the annular armature were made to revolve, the apparatus +would become a magneto-electric generator, which would produce a +continuous induced current always in the same direction, and in +analyzing the action of such a machine Dr. Pacinotti observes that, as +the position of the magnetic field is fixed, and the iron armature +with its coils rotates within it, the action may be regarded as the +same as if the iron ring were made up of two fixed semicircular +horseshoe magnets with their similar poles joined, and the coils were +loose upon it and were caused to rotate over it, and this mode of +expressing the phenomenon was exactly what we adopted when describing +the Gramme machine, without having at that time seen what Dr. +Pacinotti had written fifteen years before.</p> + +<p>In explanation of the physical phenomena involved in the induction of +the electric currents in the armature when the machine is in action as +a generator, Dr. Pacinotti makes the following remarks: Let us trace +the action of one of the coils in the various positions that it can +assume in one complete revolution; starting from the position marked +N, Fig. 2, and moving toward S, an electric current will be developed +in it in one direction while moving through the portion of the circle, +N <i>a</i>, and after passing the point, <i>a</i>, and while passing through the +arc, <i>a</i> S, the induced current will be in the opposite direction, +which direction will be maintained until the point, <i>b</i>, is reached, +after which the currents will be in the same direction as between N +and <i>a</i>; and as all the coils are connected together, all the currents +in a given direction will unite and give the combined current a +direction indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2, and in order to collect +it (so as to transmit it into the external circuit), the most eminent +position for the collectors will be at points on the commutator at +opposite ends of a diameter which is perpendicular to the magnetic +axis of the magnetic field. With reference to Fig. 2, we imagine +either that the two arrows to the right of the figure are incorrectly +placed by the engraver, or that Dr. Pacinotti intended this diagram to +express the direction of the current throughout the whole circuit, as +if it started from <i>a</i>, and after traversing the external circuit +entered again at <i>b</i>, thus completing the whole cycle made up of the +external and internal circuits.</p> + +<p>Dr. Pacinotti calls attention to the fact that the direction of the +current generated by the machine is reversed by a reversal of the +direction of rotation, as well as by a shifting of the position of the +collectors from one side to the other of their neutral point, and +concludes his most interesting communication by describing experiments +made with it in order to convert it into a magneto-electric machine. +"I brought," he says, "near to the coiled armature the opposite poles +of two permanent magnets, and I also excited by the current from a +battery the fixed electro-magnets (see Figs. 3 and 4), and by +mechanical means I rotated the annular armature on its axis. By both +methods I obtained an induced electric current, which was continuous +and always in the same direction, and which, as was indicated by a +galvanometer, proved to be of considerable intensity, although it had +traversed the sulphate of copper voltameter which was included in the +circuit."</p> + +<p>Dr. Pacinotti goes on to show that there would be an obvious advantage +in constructing electric generating machines upon this principle, for +by such a system electric currents can be produced which are +continuous and in one direction without the necessity of the +inconvenient and more or less inefficient mechanical arrangements for +commutating the currents and sorting them, so as to collect and +combine those in one direction, separating them from those which are +in the opposite; and he also points our the reversibility of the +apparatus, showing that as an electro-magnetic engine it is capable of +converting a current of electricity into mechanical motion capable of +performing work, while as a magneto-electric machine it is made to +transform mechanical energy into an electric current, which in other +apparatus, forming part of its external circuit, is capable of +performing electric, chemical, or mechanical work.</p> + +<p>All these statements are matters of everyday familiarity at the +present day, but it must be remembered that they are records of +experiments made twenty years ago, and as such they entitle their +author to a very distinguished place among the pioneers of electric +science, and it is somewhat remarkable that they did not lead him +straight to the discovery of the "action and reaction" principle of +dynamo-electric magnetic induction to which he approached so closely, +and it is also a curious fact that so suggestive and remarkable a +paper should have been written and published as far back as 1864, and +that it should not have produced sooner than it did a revolution in +electric science.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.</h2> + +<p>We lately published a short description of a very interesting +apparatus which may be considered in some sense as a prototype of the +Gramme machine, although it has very considerable, indeed radical +differences, and which, moreover, was constructed for a different +purpose, the Elias machine being, in fact, an electromotor, while the +Gramme machine is, it is almost unnecessary to say, an electric +generator. This apparent resemblance makes it, however, necessary to +describe the Elias machine, and to explain the difference between it +and the Gramme. Its very early date (1842), moreover, gives it an +exceptional interest. The figures on the previous page convey an exact +idea of the model that was exhibited at the Paris Electrical +Exhibition, and which was contributed by the Ecole Polytechnique of +Delft in the Dutch Section. This model is almost identical with that +illustrated and described in a pamphlet accompanying the exhibit. The +perspective illustrations show the machine very clearly, and the +section explains the construction still further. The apparatus +consists of an exterior ring made of iron, about 14 in. in diameter +and 1.5 in wide. It is divided into six equal sections by six small +blocks which project from the inner face of the ring, and which act as +so many magnetic poles. On each of the sections between the blocks is +rolled a coil, of one thickness only, of copper wire about 0.04 in. in +diameter, inclosed in an insulating casing of gutta percha, giving to +the conductor thus protected a total thickness of 0.20 in.; this wire +is coiled, as shown in the illustration. It forms twenty-nine turns in +each section, and the direction of winding changes at each passage in +front of a pole piece. The ends of the wire coinciding with the +horizontal diameter of the ring are stripped of the gutta percha, and +are connected to copper wires which are twisted together and around +two copper rods, which are placed vertically, their lower ends +entering two small cavities made in the base of the apparatus. The +circuit is thus continuous with two ends at opposite points of the +same diameter. The ring is about 1.1 in. thick, and is fixed, as +shown, to two wooden columns, B B, by two blocks of copper, <i>a</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/1b.png"><img src="./images/1b_th.png" width="600" height="251" alt="THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.—MADE IN 1842." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.—MADE IN 1842.</span> +</div> + +<p>It will be seen from the mode of coiling the wire on this ring, that +if a battery be connected by means of the copper rods, the current +will create six consecutive poles on the various projecting blocks. +The inner ring, E, is about 11 in. in outside diameter, and is also +provided with a series of six projecting pieces which pass before +those on the exterior ring with very little clearance. Between these +projections the space between the inner face of the outer, and the +outer face of the inner ring, is 0.40 in. The latter is movable, and +is supported by three wooden arms, F, fixed to a boss, G, which is +traversed by a spindle supported in bearings by the columns, A and C. +A coil is rolled around the ring in exactly the same way as that on +the outer ring, the wire being of the same size, and the insulation of +the same thickness. The ends of the wire are also bared at points of +the diameter opposite each other, and the coil connected in pairs so +as to form a continuous circuit. At the two points of junction they +are connected with a hexagonal commutator placed on the central +spindle, one end corresponding to the sides 1, 3, and 5, and the other +to the sides 2, 4, and 6. Two copper rods, J, fixed on the base to two +plates of copper furnished with binding screws, are widened and +flattened at their upper ends to rest against opposite parallel sides +of the hexagon. It will be seen that if the battery is put in circuit +by means of the binding screws, the current in the interior ring will +determine six consecutive poles, the names of which will change as the +commutator plates come into contact successively with the sides of the +hexagon. Consequently, if at first the pole-pieces opposite each other +are magnetized with the same polarity, a repulsion between them will +be set up which will set the inner ring in motion, and the effect will +be increased on account of the attraction of the next pole of the +outer ring. At the moment when the pole piece thus attracted comes +into the field of the pole of opposite polarity, the action of the +commutator will change its magnetization, while that of the pole-piece +on the fixed ring always remains the same; the same phenomenon of +repulsion will be produced, and the inner ring will continue its +movement in the same direction, and so on. To the attractive and +repulsive action of the magnetic poles has to be added the reciprocal +action of the coils around the two rings, the action of which is +similar. From this brief explanation the differences between the Elias +machine and the Gramme will be understood. The Dutch physicist did not +contemplate the production of a current; he utilized two distinct +sources of electricity to set the inner ring in motion, and did not +imagine that it was possible, by suppressing one of the inducing +currents and putting the ring in rapid rotation, to obtain a +continuous current. Moreover, if ever this apparent resemblance had +been real, the merit of the Gramme invention would not have been +affected by it. It has happened very many times that inventors living +in different countries, and strangers to one another, have been +inspired with the same idea, and have followed it by similar methods, +either simultaneously or at different periods, without the application +having led to the same results. It does not suffice even for the seed +to be the same; it must have fallen in good ground, and be cultivated +with care; here it scarcely germinates, there it produces a vigorous +plant and abundant fruit.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>BJERKNES'S EXPERIMENTS.</h2> + +<p>As a general thing, too much trust should not be placed in words. In +the first place, it frequently happens that their sense is not well +defined, or that they are not understood exactly in the same way by +everybody, and this leads to sad misunderstandings. But even in case +they are precise, and are received everywhere under a single +acceptation, there still remains one danger, and that is that of +passing from the word to the idea, and of being led to believe that, +because there is a word, there is a real thing designated by this +word.</p> + +<p>Let us take, for example, the word <i>electricity</i>. If we understand by +this term the common law which embraces a certain category of +phenomena, it expresses a clear and useful idea; but as for its +existence, it is not permitted to believe <i>a priori</i> that there is a +distinct agent called electricity which is the efficient cause of the +phenomena. We ought never, says the old rule of philosophy, to admit +entities without an absolute necessity. The march of science has +always consisted in gradually eliminating these provisory conceptions +and in reducing the number of causes. This fact is visible without +going back to the ages of ignorance, when every new phenomenon brought +with it the conception of a special being which caused it and directed +it. In later ages they had <i>spirits</i> in which there was everything: +volatile liquids, gases, and theoretical conceptions, such as +phlogiston. At the end of the last century, and at the beginning of +our own, ideas being more rational, the notion of the "fluid" had been +admitted, a mysterious and still vague enough category (but yet an +already somewhat definite one) in which were ranged the unknown and +ungraspable causes of caloric, luminous, electric, etc., phenomena. +Gradually, the "fluid" has vanished, and we are left (or rather, we +were a short time ago) at the notion of forces—a precise and +mathematically graspable notion, but yet an essentially mysterious +one. We see this conception gradually disappearing to leave finally +only the elementary ideas of matter and motion—ideas, perhaps, which +are not much clearer philosophically than the others, particularly +that of matter taken <i>per se</i>, but which, at least, are necessary, +since all the others supposed them.</p> + +<p>Among those notions that study and time are reducing to other and +simpler ones, that of electricity should be admitted; for it presents +itself more and more as one of the peculiar cases of the general +motion of matter. It will be to the eternal honor of Fresnel for +having introduced into science and mathematically constituted the +theory of undulations (already proposed before him, however), thus +giving the first example of the notion of motion substituted for that +of force. Since the principle of the conservation of energy has taken +the eminent place in science that it now occupies, and we have seen a +continual transformation of one series of phenomena into another, the +mind is at once directed to the aspect of a new fact toward an +explanation of this kind. Still, it is certain that these hypotheses +are difficult of justification; for those motions that are at present +named molecular, and that we cannot help presuming to be at the base +of all actions, are <i>per se</i> ungraspable and can only be demonstrated +by the coincidence of a large number of results. There is, however, +another means of rendering them probable, and that is by employing +analogy. If, by vibrations which are directly ascertainable, we can +reproduce the effects of electricity, there will be good reason for +admitting that the latter is nothing else than a system of vibration +differing only, perhaps, in special qualities, such as dimensions, +direction, rapidity, etc.</p> + +<p>Such is the result that is attained by the very curious experiments +that are due to Mr. Bjerknes. These constitute an <i>ensemble</i> of very +striking results, which are perfectly concordant and exhibit very +close analogies with electrical effects, as we shall presently see.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/2.png" width="302" height="450" alt="Fig. 1." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.</span> +</div> + +<p>They are based on the presence of bodies set in vibration in a liquid. +The vibrations produced by Mr. Bjerknes are of two kinds—pulsations +and oscillations. The former of these are obtained by the aid of small +drums with flexible ends, as shown to the left in Fig. 1. A small pump +chamber or cylinder is, by means of a tube, put in communication with +one of these closed drums in which the rapid motion of a piston +alternately sucks in and expels the air. The two flexible ends are +successively thrust outward and attracted toward the center. In an +apparatus of this kind the two ends repulse and attract the liquid at +the same time. Their motions are of the same phase; if it were desired +that one should repulse while the other was attracting, it would be +necessary to place two drums back to back, separated by a stiff +partition, and put them in connection with two distinct pump chambers +whose movements were so arranged that one should be forcing in while +the other was exhausting. A system of this nature is shown to the +right in Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>The vibrations are obtained by the aid of small metal spheres fixed in +tubular supports by movable levers to which are communicated the +motions of compression and dilatation of the air in the pump chamber. +They oscillate in a plane whose direction may be varied according to +the arrangement of the sphere, as seen in the two apparatus of this +kind shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 will give an idea of the general +arrangement. The two pistons of the air-pumps are connected to cranks +that may be fixed in such a way as to regulate the phases as may be +desired, either in coincidence or opposition. The entire affair is put +in motion by a wheel and cord permitting of rapid vibrations being +obtained. The air is let into the apparatus by rubber tubing without +interfering with their motions.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/3a.png"><img src="./images/3a_th.png" width="519" height="450" alt="Fig. 2." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.</span> +</div> + +<p>We may now enter into the details of the experiments:</p> + +<p>The first is represented in Fig. 2. In a basin of water there is +placed a small frame carrying a drum fixed on an axle and capable of +revolving. It also communicates with one of the air cylinders. The +operator holds in his hand a second drum which communicates with the +other cylinder. The pistons are adjusted in such a way that they shall +move parallel with each other; then the ends of the drums inflate and +collapse at the same time; the <i>motions are of the same phase</i>; but if +the drums are brought near each other a very marked attraction occurs, +the revolving drum follows the other. If the cranks are so adjusted +that the pistons move in an opposite direction, the <i>phases are +discordant</i>—there is a repulsion, and the movable drum moves away +from the other. The effect, then, is analogous to that of two magnets, +with about this difference, that here it is the like phases that +attract and the different phases that repel each other, while in +magnets like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.</p> + +<p>It is necessary to remark that it is indifferent which face of the +drum is presented, since both possess the same phase. The drum +behaves, then, like an insulated pole of a magnet, or, better, like a +magnet having in its middle a succeeding point. In order to have two +poles a double drum must be employed. The experiment then becomes more +complicated; for it is necessary to have two pump chambers with +opposite phases for this drum alone, and one or two others for the +revolving drum. The effects, as we shall see, are more easily shown +with the vibrating spheres.</p> + +<p>This form has the advantage that the vibrating body exhibits the two +phases at the same time; relatively to the liquid, one of its ends +advances while the other recedes. Thus with a vibrating sphere +presented to the movable drum, there may be obtained repulsion or +attraction, according as the side which is approached is concordant or +discordant with the end of the drum that it faces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/3b.png"><img src="./images/3b_th.png" width="325" height="450" alt="Fig. 3." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.</span> +</div> + +<p>With the arrangement shown in Fig. 3 there may be performed an +interesting series of experiments. The two spheres supported by the +frame are set in simultaneous vibration, and the frame, moreover, is +free to revolve about its axis. The effect is analogous to that which +would be produced by two short magnets carried by the same revolving +support; on presenting the vibrating sphere to the extremities the +whole affair is attracted or repulsed, according to its phase and +according to the point at which it is presented; on replacing the +transverse support by a single sphere (as indicated in the figure by a +dotted line) we obtain the analogue of a short magnet carried on a +pivot like a small compass needle. This sphere follows the pole of a +vibrating sphere which is presented to it, as the pole of a magnet +would do, with this difference always, that in the magnet, like poles +repel, while in oscillating bodies like phases attract.</p> + +<p>In all the preceding experiments the bodies brought in presence were +both in motion and the phenomena were analogous to those of permanent +magnetism. We may also reproduce those which result from magnetism by +induction. For this purpose we employ small balls of different +materials suspended from floats, as shown in Fig. 4 (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>). +Let us, for example, take the body, <i>b</i>, which is a small metal +sphere, and present to it either a drum which is caused to pulsate, on +an oscillating sphere, and it will be attracted, thus representing the +action of a magnet upon a bit of soft iron. A curious experiment may +serve to indicate the transition between this new series and the +preceding. If we present to each other two drums of opposite phases, +but so arranged that one of them vibrates faster than the other, we +shall find, on carefully bringing them together, that the repulsion +which manifested itself at first is changing to attraction. On +approaching each other the drum having the quicker motion finally has +upon the other, the same action as if the latter were immovable; and +the effect is analogous to that which takes place between a strong and +weak magnet presented by their like poles.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/3c.png" width="427" height="400" alt="Fig. 4." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.</span> +</div> + +<p>By continuing these experiments we arrive at a very important point. +Instead of the body, <i>b</i> (Fig. 4), let us take <i>c</i>. As the figure +shows, this is a sphere lighter than water, kept in the liquid by a +weight. If we present to it the vibrating body, it will be repelled, +and we shall obtain the results known by the name of diamagnetism. +This curious experiment renders evident the influence of media. As +well known, Faraday attributed such effects to the action of the air; +and he thought that magnetic motions always resulted from a difference +between the attraction exerted by the magnet upon the body under +experiment, and the attraction exerted by the air. If the body is more +sensitive than the air, there is direct magnetism, but if it is less +so, there is diamagnetism. Water between the bodies, in the Bjerknes +experiments, plays the same role; it is this which, by its vibration, +transmits the motions and determines the phases in the suspended body. +If the body is heavier than water its motion is less than that of the +liquid, and, consequently, relatively to the vibrating body, it is of +like phase; and if it is lighter, the contrary takes place, and the +phases are in discordance. These effects may be very well verified by +the aid of the little apparatus shown in Fig. 5, and which carries two +bars, one of them lighter and the other heavier than water. On +presenting to them the vibrating body, one presents its extremity and +takes an axial direction, while the other arranges itself crosswise +and takes the equatorial direction. These experiments may be varied in +different ways that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon in this +place, as they may be seen at the Electrical Exhibition.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/3d.png" width="370" height="450" alt="Fig. 5." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.</span> +</div> + +<p>Very curious effects are also obtained with the arrangement shown in +Fig. 6. Between the two drums there is introduced a body sustained by +a float such as represented at <i>a</i>, Fig. 4. Various results may, then, +be obtained according to the combinations adopted. Let us suppose that +the phases are alike, and that the interposed body is heavier than +water; in this case it is repelled as far as the circumference of the +drums, at which point it stops. If the phases are different, the +influenced body behaves in the opposite manner and stops at the +center. If the body is lighter than water the effects are naturally +changed. Placed between two like phases, it is attracted within a +certain radius and repelled when it is placed further off; if the +phases are unlike, it is always repelled. We may easily assure +ourselves that these effects are analogous to those which are produced +on bodies placed between the poles of wide and powerful magnets. It +is useless to repeat that the analogies are always inverse.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/3e.png" width="308" height="450" alt="Fig. 6." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.</span> +</div> + +<p>Mr. Bjerknes has carried the examination of these phenomena still +further in studying experimentally the actions that occur in the +depths of the liquid; and for this purpose he has made use of the +arrangement shown in Fig. 7. By the side of the vibrating body there +is placed a light body mounted on a very flexible spring. This assumes +the motion of that portion of the fluid in which it is immersed, and, +by the aid of a small pencil, its direction is inscribed upon a plate +located above it. By placing this registering apparatus in different +directions the entire liquid may be explored. We find by this means +figures that are perfectly identical with magnetic phantoms. All the +circumstances connected with these can be reproduced, the vibrating +sphere giving the phantom of a magnet with its two poles. We may even +exhibit the mutual action of two magnets. The figures show with +remarkable distinctness—much more distinct, perhaps, than those that +are obtained by true magnets.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/3f.png" width="319" height="450" alt="Fig. 7." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.</span> +</div> + +<p>However, it must not be thought that these so interesting facts are +the result of groping in the dark and the outcome of some fortunate +experiment; for they have, on the contrary, been foreseen and +predetermined. Mr. Bjerknes is especially a mathematician, and it was +a study, through calculation, of the vibratory motion of a body or +system of bodies in a medium that led him to the results that he +afterwards materialized.</p> + +<p>After the production, by Mr. Lejeune, of his solutions, Mr. Bjerknes +in 1865 entered upon a complete study of the subject, and recognized +the fact that the result of such motions was the production of regular +mechanical actions. He calculated the directions of these, and, along +about 1875, perceived the possibility of reproducing the effects of +permanent magnetism. More recently, in 1879, he saw that magnetism by +derivation might likewise be explained by those hypotheses, and +figured by actions of this kind. It was not till then that he +performed the experiments, and submitted a body to the results of +calculation.</p> + +<p>The same process has led him to the conclusion that the action of +currents might be represented in the same manner; only, instead of +bodies in vibration, it would require bodies in alternating rotation. +The effects are much more difficult to ascertain, since it is +necessary to employ viscid liquids.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the experiments have been performed. Up to the present time +attractions and repulsions have not been shown, and I do not know +whether Mr. Bjerknes has obtained them. But, by the process pointed +out, the lines of action (electric phantoms, if I may so express +myself) have been traced, and they are very curious. By supposing the +current perpendicular to the plate, and in the presence of the pole of +a magnet, the influences produced around it are very well seen, and +the figures are very striking, especially in the case of two currents. +Mr. Bjerknes does not appear as yet to have obtained from these +experiments all that he expects from them. And yet, such as they are, +they have already led him to important conclusions. Thus, calculation, +confirmed by application, has led him to renounce the formula proposed +by Ampère and to adopt that of Regnard as modified by Clausius. Is he +right? This is what more prolonged experimentation will allow to be +seen.</p> + +<p>These researches, however, are beset with difficulties of a special +nature, and the use of viscid liquids is a subject for discussion. Mr. +Bjerknes desired to employ them for reproducing the effects that he +had obtained from water, but he found that the lines of force were no +longer the same, and that the phenomena were modified. It is +necessary, then, to hold as much as possible to liquids that are +perfect. The experimenter is at present endeavoring to use these +liquids by employing cylinders having a fluted surface; but it is +clear that this, too, is not without its difficulties.</p> + +<p>This series of experiments offers a rare example of the verification +of algebraic calculation by direct demonstration. In general, we may +employ geometry, which gives a graphic representation of calculation +and furnishes a valuable control. Sometimes we have practical +application, which is a very important verification in some respects, +but only approximate in others. But it is rare that we employ, as Mr. +Bjerknes has done, a material, direct, and immediate translation, +which, while it brings the results into singular prominence, permits +of comparing them with known facts and of generalizing the views upon +which they are based.</p> + +<p>Hypotheses as to the nature of electricity being as yet only tolerably +well established, we should neglect nothing that may contribute to +give them a solid basis. Assuming that electricity <i>is</i> a vibratory +motion (and probably there is no doubt about it), yet the fact is not +so well established with regard to it as it is to that of light. Every +proof that comes to support this idea is welcome, and especially so +when it is not derived from a kind of accident, but is furnished by a +calculated and mathematical combination. Viewed from this double +standpoint, the experiments of Mr. Bjerknes are very remarkable, and, +I may add, they are very curious to behold, and I recommend all +visitors to the Exhibition to examine them.—<i>Frank Geraldy, in La +Lumiere Electrique.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>THE ARC ELECTRIC LIGHT.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">Leo Daft</span>.</h3> + +<p>I shall experience one difficulty in addressing you this evening, +which is, that although I do not wish to take up your time with purely +elementary matter, I wish to make the subject clear to those who may +not be familiar with its earlier struggles.</p> + +<p>If we begin at the beginning we have to go back to the time when +Faraday made the discovery that light could be produced by the +separation of two carbon rods conducting a current of considerable +tension. That is the historical point when electric lighting first +loomed up as a giant possibility of the near future. This occurred +about the year 1846. In some experiments he found that although the +circuit could not be interrupted by any considerable interval when +metallic terminals were used without breaking the current, when carbon +was substituted the interval could be largely increased, and a light +of dazzling brilliancy appeared between the points.</p> + +<p>This remarkable effect appears to be produced by the rarefaction of +the air, due to the great heat evolved by the combustion of the +carbon, and also to the passage of incandescent particles of carbon +from pole to pole, thus reducing the resistance, otherwise too great +for the current tension.</p> + +<p>That was the beginning of electric lighting; and perhaps it will be +well to bridge the long and comparatively uninteresting interval which +elapsed between this discovery and the equally important one which +alone gave it commercial value—I refer to the production of suitable +currents by mechanical means. That is to say, the substitution of +energy obtained from coal in the form of steam power reduced the cost +to a fraction of what it necessarily was when the galvanic elements +were used. Here is the point; the cost of zinc today is something over +fifty times that of coal, while its energy as a vitalizing agent is +only about five times greater, leaving a very large margin in favor of +the "black diamonds." This is not the only advantage, for the +resulting impulse in the case of mechanical production is much more +uniform in action, and therefore better suited to the end in view, +while the amount of adjustment and attention required is beyond +comparison in favor of the latter means.</p> + +<p>The machines adopted were of the magneto variety, and many ingenious +machines of this class were operated with more or less success, being, +however, quickly abandoned upon the introduction of the +dynamo-machine, which gave currents of much greater electromotive +force from the same amount of material, the advantage being chiefly +due to the large increase of magnetic intensity in the field magnets. +At this period lights of enormous power were produced with ease and by +the use of costly lamps. With complicated mechanism a new era in +artificial illumination seemed close at hand, but a grave difficulty +stood in the way—namely, the proper distribution or subdivision of +the light. It was quickly found that the electric difficulty of +subdividing the light, added to the great cost of the lamps then made, +was an apparently insurmountable obstacle to its general adoption, and +the electric light was gradually taking its place as a brilliant +scientific toy, when the world was startled by the introduction of the +Jablochkoff candle, which may fairly claim to have given a greater +impetus to the new light than any previous invention, a stimulus +without which it is even probable that electric lighting might have +slumbered for another decade.</p> + +<p>The Jablochkoff candle embodies a very beautiful philosophical +principle, and though its promises have not been fulfilled in general +practice, we must not forget that we owe it much for arousing +scientific men from a dangerous lethargy.</p> + +<p>Up to this time the light had always been produced by approximation of +carbon rods with their axes in the same plane; but the Jablochkoff +candle consisted of like rods arranged parallel to each other and +about one-eighth of an inch apart, the intervening space being filled +with plaster of Paris, and the interval at the top bridged by a +conducting medium. The object of the plaster, which is a fairly good +insulating material at ordinary temperatures, is to prevent the +passage of the current except at the top, where the conducting +material just referred to assisted the formation of the arc at that +point, and the resulting intense heat maintained the plaster in a +moderately conducting state until the whole carbon was consumed. Here, +then, was literally an electric "candle," which could be operated +without the costly and unsteady lamps, and fortunately its birthplace +was Paris—then the center of philosophical research; from that period +the future of electric lighting was assured.</p> + +<p>When we reflect that owing to the greater disruptive energy of the +positive terminal, the carbon so connected to an ordinary dynamo +machine is consumed very much faster than the negative—sometimes in +the ratio of 3 to 1—it will be clear that some other means of +consuming the Jablochkoff candle had to be used, since the arc would +cease to exist in a very short time by reason of the unequal +consumption of the carbons, and the subsequent increase of the +intervening space beyond the limit of the current tension.</p> + +<p>This difficulty M. Gramme overcame with characteristic ingenuity by +adding to the ordinary system a "distributer" capable of delivering +plus and minus currents alternately, thus equalizing the consumption, +besides being able to supply a large number of candles on the multiple +circuit system, each circuit supporting four or five lamps. Thus it +will be seen that a result was attained which at least gave such men +as Siemens, Gramme, and their peers, if such there be, confidence in +the future and a courage which quickly placed the new science safely +beyond the limits of the laboratory. I will not occupy your time by +stating the apparent reasons why the Jablochkoff candle has not fully +sustained its brilliant promise—it will, perhaps, be sufficient to +state that it is now superseded practically, though it must always +occupy an honorable place in scientific annals.</p> + +<p>Let us now for a few moments consider what the electric light really +accomplished at about this period, I mean from an economical +standpoint. It appears from some data furnished by an engineer +commissioned by the French Government that the machines were then +capable of maintaining a light equal to from 220 to 450 candles, +measured by comparison with the Carcel burner, per horse power +absorbed—a very good showing considering the youth of the discovery, +but presenting rather a gloomy aspect when we consider that according +to Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat, which is 772 foot pounds, or +the power required to raise one pound of water one degree—and for +lack of anything better, we are obliged to accept that at this +moment—the whole force contained in one pound of coal would maintain +a light equal to 13,000 candles for one hour! That is the ultimate +force, and what we are now able to accomplish is but a small fraction +of this amount.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately we are but common mortals, and cannot, like Mr. Keely, +lightly throw off the trammels of natural law; we must, therefore, +endeavor to close this gap by patient study and experiment.</p> + +<p>The limited time at my disposal, and a keen consideration for your +feelings, will not permit me to follow the long series of struggles +between mind and matter immediately following Jablochkoff's brilliant +invention; suffice it to say, that the few years just passed have +yielded beyond comparison the most marvelous results in the scientific +history of the world, and it will be superfluous to remind you that a +great part of this has undoubtedly been due to the researches made in +an effort to reduce electric lighting to a commercial basis. To say +that this has been fully accomplished is but to repeat a well known +fact; and in proof of this I quote a high scientific authority by +stating that a result so high as 4,000 candles evolved for 40,000 +foot-pounds absorbed has recently been obtained—an efficiency six or +seven times greater than the record of six years ago. In accepting +this statement we must not lose sight of the extreme probability that +such effects were evolved under conditions rarely if ever found in +common practice. Of course, I now refer to the arc system. The volume +of light so generated is incomparably greater than by any other known +method, though in subdivision the limit is sooner reached.</p> + +<p>Mr. Hawkesworth—Let me ask you a question, please. Supposing that it +required a one-horse power to produce an arc light of, say, 2,000 +candles, would it be possible to produce ten arc lights of 200 candles +each?</p> + +<p>Mr. Daft—No, sir; I will tell you why. It would, if no other element +than the simple resistance of the arcs opposed the passage of a +current; then a machine that would produce an inch arc in one light, +if placed on a circuit of sixteen lamps would give to each an arc +one-sixteenth of an inch long naturally; but another difficulty here +presents itself in the shape of a resisting impulse of considerable +electromotive force in the opposite direction, apparently caused by +the intense polarity of the two terminals. The resistance of the arc +itself varies much according to the volume of current used being +usually small with a large quantity of current, and greater with a +current of tension; but this opposing element is always found, and +appears to be the only real obstacle in the way of infinite +subdivision.</p> + +<p>Almost every objection which human ingenuity could suggest has been +urged against lighting by electricity, but fortunately electricians +have been able in most cases either to meet the difficulty or prove it +groundless.</p> + +<p>In this connection I am led to speak of the common idea that electric +light is injurious to the eyes, first, because of its unsteady +character, and secondly, by reason of the great excess of the more +refrangible rays. Both objections undoubtedly hold good where the +alleged causes exist; but we can now show you a light which is +certainly as steady as the ordinary gaslight—indeed more steady in an +apartment where even feeble currents of air circulate; and I am sure +you will readily acknowledge that the latter objection is disposed of +when I assure you that our light presents the only example with which +I am acquainted of an exact artificial reproduction of the solar +light, as shown by decomposition. The two spectra, placed side by +side, show in the most conclusive manner the identity in composition +of our light with that of the sun.</p> + +<p>The remarkable coolness of the electric light, as compared with its +volume by gas, is also due in a great measure to the conspicuous +absence of that large excess of less refrangible, or heat-radiating +principle, which distinguishes almost equally all other modes of +artificial illumination. After the foregoing statement it may seem a +paradox to claim that the electric arc develops the greatest heat with +which we have yet had to deal, but this is so; and the heat has an +intensity quite beyond the reach of accurate measurement by any +instrument now known—it has been variously estimated anywhere between +5,000° and 50,000° F. It is sufficient for our present purpose to know +that the most refractory substances quickly disappear when brought +under its influence—even the imperial diamond must succumb in a short +time. In order to reconcile this fact with its coolness as an +illuminating agent, we have to take into consideration the extreme +smallness of the point from which the light radiates in the electric +arc. A light having the power of many thousand candles will expose but +a fraction of the surface for heat radiation which is shown by one +gas-jet, and, as I have endeavored to explain, these rays contain very +much less of the heating principle than those from gas or other +artificial light.</p> + +<p>The purity of electric light has another important aspect, which can +scarcely be overestimated—namely, the facility with which all the +most delicate shades of color can be distinguished. I understand from +persons better skilled than myself in such matters that this can be +done almost as readily by electric as by day light, and I have little +doubt that the slight difference in this respect will entirely +disappear when people become somewhat more familiar with the different +conditions—the effect of such shades viewed by electric light being +more like that with comparatively feeble direct sunlight than the +subdued daylight usually prevailing in stores and warehouses.</p> + +<p>Again, it has frequently been urged that persons working by electric +light have thus induced inflammation of the eyes. No doubt this is so +with light containing the highly refrangible rays in excess; but it is +difficult to see how such an effect can occur with light composed as +is the light with which the eyes are constructed to operate in perfect +harmony.</p> + +<p>As you are aware, there are other methods of obtaining light by +electric energy, and in order to make a fair comparison of one which +has lately attracted a great deal of attention and capital, I will +relate to you the result of observations made during a recent visit to +the office of an eminent electrician. The light was that known as +incandescent—a filament of carbon raised to a light-emitting heat in +vacuo. The exclusion of the air is necessary to prevent the otherwise +rapid destruction of the carbon by combination with oxygen. At the +time of my visit there were 62 lamps in circuit. According to their +statement each lamp was of 16-candle power—I accept their statement +as correct; this will give us an aggregate of 992 candles. The +generator was vitalized by an engine rated by the attendants in charge +at 6-horse power. I found that it was a 5×7 cylinder, working with +very little expansion 430 revolutions per minute, with 90 pounds of +live steam, in a boiler not 15 feet from the engine. I have every +reason to believe that the steam was delivered at the cylinder with an +almost inappreciable loss on 90 pounds. Under those conditions I think +it is perfectly fair to assume (you have the data, so that you can +calculate it afterwards) that 750,000 foot pounds were consumed in +producing those 60 lights, aggregating 992 candles. In the kind of +engine they had, 750,000 foot pounds requires a consumption of about +100 pounds of coal per hour. It was an ordinary high speed engine. +That 750,000 foot pounds, I assume, required 100 pounds of coal. That +is the only weak point in my data; I do not know that to be true; but +I never saw an engine of that form yet capable of delivering 1-horse +power with less consumption than four to five pounds of coal per horse +power per hour. I want to be as fair as I can in the matter. I wish to +compare this, as they have taken particular pains to compare it, with +gas, at the present cost of gas.</p> + +<p>The hundred pounds of coal will produce 400 feet of gas; 400 feet of +gas will evolve the effect of 1,500 candles. So you see the position +we are in. In consuming that coal directly by destructive distillation +you can produce 1,500 candles light; by converting it into power, and +then again into light by incandescence, you produce 992! Expressing +this in other words, we may say that in producing the light from coal +by the incandescent system you lose one-third of the power as compared +with gas, by actually converting the coal into gas, and delivering it +in the ordinary manner. Those are facts. It has been suggested to me +that I am too liberal in my estimate of coal consumed—that those +engines consume more than four or five pounds per horse power per +hour; but I prefer to give them the benefit of the doubt.</p> + +<p>Mr. Rothschild—If I understood you correctly, this electric light +costs more than gas?</p> + +<p>Mr. Daft—<i>Must</i> do by this system. You cannot do better, so far as +our philosophy goes. But this whole system of illumination, as now +practiced is a financial fallacy.</p> + +<p>Mr. Rothschild—That is what Professor Sawyer says.</p> + +<p>Mr. Daft—The same amount of energy converted into light by our arc +system will produce 30,000 candles. We are perfectly willing to +demonstrate that at any time. I am free to admit that the minute +subdivision obtained by the Edisonian, Swan, or Fox system—they do +not differ materially—is a great desideratum; but this cannot bridge +the financial gulf.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lendrum—Now please state what we have accomplished.</p> + +<p>Mr. Daft—Certainly; and in so doing I prefer to give our results as +actually occurring in everyday work; and in this connection let me +remind you that in no branch of physics are the purely experimental +effects so well calculated to deceive, if not fairly conditioned. As +we have seen, it is claimed on excellent authority that the equivalent +of 4,000 candles appeared in an arc by expending 40,000 foot pounds of +energy at the generator, but with everyday conditions it is at present +idle to expect such efficiency. Commercially we can give by our own +system 3,000 candles for 40,000 foot pounds absorbed; this may be done +for an indefinite length of time and leave nothing to be desired on +the score of steadiness. Unfortunately there is no unit of photometric +measurement generally recognized in this country, each electrician +having so far adopted one to suit his own convenience; but in making +the foregoing statement I wish it to be understood that our efficiency +would appear still greater if measured by some of the methods now +employed. For our own satisfaction we have endeavored to be at least +approximately accurate, at the same time wishing to avoid the +affectation of extreme precision, such, for example, as adding twenty +or thirty candles to measurements of so many thousands, and we are +satisfied that the most critical expert tests will prove our claim to +be within the mark. The limit of subdivision is only reached when the +difficulty of further increasing the electromotive force of the +machines, involving great care in insulation and a host of other +troubles arising, so to speak, at very high pressure, is balanced by +the objections to working in multiple arc; this appears to occur now +at something below 40 lights, but will in all probability be greatly +extended within a short time. The machines are so constructed that the +local currents, usually productive of dangerous heating, are turned to +useful account, so that the point where radiation exceeds production +is soon reached, and provided the machines are not speeded beyond the +proper limit, they may be run continuously without the slightest +indication of lost vitality. I need scarcely remind you that this is a +most important feature, and by no means a common one.</p> + +<p>The lamps used in our system I believe to be the simplest known form +of regulator; indeed it seems scarcely possible that anything less +complicated could perform the necessary work; as a matter of fact we +may confidently assert that it cannot be made less liable to +derangement. It has frequently been placed on circuit by persons +totally inexperienced in such matters, and still has yielded results +which we are quite willing to quote at any time.</p> + +<p>I will not now trespass on your patience further than will enable me +to state that experiments now in hand indicate conclusively that +domestic electric lighting of the immediate future will be +accomplished in a manner more beautiful and wondrous than was ever +shadowed in an Arabian Night's dream. I hesitate somewhat to make +these vague allusions, since so many wild promises, for which I am not +responsible, remain unfulfilled, but the time is surely near at hand +when a single touch will illuminate our homes with a light which will +combine all the elements of beauty, steadiness, softness, and absolute +safety, to a degree as yet undreamed of. I do not ask you to accept +this without question, but only to remember that within the last +decade wires have been taught to convey not only articulate sounds, +but the individual voices you know amidst a thousand, and even light +and heat have each been made the medium of communicating our thoughts +to distant places!</p> + +<p>Not the least remarkable phenomenon in this connection is the +intellectual condition of the people who have welcomed these marvelous +achievements and allowed them to enter into their everyday life, thus +removing the greatest barriers of the past and paving the way for that +philosophical millennium inevitably awaiting those who may be +fortunate enough to survive the next decade.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>A recent address before the New York Electric Light +Association.</p></div> +<hr /> + +<h3>SUCCESS OF THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS, NEW YORK.</h3> + +<p>The travel over the elevated steam street railways of New York city +for month of October, 1881, was the heaviest yet recorded, aggregating +7,121,961 passengers, as against 5,881,474, for the corresponding +month of 1880, an increase of 1,240,487, representing just about the +entire population of the city.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>HEDGES' ELECTRIC LAMPS.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate a very curious and interesting form of electric +regulator which is exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of Electricity by +Mr. Killingworth Hedges, whose name will be known to our readers as +the author of a little book on the electric light. Mr. Hedges' lamp +belongs to the same category of electric regulators as the lamp of M. +Rapieff, and to one form of M. Reynier's lamp, that is to say, the +position of the ends of the carbons, and therefore of the arc, is +determined not by clockwork or similar controlling mechanism, but by +the locus of the geometrical intersection of the axes of the carbon +rods, the positions of which axes being determined by simple +mechanical means.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/5a-1.png" width="597" height="450" alt="Fig. 1" title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 1</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/5a-2.png" width="411" height="450" alt="Fig. 2 +HEDGES' ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 2<br /> +HEDGES' ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</span> +</div> + +<p>Referring to Fig. 1, A and B are two troughs rectangular in cross +section attached to the supports in such positions that their axes are +inclined to one another so as to form the letter V, as shown in the +figure. Within these troughs slide freely the two carbon pencils, +which are of circular cross section, meeting, when no current is +passing, at the lower point, E. The carbon-holder, B, to the right of +the figure, is rigidly attached to the framing of the lamp, but the +trough, A, which carries the negative carbon, is attached to the +framing by a pivot shown in the figure, and on this pivot the carbon +holder can rock, its motion being controlled by the position of the +armature of an electro-magnet, M, the coils of which are included in +the circuit of the apparatus. By this means, the moment the current is +established through the lamp, the armature is attracted, and the +points of the two carbons are separated, thus forming the arc. The +positive carbon, B, is held from sliding and dropping through the +trough by the gentle pressure against it of the smaller carbon rod, +C¹, which also slides in a trough or tube fixed in such a position +that the point of contact between the two rods is sufficiently near +the arc for the smaller rod to be slowly consumed as the other is +burnt away; the latter in that way is permitted to slide gradually +down the trough as long as the lamp is in action. The negative +carbon-holder, A, is provided with a little adjustable platinum stop, +E, which by pressing against the side of the conical end of the +negative carbon, holds the latter in its place and prevents it sliding +down the trough except under the influence of the slow combustion of +the cone during the process of producing the arc. The position of the +stop with respect to the conical end is determined by a small +adjusting screw shown in the figure. This arrangement of stop is +identical in principle with that adopted by Messrs. Siemens Brothers +in their "abutment pole" lamp, and is found to work very well in +practice on the negative electrodes, but is inapplicable on the +positive carbons on account of the higher temperature of the latter, +which is liable to destroy the metallic stop by fusion, and it is for +this reason that the positive carbon in Mr. Hedges' lamp is controlled +by the method we have already described. For alternating currents, +however, the abutment stop may be used on both electrodes.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/5b.png" width="441" height="450" alt="Figs. 3 and 4." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">Figs. 3 and 4.</span> +</div> + +<p>In order to maintain a good electrical contact between the fixed +conducting portions of the lamp and the sliding carbons, Mr. Hedges +fits to each carbon-holder a little contact piece, F F, hinged to its +respective trough at its upper end, and carrying at its lower or free +end a somewhat heavy little block of brass grooved out to fit the +cylindrical side of the carbon, against which it presses with an even +pressure. This arrangement offers another advantage, namely, that the +length of that portion of the carbon rods which is conveying the +current is always the same notwithstanding the shortening of their +total length by combustion; the resistance of the carbon electrodes +is, therefore, maintained constant, and, for the reason that the +contact piece presses against the rods very near their lower ends, +that resistance is reduced to a minimum. In this way very long +carbons, such, for instance, as will burn for ten or sixteen hours, +can be used without introducing any increase of resistance into the +circuit. The length of the arc can be determined by the adjustment of +the screw, G, by which the amount of movement of the armature is +limited.</p> + +<p>Fig. 2 represents a modified form of Mr. Hedges' lamp designed for +installation when it is desirable to burn a number of lamps in series. +In this arrangement the carbons are separated by the attractive +influence of a solenoid upon an iron plunger, to which is attached (by +a non-magnetic connection) the armature of an electro-magnet, the +coils (which are of fine wire) forming a shunt circuit between the two +terminals of the lamp, and so disposed with respect to the armature as +to influence it in an opposite direction to that of the solenoid. When +the circuit of the lamp is completed with the electric generator the +carbons are drawn apart by the action of the solenoid on the plunger, +and the distance to which they are separated is determined by the +difference of attractive force exercised upon the armature by the +solenoid and the magnet; but as the latter forms a short circuit to +that of the arc, it follows that should the resistance of the arc +circuit increase either through the arc becoming too long or through +imperfection in the carbons or contacts, a greater percentage of +current will flow through the magnet coils, and the arc will be +shortened, thereby reducing its resistance and regulating it to the +strength of the current. In other words, the distance between the +carbons, that is to say, the length of the arc, is determined by the +position of the armature of the electro-magnet between its magnets and +the solenoid, which position is in its turn determined by the +difference between the strength of current passing through the coil of +the solenoid and that of the magnet.</p> + +<p>Mr. Killingworth Hedges exhibits also a third form of his lamp, in +most respects similar to the lamp figured in Fig. 1, but in which the +ends of the two carbons rest against the side of a small cylinder of +fireclay or other refractory material, which is mounted on a +horizontal axis and can be rotated thereon by a worm and worm-wheel +actuated by an endless cord passing over a grooved pulley. In the lamp +one of the carbon-holders is rigidly fixed to the framing of the +apparatus, and the other is mounted on a point so as to enable the +length of the arc playing over the clay cylinder to be regulated by +the action of an electro-magnet attracting an armature in opposition +to the tension of an adjustable spring.</p> + +<p>In the same exhibit will be found specimens of Mr. Hedges' two-way +switches, which have been designed to reduce the tendency to sparking +and consequent destruction which so often accompanies the action of +switches of the ordinary form. The essential characteristic of this +switch, which we illustrate in elevation in Fig. 3 and in plan in Fig. +4, lies first in the circular form of contact-piece shown in Fig. 4, +and next in the fact that the space between the two fixed +contact-pieces is filled up with a block composed of compressed +asbestos, the surface of which is flush with the upper surfaces of the +two contact-pieces. The circular contact-piece attached to the switch +lever can be turned round so as to present a fresh surface when that +which has been in use shows indications of being worn, and a good firm +contact with the fixed contact-pieces is insured by the presence of a +spiral spring shown in the upper figure, and which, owing to an error +in engraving, appears more like a screw than a spring. In order to +prevent bad connection through dust or other impurities collecting +within the joint, the electrical connection between the fulcrum of the +switch lever and the circular contact-piece is made through the bent +spring shown edgeways in Fig. 3.—<i>Engineering.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</h2> + +<p><i>Lartigue's Switch Controller.</i>—The object of this apparatus is to +warn the switch tender in case the switch does not entirely respond to +the movement of the maneuvering lever.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-1.png"><img src="./images/6-1_th.png" width="600" height="156" alt="Fig. 1.—Lartigue's Switch Controller" title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 1.—Lartigue's Switch Controller</span> +</div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-23.png"><img src="./images/6-23_th.png" width="600" height="192" alt="Fig. 2—Transverse SectionFig. 3—Longitudinal Section" title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 2—Transverse Section<br />Fig. 3—Longitudinal Section</span> +</div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-4.png"><img src="./images/6-4_th.png" width="600" height="144" alt="Fig. 4.—Position of the Commutators during the Manuever" title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 4.—Position of the Commutators during the Manuever</span> +</div> + +<p>The apparatus, which is represented in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, 3, +and 4, consists of the following parts:</p> + +<p>(1.) A mercurial commutator, O, which is fixed on a lever, B, +connected with a piece, A, which is applied against the external +surface of the web of the main rails, opposite the extremity of the +switch plates;</p> + +<p>(2.) A bar, C, which traverses the web of the rail and projects on the +opposite side, and which carries a nut, D, against which the switch +plate abuts;</p> + +<p>(3.) An electrical alarm and a pile, located near the switch lever. +As long as one of the two plates of the switch is applied against the +rail, one of the two commutators is inclined and no current passes. A +space of one millimeter is sufficient to bring the commutator to a +horizontal position and to cause the electric alarm to ring +continuously. If the apparatus gets out of order, it is known at once; +for if the alarm does not work during the maneuver of the switch, the +tender will be warned that the electric communications are +interrupted, and that he must consequently at once make known the +position of his switch until the necessary repairs have been made.</p> + +<p><i>Pedals for Transmitting Signals to Crossings.</i>—On railways having a +double track and doing a large amount of business it becomes very +necessary to announce to the flagmen at railway crossings the approach +of trains, so as to give them time to stop all crossing of the tracks. +On railway lines provided with electro-semaphores there may be used +for this purpose those small apparatus that have been styled semaphore +repeaters.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lartigue has invented two automatic apparatus, by means of which +the train itself signals its approach.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-5.png"><img src="./images/6-5_th.png" width="600" height="180" alt="Fig. 5.—Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing—Elevation." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 5.—Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing—Elevation.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/7-6.png"><img src="./images/7-6_th.png" width="600" height="153" alt="Fig. 6.—Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing—Plan View." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 6.—Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing—Plan View.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/6-7.png" width="358" height="450" alt="Fig. 7.—End View." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">Fig. 7.—End View.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-8.png"><img src="./images/6-8_th.png" width="327" height="450" alt="Fig. 8.—Electric Alarm." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 8.—Electric Alarm.</span> +</div> + +<p>1. The first of these, which is generally placed at about 6,000 feet +from the point to be covered, consists (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8) of a +very light pedal fixed to the inside of the rail, and acting upon a +mercurial commutator. A spring, R, carried upon the arm, <i>a</i>, of a +lever, A, projects slightly above the level of the rail, while the +other arm, <i>b</i>, carries a commutator.</p> + +<p>The spring, R, on being depressed tilts the box containing the +mercury, closes the circuit, and causes an alarm, S, located at the +crossing, to immediately ring. In this alarm (Fig. 8) a piece, P, is +disconnected by the passage of the current into the electro-magnet, E, +which attracts the armature, <i>a</i>, and, a permanent current being set +up, the apparatus operates like an ordinary alarm, until the piece, P, +is placed by hand in its first position again.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/7-9.png"><img src="./images/7-9_th.png" width="600" height="242" alt="Fig. 9.—Lartigue's Bellows Pedal—Longitundinal Section" title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 9.—Lartigue's Bellows Pedal—Longitundinal Section</span> +</div> +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/7-10.png"><img src="./images/7-10_th.png" width="600" height="334" alt="Fig. 10.—General Plan." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 10.—General Plan.</span> +</div> + +<p>2. The second apparatus, exhibited by the Railway Company of the +North, and also the invention of Mr. Lartigue, bears the name of the +"Bellows Pedal." It consists (Figs. 9 and 10) of a pedal, properly so +called, P, placed along the rail, one of its extremities forming a +lever and the other being provided with a counterpoise, C. When a +train passes over the pedal, the arm, B, fixed to its axle, on falling +closes the circuit of an ordinary electrical alarm, and at the same +time the bellows, S, becomes rapidly filled with air, and, after the +passage of the train, is emptied again very slowly under the action of +the counterpoise. The contact is thus kept up for some few minutes. +This apparatus works very satisfactorily, but is cumbersome and +relatively high-priced.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/8a.png"><img src="./images/8a_th.png" width="218" height="450" alt="Fig. 11.—Brunot's Controller." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 11.—Brunot's Controller.</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Brunot Controller as a Controller of the Passage of Trains.</i>—The +Brunot Controller, which has been employed for several years on the +Railway of the North, is designed to control the regularity of the +running of trains, and to make automatically a contradictory +verification of the figures on the slips carried by the conductors. In +Fig. 11 we give a longitudinal section of the apparatus. It consists +of a wooden case containing a clockwork movement, H, upon the axle of +which is mounted a cardboard disk, C, divided into hours and minutes, +and regulated like a watch, that is to say, making one complete +revolution in twelve hours. The metallic pencil, <i>c</i>, which is capable +of displacing itself on the cardboard in a horizontal direction +opposite a groove on the other side of the disk, traces, when pressure +is brought to bear on it, a spiral curve. The transverse travel of +the pencil is effected in ninety-six hours. The displacement of the +pencil is brought about by means of a cam. Under the influence of the +jarring of the train in motion, a weight, P, suspended from a flexible +strip, <i>l</i>, strikes against the pencil, <i>c</i>, which traces a series of +points. During stoppages there is, of course, an interruption in the +tracing of the curve.</p> + +<p>Up to this point no electricity is involved—the apparatus is simply a +controller of regularity. Mr. Brunot has conceived the idea of +utilizing his apparatus for controlling the passage of trains at +certain determined points on the line; for example, at the top of +heavy grades. For this purpose it has only been necessary to add to +the apparatus that we have just described an electro-magnet, E, +connected electrically with a fixed contact located on the line. When +the current passes, that is to say, at the moment the circuit is +closed by the passage of a train, the armature, A, is attracted, and +the pencil marks a point on the cardboard disk. This modification of +the apparatus has not as yet been practically applied.</p> + +<p><i>Electrical Corresponding Apparatus.</i>—The object of these apparatus +is to quickly transmit to a distance a certain number of phrases that +have been prepared in advance. The Company of the North employs two +kinds of correspondence apparatus—the Guggemos and the annunciator +apparatus.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-12.png"><img src="./images/6-12_th.png" width="460" height="450" alt="Fig. 12.—Guggemos's Correspondence Apparatus—External View." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 12.—Guggemos's Correspondence Apparatus—External View.</span> +</div> + +<p>1. <i>The Guggemos Apparatus.</i>—This apparatus serves at once as a +manipulator and receiver, and consists of an inner movement surmounted +by a dial, over the face of which moves an index hand. Around the +circumference of the dial there is arranged a series of circular +cases, C, containing the messages to be received, and similar +triangular cases, containing the messages to be forwarded, radiating +from the center of the dial. Between each of these there is a button, +<i>b</i>.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-13.png"><img src="./images/6-13_th.png" width="400" height="450" alt="Fig. 13.—Interior of the Same." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 13.—Interior of the Same.</span> +</div> + +<p>Fig. 13 represents the interior of an apparatus for twenty messages. +It consists of a key-board, M, an electro-magnet, B, a clock-work +movement, Q, an escapement, <i>s</i>, and an interrupter, F G.</p> + +<p>When one of the buttons, <i>b</i>, is pressed, one of the levers of the +key-board arrangement touches the disk, M, which is insulated from the +other portions of the key-board, and the current then passes from the +terminal C to M, and there bifurcating, one portion of it goes to the +bobbins of the apparatus and thence to the earth, while the other goes +to actuate the correspondence apparatus. The index-hands of the two +apparatus thereupon begin their movement simultaneously, and only stop +when the pressure is removed from the button and the current is +consequently interrupted. H is a ratchet-wheel, which, like the +key-board, is insulated from the rest of the apparatus. The button, K, +located over each of the dials, serves to bring the index-needles back +to their position under the cross shown in Fig. 12. The key, X, serves +for winding up the clock-work movement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-14.png"><img src="./images/6-14_th.png" width="600" height="193" alt="Fig. 14.—Annunciator Apparatus." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 14.—Annunciator Apparatus.</span> +</div> + +<p><i>The Annunciator Apparatus.</i>—This apparatus, which performs the same +role as the one just described, is simply an ingenious modification of +the annunciator used in hotels, etc.</p> + +<p>It consists of a wooden case, containing as many buttons as there are +phrases to be exchanged. Over each button, <i>b</i>, there is a circular +aperture, behind which drops the disk containing the phrase. Between +the buttons and the apertures are rectangular plates, P, in which are +inscribed the answers given by pressing on the button of the receiving +tablet—a pressure which, at the same time, removes the corresponding +disk from the aperture. Two disks located at the upper part carry +these inscriptions: "Error, I repeat;" "Wait." The tablets on +exhibition have eight disks, and can thus be used for exchanging six +different phrases. In the interior, opposite each aperture, there is a +Hughes magnet, between the arms of which there oscillates a vertical +soft-iron rod, carrying a disk. The maneuver "is simple." By pressing +upon a button there is sent into the bobbins of the magnet +corresponding to this button a current which causes the disk to appear +before one of the apertures, while at the same time an alarm begins to +ring. The same maneuver performed by the agent at the receiving-post +has the effect of causing the disk to disappear. The two contact +springs in communication at each aperture with the alarm and the line +are connected by a strip of ebonite, M, against the center of which +presses the button.</p> + +<p><i>Electrical Controllers for Water-Tanks.</i>—The object of these +apparatus is to warn the person in charge of a water-tank that the +latter is full, and that he must stop the engine-pump; or, that the +tank is empty, and that he must at once proceed to fill it. The +Company of the North has on exhibition two such apparatus—one of them +Lartigue's, and the other Vérité's.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/6-15.png"><img src="./images/6-15_th.png" width="396" height="450" alt="Fig. 15.—Controller for Water Tanks (Lartigue System)." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 15.—Controller for Water Tanks (Lartigue System).</span> +</div> + +<p>1. <i>The Lartigue Controller</i> (Fig. 15).—This apparatus consists of a +long lever, A, which carries at one of its extremities a funnel, E, +having a very narrow orifice and which is placed under the overflow +pipe of the tank. The lever is kept normally in a horizontal position +by a counterpoise; but, as soon as the overflow runs into the funnel, +the weight of the water tilts the lever, and the mercurial commutator, +F, closes the circuit of a pile, which actuates an alarm-bell located +near the pump and engine. The two stops, <i>a</i> and <i>a'</i>, limit the play +of the lever.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/7-16.png"><img src="./images/7-16_th.png" width="600" height="236" alt="Fig. 16.—Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System)." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 16.—Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System).</span> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>The Vérité Controller</i> (Fig. 16).—This apparatus consists of a +float, F, provided with a catch, C, calculated in such a way as to act +only when the float has reached a certain definite height. At that +moment it lifts the extremity of the weighted lever, E, which in +falling back acts upon the extremity, <i>a</i>, of another lever, N, +pivoted at the point, O. The piece, P, which is normally in contact +with the magnet, A, being suddenly detached by this movement of the +lever, N, the induced current which is then produced causes the +display, near the pump, of a disk, Q, upon which is inscribed the word +"Full." This is a signal to stop pumping.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>THE TELEPHONIC HALLS OF THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</h2> + +<p>Telephonic communication between the Opera and the Exhibition of +Electricity is obtained by means of twenty conducting wires, which are +divided between two halls hung with carpets to deaden external noises. +We represent in the accompanying engraving one of these halls, and the +one which is lighted by the Lane-Fox system of lamps. As may be seen, +there are affixed against the hangings, all around the room, long +mahogany boards, to which are fastened about twenty small tablets +provided with hooks, from which are suspended the telephones. The +latter are connected with the underground conductors by extensible +wires which project from the wooden wainscot of which we have just +spoken, so that it is very easy for the auditors to put the telephones +to their ears.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/8b.png"><img src="./images/8b_th.png" width="553" height="450" alt="ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</span> +</div> + +<p>As the telephones are connected in series of eight with the same +couple of microphone transmitters, and as each of these transmitting +couples occupies a different position on the stage, it results that +the effects are not the same at different points of each hall. Those +telephones, for example, which correspond with the foot-lights of the +theater are more affected by the sounds of the large instnuments of +the orchestra than those which occupy the middle of the foot-lights; +but, as an offset to this, the latter are affected by the voice of the +prompter. In order to equalize the effects as much as possible, Mr. +Ader has arranged it so that the two transmitters of each series shall +be placed under conditions that are diametrically opposite. Thus, the +transmitter at the end of the foot-lights, on the left side, +corresponds with the transmitter of the series to the right, nearest +to the middle of the stage; and the arrangement is the same, but in an +inverse direction, for the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights +to the right. But the series which produces the best effects is, as +may be readily comprehended, that which corresponds with the +transmitters occupying the middle of the right and left rows. These +considerations easily explain the different opinions expressed by +certain auditors in relation to the predominant sounds that they have +heard, and why it is that some of them who have listened in different +parts of the same hall have not had the same impressions. Naturally, +the fault has beeen laid to the telephones; but, although these may +vary in quality, it is more particularly to the arrangement of the +transmitters on the stage that are to be attributed the differences +that are noted.</p> + +<p>As the Opera does not give representations every day, Mr. Ader has had +the idea of occupying the attention of the public on Tuesday, +Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday with the telephonic effects of +flourishes of trumpets, which imitate pretty well the effects of +French horns. These experiments have taken place in the hall in which +is installed the little theater, and we must really say that in the +effects produced French horns count for nothing.—<i>La Lumiere +Electrique.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>THE ACTION OF COLD ON THE VOLT</h2> + +<p>When the voltaic arc plays between two metallic rheophores, of copper +for instance, each formed of a U-tube traversed by a rapid current of +cold water, and placed horizontally opposite each other, the following +facts are observed: The luminous power of the arc is considerably +weakened; it is reduced to a mere luminous point even when a current +of 50 to 75 Bunsen elements of the large pattern is employed. The arc +is very unstable and the least breath is sufficient to extinguish it. +If a leaf of paper is placed above the arc at the distance of 0.004 to +0.005 meter a black point is produced in a few moments, which spreads +and becomes a perforation, but the paper does not ignite. The arc +consists of a luminous globule, moving between the two rheophores up +and down and back again. The form of this globule, as well as its +extreme mobility, causes it to resemble a drop of water in a +spheroidal state. If we approach to the voltaic arc the south pole of +a magnet the arc is attracted to such a degree that it leaves the +rheophores and is extinguished. The same facts are observed in an +intense form on presenting the north pole of a magnet to the arc. The +quantity of ozone seems greater than when the arc is not refrigerated. +It is to be noted that notwithstanding the refrigeration of the +rheophores the flame of the arc is slightly green, proving that a +portion of the copper is burning. It becomes a question whether the +arc would be produced on taking as rheophores two tubes of platinum in +which is caused to circulate, <i>e.g.</i>, alcohol cooled to -30°.—<i>D. +Tommasi.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>WATCHMAN'S DETECTER.</h2> + +<p>We herewith illustrate an exceedingly simple form of detecter, to show +if the night watchmen perform their visits regularly and punctually. +In the case, C, is a clockwork apparatus driving the axle, S, at the +end of which is a worm which gears into the wheel of the drum, D. The +rotation of D, thus obtained unrolls a strip of paper from the other +drum, D. This paper passes over the poles of as many electro-magnets +as there are points to be visited, and underneath the armatures of +these electro-magnets. Each armature has a sharp point fixed on its +under side, and when a current passing through the coils causes the +attraction of the armature, this point perforates the paper. The +places to be visited are connected electrically with the binding +screws shown, and the watchman has merely to press a button to make +the electric circuit complete. It has been found in practice that +plain paper answers every purpose, as the clock giving an almost +uniform motion enables the reader, after having seen the perforated +slips once or twice, to determine fairly well the time which elapses +between each pressure of the button.—<i>The Engineer.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/9a.png" width="383" height="450" alt="WATCHMAN'S DETECTER" title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">WATCHMAN'S DETECTER</span> +</div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>INTEGRATING APPARATUS.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the London Physical Society, Mr. C. Vernon Boys +read a paper on "Integrating Apparatus." After referring to his +original "cart" machine for integrating, described at a former meeting +of the society, he showed how he had been led to construct the new +machine exhibited, in which a cylinder is caused to reciprocate +longitudinally in contact with a disk, and give the integral by its +rotation. Integrators were of three kinds: (1) radius machines; (2) +cosine machines; (3) tangent machines. Sliding friction and inertia +render the first two kinds unsuitable where there are delicate forces +or rapid variation in the function to be integrated. Tangent machines +depend on pure rolling, and the inertia and friction are +inappreciable. They are, therefore, more practical than the other +sort. It is to this class that Mr. Boys' machines belong. The author +then described a theoretical tangent integrator depending on the +mutual rolling of two smoke rings, and showed how the steering of a +bicycle or wheelbarrow could be applied to integrate directly with a +cylinder either the quotient or product of two functions. If the +tangent wheel is turned through a right angle at starting, the machine +will integrate reciprocals, or it can be made to integrate functions +by an inverse process. If instead of a cylinder some other surface of +evolution is employed as an integrating surface, then special +integrations can be effected. He showed a polar planimeter in which +the integrating surface is a sphere. A special use of these +integrators is for finding the total work done by a fluid pressure +reciprocating engine. The difference of pressure on the two sides of +the piston determines the tangent of the inclination of the tangent +wheel which runs on the integrating cylinder; while the motion of the +latter is made to keep time with that of the piston. In this case the +number of evolutions of the cylinder measures the total amount of work +done by the engine. The disk cylinder integrator may also be applied +to find the total amount of work transmitted by shafting or belting +from one part of a factory to another. An electric current meter may +be made by giving inclination to the disk, which is for this purpose +made exceedingly small and delicate, by means of a heavy magnetic +needle deflected by the current. This, like Edison's, is a direction +meter; but a meter in which no regard is paid to the direction of the +current can be made by help of an iron armature of such a shape that +the force with which it is attracted to fill the space between the +poles of an electro-magnet is inversely as its displacement. Then by +resisting this motion by a spring or pendulum the movement is +proportional to the current, and a tangent wheel actuated by this +movement causes the reciprocating cylinder on which it runs to +integrate the current strength. Mr. Boys exhibited two such electric +energy meters, that is, machines which integrate the product of the +current strength by the difference of potential between two points +with respect to time. In these the main current is made to pass +through a pair of concentric solenoids, and in the annular space +between these is hung a solenoid, the upper half of which is wound in +the opposite direction to the lower half. By the use of what Mr. Boys +calls "induction traps" of iron, the magnetic force is confined to a +small portion of the suspended solenoid, and by this means the force +is independent of the position. The solenoid is hung to one end of a +beam, and its motion is resisted by a pendulum weight, by which the +energy meters may be regulated like clocks to give standard measure. +The beam carries the tangent wheels, and the rotation of the cylinder +gives the energy expanded in foot-pounds or other measures. The use of +an equal number of turns in opposite directions on the movable +solenoid causes the instrument to be uninfluenced by external magnetic +forces. Mr. Boys showed on the screen an image of an electric arc, and +by its side was a spot of light, whose position indicated the energy, +and showed every flicker of the light and fluctuation of current in +the arc. He showed on the screen that if the poles are brought too +near the energy expended is less, though the current is stronger, and +that if the poles are too far apart, though the electromotive force is +greater the energy is less; so that the apparatus may be made to find +the distance at which the greatest energy, and so the greatest heat +and light, may be produced.</p> + +<p>At the conclusion of the paper, Prof. W.G. Adams and Prof. G.C. Foster +could not refrain from expressing their high admiration of the +ingenious and able manner in which Mr. Boys had developed the subject.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>A CANAL BOAT PROPELLED BY AIR.</h2> + +<p>A novelty in canal boats lies in Charles River, near the foot of +Chestnut street, which is calculated to attract considerable +attention. It is called a pneumatic canal boat and was built at +Wiscasset, Me., as devised by the owner, Mr. R.H. Tucker, of Boston, +who claims to hold patents for its design in England and the United +States. The specimen shown on Charles River, which is designed to be +used on canals without injuring the banks, is a simple structure, +measuring sixty-two feet long and twenty wide. It is three feet in +depth and draws seventeen inches of water. It is driven entirely by +air, Root's blower No. 4 being used, the latter operated by an +eight-horse-power engine. The air is forced down a central shaft to +the bottom, where it is deflected, and, being confined between keels, +passes backward and upward, escaping at the stern through an orifice +nineteen feet wide, so as to form a sort of air wedge between the boat +and the surface of the water. The force with which the air strikes the +water is what propels it. The boat has a speed of four miles an hour, +but requires a thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop its full +capabilities. The patentee claims a great advantage in doing away with +the heavy machinery of screws and side-wheels, and believes that the +contrivance gives full results, in proportion to the power employed. +It is also contrived for backing and steering by air propulsion. +Owing to the slight disturbance which it causes to the water, it is +thought to be very well adapted for work on canals without injury to +the sides.—<i>Boston Journal.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>HEAD LININGS OF PASSENGER CARS.</h2> + +<p>The veneer ceilings are considered as much superior to cloth as cloth +was to the roof-ceiling. They are remarkably chaste, and so solid and +substantial that but little decoration is necessary to produce a +pleasing effect. The agreeable contrast between the natural grain of +the wood and the deeper shade of the bands and mouldings is all that +is necessary to harmonize with the other parts of the interiors of +certain classes of cars—smoking and dining cars, for example. But in +the case of parlor and dining-room cars, the decorations of these +ceilings should be in keeping with the style of the cars, by giving +such a character to the lines, curves, and colors, as will be +suggestive of cheerfulness and life. While these head linings are +deserving of the highest commendation as an important improvement upon +previous ones, they are still open to some objections. One barrier to +their general adoption is their increased cost. It is true that +superior quality implies higher prices, but when the prices exceed so +much those of cloth linings, it is difficult to induce road managers +to increase expenses by introducing the new linings, when the great +object is to reduce expenses. Another objection to wood linings is +their liability to injury from heat and moisture, a liability which +results from the way in which they are put together. A heated roof or +a leak swells the veneering, and in many cases takes it off in strips. +To obviate these objections, I have, during the past eighteen months, +been experimenting with some materials that would be less affected by +these causes, and at the same time make a handsome ceiling. About a +year ago I fitted up one car in this way, and it has proved a success. +The material used is heavy tar-board pressed into the form of the roof +and strengthened by burlaps. It is then grained and decorated in the +usual manner, and when finished has the same appearance as the +veneers, will wear as well, and can be finished at much less +cost.—<i>D.D. Robertson.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>IMPROVED MORTAR MIXER.</h2> + +<p>The engravings herewith illustrate a new form of mixing or pugging +machine for making mortar or any other similar material. It has been +designed by Mr. R.R. Gubbins, more especially for mixing emery with +agglutinating material for making emery wheels; and a machine is at +work on this material in the manufactory of the Standard Emery Wheel +Company, Greek Street, Soho. The machine is shown in perspective in +Fig. 1 with the side door of the mixing box let down as it is when the +box is being emptied; and in Fig. 2 it is shown in transverse section. +The principle of the machine is the employment of disks fixed at an +angle of about 45 deg. on shafts revolving in a mixing box, to which a +slow reciprocating movement of short range is given.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<a href="./images/9b.png"><img src="./images/9b_th.png" width="600" height="339" alt="Figs. 1." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 1</span> +<br /> +<a href="./images/9c.png"><img src="./images/9c_th.png" width="479" height="400" alt="Fig. 2." title="" /> +</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 2—IMPROVED MORTAR MIXING MACHINE.</span> +</div> + +<p>In our illustrations, C is a knife-edge rail, upon which run grooved +wheels supporting the pugging box. To the axle of one grooved wheel a +connecting rod from crank arm, F is attached to effect the to-and-fro +motion of the mixing box, B. G is the door of the box, B, hinged at H, +and secured by hinged pins carrying fly nuts. A cover and hopper and +also a trap may be supplied to the box, B, for continuously feeding +and discharging the material operated upon. L, L, are the pugging +blades or discs on shafts, M. The shafts, M, pass through a slot in +the box, B, and the packing of these shafts is effected by the face +plate sliding and bearing against the face on the standard of the +machine. P is a guide piece on the standard, against which bears and +slides the piece, Q, bolted on to box, B, to support and guide the +box, B, in its movement. The forked ends of a yoke engage with the +collars, S, on the shafts, M, this yoke being set by a screw so that +the shafts may be easily removed. The machine is driven from the +pulleys and shaft, T, through gearing, T2 and T3, and by the Ewart's +chain on the wheel and pinion, V and U.—<i>The Engineer.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<div class="center">[Continued from <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, No. 311, page +4960.]</div> + +<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>PRACTICAL NOTES ON PLUMBING.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By P.J. DAVIES, H.M.A.S.P., etc.</h3> + +<h3>TINNING IRON PIPES, COPPER OR BRASS-WORK, BITS, ETC.</h3> + +<p>Previously, I described the method of tinning the bit, etc., with +resin; but before this work on joints can be considered complete, I +find it necessary to speak of tinning the ends of iron pipes, etc., +which have within the last fifty years been much used in conjunction +with leaden pipes. This is done as follows: Take some spirits of salts +(otherwise known as hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, hydrogen +chloride, HCl), in a gallipot, and put as much sheet-zinc in it as the +spirit will dissolve; you have then obtained chloride of zinc (ZnCl). +A little care is required when making this, as the acid is decomposed +and is spread about by the discharged hydrogen, and will rust anything +made of iron or steel, such as tools, etc. It also readily absorbs +ammoniacal gas, so that, in fact, sal ammoniac may also be dissolved +in it, or sal ammoniac dissolved in water will answer the purpose of +the chloride of zinc.</p> + +<p>Having the killed spirits, as it is sometimes called, ready, file the +end of your iron or bit and plunge this part into the spirits, then +touch your dipped end with some fine solder, and dip it again and +again into the spirits until you have a good tinned face upon your +iron, etc.; next you require a spirit-brush.</p> + +<h3>SPIRIT-BRUSH.</h3> + +<p>You can make this by cutting a few bristles out of a broom or brush, +push them into a short piece of compo tube, say ¼ in., and hammer up +the end to hold the bristles; next cut the ends of the bristles to +about 3/8 in. long, and the brush is ready for use.</p> + +<h3>SOLDERING IRON TO LEAD.</h3> + +<p>Suppose you want to make a joint round a lead and iron pipe. First +file the end of your iron pipe as far up as you would shave it if it +were lead, and be sure to file it quite bright and free from grease; +heat your soldering-iron; then, with your spirit-brush, paint the +prepared end of your iron, and with your bit, rub over the pipe plenty +of solder, until the pipe is properly tinned, not forgetting to use +plenty of spirits; this done, you can put your joint together, and +wipe in the usual manner. Caution.—Do not put too much heat on your +iron pipe, either when tinning or making the joint, or the solder will +not take or stand.</p> + +<h3>DUMMIES FOR PIPE-BENDING.</h3> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10a.png" width="512" height="450" alt="FIGS. 38. and 38b." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIGS. 38. and 38b.</span> +</div> + +<p>Figs. 38 and 38<span class="smcap">b</span>. This tool I had better describe before +proceeding to the method of bending. To make it take a piece of, say, +½ in. iron pipe, 3 ft. long, or the length required, bent a little at +one end, as shown at A B in Fig. 38 and Fig. 38<span class="smcap">b</span>. Tin the end +about 2 in. up, make a hole with a small plumbing-iron in some sand, +and place the tinned end of the iron pipe, B, into this hole; fill the +hole up with good hot lead, and the dummy, after it has been rasped up +a little, is ready for use. It will be found handy to have three or +four different lengths, and bent to different angles, to suit your +work. A straight one (Fig. 38<span class="smcap">b</span>.) made to screw into an iron +socket or length of gas-pipe, will be found very handy for getting +dents out of long lengths of soil-pipe.</p> + +<h3>BENDS AND SET-OFFS.</h3> + +<p>Before you begin bending solid pressed pipes always put the thickest +part of your pipe <i>at the back</i>. Lead, in a good plumber's hands, may +be twisted into every conceivable shape; but, as in all other trades, +there is a right and a wrong way of doing everything, and there are +many different methods, each having a right and wrong way, which I +shall describe. I shall be pleased if my readers will adopt the style +most suitable for their particular kind of work; of course I shall say +which is the best for the class of work required.</p> + +<p>For small pipes, such as from ½ in. to 1 in. "<i>stout</i> pipe," you may +pull them round without trouble or danger; but for larger sizes, say, +from 1¼ in. to 2 in., some little care is necessary, even in stout +pipes.</p> + +<p>Fig. 37 illustrates a badly made bend, and also shows how it comes +together at the throat, X, and back, E; L is the enlarged section of X +E, looking at the pipe endways. The cause of this contraction is +pulling the bend too quickly, and too much at a time, without dressing +in the sides at B B as follows: After you have pulled the pipe round +until it just begins to flatten, take a soft dresser, or a piece of +soft wood, and a hammer, and turn the pipe on its side as at Fig. 37; +then strike the bulged part of the pipe from X B toward E, until it +appears round like section K. Now pull your pipe round again as +before, and keep working it until finished. If you find that it +becomes smaller at the bend, take a long bolt and work the throat part +out until you have it as required.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10b.png" width="454" height="450" alt="FIG. 37." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 37.</span> +</div> + +<h3>BENDING WITH WATER (LIGHT PIPES).</h3> + +<p>Fig. 39. This style of bending is much in use abroad, but not much +practiced in London, though a splendid method of work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10c.png" width="299" height="450" alt="FIG. 39." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 39.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is a well known fact that, practically speaking, for such work, +water is incompressible, but may be turned and twisted about to any +shape, provided it is inclosed in a solid case—Fig. 39 is that case. +The end, A, is stopped, and the stopcock, B, soldered into the other +end. Now fill up this pipe quite full with warm water and shut the +cock, take the end, A, and pull round the pipe, at the same time +dressing the molecules of lead from the throat, C, toward D E, which +will flow if properly worked.</p> + +<p>You can hammer away as much as you please, but be quick about it, so +that the water does not cool down, thereby contracting; in fact, you +should open the cock now and then, and recharge it to make sure of +this.</p> + +<h3>SAND BENDING.</h3> + +<p>This is a very old method of bending lead pipes, and answers every +purpose for long, easy bends. Proceed in this way: The length of the +pipe to be 5 ft., fill and well ram this pipe solid with sand 2 ft. +up, then have ready a metal-pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe one +foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold sand, ramming it as +firmly as possible, stop the end and work it round as you did the +water bend, but do not strike it too hard in one place, or you will +find it give way and require to be dummied out again, or if you cannot +get the dent out with the dummy send a ball through (see "Bending with +Balls").</p> + +<h3>BENDING WITH BALLS OR BOBBINS.</h3> + +<p>This style of work is much practiced on small pipes, such as 2 in. to +3 in., especially by London plumbers. Method: Suppose your pipe to be +2 in., then you require your ball or bobbin about 1/16 in. less than +the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull the +pipe round until it just begins to flatten, as at Fig. 37, put the +ball into the pipe, and with some short pieces of wood (say, 2 in. +long by 1½ in. diameter) force the ball through the dented part of the +pipe, or you may use several different-sized balls, as at A B C, Fig. +40, and ram them through the pipe with a short mandrel, as at D M. You +will require to proceed very carefully about this ramming, or +otherwise you will most likely drive the bobbins through the back at L +K J. You must also watch the throat part, G H I, to keep it from +kinking or buckling-up; dress this part from the throat toward the +back, in order to get rid of the surplus in the throat.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10d.png" width="463" height="450" alt="FIG. 40." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 40.</span> +</div> + +<h3>THREE-BALL OR LEAD DRIVING BALL AND DOUBLE-BALL BENDING.</h3> + +<p>Fig. 41 shows a method of bending with three balls, one of lead being +used as a driver attached to a piece of twine. This is a country +method, and very good, because the two balls are kept constantly to +the work. First, put the two balls just where you require the bend, +then pull the pipe slightly round; take the leaden ball and drop it +on the ball, B, then turn the pipe the other end up and drop it on A, +and do so until your bend is the required shape. You must be careful +not to let your leaden ball touch the back of the pipe. Some use a +piece of smaller leaden pipe run full of lead for the ball, C, and I +do not think it at all a bad method, as you can get a much greater +weight for giving the desired blow to your <i>boxwood</i> balls.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10e.png" width="383" height="450" alt="FIG. 41." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 41.</span> +</div> + +<h3>BENDING WITH WINDLASS AND BRASS BALL.</h3> + +<p>This is an excellent method of bending small pipes. Fig. 42 will +almost describe itself. A is a brass or gun metal ball having a copper +or wire rope running through it, and pulled through the flattened part +of the pipe as shown. It will be quite as well to tack the bend down +to the bench, as at B, when pulling the ball through; well dress the +lead from front to back to thicken the back. I have seen some plumbers +put an extra thickness of lead on the back before beginning to bend. +Notice: nearly all solid pressed pipes are thicker on one side than +the other (as before remarked), always place the thickest part at the +back.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10f.png" width="600" height="328" alt="FIG. 42." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 42.</span> +</div> + +<h3>HYDRAULIC OR CUP-LEATHER AND BALL BENDING.</h3> + +<p>Fig 43. This is my own method of pipe-bending, and is very useful when +properly handled with plenty of force, but requires great care and +practice. You must have a union sweated on the end, A, Fig. 43, and +the ball, B, to fit the pipe. The cup-leather, E, should have a plate +fixed on the front to press the ball forward. Pull up the pipe as you +please, and pump the ball through; it will take all the dents out, and +that too very quickly.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/10g.png" width="438" height="450" alt="FIG. 43." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 43.</span> +</div> + +<h3>BENDING BY SPLITTING OR SPLIT-MADE BENDS.</h3> + +<p>This method of bending is much practiced in the provinces, and, for +anything I know to the contrary, is one of the best methods in use, as +by it you are likely to get a good substance of metal on the back of +the bend whether the plumber be a good or a bad workman. Proceed as +follows: Cut the pipe down the center to suit the length of your bend, +as shown at A B, Fig. 44. It will be quite as well if you first set +out this bend on the bench, then you may measure round the back, as +from C to L, to obtain the distance of the cut, which should always be +three or four inches longer than the bend. You may also in this way +obtain the correct length for the throat, G H I; here you will see +that you have a quantity of lead to spare, <i>i.e.</i>, from A to E, all of +which has to be got rid of in uncut bends—some plumbers shift from +front to back, but how many? Not one in twenty. After you have cut the +pipe, open the throat part, bend out the sides, and pull this part +round a little at a time, then with a dummy, Fig. 38, work the +internal part of the throat outward to as nearly the shape as you can. +Go carefully to work, and do not attempt to work up the sides, A D B, +until your throat is nearly to the proper shape, after which you may +do so with a small boxwood dresser or bossing-stick (It is not +necessary to explain minutely what a bosser or dressing-stick is, as +they can be bought at almost any lead-merchants—the dresser is shown +at E, Fig. 1; the bossing-stick is somewhat similar, the only +difference being that it has a rounded face instead of flat.) Keep the +dummy up against the sides when truing it. If you have proceeded +properly with this throat part, you will not require to work up the +sides or edges, as in working the throat back the sides will come up +by themselves. Next take the back, pull it round a little at a time, +the dummy being held inside, with your dresser work the two edges and +sides slowly round, and the back will follow. Never strike the back +from the underside with the dummy. After you have made a dozen or two +you will be able to make them as fast as you please, but do not hurry +them at first, as the greater part of this work is only to be learned +by patient application, perseverance, and practice.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11a.png" width="454" height="400" alt="FIG. 44." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 44.</span> +</div> + +<p>After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but +before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the +edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch +his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so +that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a +gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge +attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look +like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine +solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a +well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to +A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being +especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A. +Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no +importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared, +that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will +have a "higgledy-piggledy" appearance. Some difference of opinion +exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will +make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one +will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained +in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it +is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint +with the ladle and plumbing-iron.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11b.png" width="600" height="331" alt="FIG. 45." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 45.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one +joint on the back.</p> + +<h3>PULLING UP BENDS.</h3> + +<p>In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them. +Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you +require the bend, lay it (<i>with the seam at the side</i>) upon a pillow, +made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust; +have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length +of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about ½ in. smaller than the pipe, and +a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few +burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough +to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat +is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the +end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place +a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then +pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the +throat. Now, with a <i>hot</i> dummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round +like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made, +occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow +on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides +run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from +inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back +with a view to thickening the back.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11c.png" width="482" height="400" alt="FIG. 46." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 46.</span> +</div> + +<h3>SET-OFFS.</h3> + +<p>A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and +made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always +make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found +to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make +the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff +from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different +shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double +bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent +dummy shown at Fig. 38.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11d.png" width="600" height="347" alt="FIG. 47." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 47.</span> +</div> + +<h3>BAD BENDS.</h3> + +<p>These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at +Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD +to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next +strike the back part of the pipe, E, <i>with the same force</i>, and if it +dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of +these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed +together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.—Care must be +taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11e.png" width="394" height="450" alt="FIG. 48." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 48.</span> +</div> + +<h3>BAD FALLS IN BENDS.</h3> + +<p>The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as +much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for +pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad +bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such +bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is +not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for +soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good +fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends +requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for +opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future +paragraph on "Preparing for Fixing."</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11f.png" width="515" height="400" alt="FIG. 49." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 49.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11g.png" width="515" height="450" alt="FIG. 50." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 50.</span> +</div> + +<h3>BENDS MADE INTO TRAPS OR RETARDERS.</h3> + +<p>It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when +running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another +course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been +done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I, +after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing +new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with +provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it +has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in +his "Sanitary Engineering," says it was introduced and has been used +for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11h.png" width="460" height="400" alt="FIG. 51." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 51.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11i.png" width="252" height="450" alt="FIG. 52." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 52.</span> +</div> + +<p>I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at +South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a +medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of +their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as +joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into +this Exhibition—in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the +Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article +on Fixing, in a future part.</p> + +<h3>BENDS MADE WITH THE "SNARLING DUMMY."</h3> + +<p>This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy +made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of +working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents, +strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction +gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape +required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of +in working up embossed vases, etc.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11j.png" width="600" height="303" alt="FIG. 53." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 53.</span> +</div> + +<p class="center"><i>(To be continued)</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>From the London <i>Building News</i>.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.</h2> + +<p>The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires +the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors +at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are +adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary +one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling +mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines +constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature, +because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/11k.png" width="373" height="450" alt="THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER." title="" /> +<br /><span class="caption">THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.</span> +</div> + +<p>The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen +Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is +new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it +more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schönherr, Crompton, +and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors, +<i>a<sub>1</sub></i>, <i>a<sub>2</sub></i>, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary +motion of which acts upon the box, <i>c</i>, by means of the lever, <i>b</i>, +the box being caused to descend again by the spring, <i>d</i>. Parallel +with the breast beam there is mounted an axle, <i>e</i>, and upon one of +the extremities of this is fixed the sector, <i>a<sub>1</sub></i>, while the other +extremity carries two fixed disks, <i>f<sub>1</sub></i>, <i>f<sub>2</sub></i>, two loose disks, +<i>f<sub>3</sub></i>, <i>f<sub>4</sub></i>, and the sector, <i>a<sub>2</sub></i>, which is connected with the +latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake, <i>g</i>. The pawls, +<i>h<sub>1</sub></i> and <i>h<sub>2</sub></i>, are supported on a lever, <i>i</i>, on a level with the +disks, and are connected with the cam, <i>l</i>, by the spring, <i>k</i>. This +cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against +the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls +on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors, +<i>a<sub>1</sub></i> and <i>a<sub>2</sub></i>, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the +desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls, <i>h</i>, are connected +by wires with the bent levers, <i>m</i>, of the draught machine, which +carry also the pawls, <i>n</i>. The upper position of the pawls, <i>h</i>, is +limited by the direct resting of the levers, <i>m</i>, on the tappet, <i>o</i>, +and the lower position by the resting of the pawls, <i>n</i>. The plates, +<i>p</i>, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means +of the eccentric, <i>q</i>, the crank, <i>r</i>, and the bent lever, <i>s</i>. The +raised plates abut against the corresponding levers, <i>m</i>, and thus +bring about the descent of the pawls, <i>h</i>, which are suspended from +these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the +pawls, <i>n</i>, upon the tappet, <i>o</i>, until the lowering of the +corresponding plate has set the pawl, <i>n</i>, free. The lever, <i>m</i>, then +gives way to the action of the spring, <i>t</i>, and the pawl, <i>h</i>, rises +again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is +effected by the motion of the bent lever, <i>s</i>.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>INDUSTRIAL ART FOR WOMEN—CARPET DESIGNING.</h2> + +<p>A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the +possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical +Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the +proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could +be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex +to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative +industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first +woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country. +She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no +school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial +purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught +theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two, +however, in many branches of industrial design women have been +pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated +from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now +working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print +factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers +for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a +china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted +for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light, +pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far +exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe, +particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars' +worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made +in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent. +One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing +department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign +markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing +than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair +knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving. +Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible, +for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent +instruction in this branch of industrial art is given.</p> + +<p>There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may +be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price +of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for +an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels +or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as +good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For +moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists +are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to +$100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the +manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be +purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist +to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the +work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75 +extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for +making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three +per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and +Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the +elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the +designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time +from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries +run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from +$2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from +$1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per +week.</p> + +<p>Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial +art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls +might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French +said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and +disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial +art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of +decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the +time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical +designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art +might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department, +explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public +schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and +high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American +people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing +they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The +beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that +she had ever witnessed in the old countries.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>PHOTOGRAPHY UPON CANVAS.</h2> + +<p>One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of +Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If +you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will +produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The +success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not +produce colored work—or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part +to do so—but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic +portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the +dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering +with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself +maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true +lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs. +Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear +to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path, +and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be +purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an +enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about +"painted photographs," and in these days of cheap club portraits there +is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a +well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is +willing to concede that the picture has merit.</p> + +<p>"We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it," said +one of our hosts; "it seems to contain so much fatty matter." The +German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for +photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and +rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several +pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and +there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large +horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that +all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of +water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its +running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process, +and this is the first operation.</p> + +<p>Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put +the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in +any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It +is of <i>papier mâché</i>, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly, +only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is +adopted:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Bromide of potassium</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Iodide of potassium</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">part.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bromide of cadmium</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">240</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Four assistants are required in the operation, and the same number +when it comes to sensitizing and developing, all of which processes +are commenced in the same way. The bath is tilted so that the liquid +collects at one end, and near this end two assistants hold across the +bath a stout glass rod; then the canvas is dipped into the liquid, and +drawn out by two other assistants over the glass rod. In this way the +canvas is thoroughly saturated, and, at the same time, drained of +superfluous liquid.</p> + +<p>The canvas is hung up to dry; but as sometime must elapse before this +particular piece will be ready for sensitizing, we proceed with +another canvas which is fit and proper for that process. The room, we +should have mentioned, is provided with windows of yellow glass; but +as there is plenty of light nevertheless, the fact hardly strikes one +on entering. The sensitizing, with a solution of nitrate of silver, is +conducted with a glass rod in the same way as before, the solution +being thus compounded:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Nitrate of silver</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Citric acid</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">part.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">140</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Again the canvas is dried, and then comes its exposure.</p> + +<p>This is done in a room adjoining. We lift a curtain and enter a space +that reminds one of the underground regions of a theater. There are +curtained partitions and wooden structures on every hand; dark murky +corners combined with brilliant illumination. Messrs. Winter use the +electric light for enlarging, a lamp of Siemens' driven by a six-horse +power engine. The lamp is outside the enlarging room, and three large +lenses, or condensers, on three sides of the light, permit the making +of three enlargements at one end at the same time. (See Fig.)</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="./images/12.png" width="600" height="326" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>The condenser collects the rays, and these shine into a camera +arrangement in which the small negative is contained. The enlarged +image is then projected, magic lantern fashion, upon the screen, to +which is fastened the sensitized canvas. The screen in question is +upon a tramway—there are three tramways and three screens in all, as +shown in our sketch—and for this reason it is easy to advance and +retire the canvas, for the purpose of properly focusing it.</p> + +<p>Even with the electric light now employed, it is necessary to expose a +considerable time to secure a vigorous impression. From ten minutes to +half an hour is the usual period, determined by the assistant, whose +experienced eye is the only guide. We should estimate the distance of +the cameras from the enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen or +fifteen feet in the instance we saw, and when the canvas was taken +down, a distinct outline of the image was visible on its surface.</p> + +<p>By the way, we ought to mention that the canvas is in a decidedly limp +state during these operations. It has just sufficient stiffness to +keep smooth on the screen, and that is all; the treatment it has +received appears to have imparted no increase of substance to it. +Again it is brought into the red-brick washing apartment, and again +treated in one of the white enameled baths as before. This time it is +the developer that is contained in the bath, and the small limp +tablecloth—for that is what it looks like—after being drawn over the +glass rod, is put back into the bath, and the developing solution +rocked to and fro over it. The whiteness of the bath lining assists +one in forming a judgment of the image as it now gradually develops +and grows stronger. Here is the formula of the developer:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Pyrogallic acid</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Citric acid</td><td align="right">45</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">410</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The developer—which, it will be noted, is very acid—is warmed before +it is used, say to a temperature of 30° to 40° C.; nevertheless, the +development does not proceed very quickly. As we watched, exactly +eight minutes elapsed before Mr. Winter cried out sharply, "That will +do." Immediately one of the assistants seizes the wet canvas, crumples +it up without more ado, as if it were dirty linen, and takes it off to +a wooden washing trough, where it is kneaded and washed in true +washerwoman fashion. Water in plenty is sluiced over it, and after +more vigorous manipulation still, it is passed from trough to trough +until deemed sufficiently free from soluble salts to tone. The +toning—done in the ordinary way with gold—removes any unpleasant +redness the picture possesses, and then follows the fixing operation +in hyposulphite. As canvas is more permeable than paper, these two +last processes are quickly got through.</p> + +<p>The final washing of the canvas is very thorough. Again it is treated +with all the vigor with which a good laundry-maid attacks dirty linen, +the canvas, in the end, being consigned to a regular washing-machine, +in which it is systematically worked for some time.</p> + +<p>When the canvas picture at last is finished, it presents a very rough +appearance, by reason of the tiny fibers that stand erect all over the +surface. To lay these, and also to improve the surface generally, the +canvas is waxed, the fabric is stretched, and a semi-fluid mass rubbed +into it, heat being used in the process, which not only gives +brilliancy, but seems also to impart transparency to the shadows of +the picture. The result is a pleasant finish, without vulgar glare or +glaze, the high lights remaining beautifully pure and white.</p> + +<p>Of course, the price of these canvas enlargements varies with the +amount of artistic work subsequently put upon them; but the usual +charge made by Messrs. Winter for a well-finished life-size portrait, +three quarter length, is sixty florins, or about £5 sterling as the +exchange now stands. Besides working for photographers, Messrs. Winter +are reproducing a large number of classic paintings and cartoons by +photography on canvas in this way (some of them almost absolutely +untouched), and these, as may be supposed, are finding a very large +sale among dealers. Such copies must necessarily be of considerable +value to artists and collectors, and altogether it would seem that +Messrs. Winter have hit upon a novel undertaking, which bids fair to +make them a handsome return for the outlay (large as it undoubtedly +has been) made upon their Vienna establishment.—<i>Photo. News.</i></p> + +<hr /> + + +<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>DETECTION OF STARCH SUGAR SIRUP MIXED WITH SUGAR-HOUSE +MOLASSES.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">P. Casamajor.</span></h3> + +<p>In previous communications I have given processes for detecting the +adulteration of cane-sugar by starch-sugar. The adulteration of +sugar-house sirups by starch glucose is still more extensively +practiced than that of sugar, and a great portion of sirups sold by +retailers in this market is adulterated with starch glucose. This form +of adulteration may be very easily detected by the use of strong +methylic alcohol, in which the alcoholometer of Tralles or of Gay +Lussac will indicate about 93½°.</p> + +<p>A straight sugar-house sirup when mixed with three times its volume of +this strong methylic alcohol will dissolve by stirring, giving a very +slight turbidity, which remains suspended; while sirups containing the +usual admixture of starch sugar give a very turbid liquid, which +separates, when left at rest, into two layers, the lower being a thick +viscous deposit containing the glucose sirup.</p> + +<p>Considerable quantities are sold of a thin sirup, of about 32° Baumé, +in which the proportion of sugar to the impurities is greater than in +common sugar-house molasses. When a sirup of this kind is stirred with +three times its volume of methylic alcohol, a marked turbidity and +deposition will take place, which consists of pure sugar. The crystals +are hard and gritty. They adhere to the sides of the glass, and are +deposited on the bottom. There is no resemblance between this +precipitate and that due to starch sugar sirup.</p> + +<p>It may not be useless to mention that if a straight sugar-house sirup +of about 40° B. density is stirred with three times its volume of +<i>ethylic</i> alcohol of about 93½° the sirup will not dissolve. Hence +ethylic alcohol of this strength is not suitable for distinguishing a +sirup mixed with starch glucose from a <i>straight</i> sugar-house sirup.</p> + +<p>The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may be easily +detected by the optical saccharometer when the sirup has the usual +density of about 40° B., and when starch sugar has been added in the +usual quantities.</p> + +<p>For making the test the usual weight should be taken (16.35 grammes +for Duboscq's saccharometer, and 26.048 grammes for Ventzke's +instrument). The direct test should show a percentage of sugar not +higher than the number of Baumé degrees indicating the density, and it +may be from 2 to 3 per cent. lower. To understand this, we must refer +to the composition of cane-sugar molasses of 40° B.:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="left">37.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Insoluble impurities</td><td align="left">37.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="left">25</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>If the direct test should indicate 55 per cent. of sugar, and if the +molasses were straight, the composition would be—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="right">55</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Soluble impurities</td><td align="right">20</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">25</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Now, a product of this composition would not be a clear sirup at 40° +B., but a mixture of sirup and crystals. Therefore, if the product is +a clear sirup at 40° B., and it tests 55 per cent., it cannot be +<i>straight</i>.</p> + +<p>The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may also be +detected by the copper test. The possibility of applying this test, as +well as those already indicated, rests on the fact that starch glucose +is always added in very large quantities for the purposes of +adulteration. A very small addition could not be satisfactorily +detected.</p> + +<p>The detection by the copper test rests on the observation that very +nearly one-half of the soluble impurities in sugar-house molasses +consists of glucose in the shape of inverted sugar. We have seen above +that for a molasses of 40° B. the soluble impurities amount to about +37½ per cent. We may, then, lay down the rule: that the percentage of +glucose shown by the copper test cannot, in a straight sugar-house +molasses, be much greater than one-half of the number expressing the +density in Baumé degrees. The reason is obvious from what has been +said of the test by the optical saccharometer.</p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3">[1]</a></p><div class="note"> +<p>A Paper read before the American Chemical Society, September 2, 1881.</p></div> + +<hr /> + + +<p><a name="art19" id="art19"></a><span class="smcap">False Vermilion.</span>—A curious case has been noticed in Germany, +where a small cargo of vermilion was purchased, and, upon being +analyzed, turned out to be red oxide of lead colored by eosine. This +is an entirely novel sophistication. The eosine was separated from the +oxide of lead by digesting the product for twenty-four hours in very +strong alcohol. A much shorter time is sufficient to color the spirit +enough to enable an expert chemist to detect the presence of this +splendid organic coloring matter. Another kind of "vermilion" consists +entirely of peroxide of iron, prepared especially to imitate the +brilliant and costly sulphide of mercury, which it does very well, and +is largely used in England, France, and America.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>THE POSITION OF MANGANESE IN MODERN INDUSTRY.</h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">M.V. Deshayes.</span></h3> + +<p>No body among the metals and the metalloids (silicium, titanium, +tungsten, chromium, phosphorus, etc.) has occupied a more prominent +position in modern metallurgy than <i>manganese</i>, and it is chiefly due +to its great affinity for oxygen. When this substance was discovered, +more than a century ago (1774), by the celebrated Swedish chemist and +mineralogist, Gahn, by treating the black oxide of manganese in the +crucible, no one would have thought that the new element, so delicate +by itself, without any direct industrial use, would become, in the +middle of the nineteenth century, one of the most powerful and +necessary instruments for the success of the Bessemer process, as well +for its deoxidizing properties as for the qualities which it imparts +to steel, increasing its resistance, its durability, and its +elasticity, as has been shown elsewhere.</p> + +<p>Without entering into a complete history (for it is beyond the task +which we have here assumed),<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4"><sup>1</sup></a> it will not be without interest to +recall how, when manganese was first obtained in a pure state, that it +was supposed that it would remain simply an object of curiosity in the +laboratory; but when its presence was proved in spiegeleisen and when +it came to be considered an essential ingredient in the best German +and English works for cutlery steel (where it is thrown into the +crucible as the peroxide), then we find that its qualities become +better and better appreciated; and it is surprising that no +technologist ever devoted his attention to the production of manganese +alloys.</p> + +<p>It was not till after the investigations of Dr. Percy, Tamm, Prieger, +and Bessemer, who employed crucibles for the production of these +alloys, that Hendersen received the idea of utilizing it in the +Siemens furnace. So important a compound could not remain unemployed. +The works at Terre Noire produced, by the Martin furnace, for a number +of years, ferro-manganese of 70 to 80 per cent. Shortly afterward, +when competition in the market was established, the works at Carniola +and at Carinthia, some English factories, and more especially the +works at Saint-Louis, near Marseilles, of Terre Noire, of Montluçon, +etc., successfully adopted the manufacture of <i>ferro-manganese with +the blast furnace</i>, which is without doubt the method best adapted for +the reduction of metallic oxides, as well in consideration of the +reactions as from an economical point of view. Before very long it was +possible to produce, by the blast furnace, alloys of 40, 60, 80, and +even 86 per cent., in using the hot air apparatus of Siemens, Cowper, +and Witwell, with the employment of good coke, and principally by +calculating the charges for the fusion in such a manner as to obtain +an extra basic and refractory slag.</p> + +<p>Following in the same path, the Phœnix Co., of Ruhrort, sent, in +1880, to the Metallurgical Exposition of Dusseldorf, samples of +ferro-manganese obtained in a blast furnace, with an extra basic slag +in which the silica was almost entirely replaced by alumina. The works +of L'Esperance, at Oberhausen, exhibited similar products, quite pure +as to sulphur and phosphorus, and they had a double interest at the +exhibition, in consideration of the agitation over the Thomas and +Gilchrist process (see the discussions which were raised at the +meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute). This process unfortunately +requires for its prompt success the use of a very large quantity of +spiegel or of ferro-manganese, in order to sufficiently carburize and +deoxidize the burnt iron, which is the final product of the blowing.</p> + +<p>The production of ferro-manganese by the blast furnace depends upon +the following conditions.</p> + +<div class="note"> +<p> 1. A high temperature.</p> + +<p> 2. On a proper mixture of the iron ores and the manganese.</p> + +<p> 3. On the production of slag rich in bases.</p> +</div> + +<p>These different conditions may be obtained with but slight variations +at the different works, but the condition of a high temperature is one +of the most important considerations, not only for the alloys of +manganese, but equally as well for the alloys of iron, manganese, +silicium, those of chromium, of tungsten, etc. It is also necessary to +study the effects produced either in the crucible or in the blast +furnace, and to examine the ores which for a long while have been +regarded as not reducible.</p> + +<p>The works of Terre Noire especially made at the same time, in the +blast furnace, ferro-silicon with manganese, alloys which are daily +becoming more important for the manufacture of steels tempered soft +and half soft without blowing.</p> + +<p>These alloys, rich in silicon, present the peculiarity of being poor +in carbon, the amount of this latter element varying with the +proportions of manganese. In addition to the alloys used in the iron +and steel industry, we shall proceed to relate the recent progress +obtained in the metallurgy of other materials (especially copper) by +the use of <i>cupro-manganese</i>:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="" border="1"> +<tr><th> </th><th align="center">Mn.<br />per cent.</th><th align="center">C.</th><th align="center">Si.</th><th align="center">S.</th><th align="center">P.</th><th> </th></tr> +<tr><td align="center">A</td><td align="right">18 to 20</td><td align="left">2 to 3</td><td align="right">10 to 12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="4">Traces<br />scarcely<br />perceptible.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="4">About<br />0.100.</td><td align="left">Extra Quality for soft metals.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">B</td><td align="right">15 to 18</td><td align="left">3.00</td><td align="right"> 10 to 8</td><td align="left" rowspan="2">Medium Quality.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">C</td><td align="right">15 to 10</td><td align="left">3.25</td><td align="right">8 to 6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">D</td><td align="right">5 to 10</td><td align="left">3.50</td><td align="right">4 to 6</td><td align="left">Ordinary for hard metals.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The first alloys of manganese and copper were made in 1848, by Von +Gersdorff; soon after Prof. Schrötter of Vienna made compounds +containing 18 or 20 per cent. of manganese by reducing in a crucible +the oxides of copper and manganese mixed with wood charcoal and +exposing to a high heat.</p> + +<p>These alloys were quite ductile, very hard, very tenacious, and +capable of receiving a beautiful polish; their color varies from white +to rose color, according to the respective proportions of the two +bodies; they are particularly interesting on account of the results +which were obtained by adding them to certain metallic fusions.</p> + +<p>It is well known that in the fining of copper by oxidation there is +left in the fined metal the suboxide of copper, which must then be +removed by the refining process, using carbon to reduce the copper to +its metallic state. M. Manhès, taking advantage of the greater +affinity of manganese for oxygen, found that if this last element was +introduced into the bath of copper during the operation of refining, +the copper suboxide would be reduced and the copper obtained in its +metallic condition. For this purpose during these last years real +cupro-manganese has been prepared, occupying the same position to +copper as the spiegel or the ferro-manganese does toward the +manufacture of steel. M. Manhès used these same alloys for the fusion +of bronze and brass, and recommended the following proportions:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="center"> to </td><td align="left">4</td><td align="center"> kilog. of </td><td align="center">cupro-manganese</td><td align="center">for 100 kilog. of</td><td align="left">bronze.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.250</td><td align="center"> to </td><td align="left">1</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="left">brass.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.150</td><td align="center"> to </td><td align="left">1.2</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="left">copper.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In every case the alloy is introduced at the moment of pouring, as is +the case in the Bessemer or Martin process, taking care to cover the +fusion with charcoal in order to prevent the contact with air, +together with the use of some kind of a flux to aid in the +scorification of the manganese.</p> + +<p>According to M. Manhès a slight proportion of manganese added to +bronze appears to increase its resistance and its ductility, as is +shown in the following table, provided, however, that these different +alloys have been subjected to the same operations from a physical +point of view; that is, pouring, rolling, etc.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table summary="" border="1"> +<tr><th colspan="2"> </th><th align="center">Cu.</th><th align="center">Sn.</th><th align="center">Mn.</th> +<th align="center">Weight<br />of<br />fracture.</th><th align="center">Elongation</th></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Ordinary Bronze</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="right">10</td><td> </td><td align="right">20 kil.</td><td align="right">4.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bronze with Manganese,</td><td align="right">A,</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0.5</td><td align="right">24 kil.</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">Do.</td><td align="right">B,</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">1.0</td><td align="right">26 kil.</td><td align="right">20.00</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The White Brass Co., of London, exhibited at Paris, in 1878, manganese +bronzes of four grades of durability, destined for different uses and +corresponding to about 20 to 25 kilos of the limit of elasticity, and +36 to 37 kilos of resistance to fracture; the number 0 is equivalent +after rolling to a resistance to fracture of 46.5 kilos, and 20 to 25 +per cent. of elongation.</p> + +<p>Such results show beyond contradiction the great interest there is in +economically producing alloys of copper, manganese, tin, zinc, etc. In +addition, they may be added to metallic fusions, for deoxidizing and +also to communicate to the commercial alloys (such as bronze, brass, +etc.) the greatest degree of resistance and tenacity.</p> + +<p>While many investigators have tried to form alloys of copper and +manganese by combining them in the metallic state (that is to say, by +the simultaneous reduction of their oxides), the Hensler Bros., of +Dillenburg, have found it best to first prepare the <i>metallic +manganese</i> and then to alloy it in proper proportions with other +metals. Their method consisted of reducing the pure pyrolusite in +large plumbago crucibles, in the presence of carbon and an extra basic +flux; the operation was carried on in a strong coke fire, and at the +end of about six hours the <i>crude manganese</i> is poured out, having the +following composition:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2"> +<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">92</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Carbon</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">6.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Iron</td><td align="right">0.5</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">1.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Silicon</td><td align="right">0.5</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">1.2</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p>By refining, the manganese can be brought up to 94 to 95 per cent. of +purity. It is from this casting of pure manganese that is obtained the +substance used as a base for the alloys. This metal is white, +crystalline, when exposed to the damp air slowly oxidizes, and readily +combines with copper to form the <i>cupro-manganese</i> of the variety +having the composition—</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2" > +<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">70</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Cast in ingots or in pigs it becomes an article of commerce which may +be introduced in previously determined proportions into bronze, gun +metal, bell metal, brass, etc. It may also be used, as we have already +mentioned, for the refining of copper according to Manhès's process.</p> + +<p>Tests made from this standpoint at the works of Mansfield have shown +that the addition of 0.45 per cent. of cupro-manganese is sufficient +to give tenacity to the copper, which, thus treated, will not contain +more than 0.005 to 0.022 of oxygen, the excess passing off with the +manganese into the scorias.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, the addition of cupro-manganese is recommended, +when it is desirable to cast thin pieces of the metal, such as tubes, +caldrons, kitchen utensils, which formerly could only be obtained by +beating and stamping.</p> + +<p>The tenacity obtained for tubes of only three centimeters in diameter +and 1.75 millimeters in thickness is such that they are able to +withstand a pressure of 1,100 pounds to the square inch.</p> + +<p>The <i>manganese bronze</i>, which we have previously referred to, and +which is used by the White Brass Company of London, is an alloy of +copper, with from one to ten per cent. of manganese; the highest +qualities of resistance, ductility, tenacity, and durability are +obtained with one to four per cent. of manganese, while with twelve +per cent. the metal becomes too weak for industrial uses.</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="1" summary="" cellspacing="2" > +<tr><th align="center">Manganese<br /> bronze.</th><th align="center">Copper.</th> +<th align="center">Manganese.</th> +<th align="center">Weight of<br />fracture in<br /> kilos per<br /> square mm.</th><th align="center">Elongation</th></tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">A</td><td align="right">96.00</td><td align="right">4.00</td><td align="right">19.00</td><td align="right">14.60</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">B</td><td align="right">95.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">20.62</td><td align="right">10.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">C</td><td align="right">94.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">20.80</td><td align="right">14.60</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td align="center">D</td><td align="right">90.00</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="right">16.56</td><td align="right">5.00</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The preceding table gives some of the experimental results obtained +with the testing machine at Friedrich-Wilhelmshütte on the crude cast +ingots; the resistance is increased, as with copper, by rolling or +hammering.</p> + +<p>The <i>manganese German silver</i> consists of</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2" > +<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">70.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>But as this alloy often breaks in rolling, the preference is given to +the following proportions:</p> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" summary="" cellpadding="2" > +<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">80.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">5.00</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>This results in a white, ductile metal, which is easily worked and +susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish, like the alloys of +nickel, which it may in time completely replace.</p> + +<p>The <i>bronzes of manganese, tin, and zinc</i> were perhaps the first upon +which important investigations were made; they were obtained by adding +to an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin (ordinary bronze) a definite +quantity of the cupro-manganese of the type indicated above (Cu 70, Mn +30). By this means the resistance is increased fully nine per cent., +probably in the same way as the copper, that is, by the deoxidizing +effect of the manganese, as both the copper and the tin are always +more or less oxidized in ordinary bronzes.</p> + +<p>Manganese combines with tin just the same as it does with copper, and +the proportion which is recommended as giving the highest resistances +is three to six per cent. of cupro-manganese.</p> + +<p>However, notwithstanding the use of cupro-manganese, the tin, as in +ordinary bronzes, has a tendency to liquate in those portions of the +mould which are the hottest, and which become solid the last, +especially in the case of moulds having a great width.</p> + +<p>From a series of experiments made at Isabelle Hütte, it has been found +that the metal which has the greatest resisting qualities was obtained +from</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2" > +<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">85.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">6.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">5.00</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>5 per cent. of cupro-manganese = manganese 1.00 remaining in the +metal.</p> + +<p>The best method of procedure is first to melt the copper in a +crucible, and then to add the tin and the zinc; finally the +cupro-manganese is added just at the moment of pouring, as in the +Manhès process; then the reaction on the oxides is very effective, +there is a boiling with scintillation similar to the action produced +in the Bessemer and Martin process when ferro-manganese is added to +the bath of steel.</p> + +<p>The following are some of the results obtained from thirteen alloys +obtained in this manner. These samples were taken direct from the +casting and were tested with the machine at Friedrich-Wilhelms-hütte, +and with the one at the shops of the Rhine Railroad. Their resistance +was considerably increased, as with the other alloys, by rolling or +hammering.</p> + + +<div class="center"> +<table border="1" summary="" cellspacing="4" > +<tr> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Numbers.</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Nature of mould.</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Copper</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Tin.</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Zinc.</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Cupro-<br />manganese.</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Limit<br /> of <br />elasticity<br />in kilos<br /> per mm.</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Weight<br /> of<br /> fracture<br /> in kilos<br /> per mm.</th> +<th align="center" valign="bottom">Elongation,<br />percentage.</th> +</tr> +<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">Sand</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td>—</td><td align="right">11.30</td><td align="right">16.00</td><td align="center">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">4.00</td><td align="right">13.00</td><td align="right">16.10</td><td align="center">2.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">Cast.</td><td align="right">87.00</td><td align="right">8.70</td><td align="right">4.30</td><td align="right">4.00</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">19.40</td><td align="center">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.90</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">18.80</td><td align="center">6.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">19.75</td><td align="center">7.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">17.15</td><td align="center">4.00</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">Sand</td><td align="right">87.00</td><td align="right">5.20</td><td align="right">4.33</td><td align="right">3.47</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">19.70</td><td align="center">8.70</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">87.00</td><td align="right">5.20</td><td align="right">4.33</td><td align="right">3.47</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">19.70</td><td align="center">8.90</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">3.00</td><td align="right">16.80</td><td align="right">22.00</td><td align="center">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">74.00</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">13.80</td><td align="right">18.70</td><td align="center">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">78.70</td><td align="right">8.00</td><td align="center">(7.66 Pb)<br />( 8 Pb)</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">13.80</td><td align="right">20.70</td><td align="center">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">82.00</td><td align="right">9.80</td><td align="right">4.90</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">14.75</td><td align="right">19.75</td><td align="center">—</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">86.20</td><td align="right">16.50</td><td align="center">—</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">14.30</td><td align="right">24.70</td><td align="center">—</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The results of the tests of ductility which are here given, with +reference to the <i>cupro-manganese</i>, <i>manganese bronze</i>, the <i>alloys</i> +with <i>zinc</i> and <i>tin</i>, are taken from M.C. Hensler's very valuable +communication to the Berlin Society for the Advancement of the +Industrial Arts.</p> + +<p>These various alloys, as well as the <i>phosphorus bronze</i>, of which we +make no mention here, are at present very largely used in the +manufacture of technical machines, as well as for supports, valves, +stuffing-boxes, screws, bolts, etc., which require the properties of +resistance and durability. They vastly surpass in these qualities the +brass and like compounds which have been used hitherto for these +purposes.—<i>Bull. Soc. Chim., Paris</i>, xxxvi. p. 184.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>See <i>Engineering</i>, May 27, 1881</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>THE ECONOMICAL WASHING OF COAL GAS AND SMOKE.</h2> + +<p>In a recent number of the <i>Journal des Usines à Gaz</i> appears a note by +M. Chevalet, on the chemical and physical purification of gas, which +was one of the papers submitted to the Société Technique de +l'Industrie du Gaz en France at the last ordinary meeting. This +communication is noticeable, apart from the author's conclusions, for +the fact that the processes described were not designed originally for +use in gas manufacture, but were first used to purify, or rather to +remove the ammonia which is to be found in all factory chimneys, and +especially in certain manufactories of bone-black, and in spirit +distilleries. It is because of the success which attended M. +Chevalet's treatment of factory smoke that he turned his attention to +coal gas. The communication in which M. Chevalet's method is described +deals first with chimney gases, in order to show the difficulties of +the first class of work done by the author's process. Like coal gas, +chimney gases contain in suspension solid particles, such as soot and +ashes. Before washing these gases in a bath of sulphuric acid, in +order to retain the ammonia, there were two problems to be solved. It +was first of all necessary to cool the gases down to a point which +should not exceed the boiling-point of the acid employed in washing; +and then to remove the solid particles which would otherwise foul the +acid. In carrying out this mechanical purification it was impossible, +for two reasons, to make use of apparatus of the kind used in gas +works; the first obstacle was the presence of solid particles carried +forward by the gaseous currents, and the other difficulty was the +volume of gas to be dealt with. In the example to which the author's +attention was directed he had to purify 600 cubic meters of chimney +gas per minute, or 36,000 cubic meters per hour, while the gas +escaped from the flues at a temperature of from 400° to 500° C. (752° +to 932° Fahr.), and a large quantity of cinders had frequently to be +removed from the main chimney flues. After many trials a simple +appliance was constructed which successfully cooled the gases and +freed them from ashes. This consisted of a vertical screen, with bars +three mm. apart, set in water. This screen divided the gases into thin +sheets before traversing the water, and by thus washing and +evaporating the water the gases were cooled, and threw down the soot +and ashes, and these impurities fell to the bottom of the water bath. +The gases after this process are divested of the greater part of any +tarry impurities which they may have possessed, and are ready for the +final purification, in which ammonia is extracted. This is effected by +means of a series of shallow trays, covered with water or weak acid, +and pierced with a number of fine holes, through which the gas is made +to bubble. The washing apparatus is therefore strangely similar in +principle to that designed by Mr G. Livesey. M. Chevalet states that +this double process is applicable to gas works as well as to the +purification of smoke, with the difference that for the latter purpose +the washing trays are filled with acid for the retention of ammonia, +while in the former application gas liquor or water is used. The +arrangement is said to be a practical success.—<i>Journal of Gas +Lighting.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN IN HAIR, WOOL, DRIED BLOOD, FLESH MEAL, +AND LEATHER SCRAPS.</h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">Dr. C. Krauch.</span></h3> + +<p>Differences obtained in the estimation of nitrogen in the above +substances are frequently the source of much annoyance. The cause of +these discrepancies is chiefly due to the lack of uniformity in the +material, and from its not being in a sufficiently fine state during +the combustion. The hair which is found in commerce for the +manufacture of fertilizers, is generally mixed with sand and dust. +Wool dust often contains old buttons, pieces of wood, shoe pegs, and +all sorts of things. The flesh fertilizers are composed of light +particles of flesh mixed with the heavier bone dust.</p> + +<p>Even after taking all possible precautions to finely comminute these +substances by mechanical means, still only imperfect results are +obtained, for the impurities, that is to say, the sand, can never be +so intimately mixed with the lighter particles that a sample of 0.5 to +0.8 gramme, such as is used in the determination of nitrogen, will +correspond to the correct average contents. In substances such as +dried blood, pulverization is very tedious. A very good method of +overcoming these difficulties, and of obtaining from the most mixed +substances a perfectly homogeneous mass, is that recommended by +Grandeau<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5"><sup>1</sup></a> of decomposing with sulphuric acid—a method which as yet +does not seem to be generally known. From a large quantity of the +substance to be examined, the coarse stones, etc., are removed by +picking or sifting, and the prepared substance, or in cases where the +impurities cannot be separated, the original substance, is treated +with sulphuric acid; after it is decomposed, the acid is neutralized +with calcium carbonate, and the nitrogen is determined in this mass.</p> + +<p>In order to operate rapidly, it is best to use as little sulphuric +acid as possible. If too much sulphuric acid is used, necessarily a +large amount of calcium carbonate is essential to get it into proper +condition for pulverizing. Under such circumstances the percentage of +nitrogen becomes very low, and a slight error will become +correspondingly high.</p> + +<p>20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 10 c.c. are sufficient for +30 to 40 grammes of material. After the substance and liquid have been +thoroughly stirred in a porcelain dish, they are warmed on a water +bath and continually stirred until the mass forms a homogeneous +liquid. The sirupy liquid thus obtained is then mixed with 80 to 100 +grammes of pulverized calcium carbonate (calcspar), dried for fifteen +minutes at 40 to 60° C., and after standing for one to two hours the +dish and its contents are weighed. From the total weight the weight of +the dish is subtracted, which gives the weight of the calcium sulphate +and the calcium carbonate, and the known weight of the wool dust, etc. +This material is then intimately ground, and 2 to 3 grammes of it are +taken for the determination of the nitrogen, which is then calculated +for the original substance.</p> + +<p>Although the given quantities of water and sulphuric acid hardly +appear sufficient for such a large quantity of hair or wool, still in +the course of a few minutes to a quarter of an hour, after continual +stirring, there is obtained a liquid which, after the addition of the +calcium carbonate, is readily converted into a pulverized mass. +Frequently a smaller quantity of sulphuric acid will suffice, +especially if the material is moist. The chief merit of this process +is that in a short time a large quantity of material, having a uniform +character, is obtained. Its use is, therefore, recommended for general +employment.</p> + +<p>When the coarser stones, etc., are weighed, and the purified portion +decomposed, absolutely correct results are obtained, and in this way +the awkward discrepancies from different analysts may be +avoided.—<i>Chemiker Zeitung</i>, v. 7, p. 703.</p> + + +<p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>Handbook d. Agrict. Chem. Analyst.</i>, p. 18.</p></div> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>TESTING WHITE BEESWAX FOR CERESINE AND PARAFFINS.</h2> + +<h3>By <span class="smcap">A. Peltz.</span></h3> + +<p>The method which is here recommended originated with Dr. M. Buchner, +and consists in preparing a concentrated solution of alcoholic caustic +potash—one part caustic potash to three of 90 per cent. alcohol—and +then boiling one to two grammes of the suspected wax in a small flask +with the above solution. The liquid is poured into a glass cylinder to +prevent solidification of the contents, and it is then placed for +about one half hour in boiling water. With pure wax the solution +remains clear white; when ceresine and paraffine are present, they +will float on the surface of the alkali solution as an oily layer, and +on cooling they will appear lighter in color than the saponified mass, +and thus they may be quantitatively estimated. The author likewise +gives a superficial method for the determination of the purity of +beeswax. It depends on the formation of wax crystals when the fused +wax solidifies. These crystals form on the surface on cooling, and are +still visible after solidification when examining the surface from the +side. The test succeeds best when the liquid wax is poured into a +shallow tin mould After cooling another peculiar property of the wax +becomes apparent. While the beeswax fills a smaller volume, that is, +separates from the sides of the mould, the Japanese wax, without +separating from the sides, becomes covered with cracks on cooling +which have a depth corresponding to the thickness of the wax.—<i>Neuste +Erfindungen und Erfahrungen</i>, viii., p. 430.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>THE PREVENTION OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION BY FUNGI.</h2> + +<h3>By Prof. <span class="smcap">E. Reichard.</span></h3> + +<p>The manager of a well directed brewery, which was built according to +the latest improvements and provided with ice-cooling arrangements, +found that the alcoholic fermentation of lager beer did not advance +with proper regularity. The beer did not clarify well, it remained +turbid and had a tendency to assume a disagreeable odor and taste. +Microscopic examination of the yeast, however, showed the same to be +bottom yeast. After some time its action apparently diminished, or +rather, the fermentation, which began well, ceased, and at the same +time a white foam formed in the center of the vat. The manager +observing this, again submitted it to microscopic examination. The +instrument revealed a number of much smaller forms of fungi, similar +to those of young yeast, and some which were excessively large, a +variety never found in bottom yeast. Fully appreciating the +microscopic examination, and aware of the danger which the spread of +the fungi could cause, the manager resorted to all known means to +retard its pernicious influence. Fresh yeast was employed, and the +fermenting vats throughly cleaned, both inside and out, but the +phenomena reappeared, showing that the transmission took place through +the air. A microscopic examination of a gelatinous coating on the wall +of the fermenting room further explained the matter. Beginning at the +door of the ice cellar, the walls were covered with a gelatinous mass, +which, even when placed beneath the microscope, showed no definite +organic structure; however it contained numerous threads of fungi. +Notwithstanding the precautions which were taken for cleanliness, +these germs traveled from the ceiling through the air into the +fermenting liquid and there produced a change, which would ultimately +have caused the destruction of all the beer.</p> + +<p>For a third time and by altogether different means, it was +demonstrated that the air was the bearer of these germs. The whole +atmosphere was infected, and a simple change of air was by no manner +of means sufficient, as has already been shown. In addition, these +observations throw considerable light on the means by which contagious +diseases are spread, for often a room, a house, or the entire +neighborhood appears to be infected. It must also be remembered how, +in times of plague, large fires were resorted as to a method of +purifying the air.</p> + +<p>With the infinite distribution of germs, and as they are always +present in all places where any organic portions of vegetable or +animal matter are undergoing decomposition, it becomes, under certain +circumstances, exceedingly difficult, and at times even impossible, to +trace the direct effect of these minute germs. The organism is exposed +to the destructive action of the most minute creation; several changes +in this case give to them the direct effect of the acting germs. The +investigation of the chemist does not extend beyond the chemical +changes; nevertheless these phenomena are directly explained by the +microscope, without which, in the present case, the discovery of the +cause would have remained unknown.—<i>Arch. der Pharm.</i>, 214, 158.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>NEW REACTION OF GLYCERINE.</h2> + +<p>If two drops of phenic acid are diluted with three thousand to five +thousand parts of water, a distinct blue color is produced by one drop +of solution of perchloride of iron.</p> + +<p>The addition of six or eight drops of glycerine entirely removes the +color, and if any glycerine was present in the liquid the reaction +does not take place at all. By this test the presence of 1 per cent. +of glycerine can be detected. It may be applied to the analysis of +wines, beers, etc., but when there is much sugar, extractive or +coloring matter, the test can only be applied after evaporating, +dissolving the residue in alcohol and ether, evaporating again, and +then redissolving in water. Alkaline solutions must be first +acidulated.—<i>Pharm. Zeit. für Russ.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>LYCOPODINE.</h2> + +<p>While the phanerogams or flowering plants annually contribute to the +list of newly discovered alkaloids, with the exception of muscarine +and amanitine, no alkaloid has as yet been definitely recognized among +the cryptogams.</p> + +<p>Karl Bödeker, of Göttingen, has opened the road in this direction, and +gives in a paper sent to Liebig's <i>Annalen der Chemie</i>, August 15, +1881, the following account of an alkaloid, which, from the name of +the plant in which it occurs, he calls lycopodine.</p> + +<p>The plant yielding the alkaloid, <i>Lycopodium complanatum</i>, belongs to +the group of angiospermous cryptogams. It is distributed throughout +the whole of north and middle Europe, and contains the largest +proportion of aluminum of any known plant. Its bitter taste led the +author to suspect an alkaloid in it.</p> + +<p>To prepare the alkaloid the dried plant is chopped up and twice +exhausted with boiling alcohol of 90 per cent. The residue is squeezed +out while hot, and the extract, after being allowed to settle awhile, +is decanted off, and evaporated to a viscid consistency over a water +bath. This is then repeatedly kneaded up with fresh quantities of +lukewarm water until the washings cease to taste bitter, and to give a +reddish brown coloration when treated with a strong aqueous solution +of iodine. The several washings are collected and precipitated with +basic lead acetate, the precipitate filtered off, and the lead in the +filtrate removed by sulphureted hydrogen. The filtrate from the lead +sulphide is evaporated down over a water bath, then made strongly +alkaline with a solution of caustic soda, and repeatedly shaken up +with fresh quantities of ether so long as the washings taste bitter +and give a precipitate with iodine water. After distilling off the +ether, the residue is treated with strong hydrochloric acid, the +neutral or slightly acid solution filtered off from resinous +particles, slowly evaporated to crystallization, and the crystals +purified by repeated recrystallization. To prepare the pure base a +very concentrated solution of this pure hydrochlorate is treated with +an excess of a very concentrated solution of caustic soda, and pieces +of caustic potash are added, whereupon the free alkaloid separates out +at first as a colorless resinous stringy mass, which, however, upon +standing, turns crystalline, forming monoclinic crystals similar to +tartaric acid or glycocol. The crystals are rapidly washed with water, +and dried between soft blotting paper.</p> + +<p>Thus prepared, lycopodine has a composition which may be represented +by the formula C<sub>32</sub>H<sub>52</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. It melts at 114° to 115° C. +without loss of weight. It is tolerable soluble in water and in ether, +and very soluble indeed in alcohol, chloroform, benzol, or amyl +alcohol. Lycopodine has a very pure bitter taste.</p> + +<p>The author has formed several salts of the base, all of a crystalline +nature, and containing water of crystallization.</p> + +<p>The hydrochlorate gives up a part of its water of crystallization at +the ordinary temperature under a desiccator over sulphuric acid, and +the whole of it upon heating.—<i>Chemist and Druggist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art27" id="art27"></a>CONCHINAMINE.</h2> + +<p>Some years ago, O. Hesse, when preparing chinamine from the renewed +bark of <i>Cinchona succirubra</i>, found in the mother liquid a new +alkaloid, which he then briefly designated as conchinamine. He has +lately given his attention to the separation and preparation of this +alkaloid, and gives in Liebig's <i>Annalen der Chemie</i>, August 31, 1881, +the following description of it:</p> + +<p><i>Preparation.</i>—The alcoholic mother lye from chinamine is evaporated +down and protractedly exhausted with boiling ligroine, whereby +conchinamine and a small quantity of certain amorphous bases are +dissolved out. Upon cooling the greater part of the amorphous bases +precipitates out. The ligroine solution is then first treated with +dilute acetic acid, and then with a dilute solution of caustic soda, +whereupon a large quantity of a resinous precipitate is formed. This +is kneaded up with lukewarm water to remove adherent soda, and then +dissolved in hot alcohol. The alcoholic solution is saturated with +nitric acid, which has been previously diluted with half its volume of +water, and the whole set aside for a few days to crystallize. The +crystals of conchinamine nitrate are purified by recrystallization +from boiling water. On dissolving these pure crystals of the nitrate +in hot alcohol of 60 per cent., and adding ammonia, absolute pure +conchinamine separates out on cooling.</p> + +<p><i>Composition.</i>—Conchinamine may be represented by the formula +C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>24</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, without water of crystallization.</p> + +<p><i>Properties.</i>—Conchinamine is easily soluble in hot alcohol of 60 per +cent., and in ether and ligroine, from which solutions it crystallizes +in quadrilateral shining prisms. It is extremely soluble in +chloroform, but almost insoluble in water. It melts at 121° C., +forming crystalline stars on cooling.</p> + +<p><i>Salts.</i>—The salts of conchinamine, like the base itself, have much +in common with chinamine, but are, as a rule, more easily +crystallizable. They are prepared by neutralizing an alcoholic +solution of the base with the acid in question.—<i>Chemist and +Druggist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art28" id="art28"></a>CHINOLINE.</h2> + +<p>The valuable properties of which chinoline has been found to be +possessed have led to its admission as a therapeutic agent, and the +discoverer of these properties, Jul. Donath, of Baja, in Hungary, in a +paper sent to the <i>Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft</i>, +September 12, 1881, gives the following further details as to this +interesting substance.</p> + +<p><i>Antiseptic Properties.</i>—Chinoline appears to be an excellent +antiseptic. The author found that 100 grammes of a Bucholze's solution +for the propagation of bacteria, charged with 0.20 g. of chinoline +hydrochlorate, had remained perfectly clear and free from bacteria +after standing forty-six days exposed to the air, while a similar +solution, placed under the same conditions, without chinoline, had +turned muddy and contained bacteria after only twelve days' standing.</p> + +<p><i>Antizymotic Properties.</i>—Chinoline, even in the proportion of 5 per +cent., does not prevent alcoholic fermentation, while in as small a +quantity as 0.20 per cent. it does not prevent lactic acid +fermentation.</p> + +<p><i>Physiological Effects.</i>—The author gave a healthy man during several +days various doses of chinoline tartrate, which in no way affected the +individual operated on, nor was any trace of chinoline found in his +urine. The author, therefore, considers that the base is oxidized by +the blood to carbopyridinic acid, which is a still more powerful +antiseptic than chinoline itself. Chinoline taken internally would, +therefore, be a useful and safe agent in cases of internal putrid +fungoid or other growth.</p> + +<p><i>Chemical Reactions.</i>—Chinoline yields very characteristic reactions +with a number of chemical reagents, for a description of which we +refer to the original paper.—<i>Chemist and Druggist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art29" id="art29"></a>PREPARATION OF CONIINE.</h2> + +<p>Dr. J. Schorm, of Vienna, the author of this paper, after remarking +that in spite of the increase of the consumption of coniine, the +methods hitherto in vogue for preparing it yielded an article which +darkened on exposure to the air, and the salts of which crystallized +but badly, gives the following method for preparing pure coniine and +its salts:</p> + +<h3><i>Preparation of Crude Coniine.</i></h3> + +<p>A.—100 kilogrammes of hemlock seed are moistened with hot water, and +after swelling up are treated with 4 kilogrammes of sodium carbonate +previously dissolved in the requisite quantity of water (caustic +alkalies cannot be used). The swollen seed is worked up uniformly with +shovels, and then placed in an apparatus of 400 kilogrammes capacity, +similar to that used in the distillation of ethereal oils, and charged +with steam under a pressure of three atmospheres. Coniine distills +over with the steam, the greater part separating out in the receiver +as an oily stratum, while a part remains dissolved in the water. The +riper the seeds, the greater is the percentage yield of oily coniine, +and the sooner is the distillation ended. The distillate is +neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the whole evaporated to a weak +sirupy consistence. When cool, this sirup yields successive crops of +sal-ammoniac crystals, which latter are removed by shaking up the mass +with twice its volume of strong alcohol, and filtering. This filtrate +is freed from alcohol by evaporation over a water bath, the +approximate quantity of a solution of caustic soda then added, and the +whole shaken up with ether. The ethereal solution is then cooled down +to a low temperature, whereby it is separated from conhydrine, which, +being somewhat difficultly soluble in ether, crystallizes out.</p> + +<p>B.—The bruised hemlock seed is treated in a vacuum extractor with +water acidulated with acetic acid, and the extract evaporated in vacuo +to a sirupy consistence. The sirup is treated with magnesia, and the +coniine dissolved out by shaking up with ether.</p> + +<p>The B method yields a less percentage of coniine than A, but of a +better quality.</p> + +<h3><i>Rectification of the Crude Coniine.</i></h3> + +<p>The solution of crude coniine in ether obtained by either of the above +processes is evaporated over a water bath to remove the ether, mixed +with dry potassium carbonate, and then submitted to fractional +distillation from an air bath. The portion distilling over at 168° C. +to 169° C. is pure coniine, and represents 60 per cent. of the crude +coniine.</p> + +<p>Coniine thus prepared is a colorless oily liquid, volatile at the +ordinary temperature, and has a specific gravity of 0.886. At a +temperature of 25°C it absorbs water, which it gives up again upon +heating. It is soluble in 90 parts of water. It is not altered by +light.</p> + +<p>The author has formed a number of salts from coniine thus prepared, +and finds them all crystallizable and unaffected by light.—<i>Berichte +der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft.</i>—<i>Chem. and Druggist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art30" id="art30"></a>STRONTIANITE.</h2> + +<p>Since it has been shown by Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, that +strontium is the most powerful medium of extraction in sugar refining, +owing to its capacity of combining with three parts of saccharate, the +idea suggests itself that the same medium might be successfully +employed in the arts, and form a most interesting subject of +experiment for the chemist.</p> + +<p>Hitherto native strontianite, that is, the 90 to 95 per cent. pure +carbonate of strontium (not the celestine which frequently is mistaken +by the term strontianite), has not been worked systematically in +mines, but what used to be brought to the market was an inferior stone +collected in various parts of Germany, chiefly in Westphalia, where it +is found on the surface of the fields. Little also has been collected +in this manner, and necessarily the quality was subject to the +greatest fluctuations.</p> + +<p>By Dr. Scheibler's important discovery, a new era has begun in the +matter of strontianite. Deposits of considerable importance have been +opened in the Westphalian districts at a very great depth, and the +supply of several 10,000 tons per annum seems to be secured, whereas +only a short time ago it was not thought possible that more than a few +hundred tons could in all be provided.—<i>Chemist and Druggist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art34" id="art34"></a>PARANGI—A NEWLY DESCRIBED DISEASE.</h2> + +<p>A peculiar contagious disease, called frambœsia, or the yaws, has +long been known to exist in Africa, the West Indies, and the northern +parts of the British Islands. It is chronic in character, and is +distinguished by the development of raspberry-like tumors of +granulation tissue on different parts of the body.</p> + +<p>A disease of a somewhat similar, but severer type, has for many years +prevailed in Ceylon. Even less was known of this affection than of its +supposed congener, until a recent careful report upon the subject by +Mr. W.R. Kinsey, principal civil medical officer of Ceylon.</p> + +<p>The disease in question is called "parangi," and is defined by Mr. +Kinsey (<i>British Medical Journal</i>) as a specific disease, produced by +such causes as lead to debilitation of the system; propagated by +contagion, generally through an abrasion or sore, but sometimes by +simple contact with a sound surface; marked by an ill-defined period +of incubation, followed by certain premonitory symptoms referable to +the general system, then by the evolution of successive crops of a +characteristic eruption, which pass on in weakly subjects into +unhealthy and spreading ulcers whose cicatrices are very prone to +contraction; running a definite course; attacking all ages, and +amenable to appropriate treatment.</p> + +<p>The disease seems to develop especially in places where the water +supply, which in Ceylon is kept in tanks, is insufficient or poor. The +bad food, dirty habits, and generally unhygienic mode of life of the +people, help on the action of the disease.</p> + +<p>Parangi, when once developed, spreads generally by contagion from the +discharges of the eruptions and ulcers. The natural secretions do not +convey the poison. The disease may be inherited also.</p> + +<p>In the clinical history of the disease there are, according to Mr. +Kinsey, four stages. The first is that of incubation. It lasts from +two weeks to two months. A sore will be found somewhere upon the body +at this time, generally over some bony prominence. The second is the +stage of invasion, and is characterized by the development of slight +fever, malaise, dull pains in the joints. As this stage comes on the +initial sore heals. This second stage lasts only from two to seven +days, and ends with an eruption which ushers in the third stage. The +eruption appears in successive crops, the first often showing itself +on the face, the next on the body, and the last on the extremities. +This eruptive stage of the disease continues for several weeks or +months, and it ends either in convalescence or the onset of a train of +sequelæ, which may prolong the disease for years.</p> + +<p>Parangi may attack any one, though the poorly fed and housed are more +susceptible. One attack seems to confer immunity from another.</p> + +<p>Although some of the sequelæ of the disease are most painful, yet +death does not often directly result from them, nor is parangi itself +a fatal disease. Persons who have had parangi and passed safely +through it, are not left in impaired health at all, but often live to +an old age.</p> + +<p>The similarity of the disease, in its clinical history, to syphilis, +is striking. Mr. Kinsey, however, considers it, as we have stated, +allied to, if not identical with frambœsia.—<i>Medical Record.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art35" id="art35"></a>A CASTOR OIL SUBSTITUTE.</h2> + +<p>So far back as 1849, Mr. Alexander Ure investigated the purgative +properties of the oil of anda. The specimen with which the experiments +were tried had not been freshly prepared, and had indeed been long +regarded as a curiosity. Twelve ounces were alone available, and it +was a yellowish oil, quite bright, about the consistence of oleum +olivæ, devoid of smell, and free from the viscid qualities of castor +oil. There was a small supply of anda fruits differing a good deal in +appearance one from the other, but we are not aware whether these were +utilized and the oil expressed; as far as our recollection serves, the +subject was abandoned. It was known that the natives of Brazil used +the seeds as an efficient purgative in doses of from one to three, and +it was in contemplation to introduce this remedy into England, though +it was by no means certain that under distinctly different climatic +influences equally beneficial results might be expected. Mr. Ure +determined, by actual experiment, to ascertain the value of the oil in +his own hospital practice. He found that small doses were better than +larger ones, and in several reported cases it appeared that twenty +drops administered on sugar proved successful. Oil of anda-açu, or +assu, therefore, would stand mid-way between ol. ricini and ol. +crotonis. These researches seem to have been limited to the original +sample, although the results obtained would appear to justify a more +extended trial. M. Mello-Oliveira. of Rio Janeiro, has endeavored to +bring the remedy into notice under the name of "Huile d'Anda-Assu," +and possibly may not have been acquainted with the attempt to +introduce it into English practice. He describes the anda as a fine +tree (<i>Johanesia princeps</i>, Euphorbiaceæ), with numerous branches and +persistent leaves, growing in different parts of Brazil, and known +under the name of "coco purgatif." The fruit is quadrangular, +bilocular, with two kernels, which on analysis yield an active +principle for which the name "Johaneseine" is proposed. This is a +substance sparingly soluble in water and alcohol, and insoluble in +chloroform, benzine, ether, and bisulphide of carbon. Evidence derived +from experiments with the sulphate of this principle did not give +uniform results: one opinion being that, contrary to the view of many +Brazilian physicians, this salt had no toxic effect on either men or +animals. Local medical testimony, however, was entirely in favor of +the oil. Dr. Torrès, professor at Rio Janeiro, using a dose of two +teaspoonfuls, had been successful. Dr. Tazenda had obtained excellent +results, and Dr. Castro, with a somewhat larger dose (3 ijss.), was +even enthusiastic in its praise. It might, therefore, be desirable at +a time when new remedies are so much in vogue, not to abandon +altogether a Brazilian medicament the value of which is confirmed both +by popular native use and by professional treatment. M. Mello-Oliveira +comes to the conclusion that oleum anda assu (or açu) may be employed +wherever castor oil is indicated, and with these distinct advantages: +first, that its dose is considerably less; secondly, that it is free +from disagreeable odor and pungent taste; and thirdly, being +sufficiently fluid, it is not adherent to the mouth so as to render it +nauseous to the patient. In this short abstract the spelling of the +French original has been retained. As this therapeutic agent claimed +attention thirty years ago, and has again been deemed worthy of notice +in scientific journals, some of our enterprising pharmacists might be +inclined to add it to the list of their commercial ventures.—<i>Chemist +and Druggist.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art31" id="art31"></a>HOUSEHOLD AND OTHER RECIPES.</h2> + +<p>Mr. Jas. W. Parkinson gives in a recent number of the <i>Confectioner's +Journal</i> the following useful recipes:</p> + +<h3>CHRISTMAS PLUM PUDDING.</h3> + +<p>Stone a pound of bloom raisins; wash and clean a pound of Zante +currants; mince finely a pound of beef suet; mix with this, in a large +pan, a pound of stale bread crumbs and half a pound of sifted flour. +Beat together in another pan six eggs, and mix with them half a pint +of milk. Pour this over the suet and flour, and stir and beat the +whole well together; then add the raisins, currants, and a seasoning +of ground cinnamon, grated nutmeg, powdered ginger, and a little +ground cloves, a teaspoonful of salt, one pound of sugar, and a glass +of Jamaica rum. This pudding may now be boiled in a floured cloth or +in an ornamental mould tied up in a cloth. In either way it requires +long and constant boiling, six hours at least for one such as the +above. Every pudding in a cloth should be boiled briskly, till +finished, in plenty of water, in a large pot, so as to allow it to +move about freely.</p> + +<p>To take the boiled pudding out of the cloth without breaking it, dip +it into cold water for a minute or two, then place it in a round +bottomed basin that will just hold it, untie the cloth and lay bare +the pudding down to the edge of the basin; then place upon it, upside +down, the dish on which it is to be served, and invert the whole so +that the pudding may rest on the dish; lastly, lift off the basin and +remove the cloth. The use of the cold water is to chill and solidify +the surface, so that it may part from the cloth smoothly.</p> + +<p>Plum pudding may also be baked in a mould or pan, which must be well +buttered inside before pouring the pudding into it. Two hours' boiling +suffices.</p> + +<h3>PLUM-PUDDING SAUCE.</h3> + +<p>Put into a saucepan two ounces of best butter and a tablespoonful of +flour; mix these well together with a wooden spoon, and stir in half a +pint of cold water and a little salt and pepper. Set this on the fire +and stir constantly till nearly boiling; then add half a tumbler of +Madeira wine, brandy, or Jamaica rum, fine sugar to the taste, and a +little ground cinnamon or grated nutmeg. Make the sauce very hot, and +serve over each portion of the pudding.</p> + +<h3>NATIONAL PLUM PUDDING.</h3> + +<p>An excellent plum pudding is made as follows: Half a pound of flour, +half a pound of grated bread crumbs, a pound of Zante currants, washed +and picked; a pound of raisins, stoned; an ounce of mixed spices, such +as cinnamon, mace, cloves, and nutmeg; an ounce of butter, two ounces +of blanched almonds, cut small; six ounces of preserved citron and +preserved orange peel, cut into small pieces; four eggs, a little +salt, four ounces of fine sugar, and half a pint of brandy. Mix all +these well together, adding sufficient milk to bring the mixture to a +proper consistency. Boil in a floured cloth or mould for eight hours.</p> + +<h3>THE SAUCE FOR THE ABOVE.</h3> + +<p>Into a gill of melted butter put an ounce of powdered sugar, a little +grated nutmeg, two wine glasses of Madeira wine and one of Curacoa. +Stir all well together, make very hot, and pour it over the pudding.</p> + +<h3>EGG-NOG, OR AULD MAN'S MILK.</h3> + +<p>Separate the whites and yolks of a dozen fresh eggs. Put the yolks +into a basin and beat them to a smooth cream with half a pound of +finely pulverized sugar. Into this stir half a pint of brandy, and the +same quantity of Jamaica rum; mix all well together and add three +quarts of milk or cream, half a nutmeg (grated), and stir together. +Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth; stir lightly into them +two or three ounces of the finest sugar powder, add this to the +mixture, and dust powdered cinnamon over the top.</p> + +<h3>EGG FLIP.</h3> + +<p>Beat up in a bowl half a dozen fresh eggs; add half a pound of +pulverized sugar; stir well together, and pour in one quart or more of +boiling water, about half a pint at a time, mixing well as you pour it +in; when all is in, add two tumblers of best brandy and one of Jamaica +rum.</p> + +<h3>ROAST TURKEY.</h3> + +<p>The turkey is without doubt the most savory and finest flavored of all +our domestic fowls, and is justly held in the highest estimation by +the good livers in all countries where it is known. Singe, draw, and +truss the turkey in the same manner as other fowls; then fill with a +stuffing made of bread crumbs, butter, sweet herbs rubbed fine, +moistened with eggs and seasoned with pepper, salt, and grated nutmeg. +Sausage meat or a forced meat, made of boiled chicken meat, boiled ham +grated fine, chopped oysters, roasted or boiled chestnuts rubbed fine, +stewed mushrooms, or last but not the least in estimation, a dozen +fine truffles cut into pieces and sauted in the best of butter, and +added part to the stuffing and part to the sauce which is made from +the drippings (made into a good brown gravy by the addition of a +capful of cold water thickened with a little flour, with the giblets +boiled and chopped fine in it). A turkey of ten pounds will require +two and a half hours' roasting and frequent basting. Currant jelly, +cranberry jelly, or cranberry sauce should always be on the table with +roast turkey.</p> + +<h3>WOODCOCKS AND SNIPE.</h3> + +<p>Some epicures say that the woodcock should never be drawn, but that +they should be fastened to a small bird spit, and should be put to +roast before a clear fire; a slice of toast, put in a pan below each +bird, in order to catch the trail; baste them with melted butter; lay +the toast on a hot dish, and the birds on the toast. They require from +fifteen to twenty minutes to roast. Snipe are dressed in the same +manner, but require less time to cook. My pet plan to cook woodcock is +to draw the bird and split it down the back, and then to broil it, +basting it with butter; chop up the intestines, season them with +pepper and salt, and saute them on a frying pan with butter; lay the +birds on toast upon a hot dish and pour the saute over them.</p> + +<h3>CANVAS-BACK DUCKS.</h3> + +<p>Select young fat ducks; pick them nicely, singe, and draw them +carefully without washing them so as to preserve the blood and +consequently the full flavor of the bird; then truss it and place it +on the spit before a brisk fire, or in a pan in a hot oven for at +least fifteen or twenty minutes; then serve it hot with its own gravy, +which is formed by its own blood and juices, on a hot dish. It may +also be a little less cooked, and then carved and placed on a chafing +dish with red currant jelly, port wine, and a little butter.</p> + + +<h3>PHEASANTS.</h3> + +<p>A pheasant should have a clear, steady fire, but not a fierce one. The +pheasant, being a rather dry bird, requires to be larded, or put a +piece of beef or a rump steak into the inside of it before roasting.</p> + + +<h3>WILD DUCKS.</h3> + +<p>In order to serve these birds in their most succulent state and finest +flavor, let them hang in their feathers for a few days after being +shot; then pluck, clean, and draw, and roast them in a quick oven or +before a brisk fire; dredge and baste them well, and allow them twenty +minutes to roast; serve them with gravy sauce and red currant jelly, +or with a gravy sauce to which a chopped shallot and the juice of an +orange has been added.</p> + + +<h3>WILD FOWL SAUCE.</h3> + +<p>The following exquisite sauce is applicable to all wild fowl: Take one +saltspoon of salt, half to two-thirds salt spoon of Cayenne, one +dessert spoon lemon juice, one dessert spoon powdered sugar, two +dessert spoons Harvey sauce, three dessert spoons port wine, well +mixed and heated; score the bird and pour the sauce over it.</p> + + +<h3>BROWN FRICASSEE OF RABBITS.</h3> + +<p>Cut a couple of rabbits into joints, fry these in a little fresh +butter till they are of a light brown color; then put them into a +stewpan, with a pint of water, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, the +same of mushroom catchup, one of Worcester sauce, and a couple of +burnt onions, a little Cayenne and salt; stew over a slow fire till +perfectly done; then take out the meat, strain the gravy, and thicken +it with a little flour if necessary; make it quite hot, and pour it +over the rabbits.</p> + + +<h3>ORANGE PUDDING.</h3> + +<p>Beat up the yolks of eight eggs, grate the yellow rinds from two +oranges, add these to a quarter of a pound of finely powdered sugar, +the same weight of fresh butter, three teaspoonfuls of orange-flower +water, two glasses of sherry wine, two or three stale Naples biscuits +or lady fingers, and a teacupful of cream. Line a dish with puff +paste, pour in the ingredients, and bake for half an hour in a good +oven.</p> + + +<h3>VENISON PASTRY.</h3> + +<p>A neck or breast of venison is rendered very savory by treating it as +follows: Take off the skin and cut the meat off the bones into pieces +of about an inch square; put these, with the bones, into a stewpan, +cover them with veal or mutton broth, add two thirds of a teaspoon of +powdered mace, half a dozen allspice, three shallots chopped fine, a +teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of Cayenne, and a tumbler of port +wine; stew over a slow fire until the meat is half done, then take it +out and let the gravy remain on the fire ten or fifteen minutes +longer. Line a good sized dish with pastry, arrange your meat on it, +pour the gravy upon it through a sieve, adding the juice of a lemon; +put on the top crust, and bake for a couple of hours in a slow oven.</p> + + +<h3>CHRISTMAS RED ROUND.</h3> + +<p>Rub well into a round of beef a half pound of saltpeter, finely +powdered. Next day mix half an ounce of cloves, half an ounce of black +pepper, the same quantity of ground allspice, with half a pound of +salt; wash and rub the beef in the brine for a fortnight, adding every +other day a tablespoonful of salt. At the expiration of the fortnight, +wipe the beef quite free from the brine, and stuff every interstice +that you can find with equal portions of chopped parsley, and mixed +sweet herbs in powder, seasoned with ground allspice, mace, salt, and +Cayenne. Do not be sparing of this mixture. Put the round into a deep +earthen pan, fill it with strong ale, and bake it in a very slow oven +for eight hours, turning it in the liquor every two hours, and adding +more ale if necessary. This is an excellent preparation to assist in +the "keeping of the Christmas season."</p> + + +<h3>PLUM PORRIDGE FOR CHRISTMAS FESTIVITIES.</h3> + +<p>Make a good strong broth from four pounds of veal and an equal +quantity of shin of beef. Strain and skim off the fat when cold. Wash +and stone three pounds and a half of raisins; wash and well dry the +same weight of best Zante currants; take out the stones from two and a +half pounds of French prunes; grate up the crumbs of two small loaves +of wheat bread; squeeze the juice of eight oranges and four lemons; +put these, with a teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon, a grated nutmeg, +half a dozen cloves, and five pounds of sugar into your broth; stir +well together, and then pour in three quarts of sherry. Set the vessel +containing the mixture on a slow fire. When the ingredients are soft +add six bottles of hock; stir the porridge well, and as soon as it +boils it is fit for use.</p> + + +<h3>SUGARED PEARS.</h3> + +<p>Half a dozen of those fine pears called the "Bartlett" will make a +small dish worthy the attention of any good Christian who has a sweet +tooth in his head. Pare the fruit, cut out the cores, squeeze lemon +juice over them, which will prevent their discoloration. Boil them +gently in enough sirup to cover them till they become tender. Serve +them cold, with Naples biscuit round the dish.</p> + +<h3>TABLE BEER.</h3> + +<p>Table beer of a superior quality may be brewed in the following +manner, a process well worth the attention of the gentleman, the +mechanic, and the farmer, whereby the beer is altogether prevented +from working out of the cask, and the fermentation conducted without +any apparent admission of the external air. I have made the scale for +one barrel, in order to make it more generally useful to the community +at large; however the same proportions will answer for a greater or +less quantity, only proportioning the materials and utensils. Take one +peck of good malt, ground, one pound of hops, put them in twenty +gallons of water, and boil them for half an hour; then run them into a +hair-cloth bag or sieve, so as to keep back the hops and malt from the +wort, which when cooled down to sixty-five degrees by Fahrenheit's +thermometer, add to it two gallons of molasses, with one pint, or a +little less, of good yeast. Mix these with your wort, and put the +whole into a clean barrel, and fill it up with cold water to within +six inches of the bung hole (this space is requisite to leave room for +fermentation), bung down tight. If brewed for family use, would +recommend putting in the cock at the same time, as it will prevent the +necessity of disturbing the cask afterward. In one fortnight this beer +may be drawn and will be found to improve to the last.</p> + +<h3>MINCE MEAT.</h3> + +<p>This inevitable Christmas luxury is vastly improved by being mixed +some days before it is required for use; this gives the various +ingredients time to amalgamate and blend.</p> + +<p>Peel, core, and chop fine a pound of pippin apples, wash and clean a +pound of Zante currants, stone one pound of bloom raisins, cut into +small pieces a pound of citron, remove the skin and gristle from a +pound and a half of cold roast or boiled beef, and carefully pick a +pound of beef suet; chop these well together. Cut into small bits +three-quarters of a pound of mixed candied orange and lemon peel; mix +all these ingredients well together in a large earthen pan. Grate one +nutmeg, half an ounce of powdered ginger, quarter of an ounce of +ground cloves, quarter of an ounce of ground allspice and coriander +seed mixed, and half an ounce of salt. Grate the yellow rind of three +lemons, and squeeze the juice over two pounds of fine sugar. Put the +grated yellow rind and all the other ingredients in a pan; mix well +together, and over all pour one pint of brandy, one pint of sherry, +and one pint of hard cider; stir well together, cover the pan closely, +and when about to use the mince meat, take it from the bottom of the +pan.</p> + +<h3>PUMPKIN PIE.</h3> + +<div class="note"> +<p>"What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye?<br /> +What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin pie?"</p></div> + + +<p>Stew about two pounds of pumpkins, then add to it three-quarters of a +pound of sugar, and the same quantity of butter, well worked together; +stir these into the pumpkin and add a teaspoonful of powdered mace and +grated nutmeg, and a little ground cinnamon; then add a gill of +brandy, beat them well together, and stir in the yolks of eight +well-beaten eggs. Line the pie plates with puff paste, fill them with +the pumpkin mixture, grate a little nutmeg over the top, and bake.</p> + +<h3>BRANDY PUNCH.</h3> + +<p>Take three dozen lemons, chip off the yellow rinds, taking care that +none of the white underlying pith is taken, as that would make the +punch bitter, whereas the yellow portion of the rinds is that in which +the flavor resides and in which the cells are placed containing the +essential oil. Put this yellow rind into a punch bowl, add to it two +pounds of lump sugar; stir the sugar and peel together with a wooden +spoon or spatula for nearly half an hour, thereby extracting a greater +quantity of the essential oil. Now add boiling water, and stir until +the sugar is completely dissolved. Squeeze and strain the juice from +the lemons and add it to the mixture; stir together and taste it; add +more acid or more sugar, as required, and take care not to render it +too watery. "Rich of the fruit and plenty of sweetness," is the maxim. +Now measure the sherbet, and to every three quarts add a pint of +cognac brandy and a pint of old Jamaica rum, the spirit being well +stirred as poured in. This punch may be bottled and kept in a cool +cellar; it will be found to improve with age.</p> + +<h3>BŒUF A LA MODE (FAMILY STYLE).</h3> + +<p>The rump is the most applicable for this savory dish. Take six or +eight pounds of it, and cut it into bits of a quarter of a pound each; +chop a couple of onions very fine; grate one or two carrots; put these +into a large stewpan with a quarter of a pound of fresh butter, or +fresh and well clarified beef drippings; while this is warming, cover +the pieces of beef with flour; put them into the pan and stir them for +ten minutes, adding a little more flour by slow degrees, and taking +great care that the meat does not burn. Pour in, a little at a time, a +gallon of boiling water; then add a couple of drachms of ground +allspice, one of black pepper, a couple of bay leaves, a pinch each of +ground cloves and mace. Let all this stew on a slow fire, and very +gently, for three hours and a quarter; ascertain with a fork if the +meat be tender; if so, you may serve it in a tureen or deep dish. A +well-dressed salad is the proper accompaniment of bœuf à la mode.</p> + +<h3>PUNCH JELLY.</h3> + +<p>Make a bowl of punch according to the directions for brandy punch, +only a <i>little</i> stronger. To every pint of punch add an ounce of +gelatine dissolved in half a pint of water; pour this into the punch +while quite hot, and then fill your moulds, taking care not to disturb +it until the jelly is completely set. This preparation is a very +agreeable refreshment, but should be used in moderation. The strength +of the punch is so artfully concealed by its admixture with the +gelatine that many persons, particularly of the softer sex, have been +tempted to partake so plentifully of it as to render them somewhat +unfit for waltzing or quadrilling after supper.</p> + +<h3>ORANGE SALAD.</h3> + +<p>This somewhat inappropriately-named dish is made by removing the rind +and cutting the fruit in slices crosswise and adding equal quantities +of brandy and Madeira, in proportion to the quantity of fruit thus +dressed, strewing a liberal allowance of finely-powdered sugar over +all.</p> + +<h3>CRANBERRY JELLY.</h3> + +<p>Put two quarts of cranberries into a large earthen pipkin, and cover +them with water; place them on a moderate fire, and boil them until +they are reduced to a soft pulp; then strain and press them through a +hair sieve into an earthen or stone ware pan, and for each pint of +liquid pulp allow one pound of pulverized sugar; mix the pulp and +sugar together in a bright copper basin and boil, stirring constantly +for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture begins to coagulate +upon the spatula; then remove it from the fire and fill your moulds; +let them stand in a cool place to set. When wanted for use, turn it +out of the mould in the same manner as other jellies.</p> + + +<h3>JOVE'S NECTAR.</h3> + +<p>For three gallons, peel the yellow rind from one and a half dozen +fresh lemons, very thin, and steep the peelings for forty-eight hours +in a gallon of brandy; then add the juice of the lemons, with five +quarts of water, three pounds of loaf sugar, and two nutmegs grated; +stir it till the sugar is completely dissolved, then pour in three +quarts of new milk, <i>boiling hot</i>, and let it stand two hours, after +which run it through a jelly bag till it is fine. This is fit for +immediate use, but may be kept for years in bottles, and will be +improved by age.</p> + + +<h3>PLUM, OR BLACK CAKE.</h3> + +<p>For this Christmas luxury take one pound of butter and one pound of +pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream, stir in one dozen +eggs beaten to a froth, beat well together, and add one pound of +sifted flour; continue the beating for ten minutes, then add and stir +in three pounds of stoned raisins, three pounds of Zante currants, +washed, cleaned, and dried, a pound and a half of citron sliced and +cut into small pieces, three grated nutmegs, quarter of an ounce of +powdered mace, half an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and half a +teaspoonful of ground cloves; mix all well together; bake in a +well-buttered pan in a slow oven for four hours and a half.</p> + + +<h3>BLACK CAKE (PARKINSON'S OWN).</h3> + +<p style="margin-left: 15%;">"If you have lips, prepare to smack them now."</p> +<p style="margin-left: 30%">—<i>Shakspeare, slightly altered.</i></p> + +<p>Take one and a half pounds of the best butter, and the same weight of +pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream; stir into this two +dozen eggs, beaten to a froth; add one gill of old Jamaica rum; then +add one and a half pounds of sifted flour. Stir and beat all well +together, and add two pounds of finest bloom raisins, stoned; two +pounds of Zante currants, washed, cleaned, and dried; one pound of +preserved citron, sliced thinly and cut into small pieces; one pound +of preserved French cherries, in halves; one pound of green gages, and +one pound of preserved apricots, stoned and cut into small pieces; +half a pound of preserved orange and lemon peel, mixed, and cut into +small pieces; three grated nutmegs, half an ounce of ground mace, half +an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and a quarter ounce of ground cloves. +Mix all the ingredients well together, and bake in a well-buttered +mould or pan, in a <i>slow oven</i>, for five and a half hours.</p> + +<p>This cake is vastly improved by age. Those intended for the Christmas +festivities should be made at or about the first of October; then put +the cake into a round tin box, half an inch larger in diameter than +the cake; then pour over it a bottle of the best brandy mixed with +half a pint of pure lemon, raspberry, strawberry, or simple sirup, and +one or more bottles of champagne. Now put on the lid of the box, and +have it carefully soldered on, so as to make all perfectly air-tight. +Put it away in your store-room, and let stand till Christmas, only +reversing the box occasionally, in order that the liquors may permeate +the cake thoroughly.</p> + +<p>This heroic treatment causes the ingredients to amalgamate, and the +flavors to harmonize and blend more freely; and when, on Christmas +day, you bring out this hermit, after doing a three months' penance in +a dark cell, it will come out rich, succulent, and unctuous; you will +not only have a luxury, "fit to set before a king," or before the +Empress of India, but fit to crown a feast of the very gods +themselves, on high Olympus' top.</p> + + +<h3>POTATOES (PARKINSON STYLE).</h3> + +<p>Take two or three fine white potatoes, raw; peel and chop them up +<i>very, very fine</i>. Then chop up just as fine the breast of a +good-sized boiled fowl; they should be chopped as fine as unboiled +rice; mix the meat and the potatoes together, and dust a <i>very little</i> +flour over them and a pinch or two of salt. Now put an ounce or so of +the best butter into a frying pan, and when it is hot, put in the +mixture, and stir constantly with a wooden spatula until they are +fried to a nice golden color, then immediately serve on a hot plate.</p> + +<p>Cold boiled ham grated fine, or boiled beef tongue chopped very fine, +may be used instead of chicken, omitting the salt. A dozen or two of +prime oysters, parboiled, drained, and chopped fine, mixed with the +potatoes prepared as above, and fried, makes a most delicious lunch or +supper dish. Try any of the above styles, and say no, if you can.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art32" id="art32"></a>THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY COMET.</h2> + +<p>Professor Hind, of the British Nautical Almanac Office, recently sent +an interesting letter to the London <i>Times</i> on the comet depicted in +that famous piece of embroidery known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Probably +no one of the great comets recorded in history has occasioned a more +profound impression upon mankind in the superstitious ages than the +celebrated body which appeared in the spring of the year 1066, and was +regarded as the precursor of the invasion of England by William the +Norman. As Pingre, the eminent cometographer, remarks, it forms the +subject of an infinite number of relations in the European chronicles. +The comet was first seen in China on April 2, 1066. It appeared in +England about Easter Sunday, April 16, and disappeared about June 8. +Professor Hind finds in ancient British and Chinese records abundant +grounds for believing that this visitant was only an earlier +appearance of Halley's great comet, and he traces back the appearances +of this comet at its several perihelion passages to B.C. 12. The last +appearance of Halley's comet was in 1835, and according to +Pontecoulant's calculations, its next perihelion passage will take +place May 24, 1910.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art36" id="art36"></a>LACK OF SUN LIGHT.</h2> + +<p>Some interesting information as to the way in which the human system +is affected under the peculiar conditions of work in mines has been +furnished by M. Fabre, from experiences connected with the coal mines +of France. He finds that the deprivation of solar light causes a +diminution in the pigment of the skin, and absence of sunburning, but +there is no globular anæmia—that is, diminution in the number of +globules in the blood. Internal maladies seem to be more rare. While +there is no essential anæmia in the miners, the blood globules are +often found smaller and paler than in normal conditions of life, this +being due to respiration of noxious gases, especially where +ventilation is difficult. The men who breathe too much the gases +liberated on explosion of powder or dynamite suffer more than other +miners from affections of the larynx, the bronchia, and the stomach. +Ventilation sometimes works injury by its cooling effect.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h2><a name="art33" id="art33"></a>SYNTHETIC EXPERIMENTS ON THE ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF +METEORITES.</h2> + +<p>By means of igneous fusion the authors have succeeded in reproducing +two types of crystalline associations, which, in their mineralogical +composition and the principal features of their structure, are +analogous, if not identical with certain oligosideric meteorites. The +only notable difference results from the habitual brecchoid state of +the meteorites, which contrasts with state of quiet solidification of +the artificial compounds.—<i>F. Fouqué and Michel Lévy.</i></p> + +<hr /> + +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, may be had +gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>THE</h3> +<h2>Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<div class="center">Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</div> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of <span class="smcap">The Supplement</span>, from the +commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of <span class="smcap">The Supplement</span> can likewise be +supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. 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0000000..8e3ff67 --- /dev/null +++ b/18345.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4686 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, +January 14, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, January 14, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May 8, 2006 [EBook #18345] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 315 + + + + +NEW YORK, JANUARY 14, 1882. + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIII., No. 315. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + + PAGE + I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Watchman's Detecter. 5023 + + Integrating Apparatus. 5023 + + A Canal Boat Propelled by Air. 5023 + + Head Linings of Passenger Cars. 5023 + + Improved Mortar Mixer. 2 figures. 5023 + + Practical Notes on Plumbing. By J.P. DAVIES. Figs. + 37 to 53. Tinning iron pipes, copper or brass work, bits, + etc.--Spirit brush.--Soldering iron to lead.--Dummies for + pipe bending.--Bends and set-offs.--Bending with water. + --Sand bending.--Bending with balls or bobbins.--Three-ball + or lead driving ball and double ball bending.--Bending with + windlass and brass ball.--Hydraulic or cup leather and ball + bending.--Bending by splitting, or split made bends. + --Pulling up bends.--Set-offs.--Bad bends.--Bad falls in + bends.--Bends made into traps or retarders.--Bends made + with the "snarling dummy." 5024 + + The Grossenhain Shuttle Driver. 1 figure. 5025 + + + II. ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, ETC.--The Electro-Magnetic + Apparatus of Dr. Pacinotti. 8 figures. The Pacinotti + electro-magnetic machine of 1860.--The Elias + electro-motor of 1842. 5015 + + The Elias Electro-Motor. 5016 + + Bjerknes's Experiments. 7 figures. 5016 + + The Arc Electric Light. By LEO DAFT. 5018 + + Hedges' Electric Lamps. 4 figures. 5019 + + Electric Railway Apparatus at the Paris Electrical + Exhibition. 17 figures. Lartigue's switch controller, + elevation and sections.--Position of commutators during + the maneuver.--Pedal for sending warning to railway + crossing, with elevation and end and plan views.--Electric + Alarm.--Lartigue's bellows pedal, with plan and + sections.--Brunot's Controller.--Guggemos' correspondence + apparatus.--Annunciator apparatus.--Lartigue's controller + for water tanks.--Verite controller for water tanks. 5019 + + The Telephonic Halls of the Electrical Exhibition. + 1 figure. 5022 + + The Action of Cold on the Voltaic Arc. 5022 + + +III. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Industrial Art for Women. 5026 + + Photography upon Canvas. 1 figure. 5026 + + Detection of Starch Sugar Sirup Mixed with Sugar + House Molasses. 5026 + + False Vermilion. 5026 + + The Position of Manganese in Modern Industry.--By + M.V. DESHAEYS. Ferro-manganese.--Cupro-manganese.-- + Manganese bronzes.--Metallic manganese.--Manganese + German silver.--Phosphorus bronze. 5027 + + The Economical Washing of Coal Gas and Smoke.--M. + Chevalet's method. 5027 + + Determination of Nitrogen in Hair, Wool, Dried Blood, + Flesh Meal, and Leather Scraps. By Dr. C. KRAUCH. 5028 + + Testing White Beeswax for Ceresine and Paraffine. By + A. PELTZ. 5028 + + The Prevention of Alcoholic Fermentation by Fungi. + By Prof. E. REICHARD. 5028 + + New Reaction of Glycerine. 5028 + + Lycopodine. 5028 + + Conchinamine. 5028 + + Chinoline. 5028 + + Preparation of Coniine. 5028 + + Strontianite. 5028 + + + IV. MISCELLANEOUS.--Household and Other Recipes. + Christmas plum pudding.--Plum pudding sauce.-- + National plum pudding and sauce.--Egg nog.--Egg + flip.--Roast Turkey.--Woodcock and Snipe.--Canvas-back + duck.--Pheasants.--Wild ducks.--Wild fowl + sauce.--Brown fricassee of rabbits.--Orange pudding. + --Venison pastry.--Christmas red round.--Plum + porridge.--Sugared pears.--Table beer.--Mince meat. + --Pumpkin pie.--Brandy punch.--Boeuf a la mode.-- + Punch jelly.--Orange salad.--Cranberry jelly.--Plum + cake.--Black cake.--Potatoes. 5029 + + The Bayeux Tapestry Comet. 5030 + + Synthetic Experiments on the Artificial Reproduction + of Meteorites. 5030 + + + V. HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.--Parangi; a newly described + disease. 5029 + + A Castor Oil Substitute. 5029 + + Lack of Sun Light. 5030 + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC APPARATUS OF DR. PACINOTTI. + + +In admiring the recent developments of electric science as evidenced +by the number of important inventions which have during the past few +years been given to the world, especially in those branches of applied +science which deal more particularly with the generation of +electricity and the production of the electric light, there is often +too great a tendency to forget, or, at least, to pass over in +comparative silence the claims which the great pioneer workers and +discoverers undoubtedly have to a large share of the merit of this +scientific development. + +It is, of course, obviously impossible in anything approaching a +retrospect of the science of magneto-electric induction or its +application to illumination to pass slightly over the names of +Oersted, of Ampere, of Davy, and of Faraday, but, in other respects, +their work is too often lost sight of in the splendid modern +developments of their discoveries. Again, there is another group of +discoverer-inventors who occupy an intermediate position between the +abstract discoverers above named and the inventors and adapters of +still more recent times. To this group belong the names of Pixii and +Saxton, Holmes and Nollet, Wilde, Varley, Siemens, Wheatstone, and +Pacinotti, who was the first to discover a means of constructing a +machine capable of giving a continuous current always in the same +direction, and which has since proved itself to be the type of nearly +all the direct current electric machines of the present day, and +especially those such as the Gramme and Brush and De Meritens +machines, in which the rotating armature is of annular form; and when +it is considered what a large number of the well known electric +generators are founded upon this discovery, it must be a matter of +general gratification that the recent International Jury of the Paris +Exhibition of Electricity awarded to Dr. Antonio Pacinotti one of +their highest awards. + +The original machine designed by Dr. Pacinotti in the year 1860, and +which we illustrate on the present page, formed one of the most +interesting exhibits in the Paris Exhibition, and conferred upon the +Italian Section a very distinctive feature, and we cannot but think +that while all were interested in examining it, there must have been +many who could not help being impressed with the fact that it took +something away from the originality of design in several of the +machines exhibited in various parts of the building. + +This very interesting machine was first illustrated and described by +its inventor in the _Nuovo Cimento_ in the year 1864, under the title +"A Description of a Small Electro-Magnetic Machine," and to this +description we are indebted for the information and diagrams contained +in this notice, but the perspective view is taken from the instrument +itself in the Paris Exhibition. + +In this very interesting historical communication the author commences +by describing a new form of electro-magnet, consisting of an iron ring +around which is wound (as in the Gramme machine) a single helix of +insulated copper wire completely covering the ring, and the two ends +of the annular helix being soldered together, an annular magnet is +produced, enveloped in an insulated helix forming a closed circuit, +the convolutions of which are all in the same direction. If in such a +system any two points of the coil situated at opposite ends of the +same diameter of the ring be connected respectively with the two poles +of a voltaic battery, the electric current having two courses open to +it, will divide into two portions traversing the coil around each half +of the ring from one point of contact to the other, and the direction +of the current, in each portion will be such as to magnetize the iron +core, so that its magnetic poles will be situated at the points where +the current enters and leaves the helix, and a straight line joining +these points may be looked upon as the magnetic axis of the system. +From this construction it is clear that, by varying the position of +the points of contact of the battery wires and the coil, the position +of the magnetic axis will be changed accordingly, and can be made to +take up any diametrical position with respect to the ring, of which +the two halves (separated by the diameter joining the points of +contact of the battery wires with the coil) may be regarded as made up +of two semicircular horseshoe electro-magnets having their similar +poles joined. To this form of instrument the name "Transversal electro +magnet" (_Eletro calamita transversale_) was given by its inventor, to +whom is undoubtedly due the merit of having been the first to +construct an electro-magnet the position of whose poles could be +varied at will by means of a circular commutator. + +[Illustration: PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.--MADE IN 1860.] + +By applying the principle to an electro-magnetic engine, Dr. Pacinotti +produced the machine which we illustrate on the present page. The +armature consists of a turned ring of iron, having around its +circumference sixteen teeth of equal size and at equal angular +distance apart, as shown in Fig. 1, forming between them as many +spaces or notches, which are filled up by coiling within them helices +of insulated copper wire, r r r, in a similar manner to that adopted +in winding the Brush armature, and between them are fixed as many +wooden wedges, m m, by which the helices are firmly held in their +place. All the coils are wound round the ring in the same direction, +and the terminating end of each coil is connected to the commencing +end of the next or succeeding helix, and the junctions so made are +attached to conducting wires which are gathered together close to the +vertical shaft on which the armature ring is fixed, passing through +holes at equal distances apart in a wooden collar fixed to the same +shaft, and being attached at their lower extremities to the metallic +contact pieces of the commutator, c, shown at the lower part of Fig. +3, which is an elevation of the machine, while Fig. 4 is a plan of the +same apparatus. + +The commutator consists of a small boxwood cylinder, carrying around +its cylindrical surface two rows of eight holes, one above the other, +in which are fitted sixteen contact pieces of brass which slightly +project above the surface of the wood, the positions of those in the +upper circle alternating or "breaking joint" with those in the lower, +and each contact piece is in metallic connection with its +corresponding conducting wire, and, therefore, with the junction of +two of the helices on the armature. Against the edge of the commutator +are pressed by means of adjustable levers two small brass contact +rollers, k k, which are respectively connected with the positive and +negative poles of the voltaic battery (either through or independent +of the coils of a fixed electro-magnet, to which we shall presently +refer), and the magnetic axis of the ring will lie in the same plane +as the line joining the points of contact of the battery and rotating +helix, this axis remaining nearly fixed notwithstanding the rotation +of the iron ring in which the magnetism is induced. + +In the apparatus figured in Figs. 3 and 4, the armature rotates +between the two vertical limbs, A B, of a fixed electro-magnet +furnished with extended pole pieces, A A, B B (Fig. 4), each of which +embraces about six of the armature coils. The fixed electro-magnet is +constructed of two vertical iron cylindrical bars, A and B, united at +their lower extremities by a horizontal iron bar, F F, the one being +rigidly and permanently attached to it, while the other is fastened to +it by a screw, G, passing through a slot so that the distance of the +pole pieces from one another and from the armature ring is capable of +adjustment. + +The connections of the machine, which are shown in Fig. 3, are made as +follows: The positive current, entering by the attachment screw, h, +passes by a wire to the right hand commutator screw, l, to the +right-hand roller, k, through the commutator to the ring, around +which it traverses to the left-hand roller, k¹, and screw, l¹, to +the magnet coil, A, and thence through the coil of the magnet, B, to +the terminal screw, h, on the right hand of the figure. This method +of coupling up is of very great historical interest, for it is the +first instance on record of the magnet coils and armature of a machine +being included in one circuit, giving to it the principle of +construction of a dynamo-electric machine, and antedating in +publication, by two years, the interesting machines of Siemens, +Wheatstone, and Varley, and preceding them in construction by a still +longer period. + +With this apparatus Dr. Pacinotti made the following interesting +experiments with the object of determining the amount of mechanical +work produced by the machine (when worked as an electro-magnetic +engine), and the corresponding consumption of the elements of the +battery: Attached to the spindle of the machine was a small pulley, Q +Q (Fig. 3), for the purpose of driving, by means of a cord, another +pulley on a horizontal spindle carrying a drum on which was wound a +cord carrying a weight, and on the same spindle was also a brake and +brake-wheel, the lever of which was loaded so as just to prevent the +weight setting into motion the whole system, consisting of the two +machines, when no current was flowing. In this condition, when the +machine was set in motion by connecting the battery, the mechanical +work expended in overcoming the friction of the brake was equal to +that required to raise the weight; and, in order to obtain the total +work done, all that was necessary was to multiply the weight lifted by +the distance through which it was raised. The consumption of the +battery was estimated at the same time by interposing in the circuit a +sulphate of copper voltameter, of which the copper plate was weighed +before and after the experiment. The following are some of the results +obtained by Dr. Pacinotti in experimenting after the manner just +described. With the current from a battery of four small Bunsen +elements, the machine raised a weight of 3.2812 kilos to a height of +8.66 m. (allowing for friction), so that the mechanical work was +represented by 28.45 m. During the experiment the positive plate of +the voltameter lost in weight 0.224 gramme, the negative gaining 0.235 +gramme, giving an average of chemical work performed in the voltameter +of 0.229 gramme, and multiplying this figure by the ratio between the +equivalent of zinc to that of copper, and by the number of the +elements of the battery, the weight of zinc consumed in the battery +was computed at 0.951 gramme, so that to produce one kilogrammeter of +mechanical work 33 milligrammes of zinc would be consumed in the +battery. In another experiment, made with five elements, the +consumption of zinc was found to be 36 milligrammes for every +kilogrammeter of mechanical work performed. In recording these +experiments, Dr. Pacinotti points out that although these results do +not show any special advantage in his machine over those of other +construction, still they are very encouraging, when it is considered +that the apparatus with which the experiments were made were full of +defects of workmanship, the commutator, being eccentric to the axis, +causing the contacts between it and the rollers to be very imperfect +and unequal. + +In his communication to the _Nuovo Cimento_, Dr. Pacinotti states that +the reasons which induced him to construct the apparatus on the +principle which we have just described, were: (1) That according to +this system the electric current is continuously traversing the coils +of the armature, and the machine is kept in motion not by a series of +intermittent impulses succeeding one another with greater or less +rapidity, but by a constantly acting force producing a more uniform +effect. (2) The annular form of the revolving armature contributes +(together with the preceding method of continuous magnetization) to +give regularity to its motion and at the same time reduces the loss of +motive power, through mechanical shocks and friction, to a minimum. +(3) In the annular system no attempt is made suddenly to magnetize and +demagnetize the iron core of the rotating armature, as such changes of +magnetization would be retarded by the setting up of extra currents, +and also by the permanent residual magnetism which cannot be entirely +eliminated from the iron; and with this annular construction such +charges are not required, all that is necessary being that each +portion of the iron of the ring should pass, in its rotation, through +the various degrees of magnetization in succession, being subjected +thereby to the influence of the electro-dynamic forces by which its +motion is produced. (4) The polar extension pieces of the fixed +electro-magnet, by embracing a sufficiently large number of the iron +projecting pieces on the armature ring, continue to exercise an +influence upon them almost up to the point at which their +magnetization ceases when passing the neutral axis. (5) By the method +of construction adopted, sparks, while being increased in number, are +diminished in intensity, there being no powerful extra currents +produced at the breaking of the circuit, and Dr. Pacinotti points out +that when the machine is in rotation a continuous current is induced +in the circuit which is opposed to that of the battery; and this leads +to what, looked at by the light of the present state of electric +science, is by far the most interesting part of Dr. Pacinotti's paper, +published, as it was, more than seventeen years ago. + +In the part to which we refer, Dr. Pacinotti states that it occurred +to him that the value of the apparatus would be greatly increased if +it could be altered from an electro-magnetic to a magneto-electric +machine, so as to produce a continuous current. Thus, if the +electro-magnet, A B (Figs. 3 and 4), be replaced by a permanent +magnet, and the annular armature were made to revolve, the apparatus +would become a magneto-electric generator, which would produce a +continuous induced current always in the same direction, and in +analyzing the action of such a machine Dr. Pacinotti observes that, as +the position of the magnetic field is fixed, and the iron armature +with its coils rotates within it, the action may be regarded as the +same as if the iron ring were made up of two fixed semicircular +horseshoe magnets with their similar poles joined, and the coils were +loose upon it and were caused to rotate over it, and this mode of +expressing the phenomenon was exactly what we adopted when describing +the Gramme machine, without having at that time seen what Dr. +Pacinotti had written fifteen years before. + +In explanation of the physical phenomena involved in the induction of +the electric currents in the armature when the machine is in action as +a generator, Dr. Pacinotti makes the following remarks: Let us trace +the action of one of the coils in the various positions that it can +assume in one complete revolution; starting from the position marked +N, Fig. 2, and moving toward S, an electric current will be developed +in it in one direction while moving through the portion of the circle, +N a, and after passing the point, a, and while passing through the +arc, a S, the induced current will be in the opposite direction, +which direction will be maintained until the point, b, is reached, +after which the currents will be in the same direction as between N +and a; and as all the coils are connected together, all the currents +in a given direction will unite and give the combined current a +direction indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2, and in order to collect +it (so as to transmit it into the external circuit), the most eminent +position for the collectors will be at points on the commutator at +opposite ends of a diameter which is perpendicular to the magnetic +axis of the magnetic field. With reference to Fig. 2, we imagine +either that the two arrows to the right of the figure are incorrectly +placed by the engraver, or that Dr. Pacinotti intended this diagram to +express the direction of the current throughout the whole circuit, as +if it started from a, and after traversing the external circuit +entered again at b, thus completing the whole cycle made up of the +external and internal circuits. + +Dr. Pacinotti calls attention to the fact that the direction of the +current generated by the machine is reversed by a reversal of the +direction of rotation, as well as by a shifting of the position of the +collectors from one side to the other of their neutral point, and +concludes his most interesting communication by describing experiments +made with it in order to convert it into a magneto-electric machine. +"I brought," he says, "near to the coiled armature the opposite poles +of two permanent magnets, and I also excited by the current from a +battery the fixed electro-magnets (see Figs. 3 and 4), and by +mechanical means I rotated the annular armature on its axis. By both +methods I obtained an induced electric current, which was continuous +and always in the same direction, and which, as was indicated by a +galvanometer, proved to be of considerable intensity, although it had +traversed the sulphate of copper voltameter which was included in the +circuit." + +Dr. Pacinotti goes on to show that there would be an obvious advantage +in constructing electric generating machines upon this principle, for +by such a system electric currents can be produced which are +continuous and in one direction without the necessity of the +inconvenient and more or less inefficient mechanical arrangements for +commutating the currents and sorting them, so as to collect and +combine those in one direction, separating them from those which are +in the opposite; and he also points our the reversibility of the +apparatus, showing that as an electro-magnetic engine it is capable of +converting a current of electricity into mechanical motion capable of +performing work, while as a magneto-electric machine it is made to +transform mechanical energy into an electric current, which in other +apparatus, forming part of its external circuit, is capable of +performing electric, chemical, or mechanical work. + +All these statements are matters of everyday familiarity at the +present day, but it must be remembered that they are records of +experiments made twenty years ago, and as such they entitle their +author to a very distinguished place among the pioneers of electric +science, and it is somewhat remarkable that they did not lead him +straight to the discovery of the "action and reaction" principle of +dynamo-electric magnetic induction to which he approached so closely, +and it is also a curious fact that so suggestive and remarkable a +paper should have been written and published as far back as 1864, and +that it should not have produced sooner than it did a revolution in +electric science.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR. + + +We lately published a short description of a very interesting +apparatus which may be considered in some sense as a prototype of the +Gramme machine, although it has very considerable, indeed radical +differences, and which, moreover, was constructed for a different +purpose, the Elias machine being, in fact, an electromotor, while the +Gramme machine is, it is almost unnecessary to say, an electric +generator. This apparent resemblance makes it, however, necessary to +describe the Elias machine, and to explain the difference between it +and the Gramme. Its very early date (1842), moreover, gives it an +exceptional interest. The figures on the previous page convey an exact +idea of the model that was exhibited at the Paris Electrical +Exhibition, and which was contributed by the Ecole Polytechnique of +Delft in the Dutch Section. This model is almost identical with that +illustrated and described in a pamphlet accompanying the exhibit. The +perspective illustrations show the machine very clearly, and the +section explains the construction still further. The apparatus +consists of an exterior ring made of iron, about 14 in. in diameter +and 1.5 in wide. It is divided into six equal sections by six small +blocks which project from the inner face of the ring, and which act as +so many magnetic poles. On each of the sections between the blocks is +rolled a coil, of one thickness only, of copper wire about 0.04 in. in +diameter, inclosed in an insulating casing of gutta percha, giving to +the conductor thus protected a total thickness of 0.20 in.; this wire +is coiled, as shown in the illustration. It forms twenty-nine turns in +each section, and the direction of winding changes at each passage in +front of a pole piece. The ends of the wire coinciding with the +horizontal diameter of the ring are stripped of the gutta percha, and +are connected to copper wires which are twisted together and around +two copper rods, which are placed vertically, their lower ends +entering two small cavities made in the base of the apparatus. The +circuit is thus continuous with two ends at opposite points of the +same diameter. The ring is about 1.1 in. thick, and is fixed, as +shown, to two wooden columns, B B, by two blocks of copper, a. + +[Illustration: THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.--MADE IN 1842.] + +It will be seen from the mode of coiling the wire on this ring, that +if a battery be connected by means of the copper rods, the current +will create six consecutive poles on the various projecting blocks. +The inner ring, E, is about 11 in. in outside diameter, and is also +provided with a series of six projecting pieces which pass before +those on the exterior ring with very little clearance. Between these +projections the space between the inner face of the outer, and the +outer face of the inner ring, is 0.40 in. The latter is movable, and +is supported by three wooden arms, F, fixed to a boss, G, which is +traversed by a spindle supported in bearings by the columns, A and C. +A coil is rolled around the ring in exactly the same way as that on +the outer ring, the wire being of the same size, and the insulation of +the same thickness. The ends of the wire are also bared at points of +the diameter opposite each other, and the coil connected in pairs so +as to form a continuous circuit. At the two points of junction they +are connected with a hexagonal commutator placed on the central +spindle, one end corresponding to the sides 1, 3, and 5, and the other +to the sides 2, 4, and 6. Two copper rods, J, fixed on the base to two +plates of copper furnished with binding screws, are widened and +flattened at their upper ends to rest against opposite parallel sides +of the hexagon. It will be seen that if the battery is put in circuit +by means of the binding screws, the current in the interior ring will +determine six consecutive poles, the names of which will change as the +commutator plates come into contact successively with the sides of the +hexagon. Consequently, if at first the pole-pieces opposite each other +are magnetized with the same polarity, a repulsion between them will +be set up which will set the inner ring in motion, and the effect will +be increased on account of the attraction of the next pole of the +outer ring. At the moment when the pole piece thus attracted comes +into the field of the pole of opposite polarity, the action of the +commutator will change its magnetization, while that of the pole-piece +on the fixed ring always remains the same; the same phenomenon of +repulsion will be produced, and the inner ring will continue its +movement in the same direction, and so on. To the attractive and +repulsive action of the magnetic poles has to be added the reciprocal +action of the coils around the two rings, the action of which is +similar. From this brief explanation the differences between the Elias +machine and the Gramme will be understood. The Dutch physicist did not +contemplate the production of a current; he utilized two distinct +sources of electricity to set the inner ring in motion, and did not +imagine that it was possible, by suppressing one of the inducing +currents and putting the ring in rapid rotation, to obtain a +continuous current. Moreover, if ever this apparent resemblance had +been real, the merit of the Gramme invention would not have been +affected by it. It has happened very many times that inventors living +in different countries, and strangers to one another, have been +inspired with the same idea, and have followed it by similar methods, +either simultaneously or at different periods, without the application +having led to the same results. It does not suffice even for the seed +to be the same; it must have fallen in good ground, and be cultivated +with care; here it scarcely germinates, there it produces a vigorous +plant and abundant fruit.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +BJERKNES'S EXPERIMENTS. + + +As a general thing, too much trust should not be placed in words. In +the first place, it frequently happens that their sense is not well +defined, or that they are not understood exactly in the same way by +everybody, and this leads to sad misunderstandings. But even in case +they are precise, and are received everywhere under a single +acceptation, there still remains one danger, and that is that of +passing from the word to the idea, and of being led to believe that, +because there is a word, there is a real thing designated by this +word. + +Let us take, for example, the word _electricity_. If we understand by +this term the common law which embraces a certain category of +phenomena, it expresses a clear and useful idea; but as for its +existence, it is not permitted to believe _a priori_ that there is a +distinct agent called electricity which is the efficient cause of the +phenomena. We ought never, says the old rule of philosophy, to admit +entities without an absolute necessity. The march of science has +always consisted in gradually eliminating these provisory conceptions +and in reducing the number of causes. This fact is visible without +going back to the ages of ignorance, when every new phenomenon brought +with it the conception of a special being which caused it and directed +it. In later ages they had _spirits_ in which there was everything: +volatile liquids, gases, and theoretical conceptions, such as +phlogiston. At the end of the last century, and at the beginning of +our own, ideas being more rational, the notion of the "fluid" had been +admitted, a mysterious and still vague enough category (but yet an +already somewhat definite one) in which were ranged the unknown and +ungraspable causes of caloric, luminous, electric, etc., phenomena. +Gradually, the "fluid" has vanished, and we are left (or rather, we +were a short time ago) at the notion of forces--a precise and +mathematically graspable notion, but yet an essentially mysterious +one. We see this conception gradually disappearing to leave finally +only the elementary ideas of matter and motion--ideas, perhaps, which +are not much clearer philosophically than the others, particularly +that of matter taken _per se_, but which, at least, are necessary, +since all the others supposed them. + +Among those notions that study and time are reducing to other and +simpler ones, that of electricity should be admitted; for it presents +itself more and more as one of the peculiar cases of the general +motion of matter. It will be to the eternal honor of Fresnel for +having introduced into science and mathematically constituted the +theory of undulations (already proposed before him, however), thus +giving the first example of the notion of motion substituted for that +of force. Since the principle of the conservation of energy has taken +the eminent place in science that it now occupies, and we have seen a +continual transformation of one series of phenomena into another, the +mind is at once directed to the aspect of a new fact toward an +explanation of this kind. Still, it is certain that these hypotheses +are difficult of justification; for those motions that are at present +named molecular, and that we cannot help presuming to be at the base +of all actions, are _per se_ ungraspable and can only be demonstrated +by the coincidence of a large number of results. There is, however, +another means of rendering them probable, and that is by employing +analogy. If, by vibrations which are directly ascertainable, we can +reproduce the effects of electricity, there will be good reason for +admitting that the latter is nothing else than a system of vibration +differing only, perhaps, in special qualities, such as dimensions, +direction, rapidity, etc. + +Such is the result that is attained by the very curious experiments +that are due to Mr. Bjerknes. These constitute an _ensemble_ of very +striking results, which are perfectly concordant and exhibit very +close analogies with electrical effects, as we shall presently see. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +They are based on the presence of bodies set in vibration in a liquid. +The vibrations produced by Mr. Bjerknes are of two kinds--pulsations +and oscillations. The former of these are obtained by the aid of small +drums with flexible ends, as shown to the left in Fig. 1. A small pump +chamber or cylinder is, by means of a tube, put in communication with +one of these closed drums in which the rapid motion of a piston +alternately sucks in and expels the air. The two flexible ends are +successively thrust outward and attracted toward the center. In an +apparatus of this kind the two ends repulse and attract the liquid at +the same time. Their motions are of the same phase; if it were desired +that one should repulse while the other was attracting, it would be +necessary to place two drums back to back, separated by a stiff +partition, and put them in connection with two distinct pump chambers +whose movements were so arranged that one should be forcing in while +the other was exhausting. A system of this nature is shown to the +right in Fig. 1. + +The vibrations are obtained by the aid of small metal spheres fixed in +tubular supports by movable levers to which are communicated the +motions of compression and dilatation of the air in the pump chamber. +They oscillate in a plane whose direction may be varied according to +the arrangement of the sphere, as seen in the two apparatus of this +kind shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 will give an idea of the general +arrangement. The two pistons of the air-pumps are connected to cranks +that may be fixed in such a way as to regulate the phases as may be +desired, either in coincidence or opposition. The entire affair is put +in motion by a wheel and cord permitting of rapid vibrations being +obtained. The air is let into the apparatus by rubber tubing without +interfering with their motions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +We may now enter into the details of the experiments: + +The first is represented in Fig. 2. In a basin of water there is +placed a small frame carrying a drum fixed on an axle and capable of +revolving. It also communicates with one of the air cylinders. The +operator holds in his hand a second drum which communicates with the +other cylinder. The pistons are adjusted in such a way that they shall +move parallel with each other; then the ends of the drums inflate and +collapse at the same time; the _motions are of the same phase_; but if +the drums are brought near each other a very marked attraction occurs, +the revolving drum follows the other. If the cranks are so adjusted +that the pistons move in an opposite direction, the _phases are +discordant_--there is a repulsion, and the movable drum moves away +from the other. The effect, then, is analogous to that of two magnets, +with about this difference, that here it is the like phases that +attract and the different phases that repel each other, while in +magnets like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other. + +It is necessary to remark that it is indifferent which face of the +drum is presented, since both possess the same phase. The drum +behaves, then, like an insulated pole of a magnet, or, better, like a +magnet having in its middle a succeeding point. In order to have two +poles a double drum must be employed. The experiment then becomes more +complicated; for it is necessary to have two pump chambers with +opposite phases for this drum alone, and one or two others for the +revolving drum. The effects, as we shall see, are more easily shown +with the vibrating spheres. + +This form has the advantage that the vibrating body exhibits the two +phases at the same time; relatively to the liquid, one of its ends +advances while the other recedes. Thus with a vibrating sphere +presented to the movable drum, there may be obtained repulsion or +attraction, according as the side which is approached is concordant or +discordant with the end of the drum that it faces. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +With the arrangement shown in Fig. 3 there may be performed an +interesting series of experiments. The two spheres supported by the +frame are set in simultaneous vibration, and the frame, moreover, is +free to revolve about its axis. The effect is analogous to that which +would be produced by two short magnets carried by the same revolving +support; on presenting the vibrating sphere to the extremities the +whole affair is attracted or repulsed, according to its phase and +according to the point at which it is presented; on replacing the +transverse support by a single sphere (as indicated in the figure by a +dotted line) we obtain the analogue of a short magnet carried on a +pivot like a small compass needle. This sphere follows the pole of a +vibrating sphere which is presented to it, as the pole of a magnet +would do, with this difference always, that in the magnet, like poles +repel, while in oscillating bodies like phases attract. + +In all the preceding experiments the bodies brought in presence were +both in motion and the phenomena were analogous to those of permanent +magnetism. We may also reproduce those which result from magnetism by +induction. For this purpose we employ small balls of different +materials suspended from floats, as shown in Fig. 4 (a, b, c). +Let us, for example, take the body, b, which is a small metal +sphere, and present to it either a drum which is caused to pulsate, on +an oscillating sphere, and it will be attracted, thus representing the +action of a magnet upon a bit of soft iron. A curious experiment may +serve to indicate the transition between this new series and the +preceding. If we present to each other two drums of opposite phases, +but so arranged that one of them vibrates faster than the other, we +shall find, on carefully bringing them together, that the repulsion +which manifested itself at first is changing to attraction. On +approaching each other the drum having the quicker motion finally has +upon the other, the same action as if the latter were immovable; and +the effect is analogous to that which takes place between a strong and +weak magnet presented by their like poles. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +By continuing these experiments we arrive at a very important point. +Instead of the body, b (Fig. 4), let us take c. As the figure +shows, this is a sphere lighter than water, kept in the liquid by a +weight. If we present to it the vibrating body, it will be repelled, +and we shall obtain the results known by the name of diamagnetism. +This curious experiment renders evident the influence of media. As +well known, Faraday attributed such effects to the action of the air; +and he thought that magnetic motions always resulted from a difference +between the attraction exerted by the magnet upon the body under +experiment, and the attraction exerted by the air. If the body is more +sensitive than the air, there is direct magnetism, but if it is less +so, there is diamagnetism. Water between the bodies, in the Bjerknes +experiments, plays the same role; it is this which, by its vibration, +transmits the motions and determines the phases in the suspended body. +If the body is heavier than water its motion is less than that of the +liquid, and, consequently, relatively to the vibrating body, it is of +like phase; and if it is lighter, the contrary takes place, and the +phases are in discordance. These effects may be very well verified by +the aid of the little apparatus shown in Fig. 5, and which carries two +bars, one of them lighter and the other heavier than water. On +presenting to them the vibrating body, one presents its extremity and +takes an axial direction, while the other arranges itself crosswise +and takes the equatorial direction. These experiments may be varied in +different ways that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon in this +place, as they may be seen at the Electrical Exhibition. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.] + +Very curious effects are also obtained with the arrangement shown in +Fig. 6. Between the two drums there is introduced a body sustained by +a float such as represented at a, Fig. 4. Various results may, then, +be obtained according to the combinations adopted. Let us suppose that +the phases are alike, and that the interposed body is heavier than +water; in this case it is repelled as far as the circumference of the +drums, at which point it stops. If the phases are different, the +influenced body behaves in the opposite manner and stops at the +center. If the body is lighter than water the effects are naturally +changed. Placed between two like phases, it is attracted within a +certain radius and repelled when it is placed further off; if the +phases are unlike, it is always repelled. We may easily assure +ourselves that these effects are analogous to those which are produced +on bodies placed between the poles of wide and powerful magnets. It +is useless to repeat that the analogies are always inverse. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +Mr. Bjerknes has carried the examination of these phenomena still +further in studying experimentally the actions that occur in the +depths of the liquid; and for this purpose he has made use of the +arrangement shown in Fig. 7. By the side of the vibrating body there +is placed a light body mounted on a very flexible spring. This assumes +the motion of that portion of the fluid in which it is immersed, and, +by the aid of a small pencil, its direction is inscribed upon a plate +located above it. By placing this registering apparatus in different +directions the entire liquid may be explored. We find by this means +figures that are perfectly identical with magnetic phantoms. All the +circumstances connected with these can be reproduced, the vibrating +sphere giving the phantom of a magnet with its two poles. We may even +exhibit the mutual action of two magnets. The figures show with +remarkable distinctness--much more distinct, perhaps, than those that +are obtained by true magnets. + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +However, it must not be thought that these so interesting facts are +the result of groping in the dark and the outcome of some fortunate +experiment; for they have, on the contrary, been foreseen and +predetermined. Mr. Bjerknes is especially a mathematician, and it was +a study, through calculation, of the vibratory motion of a body or +system of bodies in a medium that led him to the results that he +afterwards materialized. + +After the production, by Mr. Lejeune, of his solutions, Mr. Bjerknes +in 1865 entered upon a complete study of the subject, and recognized +the fact that the result of such motions was the production of regular +mechanical actions. He calculated the directions of these, and, along +about 1875, perceived the possibility of reproducing the effects of +permanent magnetism. More recently, in 1879, he saw that magnetism by +derivation might likewise be explained by those hypotheses, and +figured by actions of this kind. It was not till then that he +performed the experiments, and submitted a body to the results of +calculation. + +The same process has led him to the conclusion that the action of +currents might be represented in the same manner; only, instead of +bodies in vibration, it would require bodies in alternating rotation. +The effects are much more difficult to ascertain, since it is +necessary to employ viscid liquids. + +Meanwhile, the experiments have been performed. Up to the present time +attractions and repulsions have not been shown, and I do not know +whether Mr. Bjerknes has obtained them. But, by the process pointed +out, the lines of action (electric phantoms, if I may so express +myself) have been traced, and they are very curious. By supposing the +current perpendicular to the plate, and in the presence of the pole of +a magnet, the influences produced around it are very well seen, and +the figures are very striking, especially in the case of two currents. +Mr. Bjerknes does not appear as yet to have obtained from these +experiments all that he expects from them. And yet, such as they are, +they have already led him to important conclusions. Thus, calculation, +confirmed by application, has led him to renounce the formula proposed +by Ampere and to adopt that of Regnard as modified by Clausius. Is he +right? This is what more prolonged experimentation will allow to be +seen. + +These researches, however, are beset with difficulties of a special +nature, and the use of viscid liquids is a subject for discussion. Mr. +Bjerknes desired to employ them for reproducing the effects that he +had obtained from water, but he found that the lines of force were no +longer the same, and that the phenomena were modified. It is +necessary, then, to hold as much as possible to liquids that are +perfect. The experimenter is at present endeavoring to use these +liquids by employing cylinders having a fluted surface; but it is +clear that this, too, is not without its difficulties. + +This series of experiments offers a rare example of the verification +of algebraic calculation by direct demonstration. In general, we may +employ geometry, which gives a graphic representation of calculation +and furnishes a valuable control. Sometimes we have practical +application, which is a very important verification in some respects, +but only approximate in others. But it is rare that we employ, as Mr. +Bjerknes has done, a material, direct, and immediate translation, +which, while it brings the results into singular prominence, permits +of comparing them with known facts and of generalizing the views upon +which they are based. + +Hypotheses as to the nature of electricity being as yet only tolerably +well established, we should neglect nothing that may contribute to +give them a solid basis. Assuming that electricity _is_ a vibratory +motion (and probably there is no doubt about it), yet the fact is not +so well established with regard to it as it is to that of light. Every +proof that comes to support this idea is welcome, and especially so +when it is not derived from a kind of accident, but is furnished by a +calculated and mathematical combination. Viewed from this double +standpoint, the experiments of Mr. Bjerknes are very remarkable, and, +I may add, they are very curious to behold, and I recommend all +visitors to the Exhibition to examine them.--_Frank Geraldy, in La +Lumiere Electrique._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ARC ELECTRIC LIGHT.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A recent address before the New York Electric Light + Association.] + +BY LEO DAFT. + + +I shall experience one difficulty in addressing you this evening, +which is, that although I do not wish to take up your time with purely +elementary matter, I wish to make the subject clear to those who may +not be familiar with its earlier struggles. + +If we begin at the beginning we have to go back to the time when +Faraday made the discovery that light could be produced by the +separation of two carbon rods conducting a current of considerable +tension. That is the historical point when electric lighting first +loomed up as a giant possibility of the near future. This occurred +about the year 1846. In some experiments he found that although the +circuit could not be interrupted by any considerable interval when +metallic terminals were used without breaking the current, when carbon +was substituted the interval could be largely increased, and a light +of dazzling brilliancy appeared between the points. + +This remarkable effect appears to be produced by the rarefaction of +the air, due to the great heat evolved by the combustion of the +carbon, and also to the passage of incandescent particles of carbon +from pole to pole, thus reducing the resistance, otherwise too great +for the current tension. + +That was the beginning of electric lighting; and perhaps it will be +well to bridge the long and comparatively uninteresting interval which +elapsed between this discovery and the equally important one which +alone gave it commercial value--I refer to the production of suitable +currents by mechanical means. That is to say, the substitution of +energy obtained from coal in the form of steam power reduced the cost +to a fraction of what it necessarily was when the galvanic elements +were used. Here is the point; the cost of zinc today is something over +fifty times that of coal, while its energy as a vitalizing agent is +only about five times greater, leaving a very large margin in favor of +the "black diamonds." This is not the only advantage, for the +resulting impulse in the case of mechanical production is much more +uniform in action, and therefore better suited to the end in view, +while the amount of adjustment and attention required is beyond +comparison in favor of the latter means. + +The machines adopted were of the magneto variety, and many ingenious +machines of this class were operated with more or less success, being, +however, quickly abandoned upon the introduction of the +dynamo-machine, which gave currents of much greater electromotive +force from the same amount of material, the advantage being chiefly +due to the large increase of magnetic intensity in the field magnets. +At this period lights of enormous power were produced with ease and by +the use of costly lamps. With complicated mechanism a new era in +artificial illumination seemed close at hand, but a grave difficulty +stood in the way--namely, the proper distribution or subdivision of +the light. It was quickly found that the electric difficulty of +subdividing the light, added to the great cost of the lamps then made, +was an apparently insurmountable obstacle to its general adoption, and +the electric light was gradually taking its place as a brilliant +scientific toy, when the world was startled by the introduction of the +Jablochkoff candle, which may fairly claim to have given a greater +impetus to the new light than any previous invention, a stimulus +without which it is even probable that electric lighting might have +slumbered for another decade. + +The Jablochkoff candle embodies a very beautiful philosophical +principle, and though its promises have not been fulfilled in general +practice, we must not forget that we owe it much for arousing +scientific men from a dangerous lethargy. + +Up to this time the light had always been produced by approximation of +carbon rods with their axes in the same plane; but the Jablochkoff +candle consisted of like rods arranged parallel to each other and +about one-eighth of an inch apart, the intervening space being filled +with plaster of Paris, and the interval at the top bridged by a +conducting medium. The object of the plaster, which is a fairly good +insulating material at ordinary temperatures, is to prevent the +passage of the current except at the top, where the conducting +material just referred to assisted the formation of the arc at that +point, and the resulting intense heat maintained the plaster in a +moderately conducting state until the whole carbon was consumed. Here, +then, was literally an electric "candle," which could be operated +without the costly and unsteady lamps, and fortunately its birthplace +was Paris--then the center of philosophical research; from that period +the future of electric lighting was assured. + +When we reflect that owing to the greater disruptive energy of the +positive terminal, the carbon so connected to an ordinary dynamo +machine is consumed very much faster than the negative--sometimes in +the ratio of 3 to 1--it will be clear that some other means of +consuming the Jablochkoff candle had to be used, since the arc would +cease to exist in a very short time by reason of the unequal +consumption of the carbons, and the subsequent increase of the +intervening space beyond the limit of the current tension. + +This difficulty M. Gramme overcame with characteristic ingenuity by +adding to the ordinary system a "distributer" capable of delivering +plus and minus currents alternately, thus equalizing the consumption, +besides being able to supply a large number of candles on the multiple +circuit system, each circuit supporting four or five lamps. Thus it +will be seen that a result was attained which at least gave such men +as Siemens, Gramme, and their peers, if such there be, confidence in +the future and a courage which quickly placed the new science safely +beyond the limits of the laboratory. I will not occupy your time by +stating the apparent reasons why the Jablochkoff candle has not fully +sustained its brilliant promise--it will, perhaps, be sufficient to +state that it is now superseded practically, though it must always +occupy an honorable place in scientific annals. + +Let us now for a few moments consider what the electric light really +accomplished at about this period, I mean from an economical +standpoint. It appears from some data furnished by an engineer +commissioned by the French Government that the machines were then +capable of maintaining a light equal to from 220 to 450 candles, +measured by comparison with the Carcel burner, per horse power +absorbed--a very good showing considering the youth of the discovery, +but presenting rather a gloomy aspect when we consider that according +to Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat, which is 772 foot pounds, or +the power required to raise one pound of water one degree--and for +lack of anything better, we are obliged to accept that at this +moment--the whole force contained in one pound of coal would maintain +a light equal to 13,000 candles for one hour! That is the ultimate +force, and what we are now able to accomplish is but a small fraction +of this amount. + +Unfortunately we are but common mortals, and cannot, like Mr. Keely, +lightly throw off the trammels of natural law; we must, therefore, +endeavor to close this gap by patient study and experiment. + +The limited time at my disposal, and a keen consideration for your +feelings, will not permit me to follow the long series of struggles +between mind and matter immediately following Jablochkoff's brilliant +invention; suffice it to say, that the few years just passed have +yielded beyond comparison the most marvelous results in the scientific +history of the world, and it will be superfluous to remind you that a +great part of this has undoubtedly been due to the researches made in +an effort to reduce electric lighting to a commercial basis. To say +that this has been fully accomplished is but to repeat a well known +fact; and in proof of this I quote a high scientific authority by +stating that a result so high as 4,000 candles evolved for 40,000 +foot-pounds absorbed has recently been obtained--an efficiency six or +seven times greater than the record of six years ago. In accepting +this statement we must not lose sight of the extreme probability that +such effects were evolved under conditions rarely if ever found in +common practice. Of course, I now refer to the arc system. The volume +of light so generated is incomparably greater than by any other known +method, though in subdivision the limit is sooner reached. + +Mr. Hawkesworth--Let me ask you a question, please. Supposing that it +required a one-horse power to produce an arc light of, say, 2,000 +candles, would it be possible to produce ten arc lights of 200 candles +each? + +Mr. Daft--No, sir; I will tell you why. It would, if no other element +than the simple resistance of the arcs opposed the passage of a +current; then a machine that would produce an inch arc in one light, +if placed on a circuit of sixteen lamps would give to each an arc +one-sixteenth of an inch long naturally; but another difficulty here +presents itself in the shape of a resisting impulse of considerable +electromotive force in the opposite direction, apparently caused by +the intense polarity of the two terminals. The resistance of the arc +itself varies much according to the volume of current used being +usually small with a large quantity of current, and greater with a +current of tension; but this opposing element is always found, and +appears to be the only real obstacle in the way of infinite +subdivision. + +Almost every objection which human ingenuity could suggest has been +urged against lighting by electricity, but fortunately electricians +have been able in most cases either to meet the difficulty or prove it +groundless. + +In this connection I am led to speak of the common idea that electric +light is injurious to the eyes, first, because of its unsteady +character, and secondly, by reason of the great excess of the more +refrangible rays. Both objections undoubtedly hold good where the +alleged causes exist; but we can now show you a light which is +certainly as steady as the ordinary gaslight--indeed more steady in an +apartment where even feeble currents of air circulate; and I am sure +you will readily acknowledge that the latter objection is disposed of +when I assure you that our light presents the only example with which +I am acquainted of an exact artificial reproduction of the solar +light, as shown by decomposition. The two spectra, placed side by +side, show in the most conclusive manner the identity in composition +of our light with that of the sun. + +The remarkable coolness of the electric light, as compared with its +volume by gas, is also due in a great measure to the conspicuous +absence of that large excess of less refrangible, or heat-radiating +principle, which distinguishes almost equally all other modes of +artificial illumination. After the foregoing statement it may seem a +paradox to claim that the electric arc develops the greatest heat with +which we have yet had to deal, but this is so; and the heat has an +intensity quite beyond the reach of accurate measurement by any +instrument now known--it has been variously estimated anywhere between +5,000 deg. and 50,000 deg. F. It is sufficient for our present purpose to know +that the most refractory substances quickly disappear when brought +under its influence--even the imperial diamond must succumb in a short +time. In order to reconcile this fact with its coolness as an +illuminating agent, we have to take into consideration the extreme +smallness of the point from which the light radiates in the electric +arc. A light having the power of many thousand candles will expose but +a fraction of the surface for heat radiation which is shown by one +gas-jet, and, as I have endeavored to explain, these rays contain very +much less of the heating principle than those from gas or other +artificial light. + +The purity of electric light has another important aspect, which can +scarcely be overestimated--namely, the facility with which all the +most delicate shades of color can be distinguished. I understand from +persons better skilled than myself in such matters that this can be +done almost as readily by electric as by day light, and I have little +doubt that the slight difference in this respect will entirely +disappear when people become somewhat more familiar with the different +conditions--the effect of such shades viewed by electric light being +more like that with comparatively feeble direct sunlight than the +subdued daylight usually prevailing in stores and warehouses. + +Again, it has frequently been urged that persons working by electric +light have thus induced inflammation of the eyes. No doubt this is so +with light containing the highly refrangible rays in excess; but it is +difficult to see how such an effect can occur with light composed as +is the light with which the eyes are constructed to operate in perfect +harmony. + +As you are aware, there are other methods of obtaining light by +electric energy, and in order to make a fair comparison of one which +has lately attracted a great deal of attention and capital, I will +relate to you the result of observations made during a recent visit to +the office of an eminent electrician. The light was that known as +incandescent--a filament of carbon raised to a light-emitting heat in +vacuo. The exclusion of the air is necessary to prevent the otherwise +rapid destruction of the carbon by combination with oxygen. At the +time of my visit there were 62 lamps in circuit. According to their +statement each lamp was of 16-candle power--I accept their statement +as correct; this will give us an aggregate of 992 candles. The +generator was vitalized by an engine rated by the attendants in charge +at 6-horse power. I found that it was a 5x7 cylinder, working with +very little expansion 430 revolutions per minute, with 90 pounds of +live steam, in a boiler not 15 feet from the engine. I have every +reason to believe that the steam was delivered at the cylinder with an +almost inappreciable loss on 90 pounds. Under those conditions I think +it is perfectly fair to assume (you have the data, so that you can +calculate it afterwards) that 750,000 foot pounds were consumed in +producing those 60 lights, aggregating 992 candles. In the kind of +engine they had, 750,000 foot pounds requires a consumption of about +100 pounds of coal per hour. It was an ordinary high speed engine. +That 750,000 foot pounds, I assume, required 100 pounds of coal. That +is the only weak point in my data; I do not know that to be true; but +I never saw an engine of that form yet capable of delivering 1-horse +power with less consumption than four to five pounds of coal per horse +power per hour. I want to be as fair as I can in the matter. I wish to +compare this, as they have taken particular pains to compare it, with +gas, at the present cost of gas. + +The hundred pounds of coal will produce 400 feet of gas; 400 feet of +gas will evolve the effect of 1,500 candles. So you see the position +we are in. In consuming that coal directly by destructive distillation +you can produce 1,500 candles light; by converting it into power, and +then again into light by incandescence, you produce 992! Expressing +this in other words, we may say that in producing the light from coal +by the incandescent system you lose one-third of the power as compared +with gas, by actually converting the coal into gas, and delivering it +in the ordinary manner. Those are facts. It has been suggested to me +that I am too liberal in my estimate of coal consumed--that those +engines consume more than four or five pounds per horse power per +hour; but I prefer to give them the benefit of the doubt. + +Mr. Rothschild--If I understood you correctly, this electric light +costs more than gas? + +Mr. Daft--_Must_ do by this system. You cannot do better, so far as +our philosophy goes. But this whole system of illumination, as now +practiced is a financial fallacy. + +Mr. Rothschild--That is what Professor Sawyer says. + +Mr. Daft--The same amount of energy converted into light by our arc +system will produce 30,000 candles. We are perfectly willing to +demonstrate that at any time. I am free to admit that the minute +subdivision obtained by the Edisonian, Swan, or Fox system--they do +not differ materially--is a great desideratum; but this cannot bridge +the financial gulf. + +Mr. Lendrum--Now please state what we have accomplished. + +Mr. Daft--Certainly; and in so doing I prefer to give our results as +actually occurring in everyday work; and in this connection let me +remind you that in no branch of physics are the purely experimental +effects so well calculated to deceive, if not fairly conditioned. As +we have seen, it is claimed on excellent authority that the equivalent +of 4,000 candles appeared in an arc by expending 40,000 foot pounds of +energy at the generator, but with everyday conditions it is at present +idle to expect such efficiency. Commercially we can give by our own +system 3,000 candles for 40,000 foot pounds absorbed; this may be done +for an indefinite length of time and leave nothing to be desired on +the score of steadiness. Unfortunately there is no unit of photometric +measurement generally recognized in this country, each electrician +having so far adopted one to suit his own convenience; but in making +the foregoing statement I wish it to be understood that our efficiency +would appear still greater if measured by some of the methods now +employed. For our own satisfaction we have endeavored to be at least +approximately accurate, at the same time wishing to avoid the +affectation of extreme precision, such, for example, as adding twenty +or thirty candles to measurements of so many thousands, and we are +satisfied that the most critical expert tests will prove our claim to +be within the mark. The limit of subdivision is only reached when the +difficulty of further increasing the electromotive force of the +machines, involving great care in insulation and a host of other +troubles arising, so to speak, at very high pressure, is balanced by +the objections to working in multiple arc; this appears to occur now +at something below 40 lights, but will in all probability be greatly +extended within a short time. The machines are so constructed that the +local currents, usually productive of dangerous heating, are turned to +useful account, so that the point where radiation exceeds production +is soon reached, and provided the machines are not speeded beyond the +proper limit, they may be run continuously without the slightest +indication of lost vitality. I need scarcely remind you that this is a +most important feature, and by no means a common one. + +The lamps used in our system I believe to be the simplest known form +of regulator; indeed it seems scarcely possible that anything less +complicated could perform the necessary work; as a matter of fact we +may confidently assert that it cannot be made less liable to +derangement. It has frequently been placed on circuit by persons +totally inexperienced in such matters, and still has yielded results +which we are quite willing to quote at any time. + +I will not now trespass on your patience further than will enable me +to state that experiments now in hand indicate conclusively that +domestic electric lighting of the immediate future will be +accomplished in a manner more beautiful and wondrous than was ever +shadowed in an Arabian Night's dream. I hesitate somewhat to make +these vague allusions, since so many wild promises, for which I am not +responsible, remain unfulfilled, but the time is surely near at hand +when a single touch will illuminate our homes with a light which will +combine all the elements of beauty, steadiness, softness, and absolute +safety, to a degree as yet undreamed of. I do not ask you to accept +this without question, but only to remember that within the last +decade wires have been taught to convey not only articulate sounds, +but the individual voices you know amidst a thousand, and even light +and heat have each been made the medium of communicating our thoughts +to distant places! + +Not the least remarkable phenomenon in this connection is the +intellectual condition of the people who have welcomed these marvelous +achievements and allowed them to enter into their everyday life, thus +removing the greatest barriers of the past and paving the way for that +philosophical millennium inevitably awaiting those who may be +fortunate enough to survive the next decade. + + * * * * * + + +SUCCESS OF THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS, NEW YORK. + +The travel over the elevated steam street railways of New York city +for month of October, 1881, was the heaviest yet recorded, aggregating +7,121,961 passengers, as against 5,881,474, for the corresponding +month of 1880, an increase of 1,240,487, representing just about the +entire population of the city. + + * * * * * + + + + +HEDGES' ELECTRIC LAMPS. + + +We illustrate a very curious and interesting form of electric +regulator which is exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of Electricity by +Mr. Killingworth Hedges, whose name will be known to our readers as +the author of a little book on the electric light. Mr. Hedges' lamp +belongs to the same category of electric regulators as the lamp of M. +Rapieff, and to one form of M. Reynier's lamp, that is to say, the +position of the ends of the carbons, and therefore of the arc, is +determined not by clockwork or similar controlling mechanism, but by +the locus of the geometrical intersection of the axes of the carbon +rods, the positions of which axes being determined by simple +mechanical means. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1 and 2 HEDGES' ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS +ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +Referring to Fig. 1, A and B are two troughs rectangular in cross +section attached to the supports in such positions that their axes are +inclined to one another so as to form the letter V, as shown in the +figure. Within these troughs slide freely the two carbon pencils, +which are of circular cross section, meeting, when no current is +passing, at the lower point, E. The carbon-holder, B, to the right of +the figure, is rigidly attached to the framing of the lamp, but the +trough, A, which carries the negative carbon, is attached to the +framing by a pivot shown in the figure, and on this pivot the carbon +holder can rock, its motion being controlled by the position of the +armature of an electro-magnet, M, the coils of which are included in +the circuit of the apparatus. By this means, the moment the current is +established through the lamp, the armature is attracted, and the +points of the two carbons are separated, thus forming the arc. The +positive carbon, B, is held from sliding and dropping through the +trough by the gentle pressure against it of the smaller carbon rod, +C¹, which also slides in a trough or tube fixed in such a position +that the point of contact between the two rods is sufficiently near +the arc for the smaller rod to be slowly consumed as the other is +burnt away; the latter in that way is permitted to slide gradually +down the trough as long as the lamp is in action. The negative +carbon-holder, A, is provided with a little adjustable platinum stop, +E, which by pressing against the side of the conical end of the +negative carbon, holds the latter in its place and prevents it sliding +down the trough except under the influence of the slow combustion of +the cone during the process of producing the arc. The position of the +stop with respect to the conical end is determined by a small +adjusting screw shown in the figure. This arrangement of stop is +identical in principle with that adopted by Messrs. Siemens Brothers +in their "abutment pole" lamp, and is found to work very well in +practice on the negative electrodes, but is inapplicable on the +positive carbons on account of the higher temperature of the latter, +which is liable to destroy the metallic stop by fusion, and it is for +this reason that the positive carbon in Mr. Hedges' lamp is controlled +by the method we have already described. For alternating currents, +however, the abutment stop may be used on both electrodes. + +[Illustration: Figs. 3 and 4.] + +In order to maintain a good electrical contact between the fixed +conducting portions of the lamp and the sliding carbons, Mr. Hedges +fits to each carbon-holder a little contact piece, F F, hinged to its +respective trough at its upper end, and carrying at its lower or free +end a somewhat heavy little block of brass grooved out to fit the +cylindrical side of the carbon, against which it presses with an even +pressure. This arrangement offers another advantage, namely, that the +length of that portion of the carbon rods which is conveying the +current is always the same notwithstanding the shortening of their +total length by combustion; the resistance of the carbon electrodes +is, therefore, maintained constant, and, for the reason that the +contact piece presses against the rods very near their lower ends, +that resistance is reduced to a minimum. In this way very long +carbons, such, for instance, as will burn for ten or sixteen hours, +can be used without introducing any increase of resistance into the +circuit. The length of the arc can be determined by the adjustment of +the screw, G, by which the amount of movement of the armature is +limited. + +Fig. 2 represents a modified form of Mr. Hedges' lamp designed for +installation when it is desirable to burn a number of lamps in series. +In this arrangement the carbons are separated by the attractive +influence of a solenoid upon an iron plunger, to which is attached (by +a non-magnetic connection) the armature of an electro-magnet, the +coils (which are of fine wire) forming a shunt circuit between the two +terminals of the lamp, and so disposed with respect to the armature as +to influence it in an opposite direction to that of the solenoid. When +the circuit of the lamp is completed with the electric generator the +carbons are drawn apart by the action of the solenoid on the plunger, +and the distance to which they are separated is determined by the +difference of attractive force exercised upon the armature by the +solenoid and the magnet; but as the latter forms a short circuit to +that of the arc, it follows that should the resistance of the arc +circuit increase either through the arc becoming too long or through +imperfection in the carbons or contacts, a greater percentage of +current will flow through the magnet coils, and the arc will be +shortened, thereby reducing its resistance and regulating it to the +strength of the current. In other words, the distance between the +carbons, that is to say, the length of the arc, is determined by the +position of the armature of the electro-magnet between its magnets and +the solenoid, which position is in its turn determined by the +difference between the strength of current passing through the coil of +the solenoid and that of the magnet. + +Mr. Killingworth Hedges exhibits also a third form of his lamp, in +most respects similar to the lamp figured in Fig. 1, but in which the +ends of the two carbons rest against the side of a small cylinder of +fireclay or other refractory material, which is mounted on a +horizontal axis and can be rotated thereon by a worm and worm-wheel +actuated by an endless cord passing over a grooved pulley. In the lamp +one of the carbon-holders is rigidly fixed to the framing of the +apparatus, and the other is mounted on a point so as to enable the +length of the arc playing over the clay cylinder to be regulated by +the action of an electro-magnet attracting an armature in opposition +to the tension of an adjustable spring. + +In the same exhibit will be found specimens of Mr. Hedges' two-way +switches, which have been designed to reduce the tendency to sparking +and consequent destruction which so often accompanies the action of +switches of the ordinary form. The essential characteristic of this +switch, which we illustrate in elevation in Fig. 3 and in plan in Fig. +4, lies first in the circular form of contact-piece shown in Fig. 4, +and next in the fact that the space between the two fixed +contact-pieces is filled up with a block composed of compressed +asbestos, the surface of which is flush with the upper surfaces of the +two contact-pieces. The circular contact-piece attached to the switch +lever can be turned round so as to present a fresh surface when that +which has been in use shows indications of being worn, and a good firm +contact with the fixed contact-pieces is insured by the presence of a +spiral spring shown in the upper figure, and which, owing to an error +in engraving, appears more like a screw than a spring. In order to +prevent bad connection through dust or other impurities collecting +within the joint, the electrical connection between the fulcrum of the +switch lever and the circular contact-piece is made through the bent +spring shown edgeways in Fig. 3.--_Engineering._ + + * * * * * + + + + +RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Lartigue's Switch Controller Fig. +2--Transverse Section Fig. 3--Longitudinal Section Fig. 4.--Position +of the Commutators during the Manuever Fig. 5.--Pedal for Sending +Warning to Railway Crossing--Elevation. Fig. 7.--End View. + +Fig. 8.--Electric Alarm. Fig. 12.--Guggemos's Correspondence +Apparatus--External View. Fig. 13.--Interior of the Same. Fig. +14.--Annunciator Apparatus. Fig. 15.--Controller for Water Tanks +(Lartigue System). + +RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway +Crossing--Plan View. Fig. 9.--Lartigue's Bellows Pedal--Longitundinal +Section Fig. 10.--General Plan. + +Fig. 16.--Controller for Water Tanks (Verite System). RAILWAY +APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +_Lartigue's Switch Controller._--The object of this apparatus is to +warn the switch tender in case the switch does not entirely respond to +the movement of the maneuvering lever. + +The apparatus, which is represented in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, 3, +and 4, consists of the following parts: + +(1.) A mercurial commutator, O, which is fixed on a lever, B, +connected with a piece, A, which is applied against the external +surface of the web of the main rails, opposite the extremity of the +switch plates; + +(2.) A bar, C, which traverses the web of the rail and projects on the +opposite side, and which carries a nut, D, against which the switch +plate abuts; + +(3.) An electrical alarm and a pile, located near the switch lever. +As long as one of the two plates of the switch is applied against the +rail, one of the two commutators is inclined and no current passes. A +space of one millimeter is sufficient to bring the commutator to a +horizontal position and to cause the electric alarm to ring +continuously. If the apparatus gets out of order, it is known at once; +for if the alarm does not work during the maneuver of the switch, the +tender will be warned that the electric communications are +interrupted, and that he must consequently at once make known the +position of his switch until the necessary repairs have been made. + +_Pedals for Transmitting Signals to Crossings._--On railways having a +double track and doing a large amount of business it becomes very +necessary to announce to the flagmen at railway crossings the approach +of trains, so as to give them time to stop all crossing of the tracks. +On railway lines provided with electro-semaphores there may be used +for this purpose those small apparatus that have been styled semaphore +repeaters. + +Mr. Lartigue has invented two automatic apparatus, by means of which +the train itself signals its approach. + +1. The first of these, which is generally placed at about 6,000 feet +from the point to be covered, consists (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8) of a +very light pedal fixed to the inside of the rail, and acting upon a +mercurial commutator. A spring, R, carried upon the arm, a, of a +lever, A, projects slightly above the level of the rail, while the +other arm, b, carries a commutator. + +The spring, R, on being depressed tilts the box containing the +mercury, closes the circuit, and causes an alarm, S, located at the +crossing, to immediately ring. In this alarm (Fig. 8) a piece, P, is +disconnected by the passage of the current into the electro-magnet, E, +which attracts the armature, a, and, a permanent current being set +up, the apparatus operates like an ordinary alarm, until the piece, P, +is placed by hand in its first position again. + +2. The second apparatus, exhibited by the Railway Company of the +North, and also the invention of Mr. Lartigue, bears the name of the +"Bellows Pedal." It consists (Figs. 9 and 10) of a pedal, properly so +called, P, placed along the rail, one of its extremities forming a +lever and the other being provided with a counterpoise, C. When a +train passes over the pedal, the arm, B, fixed to its axle, on falling +closes the circuit of an ordinary electrical alarm, and at the same +time the bellows, S, becomes rapidly filled with air, and, after the +passage of the train, is emptied again very slowly under the action of +the counterpoise. The contact is thus kept up for some few minutes. +This apparatus works very satisfactorily, but is cumbersome and +relatively high-priced. + +_The Brunot Controller as a Controller of the Passage of Trains._--The +Brunot Controller, which has been employed for several years on the +Railway of the North, is designed to control the regularity of the +running of trains, and to make automatically a contradictory +verification of the figures on the slips carried by the conductors. In +Fig. 11 we give a longitudinal section of the apparatus. It consists +of a wooden case containing a clockwork movement, H, upon the axle of +which is mounted a cardboard disk, C, divided into hours and minutes, +and regulated like a watch, that is to say, making one complete +revolution in twelve hours. The metallic pencil, c, which is capable +of displacing itself on the cardboard in a horizontal direction +opposite a groove on the other side of the disk, traces, when pressure +is brought to bear on it, a spiral curve. The transverse travel of +the pencil is effected in ninety-six hours. The displacement of the +pencil is brought about by means of a cam. Under the influence of the +jarring of the train in motion, a weight, P, suspended from a flexible +strip, l, strikes against the pencil, c, which traces a series of +points. During stoppages there is, of course, an interruption in the +tracing of the curve. + +[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Brunot's Controller. RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE +PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.] + +Up to this point no electricity is involved--the apparatus is simply a +controller of regularity. Mr. Brunot has conceived the idea of +utilizing his apparatus for controlling the passage of trains at +certain determined points on the line; for example, at the top of +heavy grades. For this purpose it has only been necessary to add to +the apparatus that we have just described an electro-magnet, E, +connected electrically with a fixed contact located on the line. When +the current passes, that is to say, at the moment the circuit is +closed by the passage of a train, the armature, A, is attracted, and +the pencil marks a point on the cardboard disk. This modification of +the apparatus has not as yet been practically applied. + +_Electrical Corresponding Apparatus._--The object of these apparatus +is to quickly transmit to a distance a certain number of phrases that +have been prepared in advance. The Company of the North employs two +kinds of correspondence apparatus--the Guggemos and the annunciator +apparatus. + +1. _The Guggemos Apparatus._--This apparatus serves at once as a +manipulator and receiver, and consists of an inner movement surmounted +by a dial, over the face of which moves an index hand. Around the +circumference of the dial there is arranged a series of circular +cases, C, containing the messages to be received, and similar +triangular cases, containing the messages to be forwarded, radiating +from the center of the dial. Between each of these there is a button, +b. + +Fig. 13 represents the interior of an apparatus for twenty messages. +It consists of a key-board, M, an electro-magnet, B, a clock-work +movement, Q, an escapement, s, and an interrupter, F G. + +When one of the buttons, b, is pressed, one of the levers of the +key-board arrangement touches the disk, M, which is insulated from the +other portions of the key-board, and the current then passes from the +terminal C to M, and there bifurcating, one portion of it goes to the +bobbins of the apparatus and thence to the earth, while the other goes +to actuate the correspondence apparatus. The index-hands of the two +apparatus thereupon begin their movement simultaneously, and only stop +when the pressure is removed from the button and the current is +consequently interrupted. H is a ratchet-wheel, which, like the +key-board, is insulated from the rest of the apparatus. The button, K, +located over each of the dials, serves to bring the index-needles back +to their position under the cross shown in Fig. 12. The key, X, serves +for winding up the clock-work movement. + +_The Annunciator Apparatus._--This apparatus, which performs the same +role as the one just described, is simply an ingenious modification of +the annunciator used in hotels, etc. + +It consists of a wooden case, containing as many buttons as there are +phrases to be exchanged. Over each button, b, there is a circular +aperture, behind which drops the disk containing the phrase. Between +the buttons and the apertures are rectangular plates, P, in which are +inscribed the answers given by pressing on the button of the receiving +tablet--a pressure which, at the same time, removes the corresponding +disk from the aperture. Two disks located at the upper part carry +these inscriptions: "Error, I repeat;" "Wait." The tablets on +exhibition have eight disks, and can thus be used for exchanging six +different phrases. In the interior, opposite each aperture, there is a +Hughes magnet, between the arms of which there oscillates a vertical +soft-iron rod, carrying a disk. The maneuver "is simple." By pressing +upon a button there is sent into the bobbins of the magnet +corresponding to this button a current which causes the disk to appear +before one of the apertures, while at the same time an alarm begins to +ring. The same maneuver performed by the agent at the receiving-post +has the effect of causing the disk to disappear. The two contact +springs in communication at each aperture with the alarm and the line +are connected by a strip of ebonite, M, against the center of which +presses the button. + +_Electrical Controllers for Water-Tanks._--The object of these +apparatus is to warn the person in charge of a water-tank that the +latter is full, and that he must stop the engine-pump; or, that the +tank is empty, and that he must at once proceed to fill it. The +Company of the North has on exhibition two such apparatus--one of them +Lartigue's, and the other Verite's. + +1. _The Lartigue Controller_ (Fig. 15).--This apparatus consists of a +long lever, A, which carries at one of its extremities a funnel, E, +having a very narrow orifice and which is placed under the overflow +pipe of the tank. The lever is kept normally in a horizontal position +by a counterpoise; but, as soon as the overflow runs into the funnel, +the weight of the water tilts the lever, and the mercurial commutator, +F, closes the circuit of a pile, which actuates an alarm-bell located +near the pump and engine. The two stops, a and _a'_, limit the play +of the lever. + +2. _The Verite Controller_ (Fig. 16).--This apparatus consists of a +float, F, provided with a catch, C, calculated in such a way as to act +only when the float has reached a certain definite height. At that +moment it lifts the extremity of the weighted lever, E, which in +falling back acts upon the extremity, a, of another lever, N, +pivoted at the point, O. The piece, P, which is normally in contact +with the magnet, A, being suddenly detached by this movement of the +lever, N, the induced current which is then produced causes the +display, near the pump, of a disk, Q, upon which is inscribed the word +"Full." This is a signal to stop pumping. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TELEPHONIC HALLS OF THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION. + + +Telephonic communication between the Opera and the Exhibition of +Electricity is obtained by means of twenty conducting wires, which are +divided between two halls hung with carpets to deaden external noises. +We represent in the accompanying engraving one of these halls, and the +one which is lighted by the Lane-Fox system of lamps. As may be seen, +there are affixed against the hangings, all around the room, long +mahogany boards, to which are fastened about twenty small tablets +provided with hooks, from which are suspended the telephones. The +latter are connected with the underground conductors by extensible +wires which project from the wooden wainscot of which we have just +spoken, so that it is very easy for the auditors to put the telephones +to their ears. + +[Illustration: ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL +EXHIBITION.] + +As the telephones are connected in series of eight with the same +couple of microphone transmitters, and as each of these transmitting +couples occupies a different position on the stage, it results that +the effects are not the same at different points of each hall. Those +telephones, for example, which correspond with the foot-lights of the +theater are more affected by the sounds of the large instnuments of +the orchestra than those which occupy the middle of the foot-lights; +but, as an offset to this, the latter are affected by the voice of the +prompter. In order to equalize the effects as much as possible, Mr. +Ader has arranged it so that the two transmitters of each series shall +be placed under conditions that are diametrically opposite. Thus, the +transmitter at the end of the foot-lights, on the left side, +corresponds with the transmitter of the series to the right, nearest +to the middle of the stage; and the arrangement is the same, but in an +inverse direction, for the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights +to the right. But the series which produces the best effects is, as +may be readily comprehended, that which corresponds with the +transmitters occupying the middle of the right and left rows. These +considerations easily explain the different opinions expressed by +certain auditors in relation to the predominant sounds that they have +heard, and why it is that some of them who have listened in different +parts of the same hall have not had the same impressions. Naturally, +the fault has beeen laid to the telephones; but, although these may +vary in quality, it is more particularly to the arrangement of the +transmitters on the stage that are to be attributed the differences +that are noted. + +As the Opera does not give representations every day, Mr. Ader has had +the idea of occupying the attention of the public on Tuesday, +Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday with the telephonic effects of +flourishes of trumpets, which imitate pretty well the effects of +French horns. These experiments have taken place in the hall in which +is installed the little theater, and we must really say that in the +effects produced French horns count for nothing.--_La Lumiere +Electrique._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ACTION OF COLD ON THE VOLT + + +When the voltaic arc plays between two metallic rheophores, of copper +for instance, each formed of a U-tube traversed by a rapid current of +cold water, and placed horizontally opposite each other, the following +facts are observed: The luminous power of the arc is considerably +weakened; it is reduced to a mere luminous point even when a current +of 50 to 75 Bunsen elements of the large pattern is employed. The arc +is very unstable and the least breath is sufficient to extinguish it. +If a leaf of paper is placed above the arc at the distance of 0.004 to +0.005 meter a black point is produced in a few moments, which spreads +and becomes a perforation, but the paper does not ignite. The arc +consists of a luminous globule, moving between the two rheophores up +and down and back again. The form of this globule, as well as its +extreme mobility, causes it to resemble a drop of water in a +spheroidal state. If we approach to the voltaic arc the south pole of +a magnet the arc is attracted to such a degree that it leaves the +rheophores and is extinguished. The same facts are observed in an +intense form on presenting the north pole of a magnet to the arc. The +quantity of ozone seems greater than when the arc is not refrigerated. +It is to be noted that notwithstanding the refrigeration of the +rheophores the flame of the arc is slightly green, proving that a +portion of the copper is burning. It becomes a question whether the +arc would be produced on taking as rheophores two tubes of platinum in +which is caused to circulate, e.g., alcohol cooled to -30 deg..--_D. +Tommasi._ + + * * * * * + + + + +WATCHMAN'S DETECTER. + + +We herewith illustrate an exceedingly simple form of detecter, to show +if the night watchmen perform their visits regularly and punctually. +In the case, C, is a clockwork apparatus driving the axle, S, at the +end of which is a worm which gears into the wheel of the drum, D. The +rotation of D, thus obtained unrolls a strip of paper from the other +drum, D. This paper passes over the poles of as many electro-magnets +as there are points to be visited, and underneath the armatures of +these electro-magnets. Each armature has a sharp point fixed on its +under side, and when a current passing through the coils causes the +attraction of the armature, this point perforates the paper. The +places to be visited are connected electrically with the binding +screws shown, and the watchman has merely to press a button to make +the electric circuit complete. It has been found in practice that +plain paper answers every purpose, as the clock giving an almost +uniform motion enables the reader, after having seen the perforated +slips once or twice, to determine fairly well the time which elapses +between each pressure of the button.--_The Engineer._ + +[Illustration: WATCHMAN'S DETECTER] + + * * * * * + + + + +INTEGRATING APPARATUS. + + +At a recent meeting of the London Physical Society, Mr. C. Vernon Boys +read a paper on "Integrating Apparatus." After referring to his +original "cart" machine for integrating, described at a former meeting +of the society, he showed how he had been led to construct the new +machine exhibited, in which a cylinder is caused to reciprocate +longitudinally in contact with a disk, and give the integral by its +rotation. Integrators were of three kinds: (1) radius machines; (2) +cosine machines; (3) tangent machines. Sliding friction and inertia +render the first two kinds unsuitable where there are delicate forces +or rapid variation in the function to be integrated. Tangent machines +depend on pure rolling, and the inertia and friction are +inappreciable. They are, therefore, more practical than the other +sort. It is to this class that Mr. Boys' machines belong. The author +then described a theoretical tangent integrator depending on the +mutual rolling of two smoke rings, and showed how the steering of a +bicycle or wheelbarrow could be applied to integrate directly with a +cylinder either the quotient or product of two functions. If the +tangent wheel is turned through a right angle at starting, the machine +will integrate reciprocals, or it can be made to integrate functions +by an inverse process. If instead of a cylinder some other surface of +evolution is employed as an integrating surface, then special +integrations can be effected. He showed a polar planimeter in which +the integrating surface is a sphere. A special use of these +integrators is for finding the total work done by a fluid pressure +reciprocating engine. The difference of pressure on the two sides of +the piston determines the tangent of the inclination of the tangent +wheel which runs on the integrating cylinder; while the motion of the +latter is made to keep time with that of the piston. In this case the +number of evolutions of the cylinder measures the total amount of work +done by the engine. The disk cylinder integrator may also be applied +to find the total amount of work transmitted by shafting or belting +from one part of a factory to another. An electric current meter may +be made by giving inclination to the disk, which is for this purpose +made exceedingly small and delicate, by means of a heavy magnetic +needle deflected by the current. This, like Edison's, is a direction +meter; but a meter in which no regard is paid to the direction of the +current can be made by help of an iron armature of such a shape that +the force with which it is attracted to fill the space between the +poles of an electro-magnet is inversely as its displacement. Then by +resisting this motion by a spring or pendulum the movement is +proportional to the current, and a tangent wheel actuated by this +movement causes the reciprocating cylinder on which it runs to +integrate the current strength. Mr. Boys exhibited two such electric +energy meters, that is, machines which integrate the product of the +current strength by the difference of potential between two points +with respect to time. In these the main current is made to pass +through a pair of concentric solenoids, and in the annular space +between these is hung a solenoid, the upper half of which is wound in +the opposite direction to the lower half. By the use of what Mr. Boys +calls "induction traps" of iron, the magnetic force is confined to a +small portion of the suspended solenoid, and by this means the force +is independent of the position. The solenoid is hung to one end of a +beam, and its motion is resisted by a pendulum weight, by which the +energy meters may be regulated like clocks to give standard measure. +The beam carries the tangent wheels, and the rotation of the cylinder +gives the energy expanded in foot-pounds or other measures. The use of +an equal number of turns in opposite directions on the movable +solenoid causes the instrument to be uninfluenced by external magnetic +forces. Mr. Boys showed on the screen an image of an electric arc, and +by its side was a spot of light, whose position indicated the energy, +and showed every flicker of the light and fluctuation of current in +the arc. He showed on the screen that if the poles are brought too +near the energy expended is less, though the current is stronger, and +that if the poles are too far apart, though the electromotive force is +greater the energy is less; so that the apparatus may be made to find +the distance at which the greatest energy, and so the greatest heat +and light, may be produced. + +At the conclusion of the paper, Prof. W.G. Adams and Prof. G.C. Foster +could not refrain from expressing their high admiration of the +ingenious and able manner in which Mr. Boys had developed the subject. + + * * * * * + + + + +A CANAL BOAT PROPELLED BY AIR. + + +A novelty in canal boats lies in Charles River, near the foot of +Chestnut street, which is calculated to attract considerable +attention. It is called a pneumatic canal boat and was built at +Wiscasset, Me., as devised by the owner, Mr. R.H. Tucker, of Boston, +who claims to hold patents for its design in England and the United +States. The specimen shown on Charles River, which is designed to be +used on canals without injuring the banks, is a simple structure, +measuring sixty-two feet long and twenty wide. It is three feet in +depth and draws seventeen inches of water. It is driven entirely by +air, Root's blower No. 4 being used, the latter operated by an +eight-horse-power engine. The air is forced down a central shaft to +the bottom, where it is deflected, and, being confined between keels, +passes backward and upward, escaping at the stern through an orifice +nineteen feet wide, so as to form a sort of air wedge between the boat +and the surface of the water. The force with which the air strikes the +water is what propels it. The boat has a speed of four miles an hour, +but requires a thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop its full +capabilities. The patentee claims a great advantage in doing away with +the heavy machinery of screws and side-wheels, and believes that the +contrivance gives full results, in proportion to the power employed. +It is also contrived for backing and steering by air propulsion. +Owing to the slight disturbance which it causes to the water, it is +thought to be very well adapted for work on canals without injury to +the sides.--_Boston Journal._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HEAD LININGS OF PASSENGER CARS. + + +The veneer ceilings are considered as much superior to cloth as cloth +was to the roof-ceiling. They are remarkably chaste, and so solid and +substantial that but little decoration is necessary to produce a +pleasing effect. The agreeable contrast between the natural grain of +the wood and the deeper shade of the bands and mouldings is all that +is necessary to harmonize with the other parts of the interiors of +certain classes of cars--smoking and dining cars, for example. But in +the case of parlor and dining-room cars, the decorations of these +ceilings should be in keeping with the style of the cars, by giving +such a character to the lines, curves, and colors, as will be +suggestive of cheerfulness and life. While these head linings are +deserving of the highest commendation as an important improvement upon +previous ones, they are still open to some objections. One barrier to +their general adoption is their increased cost. It is true that +superior quality implies higher prices, but when the prices exceed so +much those of cloth linings, it is difficult to induce road managers +to increase expenses by introducing the new linings, when the great +object is to reduce expenses. Another objection to wood linings is +their liability to injury from heat and moisture, a liability which +results from the way in which they are put together. A heated roof or +a leak swells the veneering, and in many cases takes it off in strips. +To obviate these objections, I have, during the past eighteen months, +been experimenting with some materials that would be less affected by +these causes, and at the same time make a handsome ceiling. About a +year ago I fitted up one car in this way, and it has proved a success. +The material used is heavy tar-board pressed into the form of the roof +and strengthened by burlaps. It is then grained and decorated in the +usual manner, and when finished has the same appearance as the +veneers, will wear as well, and can be finished at much less +cost.--_D.D. Robertson._ + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED MORTAR MIXER. + + +The engravings herewith illustrate a new form of mixing or pugging +machine for making mortar or any other similar material. It has been +designed by Mr. R.R. Gubbins, more especially for mixing emery with +agglutinating material for making emery wheels; and a machine is at +work on this material in the manufactory of the Standard Emery Wheel +Company, Greek Street, Soho. The machine is shown in perspective in +Fig. 1 with the side door of the mixing box let down as it is when the +box is being emptied; and in Fig. 2 it is shown in transverse section. +The principle of the machine is the employment of disks fixed at an +angle of about 45 deg. on shafts revolving in a mixing box, to which a +slow reciprocating movement of short range is given. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2--IMPROVED MORTAR MIXING +MACHINE.] + +In our illustrations, C is a knife-edge rail, upon which run grooved +wheels supporting the pugging box. To the axle of one grooved wheel a +connecting rod from crank arm, F is attached to effect the to-and-fro +motion of the mixing box, B. G is the door of the box, B, hinged at H, +and secured by hinged pins carrying fly nuts. A cover and hopper and +also a trap may be supplied to the box, B, for continuously feeding +and discharging the material operated upon. L, L, are the pugging +blades or discs on shafts, M. The shafts, M, pass through a slot in +the box, B, and the packing of these shafts is effected by the face +plate sliding and bearing against the face on the standard of the +machine. P is a guide piece on the standard, against which bears and +slides the piece, Q, bolted on to box, B, to support and guide the +box, B, in its movement. The forked ends of a yoke engage with the +collars, S, on the shafts, M, this yoke being set by a screw so that +the shafts may be easily removed. The machine is driven from the +pulleys and shaft, T, through gearing, T2 and T3, and by the Ewart's +chain on the wheel and pinion, V and U.--_The Engineer._ + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 311, page 4960.] + + + + +PRACTICAL NOTES ON PLUMBING.[1] + + [Footnote 1: From the London _Building News_.] + +BY P.J. DAVIES, H.M.A.S.P., ETC. + + +TINNING IRON PIPES, COPPER OR BRASS-WORK, BITS, ETC. + +Previously, I described the method of tinning the bit, etc., with +resin; but before this work on joints can be considered complete, I +find it necessary to speak of tinning the ends of iron pipes, etc., +which have within the last fifty years been much used in conjunction +with leaden pipes. This is done as follows: Take some spirits of salts +(otherwise known as hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, hydrogen +chloride, HCl), in a gallipot, and put as much sheet-zinc in it as the +spirit will dissolve; you have then obtained chloride of zinc (ZnCl). +A little care is required when making this, as the acid is decomposed +and is spread about by the discharged hydrogen, and will rust anything +made of iron or steel, such as tools, etc. It also readily absorbs +ammoniacal gas, so that, in fact, sal ammoniac may also be dissolved +in it, or sal ammoniac dissolved in water will answer the purpose of +the chloride of zinc. + +Having the killed spirits, as it is sometimes called, ready, file the +end of your iron or bit and plunge this part into the spirits, then +touch your dipped end with some fine solder, and dip it again and +again into the spirits until you have a good tinned face upon your +iron, etc.; next you require a spirit-brush. + + +SPIRIT-BRUSH. + +You can make this by cutting a few bristles out of a broom or brush, +push them into a short piece of compo tube, say 1/4 in., and hammer up +the end to hold the bristles; next cut the ends of the bristles to +about 3/8 in. long, and the brush is ready for use. + + +SOLDERING IRON TO LEAD. + +Suppose you want to make a joint round a lead and iron pipe. First +file the end of your iron pipe as far up as you would shave it if it +were lead, and be sure to file it quite bright and free from grease; +heat your soldering-iron; then, with your spirit-brush, paint the +prepared end of your iron, and with your bit, rub over the pipe plenty +of solder, until the pipe is properly tinned, not forgetting to use +plenty of spirits; this done, you can put your joint together, and +wipe in the usual manner. Caution.--Do not put too much heat on your +iron pipe, either when tinning or making the joint, or the solder will +not take or stand. + + +DUMMIES FOR PIPE-BENDING. + +[Illustration: FIGS. 38. and 38B.] + +Figs. 38 and 38B. This tool I had better describe before +proceeding to the method of bending. To make it take a piece of, say, +1/2 in. iron pipe, 3 ft. long, or the length required, bent a little at +one end, as shown at A B in Fig. 38 and Fig. 38B. Tin the end +about 2 in. up, make a hole with a small plumbing-iron in some sand, +and place the tinned end of the iron pipe, B, into this hole; fill the +hole up with good hot lead, and the dummy, after it has been rasped up +a little, is ready for use. It will be found handy to have three or +four different lengths, and bent to different angles, to suit your +work. A straight one (Fig. 38B.) made to screw into an iron +socket or length of gas-pipe, will be found very handy for getting +dents out of long lengths of soil-pipe. + + +BENDS AND SET-OFFS. + +Before you begin bending solid pressed pipes always put the thickest +part of your pipe _at the back_. Lead, in a good plumber's hands, may +be twisted into every conceivable shape; but, as in all other trades, +there is a right and a wrong way of doing everything, and there are +many different methods, each having a right and wrong way, which I +shall describe. I shall be pleased if my readers will adopt the style +most suitable for their particular kind of work; of course I shall say +which is the best for the class of work required. + +For small pipes, such as from 1/2 in. to 1 in. "_stout_ pipe," you may +pull them round without trouble or danger; but for larger sizes, say, +from 11/4 in. to 2 in., some little care is necessary, even in stout +pipes. + +Fig. 37 illustrates a badly made bend, and also shows how it comes +together at the throat, X, and back, E; L is the enlarged section of X +E, looking at the pipe endways. The cause of this contraction is +pulling the bend too quickly, and too much at a time, without dressing +in the sides at B B as follows: After you have pulled the pipe round +until it just begins to flatten, take a soft dresser, or a piece of +soft wood, and a hammer, and turn the pipe on its side as at Fig. 37; +then strike the bulged part of the pipe from X B toward E, until it +appears round like section K. Now pull your pipe round again as +before, and keep working it until finished. If you find that it +becomes smaller at the bend, take a long bolt and work the throat part +out until you have it as required. + +[Illustration: FIG. 37.] + + +BENDING WITH WATER (LIGHT PIPES). + +Fig. 39. This style of bending is much in use abroad, but not much +practiced in London, though a splendid method of work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 39.] + +It is a well known fact that, practically speaking, for such work, +water is incompressible, but may be turned and twisted about to any +shape, provided it is inclosed in a solid case--Fig. 39 is that case. +The end, A, is stopped, and the stopcock, B, soldered into the other +end. Now fill up this pipe quite full with warm water and shut the +cock, take the end, A, and pull round the pipe, at the same time +dressing the molecules of lead from the throat, C, toward D E, which +will flow if properly worked. + +You can hammer away as much as you please, but be quick about it, so +that the water does not cool down, thereby contracting; in fact, you +should open the cock now and then, and recharge it to make sure of +this. + + +SAND BENDING. + +This is a very old method of bending lead pipes, and answers every +purpose for long, easy bends. Proceed in this way: The length of the +pipe to be 5 ft., fill and well ram this pipe solid with sand 2 ft. +up, then have ready a metal-pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe one +foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold sand, ramming it as +firmly as possible, stop the end and work it round as you did the +water bend, but do not strike it too hard in one place, or you will +find it give way and require to be dummied out again, or if you cannot +get the dent out with the dummy send a ball through (see "Bending with +Balls"). + + +BENDING WITH BALLS OR BOBBINS. + +This style of work is much practiced on small pipes, such as 2 in. to +3 in., especially by London plumbers. Method: Suppose your pipe to be +2 in., then you require your ball or bobbin about 1/16 in. less than +the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull the +pipe round until it just begins to flatten, as at Fig. 37, put the +ball into the pipe, and with some short pieces of wood (say, 2 in. +long by 11/2 in. diameter) force the ball through the dented part of the +pipe, or you may use several different-sized balls, as at A B C, Fig. +40, and ram them through the pipe with a short mandrel, as at D M. You +will require to proceed very carefully about this ramming, or +otherwise you will most likely drive the bobbins through the back at L +K J. You must also watch the throat part, G H I, to keep it from +kinking or buckling-up; dress this part from the throat toward the +back, in order to get rid of the surplus in the throat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 40.] + + +THREE-BALL OR LEAD DRIVING BALL AND DOUBLE-BALL BENDING. + +Fig. 41 shows a method of bending with three balls, one of lead being +used as a driver attached to a piece of twine. This is a country +method, and very good, because the two balls are kept constantly to +the work. First, put the two balls just where you require the bend, +then pull the pipe slightly round; take the leaden ball and drop it +on the ball, B, then turn the pipe the other end up and drop it on A, +and do so until your bend is the required shape. You must be careful +not to let your leaden ball touch the back of the pipe. Some use a +piece of smaller leaden pipe run full of lead for the ball, C, and I +do not think it at all a bad method, as you can get a much greater +weight for giving the desired blow to your _boxwood_ balls. + +[Illustration: FIG. 41.] + + +BENDING WITH WINDLASS AND BRASS BALL. + +This is an excellent method of bending small pipes. Fig. 42 will +almost describe itself. A is a brass or gun metal ball having a copper +or wire rope running through it, and pulled through the flattened part +of the pipe as shown. It will be quite as well to tack the bend down +to the bench, as at B, when pulling the ball through; well dress the +lead from front to back to thicken the back. I have seen some plumbers +put an extra thickness of lead on the back before beginning to bend. +Notice: nearly all solid pressed pipes are thicker on one side than +the other (as before remarked), always place the thickest part at the +back. + +[Illustration: FIG. 42.] + + +HYDRAULIC OR CUP-LEATHER AND BALL BENDING. + +Fig 43. This is my own method of pipe-bending, and is very useful when +properly handled with plenty of force, but requires great care and +practice. You must have a union sweated on the end, A, Fig. 43, and +the ball, B, to fit the pipe. The cup-leather, E, should have a plate +fixed on the front to press the ball forward. Pull up the pipe as you +please, and pump the ball through; it will take all the dents out, and +that too very quickly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 43.] + + +BENDING BY SPLITTING OR SPLIT-MADE BENDS. + +This method of bending is much practiced in the provinces, and, for +anything I know to the contrary, is one of the best methods in use, as +by it you are likely to get a good substance of metal on the back of +the bend whether the plumber be a good or a bad workman. Proceed as +follows: Cut the pipe down the center to suit the length of your bend, +as shown at A B, Fig. 44. It will be quite as well if you first set +out this bend on the bench, then you may measure round the back, as +from C to L, to obtain the distance of the cut, which should always be +three or four inches longer than the bend. You may also in this way +obtain the correct length for the throat, G H I; here you will see +that you have a quantity of lead to spare, i.e., from A to E, all of +which has to be got rid of in uncut bends--some plumbers shift from +front to back, but how many? Not one in twenty. After you have cut the +pipe, open the throat part, bend out the sides, and pull this part +round a little at a time, then with a dummy, Fig. 38, work the +internal part of the throat outward to as nearly the shape as you can. +Go carefully to work, and do not attempt to work up the sides, A D B, +until your throat is nearly to the proper shape, after which you may +do so with a small boxwood dresser or bossing-stick (It is not +necessary to explain minutely what a bosser or dressing-stick is, as +they can be bought at almost any lead-merchants--the dresser is shown +at E, Fig. 1; the bossing-stick is somewhat similar, the only +difference being that it has a rounded face instead of flat.) Keep the +dummy up against the sides when truing it. If you have proceeded +properly with this throat part, you will not require to work up the +sides or edges, as in working the throat back the sides will come up +by themselves. Next take the back, pull it round a little at a time, +the dummy being held inside, with your dresser work the two edges and +sides slowly round, and the back will follow. Never strike the back +from the underside with the dummy. After you have made a dozen or two +you will be able to make them as fast as you please, but do not hurry +them at first, as the greater part of this work is only to be learned +by patient application, perseverance, and practice. + +[Illustration: FIG. 44.] + +After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but +before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the +edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch +his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so +that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a +gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge +attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look +like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine +solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a +well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to +A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being +especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A. +Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no +importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared, +that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will +have a "higgledy-piggledy" appearance. Some difference of opinion +exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will +make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one +will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained +in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it +is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint +with the ladle and plumbing-iron. + +[Illustration: FIG. 45.] + +It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one +joint on the back. + + +PULLING UP BENDS. + +In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them. +Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you +require the bend, lay it (_with the seam at the side_) upon a pillow, +made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust; +have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length +of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about 1/2 in. smaller than the pipe, and +a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few +burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough +to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat +is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the +end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place +a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then +pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the +throat. Now, with a _hot_ dummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round +like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made, +occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow +on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides +run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from +inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back +with a view to thickening the back. + +[Illustration: FIG. 46.] + + +SET-OFFS. + +A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and +made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always +make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found +to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make +the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff +from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different +shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double +bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent +dummy shown at Fig. 38. + +[Illustration: FIG. 47.] + + +BAD BENDS. + +These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at +Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD +to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next +strike the back part of the pipe, E, _with the same force_, and if it +dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of +these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed +together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.--Care must be +taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend. + +[Illustration: FIG. 48.] + + +BAD FALLS IN BENDS. + +The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as +much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for +pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad +bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such +bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is +not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for +soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good +fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends +requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for +opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future +paragraph on "Preparing for Fixing." + +[Illustration: FIG. 49.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 50.] + + +BENDS MADE INTO TRAPS OR RETARDERS. + +It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when +running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another +course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been +done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I, +after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing +new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with +provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it +has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in +his "Sanitary Engineering," says it was introduced and has been used +for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848. + +[Illustration: FIG. 51.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 52.] + +I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at +South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a +medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of +their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as +joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into +this Exhibition--in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the +Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article +on Fixing, in a future part. + + +BENDS MADE WITH THE "SNARLING DUMMY." + +This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy +made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of +working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents, +strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction +gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape +required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of +in working up embossed vases, etc. + +[Illustration: FIG. 53.] + +_(To be continued)_ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER. + + +The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires +the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors +at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are +adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary +one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling +mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines +constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature, +because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever. + +[Illustration: THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.] + +The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen +Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is +new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it +more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schoenherr, Crompton, +and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors, +a1, a2, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary +motion of which acts upon the box, c, by means of the lever, b, +the box being caused to descend again by the spring, d. Parallel +with the breast beam there is mounted an axle, e, and upon one of +the extremities of this is fixed the sector, a1, while the other +extremity carries two fixed disks, f1, f2, two loose disks, +f3, f4, and the sector, a2, which is connected with the +latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake, g. The pawls, +h1 and h2, are supported on a lever, i, on a level with the +disks, and are connected with the cam, l, by the spring, k. This +cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against +the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls +on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors, +a1 and a2, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the +desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls, h, are connected +by wires with the bent levers, m, of the draught machine, which +carry also the pawls, n. The upper position of the pawls, h, is +limited by the direct resting of the levers, m, on the tappet, o, +and the lower position by the resting of the pawls, n. The plates, +p, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means +of the eccentric, q, the crank, r, and the bent lever, s. The +raised plates abut against the corresponding levers, m, and thus +bring about the descent of the pawls, h, which are suspended from +these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the +pawls, n, upon the tappet, o, until the lowering of the +corresponding plate has set the pawl, n, free. The lever, m, then +gives way to the action of the spring, t, and the pawl, h, rises +again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is +effected by the motion of the bent lever, s. + + * * * * * + + + + +INDUSTRIAL ART FOR WOMEN--CARPET DESIGNING. + + +A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the +possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women. + +Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical +Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the +proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could +be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex +to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative +industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first +woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country. +She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no +school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial +purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught +theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two, +however, in many branches of industrial design women have been +pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated +from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now +working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print +factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers +for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a +china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted +for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light, +pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far +exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe, +particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars' +worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made +in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent. +One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing +department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign +markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing +than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair +knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving. +Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible, +for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent +instruction in this branch of industrial art is given. + +There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may +be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price +of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for +an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels +or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as +good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For +moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists +are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to +$100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the +manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be +purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist +to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the +work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75 +extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for +making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three +per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and +Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the +elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the +designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time +from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries +run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from +$2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from +$1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per +week. + +Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial +art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls +might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French +said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and +disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial +art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of +decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the +time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical +designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art +might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department, +explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public +schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and +high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American +people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing +they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The +beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that +she had ever witnessed in the old countries. + + * * * * * + + + + +PHOTOGRAPHY UPON CANVAS. + + +One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of +Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If +you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will +produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The +success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not +produce colored work--or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part +to do so--but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic +portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the +dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering +with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself +maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true +lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs. +Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear +to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path, +and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be +purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an +enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about +"painted photographs," and in these days of cheap club portraits there +is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a +well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is +willing to concede that the picture has merit. + +"We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it," said +one of our hosts; "it seems to contain so much fatty matter." The +German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for +photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and +rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several +pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and +there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large +horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that +all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of +water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its +running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process, +and this is the first operation. + +Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put +the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in +any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It +is of _papier mache_, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly, +only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is +adopted: + +Bromide of potassium................... 3 parts. +Iodide of potassium.................... 1 part. +Bromide of cadmium..................... 1 " +Water................................ 240 parts. + +Four assistants are required in the operation, and the same number +when it comes to sensitizing and developing, all of which processes +are commenced in the same way. The bath is tilted so that the liquid +collects at one end, and near this end two assistants hold across the +bath a stout glass rod; then the canvas is dipped into the liquid, and +drawn out by two other assistants over the glass rod. In this way the +canvas is thoroughly saturated, and, at the same time, drained of +superfluous liquid. + +The canvas is hung up to dry; but as sometime must elapse before this +particular piece will be ready for sensitizing, we proceed with +another canvas which is fit and proper for that process. The room, we +should have mentioned, is provided with windows of yellow glass; but +as there is plenty of light nevertheless, the fact hardly strikes one +on entering. The sensitizing, with a solution of nitrate of silver, is +conducted with a glass rod in the same way as before, the solution +being thus compounded: + +Nitrate of silver........................ 4 parts. +Citric acid.............................. 1 part. +Water.................................. 140 parts. + +Again the canvas is dried, and then comes its exposure. + +This is done in a room adjoining. We lift a curtain and enter a space +that reminds one of the underground regions of a theater. There are +curtained partitions and wooden structures on every hand; dark murky +corners combined with brilliant illumination. Messrs. Winter use the +electric light for enlarging, a lamp of Siemens' driven by a six-horse +power engine. The lamp is outside the enlarging room, and three large +lenses, or condensers, on three sides of the light, permit the making +of three enlargements at one end at the same time. (See Fig.) + +[Illustration] + +The condenser collects the rays, and these shine into a camera +arrangement in which the small negative is contained. The enlarged +image is then projected, magic lantern fashion, upon the screen, to +which is fastened the sensitized canvas. The screen in question is +upon a tramway--there are three tramways and three screens in all, as +shown in our sketch--and for this reason it is easy to advance and +retire the canvas, for the purpose of properly focusing it. + +Even with the electric light now employed, it is necessary to expose a +considerable time to secure a vigorous impression. From ten minutes to +half an hour is the usual period, determined by the assistant, whose +experienced eye is the only guide. We should estimate the distance of +the cameras from the enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen or +fifteen feet in the instance we saw, and when the canvas was taken +down, a distinct outline of the image was visible on its surface. + +By the way, we ought to mention that the canvas is in a decidedly limp +state during these operations. It has just sufficient stiffness to +keep smooth on the screen, and that is all; the treatment it has +received appears to have imparted no increase of substance to it. +Again it is brought into the red-brick washing apartment, and again +treated in one of the white enameled baths as before. This time it is +the developer that is contained in the bath, and the small limp +tablecloth--for that is what it looks like--after being drawn over the +glass rod, is put back into the bath, and the developing solution +rocked to and fro over it. The whiteness of the bath lining assists +one in forming a judgment of the image as it now gradually develops +and grows stronger. Here is the formula of the developer: + +Pyrogallic acid......................... 10 parts. +Citric acid............................. 45 " +Water...................................410 " + +The developer--which, it will be noted, is very acid--is warmed before +it is used, say to a temperature of 30 deg. to 40 deg. C.; nevertheless, the +development does not proceed very quickly. As we watched, exactly +eight minutes elapsed before Mr. Winter cried out sharply, "That will +do." Immediately one of the assistants seizes the wet canvas, crumples +it up without more ado, as if it were dirty linen, and takes it off to +a wooden washing trough, where it is kneaded and washed in true +washerwoman fashion. Water in plenty is sluiced over it, and after +more vigorous manipulation still, it is passed from trough to trough +until deemed sufficiently free from soluble salts to tone. The +toning--done in the ordinary way with gold--removes any unpleasant +redness the picture possesses, and then follows the fixing operation +in hyposulphite. As canvas is more permeable than paper, these two +last processes are quickly got through. + +The final washing of the canvas is very thorough. Again it is treated +with all the vigor with which a good laundry-maid attacks dirty linen, +the canvas, in the end, being consigned to a regular washing-machine, +in which it is systematically worked for some time. + +When the canvas picture at last is finished, it presents a very rough +appearance, by reason of the tiny fibers that stand erect all over the +surface. To lay these, and also to improve the surface generally, the +canvas is waxed, the fabric is stretched, and a semi-fluid mass rubbed +into it, heat being used in the process, which not only gives +brilliancy, but seems also to impart transparency to the shadows of +the picture. The result is a pleasant finish, without vulgar glare or +glaze, the high lights remaining beautifully pure and white. + +Of course, the price of these canvas enlargements varies with the +amount of artistic work subsequently put upon them; but the usual +charge made by Messrs. Winter for a well-finished life-size portrait, +three quarter length, is sixty florins, or about L5 sterling as the +exchange now stands. Besides working for photographers, Messrs. Winter +are reproducing a large number of classic paintings and cartoons by +photography on canvas in this way (some of them almost absolutely +untouched), and these, as may be supposed, are finding a very large +sale among dealers. Such copies must necessarily be of considerable +value to artists and collectors, and altogether it would seem that +Messrs. Winter have hit upon a novel undertaking, which bids fair to +make them a handsome return for the outlay (large as it undoubtedly +has been) made upon their Vienna establishment.--_Photo. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +DETECTION OF STARCH SUGAR SIRUP MIXED WITH SUGAR-HOUSE +MOLASSES.[1] + + [Footnote 1: A Paper read before the American Chemical Society, + September 2, 1881.] + +BY P. CASAMAJOR. + + +In previous communications I have given processes for detecting the +adulteration of cane-sugar by starch-sugar. The adulteration of +sugar-house sirups by starch glucose is still more extensively +practiced than that of sugar, and a great portion of sirups sold by +retailers in this market is adulterated with starch glucose. This form +of adulteration may be very easily detected by the use of strong +methylic alcohol, in which the alcoholometer of Tralles or of Gay +Lussac will indicate about 931/2 deg.. + +A straight sugar-house sirup when mixed with three times its volume of +this strong methylic alcohol will dissolve by stirring, giving a very +slight turbidity, which remains suspended; while sirups containing the +usual admixture of starch sugar give a very turbid liquid, which +separates, when left at rest, into two layers, the lower being a thick +viscous deposit containing the glucose sirup. + +Considerable quantities are sold of a thin sirup, of about 32 deg. Baume, +in which the proportion of sugar to the impurities is greater than in +common sugar-house molasses. When a sirup of this kind is stirred with +three times its volume of methylic alcohol, a marked turbidity and +deposition will take place, which consists of pure sugar. The crystals +are hard and gritty. They adhere to the sides of the glass, and are +deposited on the bottom. There is no resemblance between this +precipitate and that due to starch sugar sirup. + +It may not be useless to mention that if a straight sugar-house sirup +of about 40 deg. B. density is stirred with three times its volume of +_ethylic_ alcohol of about 931/2 deg. the sirup will not dissolve. Hence +ethylic alcohol of this strength is not suitable for distinguishing a +sirup mixed with starch glucose from a _straight_ sugar-house sirup. + +The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may be easily +detected by the optical saccharometer when the sirup has the usual +density of about 40 deg. B., and when starch sugar has been added in the +usual quantities. + +For making the test the usual weight should be taken (16.35 grammes +for Duboscq's saccharometer, and 26.048 grammes for Ventzke's +instrument). The direct test should show a percentage of sugar not +higher than the number of Baume degrees indicating the density, and it +may be from 2 to 3 per cent. lower. To understand this, we must refer +to the composition of cane-sugar molasses of 40 deg. B.: + +Sugar.......................................37.5 +Insoluble impurities........................37.5 +Water.......................................25 + +If the direct test should indicate 55 per cent. of sugar, and if the +molasses were straight, the composition would be-- + +Sugar...........................................55 +Soluble impurities..............................20 +Water...........................................25 + +Now, a product of this composition would not be a clear sirup at 40 deg. +B., but a mixture of sirup and crystals. Therefore, if the product is +a clear sirup at 40 deg. B., and it tests 55 per cent., it cannot be +_straight_. + +The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may also be +detected by the copper test. The possibility of applying this test, as +well as those already indicated, rests on the fact that starch glucose +is always added in very large quantities for the purposes of +adulteration. A very small addition could not be satisfactorily +detected. + +The detection by the copper test rests on the observation that very +nearly one-half of the soluble impurities in sugar-house molasses +consists of glucose in the shape of inverted sugar. We have seen above +that for a molasses of 40 deg. B. the soluble impurities amount to about +371/2 per cent. We may, then, lay down the rule: that the percentage of +glucose shown by the copper test cannot, in a straight sugar-house +molasses, be much greater than one-half of the number expressing the +density in Baume degrees. The reason is obvious from what has been +said of the test by the optical saccharometer. + + * * * * * + + +FALSE VERMILION.--A curious case has been noticed in Germany, +where a small cargo of vermilion was purchased, and, upon being +analyzed, turned out to be red oxide of lead colored by eosine. This +is an entirely novel sophistication. The eosine was separated from the +oxide of lead by digesting the product for twenty-four hours in very +strong alcohol. A much shorter time is sufficient to color the spirit +enough to enable an expert chemist to detect the presence of this +splendid organic coloring matter. Another kind of "vermilion" consists +entirely of peroxide of iron, prepared especially to imitate the +brilliant and costly sulphide of mercury, which it does very well, and +is largely used in England, France, and America. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE POSITION OF MANGANESE IN MODERN INDUSTRY. + +BY M.V. DESHAYES. + + +No body among the metals and the metalloids (silicium, titanium, +tungsten, chromium, phosphorus, etc.) has occupied a more prominent +position in modern metallurgy than _manganese_, and it is chiefly due +to its great affinity for oxygen. When this substance was discovered, +more than a century ago (1774), by the celebrated Swedish chemist and +mineralogist, Gahn, by treating the black oxide of manganese in the +crucible, no one would have thought that the new element, so delicate +by itself, without any direct industrial use, would become, in the +middle of the nineteenth century, one of the most powerful and +necessary instruments for the success of the Bessemer process, as well +for its deoxidizing properties as for the qualities which it imparts +to steel, increasing its resistance, its durability, and its +elasticity, as has been shown elsewhere. + +Without entering into a complete history (for it is beyond the task +which we have here assumed),[1] it will not be without interest to +recall how, when manganese was first obtained in a pure state, that it +was supposed that it would remain simply an object of curiosity in the +laboratory; but when its presence was proved in spiegeleisen and when +it came to be considered an essential ingredient in the best German +and English works for cutlery steel (where it is thrown into the +crucible as the peroxide), then we find that its qualities become +better and better appreciated; and it is surprising that no +technologist ever devoted his attention to the production of manganese +alloys. + + [Footnote 1: See _Engineering_, May 27, 1881] + +It was not till after the investigations of Dr. Percy, Tamm, Prieger, +and Bessemer, who employed crucibles for the production of these +alloys, that Hendersen received the idea of utilizing it in the +Siemens furnace. So important a compound could not remain unemployed. +The works at Terre Noire produced, by the Martin furnace, for a number +of years, ferro-manganese of 70 to 80 per cent. Shortly afterward, +when competition in the market was established, the works at Carniola +and at Carinthia, some English factories, and more especially the +works at Saint-Louis, near Marseilles, of Terre Noire, of Montlucon, +etc., successfully adopted the manufacture of _ferro-manganese with +the blast furnace_, which is without doubt the method best adapted for +the reduction of metallic oxides, as well in consideration of the +reactions as from an economical point of view. Before very long it was +possible to produce, by the blast furnace, alloys of 40, 60, 80, and +even 86 per cent., in using the hot air apparatus of Siemens, Cowper, +and Witwell, with the employment of good coke, and principally by +calculating the charges for the fusion in such a manner as to obtain +an extra basic and refractory slag. + +Following in the same path, the Phoenix Co., of Ruhrort, sent, in +1880, to the Metallurgical Exposition of Dusseldorf, samples of +ferro-manganese obtained in a blast furnace, with an extra basic slag +in which the silica was almost entirely replaced by alumina. The works +of L'Esperance, at Oberhausen, exhibited similar products, quite pure +as to sulphur and phosphorus, and they had a double interest at the +exhibition, in consideration of the agitation over the Thomas and +Gilchrist process (see the discussions which were raised at the +meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute). This process unfortunately +requires for its prompt success the use of a very large quantity of +spiegel or of ferro-manganese, in order to sufficiently carburize and +deoxidize the burnt iron, which is the final product of the blowing. + +The production of ferro-manganese by the blast furnace depends upon +the following conditions. + + 1. A high temperature. + + 2. On a proper mixture of the iron ores and the manganese. + + 3. On the production of slag rich in bases. + +These different conditions may be obtained with but slight variations +at the different works, but the condition of a high temperature is one +of the most important considerations, not only for the alloys of +manganese, but equally as well for the alloys of iron, manganese, +silicium, those of chromium, of tungsten, etc. It is also necessary to +study the effects produced either in the crucible or in the blast +furnace, and to examine the ores which for a long while have been +regarded as not reducible. + +The works of Terre Noire especially made at the same time, in the +blast furnace, ferro-silicon with manganese, alloys which are daily +becoming more important for the manufacture of steels tempered soft +and half soft without blowing. + +These alloys, rich in silicon, present the peculiarity of being poor +in carbon, the amount of this latter element varying with the +proportions of manganese. In addition to the alloys used in the iron +and steel industry, we shall proceed to relate the recent progress +obtained in the metallurgy of other materials (especially copper) by +the use of _cupro-manganese_: + ++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------ +| | Mn. | C. | Si. | S. | P. | +| |per cent.| | | | | ++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+ +| A | 18 to 20| 2 to 3| 10 to 12| Traces | |Extra Quality for soft metals. +| B | 15 to 18| 3.00 | 10 to 8 | scarcely|About |} Medium Quality +| C | 15 to 10| 3.25 | 8 to 6 | percep- |0.100.|} +| D | 5 to 10| 3.50 | 4 to 6 | tible. | |Ordinary for hard metals. ++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------ + +The first alloys of manganese and copper were made in 1848, by Von +Gersdorff; soon after Prof. Schroetter of Vienna made compounds +containing 18 or 20 per cent. of manganese by reducing in a crucible +the oxides of copper and manganese mixed with wood charcoal and +exposing to a high heat. + +These alloys were quite ductile, very hard, very tenacious, and +capable of receiving a beautiful polish; their color varies from white +to rose color, according to the respective proportions of the two +bodies; they are particularly interesting on account of the results +which were obtained by adding them to certain metallic fusions. + +It is well known that in the fining of copper by oxidation there is +left in the fined metal the suboxide of copper, which must then be +removed by the refining process, using carbon to reduce the copper to +its metallic state. M. Manhes, taking advantage of the greater +affinity of manganese for oxygen, found that if this last element was +introduced into the bath of copper during the operation of refining, +the copper suboxide would be reduced and the copper obtained in its +metallic condition. For this purpose during these last years real +cupro-manganese has been prepared, occupying the same position to +copper as the spiegel or the ferro-manganese does toward the +manufacture of steel. M. Manhes used these same alloys for the fusion +of bronze and brass, and recommended the following proportions: + + 3 to 4 kilog. of cupro-manganese for 100 kilog. of bronze. + 0.250 to 1 do. do. do. brass. + 0.150 to 1.2 do. do. do. copper. + +In every case the alloy is introduced at the moment of pouring, as is +the case in the Bessemer or Martin process, taking care to cover the +fusion with charcoal in order to prevent the contact with air, +together with the use of some kind of a flux to aid in the +scorification of the manganese. + +According to M. Manhes a slight proportion of manganese added to +bronze appears to increase its resistance and its ductility, as is +shown in the following table, provided, however, that these different +alloys have been subjected to the same operations from a physical +point of view; that is, pouring, rolling, etc. + +--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+ + | | | | Weight | | + | Cu. | Sn. | Mn. | of | Elongation | + | | | | fracture | | +--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+ +Ordinary Bronze | 90 | 10 | | 20 kil. | 4.00 | +Bronze with Manganese, A, | 90 | 10 | 0.5 | 24 " | 15.00 | + Do. do. B, | 90 | 10 | 1.0 | 26 " | 20.00 | +--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+ + +The White Brass Co., of London, exhibited at Paris, in 1878, manganese +bronzes of four grades of durability, destined for different uses and +corresponding to about 20 to 25 kilos of the limit of elasticity, and +36 to 37 kilos of resistance to fracture; the number 0 is equivalent +after rolling to a resistance to fracture of 46.5 kilos, and 20 to 25 +per cent. of elongation. + +Such results show beyond contradiction the great interest there is in +economically producing alloys of copper, manganese, tin, zinc, etc. In +addition, they may be added to metallic fusions, for deoxidizing and +also to communicate to the commercial alloys (such as bronze, brass, +etc.) the greatest degree of resistance and tenacity. + +While many investigators have tried to form alloys of copper and +manganese by combining them in the metallic state (that is to say, by +the simultaneous reduction of their oxides), the Hensler Bros., of +Dillenburg, have found it best to first prepare the _metallic +manganese_ and then to alloy it in proper proportions with other +metals. Their method consisted of reducing the pure pyrolusite in +large plumbago crucibles, in the presence of carbon and an extra basic +flux; the operation was carried on in a strong coke fire, and at the +end of about six hours the _crude manganese_ is poured out, having the +following composition: + + Manganese 90 to 92 + Carbon 6 to 6.5 + Iron 0.5 to 1.5 + Silicon 0.5 to 1.2 + +By refining, the manganese can be brought up to 94 to 95 per cent. of +purity. It is from this casting of pure manganese that is obtained the +substance used as a base for the alloys. This metal is white, +crystalline, when exposed to the damp air slowly oxidizes, and readily +combines with copper to form the _cupro-manganese_ of the variety +having the composition-- + + Copper 70 + Manganese 30 + +Cast in ingots or in pigs it becomes an article of commerce which may +be introduced in previously determined proportions into bronze, gun +metal, bell metal, brass, etc. It may also be used, as we have already +mentioned, for the refining of copper according to Manhes's process. + +Tests made from this standpoint at the works of Mansfield have shown +that the addition of 0.45 per cent. of cupro-manganese is sufficient +to give tenacity to the copper, which, thus treated, will not contain +more than 0.005 to 0.022 of oxygen, the excess passing off with the +manganese into the scorias. + +On the other hand, the addition of cupro-manganese is recommended, +when it is desirable to cast thin pieces of the metal, such as tubes, +caldrons, kitchen utensils, which formerly could only be obtained by +beating and stamping. + +The tenacity obtained for tubes of only three centimeters in diameter +and 1.75 millimeters in thickness is such that they are able to +withstand a pressure of 1,100 pounds to the square inch. + +The _manganese bronze_, which we have previously referred to, and +which is used by the White Brass Company of London, is an alloy of +copper, with from one to ten per cent. of manganese; the highest +qualities of resistance, ductility, tenacity, and durability are +obtained with one to four per cent. of manganese, while with twelve +per cent. the metal becomes too weak for industrial uses. + + +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+ + | Manganese | | | Weight of | | + | bronze. | Copper.| Manganese.| fracture in | Elongation.| + | | | | kilos per | | + | | | | square mm. | | + +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+ + | A | 96.00 | 4.00 | 19.00 | 14.60 | + | B | 95.00 | 5.00 | 20.62 | 10.00 | + | C | 94.00 | 6.00 | 20.80 | 14.60 | + | D | 90.00 | 10.00 | 16.56 | 5.00 | + +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+ + +The preceding table gives some of the experimental results obtained +with the testing machine at Friedrich-Wilhelmshuette on the crude cast +ingots; the resistance is increased, as with copper, by rolling or +hammering. + +The _manganese German silver_ consists of + + Copper................ 70.00 + Manganese............. 15.00 + Zinc.................. 15.00 + +But as this alloy often breaks in rolling, the preference is given to +the following proportions: + + Copper................ 80.00 + Manganese............. 15.00 + Zinc.................. 5.00 + +This results in a white, ductile metal, which is easily worked and +susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish, like the alloys of +nickel, which it may in time completely replace. + +The _bronzes of manganese, tin, and zinc_ were perhaps the first upon +which important investigations were made; they were obtained by adding +to an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin (ordinary bronze) a definite +quantity of the cupro-manganese of the type indicated above (Cu 70, Mn +30). By this means the resistance is increased fully nine per cent., +probably in the same way as the copper, that is, by the deoxidizing +effect of the manganese, as both the copper and the tin are always +more or less oxidized in ordinary bronzes. + +Manganese combines with tin just the same as it does with copper, and +the proportion which is recommended as giving the highest resistances +is three to six per cent. of cupro-manganese. + +However, notwithstanding the use of cupro-manganese, the tin, as in +ordinary bronzes, has a tendency to liquate in those portions of the +mould which are the hottest, and which become solid the last, +especially in the case of moulds having a great width. + +From a series of experiments made at Isabelle Huette, it has been found +that the metal which has the greatest resisting qualities was obtained +from + + Copper......................85.00 + Manganese................... 6.00 + Zinc........................ 5.00 + +5 per cent. of cupro-manganese = manganese 1.00 remaining in the +metal. + +The best method of procedure is first to melt the copper in a +crucible, and then to add the tin and the zinc; finally the +cupro-manganese is added just at the moment of pouring, as in the +Manhes process; then the reaction on the oxides is very effective, +there is a boiling with scintillation similar to the action produced +in the Bessemer and Martin process when ferro-manganese is added to +the bath of steel. + +The following are some of the results obtained from thirteen alloys +obtained in this manner. These samples were taken direct from the +casting and were tested with the machine at Friedrich-Wilhelms-huette, +and with the one at the shops of the Rhine Railroad. Their resistance +was considerably increased, as with the other alloys, by rolling or +hammering. + +-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+ + | | | | | | | Weight | | + | | | | | |Limit of | of | Elong-| + |Nature| | | | |elasticity|fracture| ation,| + | of | | | | Cupro- |in kilos |in kilos| per- | +Numbers|mould.|Copper| Tin.| Zinc. |manganese|per mm. | per mm.|centage| +-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+ + 1 | Sand | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | | 11.30 | 16.00 | -- | + 2 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 4.00 | 13.00 | 16.10 | 2.00 | + 3 | Cast.| 87.00| 8.70| 4.30 | 4.00 | -- | 19.40 | -- | + 4 | -- | 85.00| 6.90| 5.00 | 6.00 | -- | 18.80 | 6.00 | + 5 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 6.00 | -- | 19.75 | 7.00 | + 6 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 10.00 | -- | 17.15 | 4.00 | + 7 | Sand | 87.00| 5.20| 4.33 | 3.47 | -- | 19.70 | 8.70 | + 8 | -- | 87.00| 5.20| 4.33 | 3.47 | -- | 19.70 | 8.90 | + 9 | -- | 85.00| 6.00| 5.00 | 3.00 | 16.80 | 22.00 | -- | + 10 | -- | 74.00|10.00| 5.00 | 3.30 | 13.80 | 18.70 | -- | + | | | |(7.66 Pb)| | | | | + 11 | -- | 78.70| 8.00| ( 8 Pb) | 3.30 | 13.80 | 20.70 | -- | + 12 | -- | 82.00| 9.80| 4.90 | 3.30 | 14.75 | 19.75 | -- | + 13 | -- | 86.20|16.50| -- | 3.30 | 14.30 | 24.70 | -- | +-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+ + +The results of the tests of ductility which are here given, with +reference to the _cupro-manganese_, _manganese bronze_, the _alloys_ +with _zinc_ and _tin_, are taken from M.C. Hensler's very valuable +communication to the Berlin Society for the Advancement of the +Industrial Arts. + +These various alloys, as well as the _phosphorus bronze_, of which we +make no mention here, are at present very largely used in the +manufacture of technical machines, as well as for supports, valves, +stuffing-boxes, screws, bolts, etc., which require the properties of +resistance and durability. They vastly surpass in these qualities the +brass and like compounds which have been used hitherto for these +purposes.--_Bull. Soc. Chim., Paris_, xxxvi. p. 184. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ECONOMICAL WASHING OF COAL GAS AND SMOKE. + + +In a recent number of the _Journal des Usines a Gaz_ appears a note by +M. Chevalet, on the chemical and physical purification of gas, which +was one of the papers submitted to the Societe Technique de +l'Industrie du Gaz en France at the last ordinary meeting. This +communication is noticeable, apart from the author's conclusions, for +the fact that the processes described were not designed originally for +use in gas manufacture, but were first used to purify, or rather to +remove the ammonia which is to be found in all factory chimneys, and +especially in certain manufactories of bone-black, and in spirit +distilleries. It is because of the success which attended M. +Chevalet's treatment of factory smoke that he turned his attention to +coal gas. The communication in which M. Chevalet's method is described +deals first with chimney gases, in order to show the difficulties of +the first class of work done by the author's process. Like coal gas, +chimney gases contain in suspension solid particles, such as soot and +ashes. Before washing these gases in a bath of sulphuric acid, in +order to retain the ammonia, there were two problems to be solved. It +was first of all necessary to cool the gases down to a point which +should not exceed the boiling-point of the acid employed in washing; +and then to remove the solid particles which would otherwise foul the +acid. In carrying out this mechanical purification it was impossible, +for two reasons, to make use of apparatus of the kind used in gas +works; the first obstacle was the presence of solid particles carried +forward by the gaseous currents, and the other difficulty was the +volume of gas to be dealt with. In the example to which the author's +attention was directed he had to purify 600 cubic meters of chimney +gas per minute, or 36,000 cubic meters per hour, while the gas +escaped from the flues at a temperature of from 400 deg. to 500 deg. C. (752 deg. +to 932 deg. Fahr.), and a large quantity of cinders had frequently to be +removed from the main chimney flues. After many trials a simple +appliance was constructed which successfully cooled the gases and +freed them from ashes. This consisted of a vertical screen, with bars +three mm. apart, set in water. This screen divided the gases into thin +sheets before traversing the water, and by thus washing and +evaporating the water the gases were cooled, and threw down the soot +and ashes, and these impurities fell to the bottom of the water bath. +The gases after this process are divested of the greater part of any +tarry impurities which they may have possessed, and are ready for the +final purification, in which ammonia is extracted. This is effected by +means of a series of shallow trays, covered with water or weak acid, +and pierced with a number of fine holes, through which the gas is made +to bubble. The washing apparatus is therefore strangely similar in +principle to that designed by Mr G. Livesey. M. Chevalet states that +this double process is applicable to gas works as well as to the +purification of smoke, with the difference that for the latter purpose +the washing trays are filled with acid for the retention of ammonia, +while in the former application gas liquor or water is used. The +arrangement is said to be a practical success.--_Journal of Gas +Lighting._ + + * * * * * + + +DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN IN HAIR, WOOL, DRIED BLOOD, FLESH MEAL, +AND LEATHER SCRAPS. + +BY DR. C. KRAUCH. + + +Differences obtained in the estimation of nitrogen in the above +substances are frequently the source of much annoyance. The cause of +these discrepancies is chiefly due to the lack of uniformity in the +material, and from its not being in a sufficiently fine state during +the combustion. The hair which is found in commerce for the +manufacture of fertilizers, is generally mixed with sand and dust. +Wool dust often contains old buttons, pieces of wood, shoe pegs, and +all sorts of things. The flesh fertilizers are composed of light +particles of flesh mixed with the heavier bone dust. + +Even after taking all possible precautions to finely comminute these +substances by mechanical means, still only imperfect results are +obtained, for the impurities, that is to say, the sand, can never be +so intimately mixed with the lighter particles that a sample of 0.5 to +0.8 gramme, such as is used in the determination of nitrogen, will +correspond to the correct average contents. In substances such as +dried blood, pulverization is very tedious. A very good method of +overcoming these difficulties, and of obtaining from the most mixed +substances a perfectly homogeneous mass, is that recommended by +Grandeau[1] of decomposing with sulphuric acid--a method which as yet +does not seem to be generally known. From a large quantity of the +substance to be examined, the coarse stones, etc., are removed by +picking or sifting, and the prepared substance, or in cases where the +impurities cannot be separated, the original substance, is treated +with sulphuric acid; after it is decomposed, the acid is neutralized +with calcium carbonate, and the nitrogen is determined in this mass. + + [Footnote 1: _Handbook d. Agrict. Chem. Analyst._, p. 18.] + +In order to operate rapidly, it is best to use as little sulphuric +acid as possible. If too much sulphuric acid is used, necessarily a +large amount of calcium carbonate is essential to get it into proper +condition for pulverizing. Under such circumstances the percentage of +nitrogen becomes very low, and a slight error will become +correspondingly high. + +20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 10 c.c. are sufficient for +30 to 40 grammes of material. After the substance and liquid have been +thoroughly stirred in a porcelain dish, they are warmed on a water +bath and continually stirred until the mass forms a homogeneous +liquid. The sirupy liquid thus obtained is then mixed with 80 to 100 +grammes of pulverized calcium carbonate (calcspar), dried for fifteen +minutes at 40 to 60 deg. C., and after standing for one to two hours the +dish and its contents are weighed. From the total weight the weight of +the dish is subtracted, which gives the weight of the calcium sulphate +and the calcium carbonate, and the known weight of the wool dust, etc. +This material is then intimately ground, and 2 to 3 grammes of it are +taken for the determination of the nitrogen, which is then calculated +for the original substance. + +Although the given quantities of water and sulphuric acid hardly +appear sufficient for such a large quantity of hair or wool, still in +the course of a few minutes to a quarter of an hour, after continual +stirring, there is obtained a liquid which, after the addition of the +calcium carbonate, is readily converted into a pulverized mass. +Frequently a smaller quantity of sulphuric acid will suffice, +especially if the material is moist. The chief merit of this process +is that in a short time a large quantity of material, having a uniform +character, is obtained. Its use is, therefore, recommended for general +employment. + +When the coarser stones, etc., are weighed, and the purified portion +decomposed, absolutely correct results are obtained, and in this way +the awkward discrepancies from different analysts may be +avoided.--_Chemiker Zeitung_, v. 7, p. 703. + + * * * * * + + + + +TESTING WHITE BEESWAX FOR CERESINE AND PARAFFINS. + +BY A. PELTZ. + + +The method which is here recommended originated with Dr. M. Buchner, +and consists in preparing a concentrated solution of alcoholic caustic +potash--one part caustic potash to three of 90 per cent. alcohol--and +then boiling one to two grammes of the suspected wax in a small flask +with the above solution. The liquid is poured into a glass cylinder to +prevent solidification of the contents, and it is then placed for +about one half hour in boiling water. With pure wax the solution +remains clear white; when ceresine and paraffine are present, they +will float on the surface of the alkali solution as an oily layer, and +on cooling they will appear lighter in color than the saponified mass, +and thus they may be quantitatively estimated. The author likewise +gives a superficial method for the determination of the purity of +beeswax. It depends on the formation of wax crystals when the fused +wax solidifies. These crystals form on the surface on cooling, and are +still visible after solidification when examining the surface from the +side. The test succeeds best when the liquid wax is poured into a +shallow tin mould After cooling another peculiar property of the wax +becomes apparent. While the beeswax fills a smaller volume, that is, +separates from the sides of the mould, the Japanese wax, without +separating from the sides, becomes covered with cracks on cooling +which have a depth corresponding to the thickness of the wax.--_Neuste +Erfindungen und Erfahrungen_, viii., p. 430. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PREVENTION OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION BY FUNGI. + +BY PROF. E. REICHARD. + + +The manager of a well directed brewery, which was built according to +the latest improvements and provided with ice-cooling arrangements, +found that the alcoholic fermentation of lager beer did not advance +with proper regularity. The beer did not clarify well, it remained +turbid and had a tendency to assume a disagreeable odor and taste. +Microscopic examination of the yeast, however, showed the same to be +bottom yeast. After some time its action apparently diminished, or +rather, the fermentation, which began well, ceased, and at the same +time a white foam formed in the center of the vat. The manager +observing this, again submitted it to microscopic examination. The +instrument revealed a number of much smaller forms of fungi, similar +to those of young yeast, and some which were excessively large, a +variety never found in bottom yeast. Fully appreciating the +microscopic examination, and aware of the danger which the spread of +the fungi could cause, the manager resorted to all known means to +retard its pernicious influence. Fresh yeast was employed, and the +fermenting vats throughly cleaned, both inside and out, but the +phenomena reappeared, showing that the transmission took place through +the air. A microscopic examination of a gelatinous coating on the wall +of the fermenting room further explained the matter. Beginning at the +door of the ice cellar, the walls were covered with a gelatinous mass, +which, even when placed beneath the microscope, showed no definite +organic structure; however it contained numerous threads of fungi. +Notwithstanding the precautions which were taken for cleanliness, +these germs traveled from the ceiling through the air into the +fermenting liquid and there produced a change, which would ultimately +have caused the destruction of all the beer. + +For a third time and by altogether different means, it was +demonstrated that the air was the bearer of these germs. The whole +atmosphere was infected, and a simple change of air was by no manner +of means sufficient, as has already been shown. In addition, these +observations throw considerable light on the means by which contagious +diseases are spread, for often a room, a house, or the entire +neighborhood appears to be infected. It must also be remembered how, +in times of plague, large fires were resorted as to a method of +purifying the air. + +With the infinite distribution of germs, and as they are always +present in all places where any organic portions of vegetable or +animal matter are undergoing decomposition, it becomes, under certain +circumstances, exceedingly difficult, and at times even impossible, to +trace the direct effect of these minute germs. The organism is exposed +to the destructive action of the most minute creation; several changes +in this case give to them the direct effect of the acting germs. The +investigation of the chemist does not extend beyond the chemical +changes; nevertheless these phenomena are directly explained by the +microscope, without which, in the present case, the discovery of the +cause would have remained unknown.--_Arch. der Pharm._, 214, 158. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW REACTION OF GLYCERINE. + + +If two drops of phenic acid are diluted with three thousand to five +thousand parts of water, a distinct blue color is produced by one drop +of solution of perchloride of iron. + +The addition of six or eight drops of glycerine entirely removes the +color, and if any glycerine was present in the liquid the reaction +does not take place at all. By this test the presence of 1 per cent. +of glycerine can be detected. It may be applied to the analysis of +wines, beers, etc., but when there is much sugar, extractive or +coloring matter, the test can only be applied after evaporating, +dissolving the residue in alcohol and ether, evaporating again, and +then redissolving in water. Alkaline solutions must be first +acidulated.--_Pharm. Zeit. fuer Russ._ + + * * * * * + + + + +LYCOPODINE. + + +While the phanerogams or flowering plants annually contribute to the +list of newly discovered alkaloids, with the exception of muscarine +and amanitine, no alkaloid has as yet been definitely recognized among +the cryptogams. + +Karl Boedeker, of Goettingen, has opened the road in this direction, and +gives in a paper sent to Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 15, +1881, the following account of an alkaloid, which, from the name of +the plant in which it occurs, he calls lycopodine. + +The plant yielding the alkaloid, _Lycopodium complanatum_, belongs to +the group of angiospermous cryptogams. It is distributed throughout +the whole of north and middle Europe, and contains the largest +proportion of aluminum of any known plant. Its bitter taste led the +author to suspect an alkaloid in it. + +To prepare the alkaloid the dried plant is chopped up and twice +exhausted with boiling alcohol of 90 per cent. The residue is squeezed +out while hot, and the extract, after being allowed to settle awhile, +is decanted off, and evaporated to a viscid consistency over a water +bath. This is then repeatedly kneaded up with fresh quantities of +lukewarm water until the washings cease to taste bitter, and to give a +reddish brown coloration when treated with a strong aqueous solution +of iodine. The several washings are collected and precipitated with +basic lead acetate, the precipitate filtered off, and the lead in the +filtrate removed by sulphureted hydrogen. The filtrate from the lead +sulphide is evaporated down over a water bath, then made strongly +alkaline with a solution of caustic soda, and repeatedly shaken up +with fresh quantities of ether so long as the washings taste bitter +and give a precipitate with iodine water. After distilling off the +ether, the residue is treated with strong hydrochloric acid, the +neutral or slightly acid solution filtered off from resinous +particles, slowly evaporated to crystallization, and the crystals +purified by repeated recrystallization. To prepare the pure base a +very concentrated solution of this pure hydrochlorate is treated with +an excess of a very concentrated solution of caustic soda, and pieces +of caustic potash are added, whereupon the free alkaloid separates out +at first as a colorless resinous stringy mass, which, however, upon +standing, turns crystalline, forming monoclinic crystals similar to +tartaric acid or glycocol. The crystals are rapidly washed with water, +and dried between soft blotting paper. + +Thus prepared, lycopodine has a composition which may be represented +by the formula C_{32}H_{52}N_{2}O_{3}. It melts at 114 deg. to 115 deg. C. +without loss of weight. It is tolerable soluble in water and in ether, +and very soluble indeed in alcohol, chloroform, benzol, or amyl +alcohol. Lycopodine has a very pure bitter taste. + +The author has formed several salts of the base, all of a crystalline +nature, and containing water of crystallization. + +The hydrochlorate gives up a part of its water of crystallization at +the ordinary temperature under a desiccator over sulphuric acid, and +the whole of it upon heating.--_Chemist and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CONCHINAMINE. + + +Some years ago, O. Hesse, when preparing chinamine from the renewed +bark of _Cinchona succirubra_, found in the mother liquid a new +alkaloid, which he then briefly designated as conchinamine. He has +lately given his attention to the separation and preparation of this +alkaloid, and gives in Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 31, 1881, +the following description of it: + +_Preparation._--The alcoholic mother lye from chinamine is evaporated +down and protractedly exhausted with boiling ligroine, whereby +conchinamine and a small quantity of certain amorphous bases are +dissolved out. Upon cooling the greater part of the amorphous bases +precipitates out. The ligroine solution is then first treated with +dilute acetic acid, and then with a dilute solution of caustic soda, +whereupon a large quantity of a resinous precipitate is formed. This +is kneaded up with lukewarm water to remove adherent soda, and then +dissolved in hot alcohol. The alcoholic solution is saturated with +nitric acid, which has been previously diluted with half its volume of +water, and the whole set aside for a few days to crystallize. The +crystals of conchinamine nitrate are purified by recrystallization +from boiling water. On dissolving these pure crystals of the nitrate +in hot alcohol of 60 per cent., and adding ammonia, absolute pure +conchinamine separates out on cooling. + +_Composition._--Conchinamine may be represented by the formula +C_{19}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, without water of crystallization. + +_Properties._--Conchinamine is easily soluble in hot alcohol of 60 per +cent., and in ether and ligroine, from which solutions it crystallizes +in quadrilateral shining prisms. It is extremely soluble in +chloroform, but almost insoluble in water. It melts at 121 deg. C., +forming crystalline stars on cooling. + +_Salts._--The salts of conchinamine, like the base itself, have much +in common with chinamine, but are, as a rule, more easily +crystallizable. They are prepared by neutralizing an alcoholic +solution of the base with the acid in question.--_Chemist and +Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +CHINOLINE. + + +The valuable properties of which chinoline has been found to be +possessed have led to its admission as a therapeutic agent, and the +discoverer of these properties, Jul. Donath, of Baja, in Hungary, in a +paper sent to the _Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft_, +September 12, 1881, gives the following further details as to this +interesting substance. + +_Antiseptic Properties._--Chinoline appears to be an excellent +antiseptic. The author found that 100 grammes of a Bucholze's solution +for the propagation of bacteria, charged with 0.20 g. of chinoline +hydrochlorate, had remained perfectly clear and free from bacteria +after standing forty-six days exposed to the air, while a similar +solution, placed under the same conditions, without chinoline, had +turned muddy and contained bacteria after only twelve days' standing. + +_Antizymotic Properties._--Chinoline, even in the proportion of 5 per +cent., does not prevent alcoholic fermentation, while in as small a +quantity as 0.20 per cent. it does not prevent lactic acid +fermentation. + +_Physiological Effects._--The author gave a healthy man during several +days various doses of chinoline tartrate, which in no way affected the +individual operated on, nor was any trace of chinoline found in his +urine. The author, therefore, considers that the base is oxidized by +the blood to carbopyridinic acid, which is a still more powerful +antiseptic than chinoline itself. Chinoline taken internally would, +therefore, be a useful and safe agent in cases of internal putrid +fungoid or other growth. + +_Chemical Reactions._--Chinoline yields very characteristic reactions +with a number of chemical reagents, for a description of which we +refer to the original paper.--_Chemist and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PREPARATION OF CONIINE. + + +Dr. J. Schorm, of Vienna, the author of this paper, after remarking +that in spite of the increase of the consumption of coniine, the +methods hitherto in vogue for preparing it yielded an article which +darkened on exposure to the air, and the salts of which crystallized +but badly, gives the following method for preparing pure coniine and +its salts: + + +_PREPARATION OF CRUDE CONIINE._ + +A.--100 kilogrammes of hemlock seed are moistened with hot water, and +after swelling up are treated with 4 kilogrammes of sodium carbonate +previously dissolved in the requisite quantity of water (caustic +alkalies cannot be used). The swollen seed is worked up uniformly with +shovels, and then placed in an apparatus of 400 kilogrammes capacity, +similar to that used in the distillation of ethereal oils, and charged +with steam under a pressure of three atmospheres. Coniine distills +over with the steam, the greater part separating out in the receiver +as an oily stratum, while a part remains dissolved in the water. The +riper the seeds, the greater is the percentage yield of oily coniine, +and the sooner is the distillation ended. The distillate is +neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the whole evaporated to a weak +sirupy consistence. When cool, this sirup yields successive crops of +sal-ammoniac crystals, which latter are removed by shaking up the mass +with twice its volume of strong alcohol, and filtering. This filtrate +is freed from alcohol by evaporation over a water bath, the +approximate quantity of a solution of caustic soda then added, and the +whole shaken up with ether. The ethereal solution is then cooled down +to a low temperature, whereby it is separated from conhydrine, which, +being somewhat difficultly soluble in ether, crystallizes out. + +B.--The bruised hemlock seed is treated in a vacuum extractor with +water acidulated with acetic acid, and the extract evaporated in vacuo +to a sirupy consistence. The sirup is treated with magnesia, and the +coniine dissolved out by shaking up with ether. + +The B method yields a less percentage of coniine than A, but of a +better quality. + + +_RECTIFICATION OF THE CRUDE CONIINE._ + +The solution of crude coniine in ether obtained by either of the above +processes is evaporated over a water bath to remove the ether, mixed +with dry potassium carbonate, and then submitted to fractional +distillation from an air bath. The portion distilling over at 168 deg. C. +to 169 deg. C. is pure coniine, and represents 60 per cent. of the crude +coniine. + +Coniine thus prepared is a colorless oily liquid, volatile at the +ordinary temperature, and has a specific gravity of 0.886. At a +temperature of 25 deg.C it absorbs water, which it gives up again upon +heating. It is soluble in 90 parts of water. It is not altered by +light. + +The author has formed a number of salts from coniine thus prepared, +and finds them all crystallizable and unaffected by light.--_Berichte +der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft._--_Chem. and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +STRONTIANITE. + + +Since it has been shown by Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, that +strontium is the most powerful medium of extraction in sugar refining, +owing to its capacity of combining with three parts of saccharate, the +idea suggests itself that the same medium might be successfully +employed in the arts, and form a most interesting subject of +experiment for the chemist. + +Hitherto native strontianite, that is, the 90 to 95 per cent. pure +carbonate of strontium (not the celestine which frequently is mistaken +by the term strontianite), has not been worked systematically in +mines, but what used to be brought to the market was an inferior stone +collected in various parts of Germany, chiefly in Westphalia, where it +is found on the surface of the fields. Little also has been collected +in this manner, and necessarily the quality was subject to the +greatest fluctuations. + +By Dr. Scheibler's important discovery, a new era has begun in the +matter of strontianite. Deposits of considerable importance have been +opened in the Westphalian districts at a very great depth, and the +supply of several 10,000 tons per annum seems to be secured, whereas +only a short time ago it was not thought possible that more than a few +hundred tons could in all be provided.--_Chemist and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +PARANGI--A NEWLY DESCRIBED DISEASE. + + +A peculiar contagious disease, called framboesia, or the yaws, has +long been known to exist in Africa, the West Indies, and the northern +parts of the British Islands. It is chronic in character, and is +distinguished by the development of raspberry-like tumors of +granulation tissue on different parts of the body. + +A disease of a somewhat similar, but severer type, has for many years +prevailed in Ceylon. Even less was known of this affection than of its +supposed congener, until a recent careful report upon the subject by +Mr. W.R. Kinsey, principal civil medical officer of Ceylon. + +The disease in question is called "parangi," and is defined by Mr. +Kinsey (_British Medical Journal_) as a specific disease, produced by +such causes as lead to debilitation of the system; propagated by +contagion, generally through an abrasion or sore, but sometimes by +simple contact with a sound surface; marked by an ill-defined period +of incubation, followed by certain premonitory symptoms referable to +the general system, then by the evolution of successive crops of a +characteristic eruption, which pass on in weakly subjects into +unhealthy and spreading ulcers whose cicatrices are very prone to +contraction; running a definite course; attacking all ages, and +amenable to appropriate treatment. + +The disease seems to develop especially in places where the water +supply, which in Ceylon is kept in tanks, is insufficient or poor. The +bad food, dirty habits, and generally unhygienic mode of life of the +people, help on the action of the disease. + +Parangi, when once developed, spreads generally by contagion from the +discharges of the eruptions and ulcers. The natural secretions do not +convey the poison. The disease may be inherited also. + +In the clinical history of the disease there are, according to Mr. +Kinsey, four stages. The first is that of incubation. It lasts from +two weeks to two months. A sore will be found somewhere upon the body +at this time, generally over some bony prominence. The second is the +stage of invasion, and is characterized by the development of slight +fever, malaise, dull pains in the joints. As this stage comes on the +initial sore heals. This second stage lasts only from two to seven +days, and ends with an eruption which ushers in the third stage. The +eruption appears in successive crops, the first often showing itself +on the face, the next on the body, and the last on the extremities. +This eruptive stage of the disease continues for several weeks or +months, and it ends either in convalescence or the onset of a train of +sequelae, which may prolong the disease for years. + +Parangi may attack any one, though the poorly fed and housed are more +susceptible. One attack seems to confer immunity from another. + +Although some of the sequelae of the disease are most painful, yet +death does not often directly result from them, nor is parangi itself +a fatal disease. Persons who have had parangi and passed safely +through it, are not left in impaired health at all, but often live to +an old age. + +The similarity of the disease, in its clinical history, to syphilis, +is striking. Mr. Kinsey, however, considers it, as we have stated, +allied to, if not identical with framboesia.--_Medical Record._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A CASTOR OIL SUBSTITUTE. + + +So far back as 1849, Mr. Alexander Ure investigated the purgative +properties of the oil of anda. The specimen with which the experiments +were tried had not been freshly prepared, and had indeed been long +regarded as a curiosity. Twelve ounces were alone available, and it +was a yellowish oil, quite bright, about the consistence of oleum +olivae, devoid of smell, and free from the viscid qualities of castor +oil. There was a small supply of anda fruits differing a good deal in +appearance one from the other, but we are not aware whether these were +utilized and the oil expressed; as far as our recollection serves, the +subject was abandoned. It was known that the natives of Brazil used +the seeds as an efficient purgative in doses of from one to three, and +it was in contemplation to introduce this remedy into England, though +it was by no means certain that under distinctly different climatic +influences equally beneficial results might be expected. Mr. Ure +determined, by actual experiment, to ascertain the value of the oil in +his own hospital practice. He found that small doses were better than +larger ones, and in several reported cases it appeared that twenty +drops administered on sugar proved successful. Oil of anda-acu, or +assu, therefore, would stand mid-way between ol. ricini and ol. +crotonis. These researches seem to have been limited to the original +sample, although the results obtained would appear to justify a more +extended trial. M. Mello-Oliveira. of Rio Janeiro, has endeavored to +bring the remedy into notice under the name of "Huile d'Anda-Assu," +and possibly may not have been acquainted with the attempt to +introduce it into English practice. He describes the anda as a fine +tree (_Johanesia princeps_, Euphorbiaceae), with numerous branches and +persistent leaves, growing in different parts of Brazil, and known +under the name of "coco purgatif." The fruit is quadrangular, +bilocular, with two kernels, which on analysis yield an active +principle for which the name "Johaneseine" is proposed. This is a +substance sparingly soluble in water and alcohol, and insoluble in +chloroform, benzine, ether, and bisulphide of carbon. Evidence derived +from experiments with the sulphate of this principle did not give +uniform results: one opinion being that, contrary to the view of many +Brazilian physicians, this salt had no toxic effect on either men or +animals. Local medical testimony, however, was entirely in favor of +the oil. Dr. Torres, professor at Rio Janeiro, using a dose of two +teaspoonfuls, had been successful. Dr. Tazenda had obtained excellent +results, and Dr. Castro, with a somewhat larger dose (3 ijss.), was +even enthusiastic in its praise. It might, therefore, be desirable at +a time when new remedies are so much in vogue, not to abandon +altogether a Brazilian medicament the value of which is confirmed both +by popular native use and by professional treatment. M. Mello-Oliveira +comes to the conclusion that oleum anda assu (or acu) may be employed +wherever castor oil is indicated, and with these distinct advantages: +first, that its dose is considerably less; secondly, that it is free +from disagreeable odor and pungent taste; and thirdly, being +sufficiently fluid, it is not adherent to the mouth so as to render it +nauseous to the patient. In this short abstract the spelling of the +French original has been retained. As this therapeutic agent claimed +attention thirty years ago, and has again been deemed worthy of notice +in scientific journals, some of our enterprising pharmacists might be +inclined to add it to the list of their commercial ventures.--_Chemist +and Druggist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +HOUSEHOLD AND OTHER RECIPES. + + +Mr. Jas. W. Parkinson gives in a recent number of the _Confectioner's +Journal_ the following useful recipes: + + +CHRISTMAS PLUM PUDDING. + +Stone a pound of bloom raisins; wash and clean a pound of Zante +currants; mince finely a pound of beef suet; mix with this, in a large +pan, a pound of stale bread crumbs and half a pound of sifted flour. +Beat together in another pan six eggs, and mix with them half a pint +of milk. Pour this over the suet and flour, and stir and beat the +whole well together; then add the raisins, currants, and a seasoning +of ground cinnamon, grated nutmeg, powdered ginger, and a little +ground cloves, a teaspoonful of salt, one pound of sugar, and a glass +of Jamaica rum. This pudding may now be boiled in a floured cloth or +in an ornamental mould tied up in a cloth. In either way it requires +long and constant boiling, six hours at least for one such as the +above. Every pudding in a cloth should be boiled briskly, till +finished, in plenty of water, in a large pot, so as to allow it to +move about freely. + +To take the boiled pudding out of the cloth without breaking it, dip +it into cold water for a minute or two, then place it in a round +bottomed basin that will just hold it, untie the cloth and lay bare +the pudding down to the edge of the basin; then place upon it, upside +down, the dish on which it is to be served, and invert the whole so +that the pudding may rest on the dish; lastly, lift off the basin and +remove the cloth. The use of the cold water is to chill and solidify +the surface, so that it may part from the cloth smoothly. + +Plum pudding may also be baked in a mould or pan, which must be well +buttered inside before pouring the pudding into it. Two hours' boiling +suffices. + + +PLUM-PUDDING SAUCE. + +Put into a saucepan two ounces of best butter and a tablespoonful of +flour; mix these well together with a wooden spoon, and stir in half a +pint of cold water and a little salt and pepper. Set this on the fire +and stir constantly till nearly boiling; then add half a tumbler of +Madeira wine, brandy, or Jamaica rum, fine sugar to the taste, and a +little ground cinnamon or grated nutmeg. Make the sauce very hot, and +serve over each portion of the pudding. + + +NATIONAL PLUM PUDDING. + +An excellent plum pudding is made as follows: Half a pound of flour, +half a pound of grated bread crumbs, a pound of Zante currants, washed +and picked; a pound of raisins, stoned; an ounce of mixed spices, such +as cinnamon, mace, cloves, and nutmeg; an ounce of butter, two ounces +of blanched almonds, cut small; six ounces of preserved citron and +preserved orange peel, cut into small pieces; four eggs, a little +salt, four ounces of fine sugar, and half a pint of brandy. Mix all +these well together, adding sufficient milk to bring the mixture to a +proper consistency. Boil in a floured cloth or mould for eight hours. + + +THE SAUCE FOR THE ABOVE. + +Into a gill of melted butter put an ounce of powdered sugar, a little +grated nutmeg, two wine glasses of Madeira wine and one of Curacoa. +Stir all well together, make very hot, and pour it over the pudding. + + +EGG-NOG, OR AULD MAN'S MILK. + +Separate the whites and yolks of a dozen fresh eggs. Put the yolks +into a basin and beat them to a smooth cream with half a pound of +finely pulverized sugar. Into this stir half a pint of brandy, and the +same quantity of Jamaica rum; mix all well together and add three +quarts of milk or cream, half a nutmeg (grated), and stir together. +Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth; stir lightly into them +two or three ounces of the finest sugar powder, add this to the +mixture, and dust powdered cinnamon over the top. + + +EGG FLIP. + +Beat up in a bowl half a dozen fresh eggs; add half a pound of +pulverized sugar; stir well together, and pour in one quart or more of +boiling water, about half a pint at a time, mixing well as you pour it +in; when all is in, add two tumblers of best brandy and one of Jamaica +rum. + + +ROAST TURKEY. + +The turkey is without doubt the most savory and finest flavored of all +our domestic fowls, and is justly held in the highest estimation by +the good livers in all countries where it is known. Singe, draw, and +truss the turkey in the same manner as other fowls; then fill with a +stuffing made of bread crumbs, butter, sweet herbs rubbed fine, +moistened with eggs and seasoned with pepper, salt, and grated nutmeg. +Sausage meat or a forced meat, made of boiled chicken meat, boiled ham +grated fine, chopped oysters, roasted or boiled chestnuts rubbed fine, +stewed mushrooms, or last but not the least in estimation, a dozen +fine truffles cut into pieces and sauted in the best of butter, and +added part to the stuffing and part to the sauce which is made from +the drippings (made into a good brown gravy by the addition of a +capful of cold water thickened with a little flour, with the giblets +boiled and chopped fine in it). A turkey of ten pounds will require +two and a half hours' roasting and frequent basting. Currant jelly, +cranberry jelly, or cranberry sauce should always be on the table with +roast turkey. + + +WOODCOCKS AND SNIPE. + +Some epicures say that the woodcock should never be drawn, but that +they should be fastened to a small bird spit, and should be put to +roast before a clear fire; a slice of toast, put in a pan below each +bird, in order to catch the trail; baste them with melted butter; lay +the toast on a hot dish, and the birds on the toast. They require from +fifteen to twenty minutes to roast. Snipe are dressed in the same +manner, but require less time to cook. My pet plan to cook woodcock is +to draw the bird and split it down the back, and then to broil it, +basting it with butter; chop up the intestines, season them with +pepper and salt, and saute them on a frying pan with butter; lay the +birds on toast upon a hot dish and pour the saute over them. + + +CANVAS-BACK DUCKS. + +Select young fat ducks; pick them nicely, singe, and draw them +carefully without washing them so as to preserve the blood and +consequently the full flavor of the bird; then truss it and place it +on the spit before a brisk fire, or in a pan in a hot oven for at +least fifteen or twenty minutes; then serve it hot with its own gravy, +which is formed by its own blood and juices, on a hot dish. It may +also be a little less cooked, and then carved and placed on a chafing +dish with red currant jelly, port wine, and a little butter. + + + +PHEASANTS. + +A pheasant should have a clear, steady fire, but not a fierce one. The +pheasant, being a rather dry bird, requires to be larded, or put a +piece of beef or a rump steak into the inside of it before roasting. + + + +WILD DUCKS. + +In order to serve these birds in their most succulent state and finest +flavor, let them hang in their feathers for a few days after being +shot; then pluck, clean, and draw, and roast them in a quick oven or +before a brisk fire; dredge and baste them well, and allow them twenty +minutes to roast; serve them with gravy sauce and red currant jelly, +or with a gravy sauce to which a chopped shallot and the juice of an +orange has been added. + + +WILD FOWL SAUCE. + +The following exquisite sauce is applicable to all wild fowl: Take one +saltspoon of salt, half to two-thirds salt spoon of Cayenne, one +dessert spoon lemon juice, one dessert spoon powdered sugar, two +dessert spoons Harvey sauce, three dessert spoons port wine, well +mixed and heated; score the bird and pour the sauce over it. + + +BROWN FRICASSEE OF RABBITS. + +Cut a couple of rabbits into joints, fry these in a little fresh +butter till they are of a light brown color; then put them into a +stewpan, with a pint of water, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, the +same of mushroom catchup, one of Worcester sauce, and a couple of +burnt onions, a little Cayenne and salt; stew over a slow fire till +perfectly done; then take out the meat, strain the gravy, and thicken +it with a little flour if necessary; make it quite hot, and pour it +over the rabbits. + + +ORANGE PUDDING. + +Beat up the yolks of eight eggs, grate the yellow rinds from two +oranges, add these to a quarter of a pound of finely powdered sugar, +the same weight of fresh butter, three teaspoonfuls of orange-flower +water, two glasses of sherry wine, two or three stale Naples biscuits +or lady fingers, and a teacupful of cream. Line a dish with puff +paste, pour in the ingredients, and bake for half an hour in a good +oven. + + +VENISON PASTRY. + +A neck or breast of venison is rendered very savory by treating it as +follows: Take off the skin and cut the meat off the bones into pieces +of about an inch square; put these, with the bones, into a stewpan, +cover them with veal or mutton broth, add two thirds of a teaspoon of +powdered mace, half a dozen allspice, three shallots chopped fine, a +teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of Cayenne, and a tumbler of port +wine; stew over a slow fire until the meat is half done, then take it +out and let the gravy remain on the fire ten or fifteen minutes +longer. Line a good sized dish with pastry, arrange your meat on it, +pour the gravy upon it through a sieve, adding the juice of a lemon; +put on the top crust, and bake for a couple of hours in a slow oven. + + +CHRISTMAS RED ROUND. + +Rub well into a round of beef a half pound of saltpeter, finely +powdered. Next day mix half an ounce of cloves, half an ounce of black +pepper, the same quantity of ground allspice, with half a pound of +salt; wash and rub the beef in the brine for a fortnight, adding every +other day a tablespoonful of salt. At the expiration of the fortnight, +wipe the beef quite free from the brine, and stuff every interstice +that you can find with equal portions of chopped parsley, and mixed +sweet herbs in powder, seasoned with ground allspice, mace, salt, and +Cayenne. Do not be sparing of this mixture. Put the round into a deep +earthen pan, fill it with strong ale, and bake it in a very slow oven +for eight hours, turning it in the liquor every two hours, and adding +more ale if necessary. This is an excellent preparation to assist in +the "keeping of the Christmas season." + + +PLUM PORRIDGE FOR CHRISTMAS FESTIVITIES. + +Make a good strong broth from four pounds of veal and an equal +quantity of shin of beef. Strain and skim off the fat when cold. Wash +and stone three pounds and a half of raisins; wash and well dry the +same weight of best Zante currants; take out the stones from two and a +half pounds of French prunes; grate up the crumbs of two small loaves +of wheat bread; squeeze the juice of eight oranges and four lemons; +put these, with a teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon, a grated nutmeg, +half a dozen cloves, and five pounds of sugar into your broth; stir +well together, and then pour in three quarts of sherry. Set the vessel +containing the mixture on a slow fire. When the ingredients are soft +add six bottles of hock; stir the porridge well, and as soon as it +boils it is fit for use. + + +SUGARED PEARS. + +Half a dozen of those fine pears called the "Bartlett" will make a +small dish worthy the attention of any good Christian who has a sweet +tooth in his head. Pare the fruit, cut out the cores, squeeze lemon +juice over them, which will prevent their discoloration. Boil them +gently in enough sirup to cover them till they become tender. Serve +them cold, with Naples biscuit round the dish. + + +TABLE BEER. + +Table beer of a superior quality may be brewed in the following +manner, a process well worth the attention of the gentleman, the +mechanic, and the farmer, whereby the beer is altogether prevented +from working out of the cask, and the fermentation conducted without +any apparent admission of the external air. I have made the scale for +one barrel, in order to make it more generally useful to the community +at large; however the same proportions will answer for a greater or +less quantity, only proportioning the materials and utensils. Take one +peck of good malt, ground, one pound of hops, put them in twenty +gallons of water, and boil them for half an hour; then run them into a +hair-cloth bag or sieve, so as to keep back the hops and malt from the +wort, which when cooled down to sixty-five degrees by Fahrenheit's +thermometer, add to it two gallons of molasses, with one pint, or a +little less, of good yeast. Mix these with your wort, and put the +whole into a clean barrel, and fill it up with cold water to within +six inches of the bung hole (this space is requisite to leave room for +fermentation), bung down tight. If brewed for family use, would +recommend putting in the cock at the same time, as it will prevent the +necessity of disturbing the cask afterward. In one fortnight this beer +may be drawn and will be found to improve to the last. + + +MINCE MEAT. + +This inevitable Christmas luxury is vastly improved by being mixed +some days before it is required for use; this gives the various +ingredients time to amalgamate and blend. + +Peel, core, and chop fine a pound of pippin apples, wash and clean a +pound of Zante currants, stone one pound of bloom raisins, cut into +small pieces a pound of citron, remove the skin and gristle from a +pound and a half of cold roast or boiled beef, and carefully pick a +pound of beef suet; chop these well together. Cut into small bits +three-quarters of a pound of mixed candied orange and lemon peel; mix +all these ingredients well together in a large earthen pan. Grate one +nutmeg, half an ounce of powdered ginger, quarter of an ounce of +ground cloves, quarter of an ounce of ground allspice and coriander +seed mixed, and half an ounce of salt. Grate the yellow rind of three +lemons, and squeeze the juice over two pounds of fine sugar. Put the +grated yellow rind and all the other ingredients in a pan; mix well +together, and over all pour one pint of brandy, one pint of sherry, +and one pint of hard cider; stir well together, cover the pan closely, +and when about to use the mince meat, take it from the bottom of the +pan. + + +PUMPKIN PIE. + + "What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye? + What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin pie?" + +Stew about two pounds of pumpkins, then add to it three-quarters of a +pound of sugar, and the same quantity of butter, well worked together; +stir these into the pumpkin and add a teaspoonful of powdered mace and +grated nutmeg, and a little ground cinnamon; then add a gill of +brandy, beat them well together, and stir in the yolks of eight +well-beaten eggs. Line the pie plates with puff paste, fill them with +the pumpkin mixture, grate a little nutmeg over the top, and bake. + + +BRANDY PUNCH. + +Take three dozen lemons, chip off the yellow rinds, taking care that +none of the white underlying pith is taken, as that would make the +punch bitter, whereas the yellow portion of the rinds is that in which +the flavor resides and in which the cells are placed containing the +essential oil. Put this yellow rind into a punch bowl, add to it two +pounds of lump sugar; stir the sugar and peel together with a wooden +spoon or spatula for nearly half an hour, thereby extracting a greater +quantity of the essential oil. Now add boiling water, and stir until +the sugar is completely dissolved. Squeeze and strain the juice from +the lemons and add it to the mixture; stir together and taste it; add +more acid or more sugar, as required, and take care not to render it +too watery. "Rich of the fruit and plenty of sweetness," is the maxim. +Now measure the sherbet, and to every three quarts add a pint of +cognac brandy and a pint of old Jamaica rum, the spirit being well +stirred as poured in. This punch may be bottled and kept in a cool +cellar; it will be found to improve with age. + + +BOEUF A LA MODE (FAMILY STYLE). + +The rump is the most applicable for this savory dish. Take six or +eight pounds of it, and cut it into bits of a quarter of a pound each; +chop a couple of onions very fine; grate one or two carrots; put these +into a large stewpan with a quarter of a pound of fresh butter, or +fresh and well clarified beef drippings; while this is warming, cover +the pieces of beef with flour; put them into the pan and stir them for +ten minutes, adding a little more flour by slow degrees, and taking +great care that the meat does not burn. Pour in, a little at a time, a +gallon of boiling water; then add a couple of drachms of ground +allspice, one of black pepper, a couple of bay leaves, a pinch each of +ground cloves and mace. Let all this stew on a slow fire, and very +gently, for three hours and a quarter; ascertain with a fork if the +meat be tender; if so, you may serve it in a tureen or deep dish. A +well-dressed salad is the proper accompaniment of boeuf a la mode. + + +PUNCH JELLY. + +Make a bowl of punch according to the directions for brandy punch, +only a _little_ stronger. To every pint of punch add an ounce of +gelatine dissolved in half a pint of water; pour this into the punch +while quite hot, and then fill your moulds, taking care not to disturb +it until the jelly is completely set. This preparation is a very +agreeable refreshment, but should be used in moderation. The strength +of the punch is so artfully concealed by its admixture with the +gelatine that many persons, particularly of the softer sex, have been +tempted to partake so plentifully of it as to render them somewhat +unfit for waltzing or quadrilling after supper. + + +ORANGE SALAD. + +This somewhat inappropriately-named dish is made by removing the rind +and cutting the fruit in slices crosswise and adding equal quantities +of brandy and Madeira, in proportion to the quantity of fruit thus +dressed, strewing a liberal allowance of finely-powdered sugar over +all. + + +CRANBERRY JELLY. + +Put two quarts of cranberries into a large earthen pipkin, and cover +them with water; place them on a moderate fire, and boil them until +they are reduced to a soft pulp; then strain and press them through a +hair sieve into an earthen or stone ware pan, and for each pint of +liquid pulp allow one pound of pulverized sugar; mix the pulp and +sugar together in a bright copper basin and boil, stirring constantly +for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture begins to coagulate +upon the spatula; then remove it from the fire and fill your moulds; +let them stand in a cool place to set. When wanted for use, turn it +out of the mould in the same manner as other jellies. + + +JOVE'S NECTAR. + +For three gallons, peel the yellow rind from one and a half dozen +fresh lemons, very thin, and steep the peelings for forty-eight hours +in a gallon of brandy; then add the juice of the lemons, with five +quarts of water, three pounds of loaf sugar, and two nutmegs grated; +stir it till the sugar is completely dissolved, then pour in three +quarts of new milk, _boiling hot_, and let it stand two hours, after +which run it through a jelly bag till it is fine. This is fit for +immediate use, but may be kept for years in bottles, and will be +improved by age. + + +PLUM, OR BLACK CAKE. + +For this Christmas luxury take one pound of butter and one pound of +pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream, stir in one dozen +eggs beaten to a froth, beat well together, and add one pound of +sifted flour; continue the beating for ten minutes, then add and stir +in three pounds of stoned raisins, three pounds of Zante currants, +washed, cleaned, and dried, a pound and a half of citron sliced and +cut into small pieces, three grated nutmegs, quarter of an ounce of +powdered mace, half an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and half a +teaspoonful of ground cloves; mix all well together; bake in a +well-buttered pan in a slow oven for four hours and a half. + + +BLACK CAKE (PARKINSON'S OWN). + + "If you have lips, prepare to smack them now." + --_Shakspeare, slightly altered._ + +Take one and a half pounds of the best butter, and the same weight of +pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream; stir into this two +dozen eggs, beaten to a froth; add one gill of old Jamaica rum; then +add one and a half pounds of sifted flour. Stir and beat all well +together, and add two pounds of finest bloom raisins, stoned; two +pounds of Zante currants, washed, cleaned, and dried; one pound of +preserved citron, sliced thinly and cut into small pieces; one pound +of preserved French cherries, in halves; one pound of green gages, and +one pound of preserved apricots, stoned and cut into small pieces; +half a pound of preserved orange and lemon peel, mixed, and cut into +small pieces; three grated nutmegs, half an ounce of ground mace, half +an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and a quarter ounce of ground cloves. +Mix all the ingredients well together, and bake in a well-buttered +mould or pan, in a _slow oven_, for five and a half hours. + +This cake is vastly improved by age. Those intended for the Christmas +festivities should be made at or about the first of October; then put +the cake into a round tin box, half an inch larger in diameter than +the cake; then pour over it a bottle of the best brandy mixed with +half a pint of pure lemon, raspberry, strawberry, or simple sirup, and +one or more bottles of champagne. Now put on the lid of the box, and +have it carefully soldered on, so as to make all perfectly air-tight. +Put it away in your store-room, and let stand till Christmas, only +reversing the box occasionally, in order that the liquors may permeate +the cake thoroughly. + +This heroic treatment causes the ingredients to amalgamate, and the +flavors to harmonize and blend more freely; and when, on Christmas +day, you bring out this hermit, after doing a three months' penance in +a dark cell, it will come out rich, succulent, and unctuous; you will +not only have a luxury, "fit to set before a king," or before the +Empress of India, but fit to crown a feast of the very gods +themselves, on high Olympus' top. + + +POTATOES (PARKINSON STYLE). + +Take two or three fine white potatoes, raw; peel and chop them up +_very, very fine_. Then chop up just as fine the breast of a +good-sized boiled fowl; they should be chopped as fine as unboiled +rice; mix the meat and the potatoes together, and dust a _very little_ +flour over them and a pinch or two of salt. Now put an ounce or so of +the best butter into a frying pan, and when it is hot, put in the +mixture, and stir constantly with a wooden spatula until they are +fried to a nice golden color, then immediately serve on a hot plate. + +Cold boiled ham grated fine, or boiled beef tongue chopped very fine, +may be used instead of chicken, omitting the salt. A dozen or two of +prime oysters, parboiled, drained, and chopped fine, mixed with the +potatoes prepared as above, and fried, makes a most delicious lunch or +supper dish. Try any of the above styles, and say no, if you can. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY COMET. + + +Professor Hind, of the British Nautical Almanac Office, recently sent +an interesting letter to the London _Times_ on the comet depicted in +that famous piece of embroidery known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Probably +no one of the great comets recorded in history has occasioned a more +profound impression upon mankind in the superstitious ages than the +celebrated body which appeared in the spring of the year 1066, and was +regarded as the precursor of the invasion of England by William the +Norman. As Pingre, the eminent cometographer, remarks, it forms the +subject of an infinite number of relations in the European chronicles. +The comet was first seen in China on April 2, 1066. It appeared in +England about Easter Sunday, April 16, and disappeared about June 8. +Professor Hind finds in ancient British and Chinese records abundant +grounds for believing that this visitant was only an earlier +appearance of Halley's great comet, and he traces back the appearances +of this comet at its several perihelion passages to B.C. 12. The last +appearance of Halley's comet was in 1835, and according to +Pontecoulant's calculations, its next perihelion passage will take +place May 24, 1910. + + * * * * * + + + + +LACK OF SUN LIGHT. + + +Some interesting information as to the way in which the human system +is affected under the peculiar conditions of work in mines has been +furnished by M. Fabre, from experiences connected with the coal mines +of France. He finds that the deprivation of solar light causes a +diminution in the pigment of the skin, and absence of sunburning, but +there is no globular anaemia--that is, diminution in the number of +globules in the blood. Internal maladies seem to be more rare. While +there is no essential anaemia in the miners, the blood globules are +often found smaller and paler than in normal conditions of life, this +being due to respiration of noxious gases, especially where +ventilation is difficult. The men who breathe too much the gases +liberated on explosion of powder or dynamite suffer more than other +miners from affections of the larynx, the bronchia, and the stomach. +Ventilation sometimes works injury by its cooling effect. + + * * * * * + + + + +SYNTHETIC EXPERIMENTS ON THE ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF +METEORITES. + + +By means of igneous fusion the authors have succeeded in reproducing +two types of crystalline associations, which, in their mineralogical +composition and the principal features of their structure, are +analogous, if not identical with certain oligosideric meteorites. The +only notable difference results from the habitual brecchoid state of +the meteorites, which contrasts with state of quiet solidification of +the artificial compounds.--_F. Fouque and Michel Levy._ + + * * * * * + + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had +gratis at this office. + + * * * * * + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the +commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be +supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. 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