initial commit of ebook 18345HEADmain

82 files changed, 14223 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/18345-8.txt b/18345-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e43f300
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4686 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, 
+January 14, 1882, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 315,  January 14, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 8, 2006 [EBook #18345]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 315
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, JANUARY 14, 1882.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIII., No. 315.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Watchman's Detecter.             5023
+
+     Integrating Apparatus.                                       5023
+
+     A Canal Boat Propelled by Air.                               5023
+
+     Head Linings of Passenger Cars.                              5023
+
+     Improved Mortar Mixer. 2 figures.                            5023
+
+     Practical Notes on Plumbing. By J.P. DAVIES. Figs.
+     37 to 53. Tinning iron pipes, copper or brass work, bits,
+     etc.--Spirit brush.--Soldering iron to lead.--Dummies for
+     pipe bending.--Bends and set-offs.--Bending with water.
+     --Sand bending.--Bending with balls or bobbins.--Three-ball
+     or lead driving ball and double ball bending.--Bending with
+     windlass and brass ball.--Hydraulic or cup leather and ball
+     bending.--Bending by splitting, or split made bends.
+     --Pulling up bends.--Set-offs.--Bad bends.--Bad falls in
+     bends.--Bends made into traps or retarders.--Bends made
+     with the "snarling dummy."                                   5024
+
+     The Grossenhain Shuttle Driver. 1 figure.                    5025
+
+
+ II. ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, ETC.--The Electro-Magnetic
+     Apparatus of Dr. Pacinotti. 8 figures. The Pacinotti
+     electro-magnetic machine of 1860.--The Elias
+     electro-motor of 1842.                                       5015
+
+     The Elias Electro-Motor.                                     5016
+
+     Bjerknes's Experiments. 7 figures.                           5016
+
+     The Arc Electric Light. By LEO DAFT.                         5018
+
+     Hedges' Electric Lamps. 4 figures.                           5019
+
+     Electric Railway Apparatus at the Paris Electrical
+     Exhibition. 17 figures. Lartigue's switch controller,
+     elevation and sections.--Position of commutators during
+     the maneuver.--Pedal for sending warning to railway
+     crossing, with elevation and end and plan views.--Electric
+     Alarm.--Lartigue's bellows pedal, with plan and
+     sections.--Brunot's Controller.--Guggemos' correspondence
+     apparatus.--Annunciator apparatus.--Lartigue's controller
+     for water tanks.--Vérité controller for water tanks.         5019
+
+     The Telephonic Halls of the Electrical Exhibition.
+     1 figure.                                                    5022
+
+     The Action of Cold on the Voltaic Arc.                       5022
+
+
+III. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Industrial Art for Women.         5026
+
+     Photography upon Canvas. 1 figure.                           5026
+
+     Detection of Starch Sugar Sirup Mixed with Sugar
+     House Molasses.                                              5026
+
+     False Vermilion.                                             5026
+
+     The Position of Manganese in Modern Industry.--By
+     M.V. DESHAEYS. Ferro-manganese.--Cupro-manganese.--
+     Manganese bronzes.--Metallic manganese.--Manganese
+     German silver.--Phosphorus bronze.                           5027
+
+     The Economical Washing of Coal Gas and Smoke.--M.
+     Chevalet's method.                                           5027
+
+     Determination of Nitrogen in Hair, Wool, Dried Blood,
+     Flesh Meal, and Leather Scraps. By Dr. C. KRAUCH.            5028
+
+     Testing White Beeswax for Ceresine and Paraffine. By
+     A. PELTZ.                                                    5028
+
+     The Prevention of Alcoholic Fermentation by Fungi.
+     By Prof. E. REICHARD.                                        5028
+
+     New Reaction of Glycerine.                                   5028
+
+     Lycopodine.                                                  5028
+
+     Conchinamine.                                                5028
+
+     Chinoline.                                                   5028
+
+     Preparation of Coniine.                                      5028
+
+     Strontianite.                                                5028
+
+
+ IV. MISCELLANEOUS.--Household and Other Recipes.
+     Christmas plum pudding.--Plum pudding sauce.--
+     National plum pudding and sauce.--Egg nog.--Egg
+     flip.--Roast Turkey.--Woodcock and Snipe.--Canvas-back
+     duck.--Pheasants.--Wild ducks.--Wild fowl
+     sauce.--Brown fricassee of rabbits.--Orange pudding.
+     --Venison pastry.--Christmas red round.--Plum
+     porridge.--Sugared pears.--Table beer.--Mince meat.
+     --Pumpkin pie.--Brandy punch.--Boeuf a la mode.--
+     Punch jelly.--Orange salad.--Cranberry jelly.--Plum
+     cake.--Black cake.--Potatoes.                                5029
+
+     The Bayeux Tapestry Comet.                                   5030
+
+     Synthetic Experiments on the Artificial Reproduction
+     of Meteorites.                                               5030
+
+
+  V. HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.--Parangi; a newly described
+     disease.                                                     5029
+
+     A Castor Oil Substitute.                                     5029
+
+     Lack of Sun Light.                                           5030
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC APPARATUS OF DR. PACINOTTI.
+
+
+In admiring the recent developments of electric science as evidenced
+by the number of important inventions which have during the past few
+years been given to the world, especially in those branches of applied
+science which deal more particularly with the generation of
+electricity and the production of the electric light, there is often
+too great a tendency to forget, or, at least, to pass over in
+comparative silence the claims which the great pioneer workers and
+discoverers undoubtedly have to a large share of the merit of this
+scientific development.
+
+It is, of course, obviously impossible in anything approaching a
+retrospect of the science of magneto-electric induction or its
+application to illumination to pass slightly over the names of
+Oersted, of Ampère, of Davy, and of Faraday, but, in other respects,
+their work is too often lost sight of in the splendid modern
+developments of their discoveries. Again, there is another group of
+discoverer-inventors who occupy an intermediate position between the
+abstract discoverers above named and the inventors and adapters of
+still more recent times. To this group belong the names of Pixii and
+Saxton, Holmes and Nollet, Wilde, Varley, Siemens, Wheatstone, and
+Pacinotti, who was the first to discover a means of constructing a
+machine capable of giving a continuous current always in the same
+direction, and which has since proved itself to be the type of nearly
+all the direct current electric machines of the present day, and
+especially those such as the Gramme and Brush and De Meritens
+machines, in which the rotating armature is of annular form; and when
+it is considered what a large number of the well known electric
+generators are founded upon this discovery, it must be a matter of
+general gratification that the recent International Jury of the Paris
+Exhibition of Electricity awarded to Dr. Antonio Pacinotti one of
+their highest awards.
+
+The original machine designed by Dr. Pacinotti in the year 1860, and
+which we illustrate on the present page, formed one of the most
+interesting exhibits in the Paris Exhibition, and conferred upon the
+Italian Section a very distinctive feature, and we cannot but think
+that while all were interested in examining it, there must have been
+many who could not help being impressed with the fact that it took
+something away from the originality of design in several of the
+machines exhibited in various parts of the building.
+
+This very interesting machine was first illustrated and described by
+its inventor in the _Nuovo Cimento_ in the year 1864, under the title
+"A Description of a Small Electro-Magnetic Machine," and to this
+description we are indebted for the information and diagrams contained
+in this notice, but the perspective view is taken from the instrument
+itself in the Paris Exhibition.
+
+In this very interesting historical communication the author commences
+by describing a new form of electro-magnet, consisting of an iron ring
+around which is wound (as in the Gramme machine) a single helix of
+insulated copper wire completely covering the ring, and the two ends
+of the annular helix being soldered together, an annular magnet is
+produced, enveloped in an insulated helix forming a closed circuit,
+the convolutions of which are all in the same direction. If in such a
+system any two points of the coil situated at opposite ends of the
+same diameter of the ring be connected respectively with the two poles
+of a voltaic battery, the electric current having two courses open to
+it, will divide into two portions traversing the coil around each half
+of the ring from one point of contact to the other, and the direction
+of the current, in each portion will be such as to magnetize the iron
+core, so that its magnetic poles will be situated at the points where
+the current enters and leaves the helix, and a straight line joining
+these points may be looked upon as the magnetic axis of the system.
+From this construction it is clear that, by varying the position of
+the points of contact of the battery wires and the coil, the position
+of the magnetic axis will be changed accordingly, and can be made to
+take up any diametrical position with respect to the ring, of which
+the two halves (separated by the diameter joining the points of
+contact of the battery wires with the coil) may be regarded as made up
+of two semicircular horseshoe electro-magnets having their similar
+poles joined. To this form of instrument the name "Transversal electro
+magnet" (_Eletro calamita transversale_) was given by its inventor, to
+whom is undoubtedly due the merit of having been the first to
+construct an electro-magnet the position of whose poles could be
+varied at will by means of a circular commutator.
+
+[Illustration: PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.--MADE IN 1860.]
+
+By applying the principle to an electro-magnetic engine, Dr. Pacinotti
+produced the machine which we illustrate on the present page. The
+armature consists of a turned ring of iron, having around its
+circumference sixteen teeth of equal size and at equal angular
+distance apart, as shown in Fig. 1, forming between them as many
+spaces or notches, which are filled up by coiling within them helices
+of insulated copper wire, r r r, in a similar manner to that adopted
+in winding the Brush armature, and between them are fixed as many
+wooden wedges, m m, by which the helices are firmly held in their
+place. All the coils are wound round the ring in the same direction,
+and the terminating end of each coil is connected to the commencing
+end of the next or succeeding helix, and the junctions so made are
+attached to conducting wires which are gathered together close to the
+vertical shaft on which the armature ring is fixed, passing through
+holes at equal distances apart in a wooden collar fixed to the same
+shaft, and being attached at their lower extremities to the metallic
+contact pieces of the commutator, c, shown at the lower part of Fig.
+3, which is an elevation of the machine, while Fig. 4 is a plan of the
+same apparatus.
+
+The commutator consists of a small boxwood cylinder, carrying around
+its cylindrical surface two rows of eight holes, one above the other,
+in which are fitted sixteen contact pieces of brass which slightly
+project above the surface of the wood, the positions of those in the
+upper circle alternating or "breaking joint" with those in the lower,
+and each contact piece is in metallic connection with its
+corresponding conducting wire, and, therefore, with the junction of
+two of the helices on the armature. Against the edge of the commutator
+are pressed by means of adjustable levers two small brass contact
+rollers, k k, which are respectively connected with the positive and
+negative poles of the voltaic battery (either through or independent
+of the coils of a fixed electro-magnet, to which we shall presently
+refer), and the magnetic axis of the ring will lie in the same plane
+as the line joining the points of contact of the battery and rotating
+helix, this axis remaining nearly fixed notwithstanding the rotation
+of the iron ring in which the magnetism is induced.
+
+In the apparatus figured in Figs. 3 and 4, the armature rotates
+between the two vertical limbs, A B, of a fixed electro-magnet
+furnished with extended pole pieces, A A, B B (Fig. 4), each of which
+embraces about six of the armature coils. The fixed electro-magnet is
+constructed of two vertical iron cylindrical bars, A and B, united at
+their lower extremities by a horizontal iron bar, F F, the one being
+rigidly and permanently attached to it, while the other is fastened to
+it by a screw, G, passing through a slot so that the distance of the
+pole pieces from one another and from the armature ring is capable of
+adjustment.
+
+The connections of the machine, which are shown in Fig. 3, are made as
+follows: The positive current, entering by the attachment screw, h,
+passes by a wire to the right hand commutator screw, l, to the
+right-hand roller, k, through the commutator to the ring, around
+which it traverses to the left-hand roller, k¹, and screw, l¹, to
+the magnet coil, A, and thence through the coil of the magnet, B, to
+the terminal screw, h, on the right hand of the figure. This method
+of coupling up is of very great historical interest, for it is the
+first instance on record of the magnet coils and armature of a machine
+being included in one circuit, giving to it the principle of
+construction of a dynamo-electric machine, and antedating in
+publication, by two years, the interesting machines of Siemens,
+Wheatstone, and Varley, and preceding them in construction by a still
+longer period.
+
+With this apparatus Dr. Pacinotti made the following interesting
+experiments with the object of determining the amount of mechanical
+work produced by the machine (when worked as an electro-magnetic
+engine), and the corresponding consumption of the elements of the
+battery: Attached to the spindle of the machine was a small pulley, Q
+Q (Fig. 3), for the purpose of driving, by means of a cord, another
+pulley on a horizontal spindle carrying a drum on which was wound a
+cord carrying a weight, and on the same spindle was also a brake and
+brake-wheel, the lever of which was loaded so as just to prevent the
+weight setting into motion the whole system, consisting of the two
+machines, when no current was flowing. In this condition, when the
+machine was set in motion by connecting the battery, the mechanical
+work expended in overcoming the friction of the brake was equal to
+that required to raise the weight; and, in order to obtain the total
+work done, all that was necessary was to multiply the weight lifted by
+the distance through which it was raised. The consumption of the
+battery was estimated at the same time by interposing in the circuit a
+sulphate of copper voltameter, of which the copper plate was weighed
+before and after the experiment. The following are some of the results
+obtained by Dr. Pacinotti in experimenting after the manner just
+described. With the current from a battery of four small Bunsen
+elements, the machine raised a weight of 3.2812 kilos to a height of
+8.66 m. (allowing for friction), so that the mechanical work was
+represented by 28.45 m. During the experiment the positive plate of
+the voltameter lost in weight 0.224 gramme, the negative gaining 0.235
+gramme, giving an average of chemical work performed in the voltameter
+of 0.229 gramme, and multiplying this figure by the ratio between the
+equivalent of zinc to that of copper, and by the number of the
+elements of the battery, the weight of zinc consumed in the battery
+was computed at 0.951 gramme, so that to produce one kilogrammeter of
+mechanical work 33 milligrammes of zinc would be consumed in the
+battery. In another experiment, made with five elements, the
+consumption of zinc was found to be 36 milligrammes for every
+kilogrammeter of mechanical work performed. In recording these
+experiments, Dr. Pacinotti points out that although these results do
+not show any special advantage in his machine over those of other
+construction, still they are very encouraging, when it is considered
+that the apparatus with which the experiments were made were full of
+defects of workmanship, the commutator, being eccentric to the axis,
+causing the contacts between it and the rollers to be very imperfect
+and unequal.
+
+In his communication to the _Nuovo Cimento_, Dr. Pacinotti states that
+the reasons which induced him to construct the apparatus on the
+principle which we have just described, were: (1) That according to
+this system the electric current is continuously traversing the coils
+of the armature, and the machine is kept in motion not by a series of
+intermittent impulses succeeding one another with greater or less
+rapidity, but by a constantly acting force producing a more uniform
+effect. (2) The annular form of the revolving armature contributes
+(together with the preceding method of continuous magnetization) to
+give regularity to its motion and at the same time reduces the loss of
+motive power, through mechanical shocks and friction, to a minimum.
+(3) In the annular system no attempt is made suddenly to magnetize and
+demagnetize the iron core of the rotating armature, as such changes of
+magnetization would be retarded by the setting up of extra currents,
+and also by the permanent residual magnetism which cannot be entirely
+eliminated from the iron; and with this annular construction such
+charges are not required, all that is necessary being that each
+portion of the iron of the ring should pass, in its rotation, through
+the various degrees of magnetization in succession, being subjected
+thereby to the influence of the electro-dynamic forces by which its
+motion is produced. (4) The polar extension pieces of the fixed
+electro-magnet, by embracing a sufficiently large number of the iron
+projecting pieces on the armature ring, continue to exercise an
+influence upon them almost up to the point at which their
+magnetization ceases when passing the neutral axis. (5) By the method
+of construction adopted, sparks, while being increased in number, are
+diminished in intensity, there being no powerful extra currents
+produced at the breaking of the circuit, and Dr. Pacinotti points out
+that when the machine is in rotation a continuous current is induced
+in the circuit which is opposed to that of the battery; and this leads
+to what, looked at by the light of the present state of electric
+science, is by far the most interesting part of Dr. Pacinotti's paper,
+published, as it was, more than seventeen years ago.
+
+In the part to which we refer, Dr. Pacinotti states that it occurred
+to him that the value of the apparatus would be greatly increased if
+it could be altered from an electro-magnetic to a magneto-electric
+machine, so as to produce a continuous current. Thus, if the
+electro-magnet, A B (Figs. 3 and 4), be replaced by a permanent
+magnet, and the annular armature were made to revolve, the apparatus
+would become a magneto-electric generator, which would produce a
+continuous induced current always in the same direction, and in
+analyzing the action of such a machine Dr. Pacinotti observes that, as
+the position of the magnetic field is fixed, and the iron armature
+with its coils rotates within it, the action may be regarded as the
+same as if the iron ring were made up of two fixed semicircular
+horseshoe magnets with their similar poles joined, and the coils were
+loose upon it and were caused to rotate over it, and this mode of
+expressing the phenomenon was exactly what we adopted when describing
+the Gramme machine, without having at that time seen what Dr.
+Pacinotti had written fifteen years before.
+
+In explanation of the physical phenomena involved in the induction of
+the electric currents in the armature when the machine is in action as
+a generator, Dr. Pacinotti makes the following remarks: Let us trace
+the action of one of the coils in the various positions that it can
+assume in one complete revolution; starting from the position marked
+N, Fig. 2, and moving toward S, an electric current will be developed
+in it in one direction while moving through the portion of the circle,
+N a, and after passing the point, a, and while passing through the
+arc, a S, the induced current will be in the opposite direction,
+which direction will be maintained until the point, b, is reached,
+after which the currents will be in the same direction as between N
+and a; and as all the coils are connected together, all the currents
+in a given direction will unite and give the combined current a
+direction indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2, and in order to collect
+it (so as to transmit it into the external circuit), the most eminent
+position for the collectors will be at points on the commutator at
+opposite ends of a diameter which is perpendicular to the magnetic
+axis of the magnetic field. With reference to Fig. 2, we imagine
+either that the two arrows to the right of the figure are incorrectly
+placed by the engraver, or that Dr. Pacinotti intended this diagram to
+express the direction of the current throughout the whole circuit, as
+if it started from a, and after traversing the external circuit
+entered again at b, thus completing the whole cycle made up of the
+external and internal circuits.
+
+Dr. Pacinotti calls attention to the fact that the direction of the
+current generated by the machine is reversed by a reversal of the
+direction of rotation, as well as by a shifting of the position of the
+collectors from one side to the other of their neutral point, and
+concludes his most interesting communication by describing experiments
+made with it in order to convert it into a magneto-electric machine.
+"I brought," he says, "near to the coiled armature the opposite poles
+of two permanent magnets, and I also excited by the current from a
+battery the fixed electro-magnets (see Figs. 3 and 4), and by
+mechanical means I rotated the annular armature on its axis. By both
+methods I obtained an induced electric current, which was continuous
+and always in the same direction, and which, as was indicated by a
+galvanometer, proved to be of considerable intensity, although it had
+traversed the sulphate of copper voltameter which was included in the
+circuit."
+
+Dr. Pacinotti goes on to show that there would be an obvious advantage
+in constructing electric generating machines upon this principle, for
+by such a system electric currents can be produced which are
+continuous and in one direction without the necessity of the
+inconvenient and more or less inefficient mechanical arrangements for
+commutating the currents and sorting them, so as to collect and
+combine those in one direction, separating them from those which are
+in the opposite; and he also points our the reversibility of the
+apparatus, showing that as an electro-magnetic engine it is capable of
+converting a current of electricity into mechanical motion capable of
+performing work, while as a magneto-electric machine it is made to
+transform mechanical energy into an electric current, which in other
+apparatus, forming part of its external circuit, is capable of
+performing electric, chemical, or mechanical work.
+
+All these statements are matters of everyday familiarity at the
+present day, but it must be remembered that they are records of
+experiments made twenty years ago, and as such they entitle their
+author to a very distinguished place among the pioneers of electric
+science, and it is somewhat remarkable that they did not lead him
+straight to the discovery of the "action and reaction" principle of
+dynamo-electric magnetic induction to which he approached so closely,
+and it is also a curious fact that so suggestive and remarkable a
+paper should have been written and published as far back as 1864, and
+that it should not have produced sooner than it did a revolution in
+electric science.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.
+
+
+We lately published a short description of a very interesting
+apparatus which may be considered in some sense as a prototype of the
+Gramme machine, although it has very considerable, indeed radical
+differences, and which, moreover, was constructed for a different
+purpose, the Elias machine being, in fact, an electromotor, while the
+Gramme machine is, it is almost unnecessary to say, an electric
+generator. This apparent resemblance makes it, however, necessary to
+describe the Elias machine, and to explain the difference between it
+and the Gramme. Its very early date (1842), moreover, gives it an
+exceptional interest. The figures on the previous page convey an exact
+idea of the model that was exhibited at the Paris Electrical
+Exhibition, and which was contributed by the Ecole Polytechnique of
+Delft in the Dutch Section. This model is almost identical with that
+illustrated and described in a pamphlet accompanying the exhibit. The
+perspective illustrations show the machine very clearly, and the
+section explains the construction still further. The apparatus
+consists of an exterior ring made of iron, about 14 in. in diameter
+and 1.5 in wide. It is divided into six equal sections by six small
+blocks which project from the inner face of the ring, and which act as
+so many magnetic poles. On each of the sections between the blocks is
+rolled a coil, of one thickness only, of copper wire about 0.04 in. in
+diameter, inclosed in an insulating casing of gutta percha, giving to
+the conductor thus protected a total thickness of 0.20 in.; this wire
+is coiled, as shown in the illustration. It forms twenty-nine turns in
+each section, and the direction of winding changes at each passage in
+front of a pole piece. The ends of the wire coinciding with the
+horizontal diameter of the ring are stripped of the gutta percha, and
+are connected to copper wires which are twisted together and around
+two copper rods, which are placed vertically, their lower ends
+entering two small cavities made in the base of the apparatus. The
+circuit is thus continuous with two ends at opposite points of the
+same diameter. The ring is about 1.1 in. thick, and is fixed, as
+shown, to two wooden columns, B B, by two blocks of copper, a.
+
+[Illustration: THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.--MADE IN 1842.]
+
+It will be seen from the mode of coiling the wire on this ring, that
+if a battery be connected by means of the copper rods, the current
+will create six consecutive poles on the various projecting blocks.
+The inner ring, E, is about 11 in. in outside diameter, and is also
+provided with a series of six projecting pieces which pass before
+those on the exterior ring with very little clearance. Between these
+projections the space between the inner face of the outer, and the
+outer face of the inner ring, is 0.40 in. The latter is movable, and
+is supported by three wooden arms, F, fixed to a boss, G, which is
+traversed by a spindle supported in bearings by the columns, A and C.
+A coil is rolled around the ring in exactly the same way as that on
+the outer ring, the wire being of the same size, and the insulation of
+the same thickness. The ends of the wire are also bared at points of
+the diameter opposite each other, and the coil connected in pairs so
+as to form a continuous circuit. At the two points of junction they
+are connected with a hexagonal commutator placed on the central
+spindle, one end corresponding to the sides 1, 3, and 5, and the other
+to the sides 2, 4, and 6. Two copper rods, J, fixed on the base to two
+plates of copper furnished with binding screws, are widened and
+flattened at their upper ends to rest against opposite parallel sides
+of the hexagon. It will be seen that if the battery is put in circuit
+by means of the binding screws, the current in the interior ring will
+determine six consecutive poles, the names of which will change as the
+commutator plates come into contact successively with the sides of the
+hexagon. Consequently, if at first the pole-pieces opposite each other
+are magnetized with the same polarity, a repulsion between them will
+be set up which will set the inner ring in motion, and the effect will
+be increased on account of the attraction of the next pole of the
+outer ring. At the moment when the pole piece thus attracted comes
+into the field of the pole of opposite polarity, the action of the
+commutator will change its magnetization, while that of the pole-piece
+on the fixed ring always remains the same; the same phenomenon of
+repulsion will be produced, and the inner ring will continue its
+movement in the same direction, and so on. To the attractive and
+repulsive action of the magnetic poles has to be added the reciprocal
+action of the coils around the two rings, the action of which is
+similar. From this brief explanation the differences between the Elias
+machine and the Gramme will be understood. The Dutch physicist did not
+contemplate the production of a current; he utilized two distinct
+sources of electricity to set the inner ring in motion, and did not
+imagine that it was possible, by suppressing one of the inducing
+currents and putting the ring in rapid rotation, to obtain a
+continuous current. Moreover, if ever this apparent resemblance had
+been real, the merit of the Gramme invention would not have been
+affected by it. It has happened very many times that inventors living
+in different countries, and strangers to one another, have been
+inspired with the same idea, and have followed it by similar methods,
+either simultaneously or at different periods, without the application
+having led to the same results. It does not suffice even for the seed
+to be the same; it must have fallen in good ground, and be cultivated
+with care; here it scarcely germinates, there it produces a vigorous
+plant and abundant fruit.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BJERKNES'S EXPERIMENTS.
+
+
+As a general thing, too much trust should not be placed in words. In
+the first place, it frequently happens that their sense is not well
+defined, or that they are not understood exactly in the same way by
+everybody, and this leads to sad misunderstandings. But even in case
+they are precise, and are received everywhere under a single
+acceptation, there still remains one danger, and that is that of
+passing from the word to the idea, and of being led to believe that,
+because there is a word, there is a real thing designated by this
+word.
+
+Let us take, for example, the word _electricity_. If we understand by
+this term the common law which embraces a certain category of
+phenomena, it expresses a clear and useful idea; but as for its
+existence, it is not permitted to believe _a priori_ that there is a
+distinct agent called electricity which is the efficient cause of the
+phenomena. We ought never, says the old rule of philosophy, to admit
+entities without an absolute necessity. The march of science has
+always consisted in gradually eliminating these provisory conceptions
+and in reducing the number of causes. This fact is visible without
+going back to the ages of ignorance, when every new phenomenon brought
+with it the conception of a special being which caused it and directed
+it. In later ages they had _spirits_ in which there was everything:
+volatile liquids, gases, and theoretical conceptions, such as
+phlogiston. At the end of the last century, and at the beginning of
+our own, ideas being more rational, the notion of the "fluid" had been
+admitted, a mysterious and still vague enough category (but yet an
+already somewhat definite one) in which were ranged the unknown and
+ungraspable causes of caloric, luminous, electric, etc., phenomena.
+Gradually, the "fluid" has vanished, and we are left (or rather, we
+were a short time ago) at the notion of forces--a precise and
+mathematically graspable notion, but yet an essentially mysterious
+one. We see this conception gradually disappearing to leave finally
+only the elementary ideas of matter and motion--ideas, perhaps, which
+are not much clearer philosophically than the others, particularly
+that of matter taken _per se_, but which, at least, are necessary,
+since all the others supposed them.
+
+Among those notions that study and time are reducing to other and
+simpler ones, that of electricity should be admitted; for it presents
+itself more and more as one of the peculiar cases of the general
+motion of matter. It will be to the eternal honor of Fresnel for
+having introduced into science and mathematically constituted the
+theory of undulations (already proposed before him, however), thus
+giving the first example of the notion of motion substituted for that
+of force. Since the principle of the conservation of energy has taken
+the eminent place in science that it now occupies, and we have seen a
+continual transformation of one series of phenomena into another, the
+mind is at once directed to the aspect of a new fact toward an
+explanation of this kind. Still, it is certain that these hypotheses
+are difficult of justification; for those motions that are at present
+named molecular, and that we cannot help presuming to be at the base
+of all actions, are _per se_ ungraspable and can only be demonstrated
+by the coincidence of a large number of results. There is, however,
+another means of rendering them probable, and that is by employing
+analogy. If, by vibrations which are directly ascertainable, we can
+reproduce the effects of electricity, there will be good reason for
+admitting that the latter is nothing else than a system of vibration
+differing only, perhaps, in special qualities, such as dimensions,
+direction, rapidity, etc.
+
+Such is the result that is attained by the very curious experiments
+that are due to Mr. Bjerknes. These constitute an _ensemble_ of very
+striking results, which are perfectly concordant and exhibit very
+close analogies with electrical effects, as we shall presently see.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+They are based on the presence of bodies set in vibration in a liquid.
+The vibrations produced by Mr. Bjerknes are of two kinds--pulsations
+and oscillations. The former of these are obtained by the aid of small
+drums with flexible ends, as shown to the left in Fig. 1. A small pump
+chamber or cylinder is, by means of a tube, put in communication with
+one of these closed drums in which the rapid motion of a piston
+alternately sucks in and expels the air. The two flexible ends are
+successively thrust outward and attracted toward the center. In an
+apparatus of this kind the two ends repulse and attract the liquid at
+the same time. Their motions are of the same phase; if it were desired
+that one should repulse while the other was attracting, it would be
+necessary to place two drums back to back, separated by a stiff
+partition, and put them in connection with two distinct pump chambers
+whose movements were so arranged that one should be forcing in while
+the other was exhausting. A system of this nature is shown to the
+right in Fig. 1.
+
+The vibrations are obtained by the aid of small metal spheres fixed in
+tubular supports by movable levers to which are communicated the
+motions of compression and dilatation of the air in the pump chamber.
+They oscillate in a plane whose direction may be varied according to
+the arrangement of the sphere, as seen in the two apparatus of this
+kind shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 will give an idea of the general
+arrangement. The two pistons of the air-pumps are connected to cranks
+that may be fixed in such a way as to regulate the phases as may be
+desired, either in coincidence or opposition. The entire affair is put
+in motion by a wheel and cord permitting of rapid vibrations being
+obtained. The air is let into the apparatus by rubber tubing without
+interfering with their motions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+We may now enter into the details of the experiments:
+
+The first is represented in Fig. 2. In a basin of water there is
+placed a small frame carrying a drum fixed on an axle and capable of
+revolving. It also communicates with one of the air cylinders. The
+operator holds in his hand a second drum which communicates with the
+other cylinder. The pistons are adjusted in such a way that they shall
+move parallel with each other; then the ends of the drums inflate and
+collapse at the same time; the _motions are of the same phase_; but if
+the drums are brought near each other a very marked attraction occurs,
+the revolving drum follows the other. If the cranks are so adjusted
+that the pistons move in an opposite direction, the _phases are
+discordant_--there is a repulsion, and the movable drum moves away
+from the other. The effect, then, is analogous to that of two magnets,
+with about this difference, that here it is the like phases that
+attract and the different phases that repel each other, while in
+magnets like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.
+
+It is necessary to remark that it is indifferent which face of the
+drum is presented, since both possess the same phase. The drum
+behaves, then, like an insulated pole of a magnet, or, better, like a
+magnet having in its middle a succeeding point. In order to have two
+poles a double drum must be employed. The experiment then becomes more
+complicated; for it is necessary to have two pump chambers with
+opposite phases for this drum alone, and one or two others for the
+revolving drum. The effects, as we shall see, are more easily shown
+with the vibrating spheres.
+
+This form has the advantage that the vibrating body exhibits the two
+phases at the same time; relatively to the liquid, one of its ends
+advances while the other recedes. Thus with a vibrating sphere
+presented to the movable drum, there may be obtained repulsion or
+attraction, according as the side which is approached is concordant or
+discordant with the end of the drum that it faces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+With the arrangement shown in Fig. 3 there may be performed an
+interesting series of experiments. The two spheres supported by the
+frame are set in simultaneous vibration, and the frame, moreover, is
+free to revolve about its axis. The effect is analogous to that which
+would be produced by two short magnets carried by the same revolving
+support; on presenting the vibrating sphere to the extremities the
+whole affair is attracted or repulsed, according to its phase and
+according to the point at which it is presented; on replacing the
+transverse support by a single sphere (as indicated in the figure by a
+dotted line) we obtain the analogue of a short magnet carried on a
+pivot like a small compass needle. This sphere follows the pole of a
+vibrating sphere which is presented to it, as the pole of a magnet
+would do, with this difference always, that in the magnet, like poles
+repel, while in oscillating bodies like phases attract.
+
+In all the preceding experiments the bodies brought in presence were
+both in motion and the phenomena were analogous to those of permanent
+magnetism. We may also reproduce those which result from magnetism by
+induction. For this purpose we employ small balls of different
+materials suspended from floats, as shown in Fig. 4 (a, b, c).
+Let us, for example, take the body, b, which is a small metal
+sphere, and present to it either a drum which is caused to pulsate, on
+an oscillating sphere, and it will be attracted, thus representing the
+action of a magnet upon a bit of soft iron. A curious experiment may
+serve to indicate the transition between this new series and the
+preceding. If we present to each other two drums of opposite phases,
+but so arranged that one of them vibrates faster than the other, we
+shall find, on carefully bringing them together, that the repulsion
+which manifested itself at first is changing to attraction. On
+approaching each other the drum having the quicker motion finally has
+upon the other, the same action as if the latter were immovable; and
+the effect is analogous to that which takes place between a strong and
+weak magnet presented by their like poles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+By continuing these experiments we arrive at a very important point.
+Instead of the body, b (Fig. 4), let us take c. As the figure
+shows, this is a sphere lighter than water, kept in the liquid by a
+weight. If we present to it the vibrating body, it will be repelled,
+and we shall obtain the results known by the name of diamagnetism.
+This curious experiment renders evident the influence of media. As
+well known, Faraday attributed such effects to the action of the air;
+and he thought that magnetic motions always resulted from a difference
+between the attraction exerted by the magnet upon the body under
+experiment, and the attraction exerted by the air. If the body is more
+sensitive than the air, there is direct magnetism, but if it is less
+so, there is diamagnetism. Water between the bodies, in the Bjerknes
+experiments, plays the same role; it is this which, by its vibration,
+transmits the motions and determines the phases in the suspended body.
+If the body is heavier than water its motion is less than that of the
+liquid, and, consequently, relatively to the vibrating body, it is of
+like phase; and if it is lighter, the contrary takes place, and the
+phases are in discordance. These effects may be very well verified by
+the aid of the little apparatus shown in Fig. 5, and which carries two
+bars, one of them lighter and the other heavier than water. On
+presenting to them the vibrating body, one presents its extremity and
+takes an axial direction, while the other arranges itself crosswise
+and takes the equatorial direction. These experiments may be varied in
+different ways that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon in this
+place, as they may be seen at the Electrical Exhibition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+Very curious effects are also obtained with the arrangement shown in
+Fig. 6. Between the two drums there is introduced a body sustained by
+a float such as represented at a, Fig. 4. Various results may, then,
+be obtained according to the combinations adopted. Let us suppose that
+the phases are alike, and that the interposed body is heavier than
+water; in this case it is repelled as far as the circumference of the
+drums, at which point it stops. If the phases are different, the
+influenced body behaves in the opposite manner and stops at the
+center. If the body is lighter than water the effects are naturally
+changed. Placed between two like phases, it is attracted within a
+certain radius and repelled when it is placed further off; if the
+phases are unlike, it is always repelled. We may easily assure
+ourselves that these effects are analogous to those which are produced
+on bodies placed between the poles of wide and powerful magnets. It
+is useless to repeat that the analogies are always inverse.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Mr. Bjerknes has carried the examination of these phenomena still
+further in studying experimentally the actions that occur in the
+depths of the liquid; and for this purpose he has made use of the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 7. By the side of the vibrating body there
+is placed a light body mounted on a very flexible spring. This assumes
+the motion of that portion of the fluid in which it is immersed, and,
+by the aid of a small pencil, its direction is inscribed upon a plate
+located above it. By placing this registering apparatus in different
+directions the entire liquid may be explored. We find by this means
+figures that are perfectly identical with magnetic phantoms. All the
+circumstances connected with these can be reproduced, the vibrating
+sphere giving the phantom of a magnet with its two poles. We may even
+exhibit the mutual action of two magnets. The figures show with
+remarkable distinctness--much more distinct, perhaps, than those that
+are obtained by true magnets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+However, it must not be thought that these so interesting facts are
+the result of groping in the dark and the outcome of some fortunate
+experiment; for they have, on the contrary, been foreseen and
+predetermined. Mr. Bjerknes is especially a mathematician, and it was
+a study, through calculation, of the vibratory motion of a body or
+system of bodies in a medium that led him to the results that he
+afterwards materialized.
+
+After the production, by Mr. Lejeune, of his solutions, Mr. Bjerknes
+in 1865 entered upon a complete study of the subject, and recognized
+the fact that the result of such motions was the production of regular
+mechanical actions. He calculated the directions of these, and, along
+about 1875, perceived the possibility of reproducing the effects of
+permanent magnetism. More recently, in 1879, he saw that magnetism by
+derivation might likewise be explained by those hypotheses, and
+figured by actions of this kind. It was not till then that he
+performed the experiments, and submitted a body to the results of
+calculation.
+
+The same process has led him to the conclusion that the action of
+currents might be represented in the same manner; only, instead of
+bodies in vibration, it would require bodies in alternating rotation.
+The effects are much more difficult to ascertain, since it is
+necessary to employ viscid liquids.
+
+Meanwhile, the experiments have been performed. Up to the present time
+attractions and repulsions have not been shown, and I do not know
+whether Mr. Bjerknes has obtained them. But, by the process pointed
+out, the lines of action (electric phantoms, if I may so express
+myself) have been traced, and they are very curious. By supposing the
+current perpendicular to the plate, and in the presence of the pole of
+a magnet, the influences produced around it are very well seen, and
+the figures are very striking, especially in the case of two currents.
+Mr. Bjerknes does not appear as yet to have obtained from these
+experiments all that he expects from them. And yet, such as they are,
+they have already led him to important conclusions. Thus, calculation,
+confirmed by application, has led him to renounce the formula proposed
+by Ampère and to adopt that of Regnard as modified by Clausius. Is he
+right? This is what more prolonged experimentation will allow to be
+seen.
+
+These researches, however, are beset with difficulties of a special
+nature, and the use of viscid liquids is a subject for discussion. Mr.
+Bjerknes desired to employ them for reproducing the effects that he
+had obtained from water, but he found that the lines of force were no
+longer the same, and that the phenomena were modified. It is
+necessary, then, to hold as much as possible to liquids that are
+perfect. The experimenter is at present endeavoring to use these
+liquids by employing cylinders having a fluted surface; but it is
+clear that this, too, is not without its difficulties.
+
+This series of experiments offers a rare example of the verification
+of algebraic calculation by direct demonstration. In general, we may
+employ geometry, which gives a graphic representation of calculation
+and furnishes a valuable control. Sometimes we have practical
+application, which is a very important verification in some respects,
+but only approximate in others. But it is rare that we employ, as Mr.
+Bjerknes has done, a material, direct, and immediate translation,
+which, while it brings the results into singular prominence, permits
+of comparing them with known facts and of generalizing the views upon
+which they are based.
+
+Hypotheses as to the nature of electricity being as yet only tolerably
+well established, we should neglect nothing that may contribute to
+give them a solid basis. Assuming that electricity _is_ a vibratory
+motion (and probably there is no doubt about it), yet the fact is not
+so well established with regard to it as it is to that of light. Every
+proof that comes to support this idea is welcome, and especially so
+when it is not derived from a kind of accident, but is furnished by a
+calculated and mathematical combination. Viewed from this double
+standpoint, the experiments of Mr. Bjerknes are very remarkable, and,
+I may add, they are very curious to behold, and I recommend all
+visitors to the Exhibition to examine them.--_Frank Geraldy, in La
+Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ARC ELECTRIC LIGHT.[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: A recent address before the New York Electric Light
+     Association.]
+
+BY LEO DAFT.
+
+
+I shall experience one difficulty in addressing you this evening,
+which is, that although I do not wish to take up your time with purely
+elementary matter, I wish to make the subject clear to those who may
+not be familiar with its earlier struggles.
+
+If we begin at the beginning we have to go back to the time when
+Faraday made the discovery that light could be produced by the
+separation of two carbon rods conducting a current of considerable
+tension. That is the historical point when electric lighting first
+loomed up as a giant possibility of the near future. This occurred
+about the year 1846. In some experiments he found that although the
+circuit could not be interrupted by any considerable interval when
+metallic terminals were used without breaking the current, when carbon
+was substituted the interval could be largely increased, and a light
+of dazzling brilliancy appeared between the points.
+
+This remarkable effect appears to be produced by the rarefaction of
+the air, due to the great heat evolved by the combustion of the
+carbon, and also to the passage of incandescent particles of carbon
+from pole to pole, thus reducing the resistance, otherwise too great
+for the current tension.
+
+That was the beginning of electric lighting; and perhaps it will be
+well to bridge the long and comparatively uninteresting interval which
+elapsed between this discovery and the equally important one which
+alone gave it commercial value--I refer to the production of suitable
+currents by mechanical means. That is to say, the substitution of
+energy obtained from coal in the form of steam power reduced the cost
+to a fraction of what it necessarily was when the galvanic elements
+were used. Here is the point; the cost of zinc today is something over
+fifty times that of coal, while its energy as a vitalizing agent is
+only about five times greater, leaving a very large margin in favor of
+the "black diamonds." This is not the only advantage, for the
+resulting impulse in the case of mechanical production is much more
+uniform in action, and therefore better suited to the end in view,
+while the amount of adjustment and attention required is beyond
+comparison in favor of the latter means.
+
+The machines adopted were of the magneto variety, and many ingenious
+machines of this class were operated with more or less success, being,
+however, quickly abandoned upon the introduction of the
+dynamo-machine, which gave currents of much greater electromotive
+force from the same amount of material, the advantage being chiefly
+due to the large increase of magnetic intensity in the field magnets.
+At this period lights of enormous power were produced with ease and by
+the use of costly lamps. With complicated mechanism a new era in
+artificial illumination seemed close at hand, but a grave difficulty
+stood in the way--namely, the proper distribution or subdivision of
+the light. It was quickly found that the electric difficulty of
+subdividing the light, added to the great cost of the lamps then made,
+was an apparently insurmountable obstacle to its general adoption, and
+the electric light was gradually taking its place as a brilliant
+scientific toy, when the world was startled by the introduction of the
+Jablochkoff candle, which may fairly claim to have given a greater
+impetus to the new light than any previous invention, a stimulus
+without which it is even probable that electric lighting might have
+slumbered for another decade.
+
+The Jablochkoff candle embodies a very beautiful philosophical
+principle, and though its promises have not been fulfilled in general
+practice, we must not forget that we owe it much for arousing
+scientific men from a dangerous lethargy.
+
+Up to this time the light had always been produced by approximation of
+carbon rods with their axes in the same plane; but the Jablochkoff
+candle consisted of like rods arranged parallel to each other and
+about one-eighth of an inch apart, the intervening space being filled
+with plaster of Paris, and the interval at the top bridged by a
+conducting medium. The object of the plaster, which is a fairly good
+insulating material at ordinary temperatures, is to prevent the
+passage of the current except at the top, where the conducting
+material just referred to assisted the formation of the arc at that
+point, and the resulting intense heat maintained the plaster in a
+moderately conducting state until the whole carbon was consumed. Here,
+then, was literally an electric "candle," which could be operated
+without the costly and unsteady lamps, and fortunately its birthplace
+was Paris--then the center of philosophical research; from that period
+the future of electric lighting was assured.
+
+When we reflect that owing to the greater disruptive energy of the
+positive terminal, the carbon so connected to an ordinary dynamo
+machine is consumed very much faster than the negative--sometimes in
+the ratio of 3 to 1--it will be clear that some other means of
+consuming the Jablochkoff candle had to be used, since the arc would
+cease to exist in a very short time by reason of the unequal
+consumption of the carbons, and the subsequent increase of the
+intervening space beyond the limit of the current tension.
+
+This difficulty M. Gramme overcame with characteristic ingenuity by
+adding to the ordinary system a "distributer" capable of delivering
+plus and minus currents alternately, thus equalizing the consumption,
+besides being able to supply a large number of candles on the multiple
+circuit system, each circuit supporting four or five lamps. Thus it
+will be seen that a result was attained which at least gave such men
+as Siemens, Gramme, and their peers, if such there be, confidence in
+the future and a courage which quickly placed the new science safely
+beyond the limits of the laboratory. I will not occupy your time by
+stating the apparent reasons why the Jablochkoff candle has not fully
+sustained its brilliant promise--it will, perhaps, be sufficient to
+state that it is now superseded practically, though it must always
+occupy an honorable place in scientific annals.
+
+Let us now for a few moments consider what the electric light really
+accomplished at about this period, I mean from an economical
+standpoint. It appears from some data furnished by an engineer
+commissioned by the French Government that the machines were then
+capable of maintaining a light equal to from 220 to 450 candles,
+measured by comparison with the Carcel burner, per horse power
+absorbed--a very good showing considering the youth of the discovery,
+but presenting rather a gloomy aspect when we consider that according
+to Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat, which is 772 foot pounds, or
+the power required to raise one pound of water one degree--and for
+lack of anything better, we are obliged to accept that at this
+moment--the whole force contained in one pound of coal would maintain
+a light equal to 13,000 candles for one hour! That is the ultimate
+force, and what we are now able to accomplish is but a small fraction
+of this amount.
+
+Unfortunately we are but common mortals, and cannot, like Mr. Keely,
+lightly throw off the trammels of natural law; we must, therefore,
+endeavor to close this gap by patient study and experiment.
+
+The limited time at my disposal, and a keen consideration for your
+feelings, will not permit me to follow the long series of struggles
+between mind and matter immediately following Jablochkoff's brilliant
+invention; suffice it to say, that the few years just passed have
+yielded beyond comparison the most marvelous results in the scientific
+history of the world, and it will be superfluous to remind you that a
+great part of this has undoubtedly been due to the researches made in
+an effort to reduce electric lighting to a commercial basis. To say
+that this has been fully accomplished is but to repeat a well known
+fact; and in proof of this I quote a high scientific authority by
+stating that a result so high as 4,000 candles evolved for 40,000
+foot-pounds absorbed has recently been obtained--an efficiency six or
+seven times greater than the record of six years ago. In accepting
+this statement we must not lose sight of the extreme probability that
+such effects were evolved under conditions rarely if ever found in
+common practice. Of course, I now refer to the arc system. The volume
+of light so generated is incomparably greater than by any other known
+method, though in subdivision the limit is sooner reached.
+
+Mr. Hawkesworth--Let me ask you a question, please. Supposing that it
+required a one-horse power to produce an arc light of, say, 2,000
+candles, would it be possible to produce ten arc lights of 200 candles
+each?
+
+Mr. Daft--No, sir; I will tell you why. It would, if no other element
+than the simple resistance of the arcs opposed the passage of a
+current; then a machine that would produce an inch arc in one light,
+if placed on a circuit of sixteen lamps would give to each an arc
+one-sixteenth of an inch long naturally; but another difficulty here
+presents itself in the shape of a resisting impulse of considerable
+electromotive force in the opposite direction, apparently caused by
+the intense polarity of the two terminals. The resistance of the arc
+itself varies much according to the volume of current used being
+usually small with a large quantity of current, and greater with a
+current of tension; but this opposing element is always found, and
+appears to be the only real obstacle in the way of infinite
+subdivision.
+
+Almost every objection which human ingenuity could suggest has been
+urged against lighting by electricity, but fortunately electricians
+have been able in most cases either to meet the difficulty or prove it
+groundless.
+
+In this connection I am led to speak of the common idea that electric
+light is injurious to the eyes, first, because of its unsteady
+character, and secondly, by reason of the great excess of the more
+refrangible rays. Both objections undoubtedly hold good where the
+alleged causes exist; but we can now show you a light which is
+certainly as steady as the ordinary gaslight--indeed more steady in an
+apartment where even feeble currents of air circulate; and I am sure
+you will readily acknowledge that the latter objection is disposed of
+when I assure you that our light presents the only example with which
+I am acquainted of an exact artificial reproduction of the solar
+light, as shown by decomposition. The two spectra, placed side by
+side, show in the most conclusive manner the identity in composition
+of our light with that of the sun.
+
+The remarkable coolness of the electric light, as compared with its
+volume by gas, is also due in a great measure to the conspicuous
+absence of that large excess of less refrangible, or heat-radiating
+principle, which distinguishes almost equally all other modes of
+artificial illumination. After the foregoing statement it may seem a
+paradox to claim that the electric arc develops the greatest heat with
+which we have yet had to deal, but this is so; and the heat has an
+intensity quite beyond the reach of accurate measurement by any
+instrument now known--it has been variously estimated anywhere between
+5,000° and 50,000° F. It is sufficient for our present purpose to know
+that the most refractory substances quickly disappear when brought
+under its influence--even the imperial diamond must succumb in a short
+time. In order to reconcile this fact with its coolness as an
+illuminating agent, we have to take into consideration the extreme
+smallness of the point from which the light radiates in the electric
+arc. A light having the power of many thousand candles will expose but
+a fraction of the surface for heat radiation which is shown by one
+gas-jet, and, as I have endeavored to explain, these rays contain very
+much less of the heating principle than those from gas or other
+artificial light.
+
+The purity of electric light has another important aspect, which can
+scarcely be overestimated--namely, the facility with which all the
+most delicate shades of color can be distinguished. I understand from
+persons better skilled than myself in such matters that this can be
+done almost as readily by electric as by day light, and I have little
+doubt that the slight difference in this respect will entirely
+disappear when people become somewhat more familiar with the different
+conditions--the effect of such shades viewed by electric light being
+more like that with comparatively feeble direct sunlight than the
+subdued daylight usually prevailing in stores and warehouses.
+
+Again, it has frequently been urged that persons working by electric
+light have thus induced inflammation of the eyes. No doubt this is so
+with light containing the highly refrangible rays in excess; but it is
+difficult to see how such an effect can occur with light composed as
+is the light with which the eyes are constructed to operate in perfect
+harmony.
+
+As you are aware, there are other methods of obtaining light by
+electric energy, and in order to make a fair comparison of one which
+has lately attracted a great deal of attention and capital, I will
+relate to you the result of observations made during a recent visit to
+the office of an eminent electrician. The light was that known as
+incandescent--a filament of carbon raised to a light-emitting heat in
+vacuo. The exclusion of the air is necessary to prevent the otherwise
+rapid destruction of the carbon by combination with oxygen. At the
+time of my visit there were 62 lamps in circuit. According to their
+statement each lamp was of 16-candle power--I accept their statement
+as correct; this will give us an aggregate of 992 candles. The
+generator was vitalized by an engine rated by the attendants in charge
+at 6-horse power. I found that it was a 5×7 cylinder, working with
+very little expansion 430 revolutions per minute, with 90 pounds of
+live steam, in a boiler not 15 feet from the engine. I have every
+reason to believe that the steam was delivered at the cylinder with an
+almost inappreciable loss on 90 pounds. Under those conditions I think
+it is perfectly fair to assume (you have the data, so that you can
+calculate it afterwards) that 750,000 foot pounds were consumed in
+producing those 60 lights, aggregating 992 candles. In the kind of
+engine they had, 750,000 foot pounds requires a consumption of about
+100 pounds of coal per hour. It was an ordinary high speed engine.
+That 750,000 foot pounds, I assume, required 100 pounds of coal. That
+is the only weak point in my data; I do not know that to be true; but
+I never saw an engine of that form yet capable of delivering 1-horse
+power with less consumption than four to five pounds of coal per horse
+power per hour. I want to be as fair as I can in the matter. I wish to
+compare this, as they have taken particular pains to compare it, with
+gas, at the present cost of gas.
+
+The hundred pounds of coal will produce 400 feet of gas; 400 feet of
+gas will evolve the effect of 1,500 candles. So you see the position
+we are in. In consuming that coal directly by destructive distillation
+you can produce 1,500 candles light; by converting it into power, and
+then again into light by incandescence, you produce 992! Expressing
+this in other words, we may say that in producing the light from coal
+by the incandescent system you lose one-third of the power as compared
+with gas, by actually converting the coal into gas, and delivering it
+in the ordinary manner. Those are facts. It has been suggested to me
+that I am too liberal in my estimate of coal consumed--that those
+engines consume more than four or five pounds per horse power per
+hour; but I prefer to give them the benefit of the doubt.
+
+Mr. Rothschild--If I understood you correctly, this electric light
+costs more than gas?
+
+Mr. Daft--_Must_ do by this system. You cannot do better, so far as
+our philosophy goes. But this whole system of illumination, as now
+practiced is a financial fallacy.
+
+Mr. Rothschild--That is what Professor Sawyer says.
+
+Mr. Daft--The same amount of energy converted into light by our arc
+system will produce 30,000 candles. We are perfectly willing to
+demonstrate that at any time. I am free to admit that the minute
+subdivision obtained by the Edisonian, Swan, or Fox system--they do
+not differ materially--is a great desideratum; but this cannot bridge
+the financial gulf.
+
+Mr. Lendrum--Now please state what we have accomplished.
+
+Mr. Daft--Certainly; and in so doing I prefer to give our results as
+actually occurring in everyday work; and in this connection let me
+remind you that in no branch of physics are the purely experimental
+effects so well calculated to deceive, if not fairly conditioned. As
+we have seen, it is claimed on excellent authority that the equivalent
+of 4,000 candles appeared in an arc by expending 40,000 foot pounds of
+energy at the generator, but with everyday conditions it is at present
+idle to expect such efficiency. Commercially we can give by our own
+system 3,000 candles for 40,000 foot pounds absorbed; this may be done
+for an indefinite length of time and leave nothing to be desired on
+the score of steadiness. Unfortunately there is no unit of photometric
+measurement generally recognized in this country, each electrician
+having so far adopted one to suit his own convenience; but in making
+the foregoing statement I wish it to be understood that our efficiency
+would appear still greater if measured by some of the methods now
+employed. For our own satisfaction we have endeavored to be at least
+approximately accurate, at the same time wishing to avoid the
+affectation of extreme precision, such, for example, as adding twenty
+or thirty candles to measurements of so many thousands, and we are
+satisfied that the most critical expert tests will prove our claim to
+be within the mark. The limit of subdivision is only reached when the
+difficulty of further increasing the electromotive force of the
+machines, involving great care in insulation and a host of other
+troubles arising, so to speak, at very high pressure, is balanced by
+the objections to working in multiple arc; this appears to occur now
+at something below 40 lights, but will in all probability be greatly
+extended within a short time. The machines are so constructed that the
+local currents, usually productive of dangerous heating, are turned to
+useful account, so that the point where radiation exceeds production
+is soon reached, and provided the machines are not speeded beyond the
+proper limit, they may be run continuously without the slightest
+indication of lost vitality. I need scarcely remind you that this is a
+most important feature, and by no means a common one.
+
+The lamps used in our system I believe to be the simplest known form
+of regulator; indeed it seems scarcely possible that anything less
+complicated could perform the necessary work; as a matter of fact we
+may confidently assert that it cannot be made less liable to
+derangement. It has frequently been placed on circuit by persons
+totally inexperienced in such matters, and still has yielded results
+which we are quite willing to quote at any time.
+
+I will not now trespass on your patience further than will enable me
+to state that experiments now in hand indicate conclusively that
+domestic electric lighting of the immediate future will be
+accomplished in a manner more beautiful and wondrous than was ever
+shadowed in an Arabian Night's dream. I hesitate somewhat to make
+these vague allusions, since so many wild promises, for which I am not
+responsible, remain unfulfilled, but the time is surely near at hand
+when a single touch will illuminate our homes with a light which will
+combine all the elements of beauty, steadiness, softness, and absolute
+safety, to a degree as yet undreamed of. I do not ask you to accept
+this without question, but only to remember that within the last
+decade wires have been taught to convey not only articulate sounds,
+but the individual voices you know amidst a thousand, and even light
+and heat have each been made the medium of communicating our thoughts
+to distant places!
+
+Not the least remarkable phenomenon in this connection is the
+intellectual condition of the people who have welcomed these marvelous
+achievements and allowed them to enter into their everyday life, thus
+removing the greatest barriers of the past and paving the way for that
+philosophical millennium inevitably awaiting those who may be
+fortunate enough to survive the next decade.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUCCESS OF THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS, NEW YORK.
+
+The travel over the elevated steam street railways of New York city
+for month of October, 1881, was the heaviest yet recorded, aggregating
+7,121,961 passengers, as against 5,881,474, for the corresponding
+month of 1880, an increase of 1,240,487, representing just about the
+entire population of the city.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEDGES' ELECTRIC LAMPS.
+
+
+We illustrate a very curious and interesting form of electric
+regulator which is exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of Electricity by
+Mr. Killingworth Hedges, whose name will be known to our readers as
+the author of a little book on the electric light. Mr. Hedges' lamp
+belongs to the same category of electric regulators as the lamp of M.
+Rapieff, and to one form of M. Reynier's lamp, that is to say, the
+position of the ends of the carbons, and therefore of the arc, is
+determined not by clockwork or similar controlling mechanism, but by
+the locus of the geometrical intersection of the axes of the carbon
+rods, the positions of which axes being determined by simple
+mechanical means.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1 and 2 HEDGES' ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS
+ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+Referring to Fig. 1, A and B are two troughs rectangular in cross
+section attached to the supports in such positions that their axes are
+inclined to one another so as to form the letter V, as shown in the
+figure. Within these troughs slide freely the two carbon pencils,
+which are of circular cross section, meeting, when no current is
+passing, at the lower point, E. The carbon-holder, B, to the right of
+the figure, is rigidly attached to the framing of the lamp, but the
+trough, A, which carries the negative carbon, is attached to the
+framing by a pivot shown in the figure, and on this pivot the carbon
+holder can rock, its motion being controlled by the position of the
+armature of an electro-magnet, M, the coils of which are included in
+the circuit of the apparatus. By this means, the moment the current is
+established through the lamp, the armature is attracted, and the
+points of the two carbons are separated, thus forming the arc. The
+positive carbon, B, is held from sliding and dropping through the
+trough by the gentle pressure against it of the smaller carbon rod,
+C¹, which also slides in a trough or tube fixed in such a position
+that the point of contact between the two rods is sufficiently near
+the arc for the smaller rod to be slowly consumed as the other is
+burnt away; the latter in that way is permitted to slide gradually
+down the trough as long as the lamp is in action. The negative
+carbon-holder, A, is provided with a little adjustable platinum stop,
+E, which by pressing against the side of the conical end of the
+negative carbon, holds the latter in its place and prevents it sliding
+down the trough except under the influence of the slow combustion of
+the cone during the process of producing the arc. The position of the
+stop with respect to the conical end is determined by a small
+adjusting screw shown in the figure. This arrangement of stop is
+identical in principle with that adopted by Messrs. Siemens Brothers
+in their "abutment pole" lamp, and is found to work very well in
+practice on the negative electrodes, but is inapplicable on the
+positive carbons on account of the higher temperature of the latter,
+which is liable to destroy the metallic stop by fusion, and it is for
+this reason that the positive carbon in Mr. Hedges' lamp is controlled
+by the method we have already described. For alternating currents,
+however, the abutment stop may be used on both electrodes.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 3 and 4.]
+
+In order to maintain a good electrical contact between the fixed
+conducting portions of the lamp and the sliding carbons, Mr. Hedges
+fits to each carbon-holder a little contact piece, F F, hinged to its
+respective trough at its upper end, and carrying at its lower or free
+end a somewhat heavy little block of brass grooved out to fit the
+cylindrical side of the carbon, against which it presses with an even
+pressure. This arrangement offers another advantage, namely, that the
+length of that portion of the carbon rods which is conveying the
+current is always the same notwithstanding the shortening of their
+total length by combustion; the resistance of the carbon electrodes
+is, therefore, maintained constant, and, for the reason that the
+contact piece presses against the rods very near their lower ends,
+that resistance is reduced to a minimum. In this way very long
+carbons, such, for instance, as will burn for ten or sixteen hours,
+can be used without introducing any increase of resistance into the
+circuit. The length of the arc can be determined by the adjustment of
+the screw, G, by which the amount of movement of the armature is
+limited.
+
+Fig. 2 represents a modified form of Mr. Hedges' lamp designed for
+installation when it is desirable to burn a number of lamps in series.
+In this arrangement the carbons are separated by the attractive
+influence of a solenoid upon an iron plunger, to which is attached (by
+a non-magnetic connection) the armature of an electro-magnet, the
+coils (which are of fine wire) forming a shunt circuit between the two
+terminals of the lamp, and so disposed with respect to the armature as
+to influence it in an opposite direction to that of the solenoid. When
+the circuit of the lamp is completed with the electric generator the
+carbons are drawn apart by the action of the solenoid on the plunger,
+and the distance to which they are separated is determined by the
+difference of attractive force exercised upon the armature by the
+solenoid and the magnet; but as the latter forms a short circuit to
+that of the arc, it follows that should the resistance of the arc
+circuit increase either through the arc becoming too long or through
+imperfection in the carbons or contacts, a greater percentage of
+current will flow through the magnet coils, and the arc will be
+shortened, thereby reducing its resistance and regulating it to the
+strength of the current. In other words, the distance between the
+carbons, that is to say, the length of the arc, is determined by the
+position of the armature of the electro-magnet between its magnets and
+the solenoid, which position is in its turn determined by the
+difference between the strength of current passing through the coil of
+the solenoid and that of the magnet.
+
+Mr. Killingworth Hedges exhibits also a third form of his lamp, in
+most respects similar to the lamp figured in Fig. 1, but in which the
+ends of the two carbons rest against the side of a small cylinder of
+fireclay or other refractory material, which is mounted on a
+horizontal axis and can be rotated thereon by a worm and worm-wheel
+actuated by an endless cord passing over a grooved pulley. In the lamp
+one of the carbon-holders is rigidly fixed to the framing of the
+apparatus, and the other is mounted on a point so as to enable the
+length of the arc playing over the clay cylinder to be regulated by
+the action of an electro-magnet attracting an armature in opposition
+to the tension of an adjustable spring.
+
+In the same exhibit will be found specimens of Mr. Hedges' two-way
+switches, which have been designed to reduce the tendency to sparking
+and consequent destruction which so often accompanies the action of
+switches of the ordinary form. The essential characteristic of this
+switch, which we illustrate in elevation in Fig. 3 and in plan in Fig.
+4, lies first in the circular form of contact-piece shown in Fig. 4,
+and next in the fact that the space between the two fixed
+contact-pieces is filled up with a block composed of compressed
+asbestos, the surface of which is flush with the upper surfaces of the
+two contact-pieces. The circular contact-piece attached to the switch
+lever can be turned round so as to present a fresh surface when that
+which has been in use shows indications of being worn, and a good firm
+contact with the fixed contact-pieces is insured by the presence of a
+spiral spring shown in the upper figure, and which, owing to an error
+in engraving, appears more like a screw than a spring. In order to
+prevent bad connection through dust or other impurities collecting
+within the joint, the electrical connection between the fulcrum of the
+switch lever and the circular contact-piece is made through the bent
+spring shown edgeways in Fig. 3.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Lartigue's Switch Controller Fig.
+2--Transverse Section Fig. 3--Longitudinal Section Fig. 4.--Position
+of the Commutators during the Manuever Fig. 5.--Pedal for Sending
+Warning to Railway Crossing--Elevation. Fig. 7.--End View.
+
+Fig. 8.--Electric Alarm. Fig. 12.--Guggemos's Correspondence
+Apparatus--External View. Fig. 13.--Interior of the Same. Fig.
+14.--Annunciator Apparatus. Fig. 15.--Controller for Water Tanks
+(Lartigue System).
+
+RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway
+Crossing--Plan View. Fig. 9.--Lartigue's Bellows Pedal--Longitundinal
+Section Fig. 10.--General Plan.
+
+Fig. 16.--Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System). RAILWAY
+APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+_Lartigue's Switch Controller._--The object of this apparatus is to
+warn the switch tender in case the switch does not entirely respond to
+the movement of the maneuvering lever.
+
+The apparatus, which is represented in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, 3,
+and 4, consists of the following parts:
+
+(1.) A mercurial commutator, O, which is fixed on a lever, B,
+connected with a piece, A, which is applied against the external
+surface of the web of the main rails, opposite the extremity of the
+switch plates;
+
+(2.) A bar, C, which traverses the web of the rail and projects on the
+opposite side, and which carries a nut, D, against which the switch
+plate abuts;
+
+(3.) An electrical alarm and a pile, located near the switch lever.
+As long as one of the two plates of the switch is applied against the
+rail, one of the two commutators is inclined and no current passes. A
+space of one millimeter is sufficient to bring the commutator to a
+horizontal position and to cause the electric alarm to ring
+continuously. If the apparatus gets out of order, it is known at once;
+for if the alarm does not work during the maneuver of the switch, the
+tender will be warned that the electric communications are
+interrupted, and that he must consequently at once make known the
+position of his switch until the necessary repairs have been made.
+
+_Pedals for Transmitting Signals to Crossings._--On railways having a
+double track and doing a large amount of business it becomes very
+necessary to announce to the flagmen at railway crossings the approach
+of trains, so as to give them time to stop all crossing of the tracks.
+On railway lines provided with electro-semaphores there may be used
+for this purpose those small apparatus that have been styled semaphore
+repeaters.
+
+Mr. Lartigue has invented two automatic apparatus, by means of which
+the train itself signals its approach.
+
+1. The first of these, which is generally placed at about 6,000 feet
+from the point to be covered, consists (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8) of a
+very light pedal fixed to the inside of the rail, and acting upon a
+mercurial commutator. A spring, R, carried upon the arm, a, of a
+lever, A, projects slightly above the level of the rail, while the
+other arm, b, carries a commutator.
+
+The spring, R, on being depressed tilts the box containing the
+mercury, closes the circuit, and causes an alarm, S, located at the
+crossing, to immediately ring. In this alarm (Fig. 8) a piece, P, is
+disconnected by the passage of the current into the electro-magnet, E,
+which attracts the armature, a, and, a permanent current being set
+up, the apparatus operates like an ordinary alarm, until the piece, P,
+is placed by hand in its first position again.
+
+2. The second apparatus, exhibited by the Railway Company of the
+North, and also the invention of Mr. Lartigue, bears the name of the
+"Bellows Pedal." It consists (Figs. 9 and 10) of a pedal, properly so
+called, P, placed along the rail, one of its extremities forming a
+lever and the other being provided with a counterpoise, C. When a
+train passes over the pedal, the arm, B, fixed to its axle, on falling
+closes the circuit of an ordinary electrical alarm, and at the same
+time the bellows, S, becomes rapidly filled with air, and, after the
+passage of the train, is emptied again very slowly under the action of
+the counterpoise. The contact is thus kept up for some few minutes.
+This apparatus works very satisfactorily, but is cumbersome and
+relatively high-priced.
+
+_The Brunot Controller as a Controller of the Passage of Trains._--The
+Brunot Controller, which has been employed for several years on the
+Railway of the North, is designed to control the regularity of the
+running of trains, and to make automatically a contradictory
+verification of the figures on the slips carried by the conductors. In
+Fig. 11 we give a longitudinal section of the apparatus. It consists
+of a wooden case containing a clockwork movement, H, upon the axle of
+which is mounted a cardboard disk, C, divided into hours and minutes,
+and regulated like a watch, that is to say, making one complete
+revolution in twelve hours. The metallic pencil, c, which is capable
+of displacing itself on the cardboard in a horizontal direction
+opposite a groove on the other side of the disk, traces, when pressure
+is brought to bear on it, a spiral curve. The transverse travel of
+the pencil is effected in ninety-six hours. The displacement of the
+pencil is brought about by means of a cam. Under the influence of the
+jarring of the train in motion, a weight, P, suspended from a flexible
+strip, l, strikes against the pencil, c, which traces a series of
+points. During stoppages there is, of course, an interruption in the
+tracing of the curve.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Brunot's Controller. RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE
+PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+Up to this point no electricity is involved--the apparatus is simply a
+controller of regularity. Mr. Brunot has conceived the idea of
+utilizing his apparatus for controlling the passage of trains at
+certain determined points on the line; for example, at the top of
+heavy grades. For this purpose it has only been necessary to add to
+the apparatus that we have just described an electro-magnet, E,
+connected electrically with a fixed contact located on the line. When
+the current passes, that is to say, at the moment the circuit is
+closed by the passage of a train, the armature, A, is attracted, and
+the pencil marks a point on the cardboard disk. This modification of
+the apparatus has not as yet been practically applied.
+
+_Electrical Corresponding Apparatus._--The object of these apparatus
+is to quickly transmit to a distance a certain number of phrases that
+have been prepared in advance. The Company of the North employs two
+kinds of correspondence apparatus--the Guggemos and the annunciator
+apparatus.
+
+1. _The Guggemos Apparatus._--This apparatus serves at once as a
+manipulator and receiver, and consists of an inner movement surmounted
+by a dial, over the face of which moves an index hand. Around the
+circumference of the dial there is arranged a series of circular
+cases, C, containing the messages to be received, and similar
+triangular cases, containing the messages to be forwarded, radiating
+from the center of the dial. Between each of these there is a button,
+b.
+
+Fig. 13 represents the interior of an apparatus for twenty messages.
+It consists of a key-board, M, an electro-magnet, B, a clock-work
+movement, Q, an escapement, s, and an interrupter, F G.
+
+When one of the buttons, b, is pressed, one of the levers of the
+key-board arrangement touches the disk, M, which is insulated from the
+other portions of the key-board, and the current then passes from the
+terminal C to M, and there bifurcating, one portion of it goes to the
+bobbins of the apparatus and thence to the earth, while the other goes
+to actuate the correspondence apparatus. The index-hands of the two
+apparatus thereupon begin their movement simultaneously, and only stop
+when the pressure is removed from the button and the current is
+consequently interrupted. H is a ratchet-wheel, which, like the
+key-board, is insulated from the rest of the apparatus. The button, K,
+located over each of the dials, serves to bring the index-needles back
+to their position under the cross shown in Fig. 12. The key, X, serves
+for winding up the clock-work movement.
+
+_The Annunciator Apparatus._--This apparatus, which performs the same
+role as the one just described, is simply an ingenious modification of
+the annunciator used in hotels, etc.
+
+It consists of a wooden case, containing as many buttons as there are
+phrases to be exchanged. Over each button, b, there is a circular
+aperture, behind which drops the disk containing the phrase. Between
+the buttons and the apertures are rectangular plates, P, in which are
+inscribed the answers given by pressing on the button of the receiving
+tablet--a pressure which, at the same time, removes the corresponding
+disk from the aperture. Two disks located at the upper part carry
+these inscriptions: "Error, I repeat;" "Wait." The tablets on
+exhibition have eight disks, and can thus be used for exchanging six
+different phrases. In the interior, opposite each aperture, there is a
+Hughes magnet, between the arms of which there oscillates a vertical
+soft-iron rod, carrying a disk. The maneuver "is simple." By pressing
+upon a button there is sent into the bobbins of the magnet
+corresponding to this button a current which causes the disk to appear
+before one of the apertures, while at the same time an alarm begins to
+ring. The same maneuver performed by the agent at the receiving-post
+has the effect of causing the disk to disappear. The two contact
+springs in communication at each aperture with the alarm and the line
+are connected by a strip of ebonite, M, against the center of which
+presses the button.
+
+_Electrical Controllers for Water-Tanks._--The object of these
+apparatus is to warn the person in charge of a water-tank that the
+latter is full, and that he must stop the engine-pump; or, that the
+tank is empty, and that he must at once proceed to fill it. The
+Company of the North has on exhibition two such apparatus--one of them
+Lartigue's, and the other Vérité's.
+
+1. _The Lartigue Controller_ (Fig. 15).--This apparatus consists of a
+long lever, A, which carries at one of its extremities a funnel, E,
+having a very narrow orifice and which is placed under the overflow
+pipe of the tank. The lever is kept normally in a horizontal position
+by a counterpoise; but, as soon as the overflow runs into the funnel,
+the weight of the water tilts the lever, and the mercurial commutator,
+F, closes the circuit of a pile, which actuates an alarm-bell located
+near the pump and engine. The two stops, a and _a'_, limit the play
+of the lever.
+
+2. _The Vérité Controller_ (Fig. 16).--This apparatus consists of a
+float, F, provided with a catch, C, calculated in such a way as to act
+only when the float has reached a certain definite height. At that
+moment it lifts the extremity of the weighted lever, E, which in
+falling back acts upon the extremity, a, of another lever, N,
+pivoted at the point, O. The piece, P, which is normally in contact
+with the magnet, A, being suddenly detached by this movement of the
+lever, N, the induced current which is then produced causes the
+display, near the pump, of a disk, Q, upon which is inscribed the word
+"Full." This is a signal to stop pumping.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TELEPHONIC HALLS OF THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.
+
+
+Telephonic communication between the Opera and the Exhibition of
+Electricity is obtained by means of twenty conducting wires, which are
+divided between two halls hung with carpets to deaden external noises.
+We represent in the accompanying engraving one of these halls, and the
+one which is lighted by the Lane-Fox system of lamps. As may be seen,
+there are affixed against the hangings, all around the room, long
+mahogany boards, to which are fastened about twenty small tablets
+provided with hooks, from which are suspended the telephones. The
+latter are connected with the underground conductors by extensible
+wires which project from the wooden wainscot of which we have just
+spoken, so that it is very easy for the auditors to put the telephones
+to their ears.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL
+EXHIBITION.]
+
+As the telephones are connected in series of eight with the same
+couple of microphone transmitters, and as each of these transmitting
+couples occupies a different position on the stage, it results that
+the effects are not the same at different points of each hall. Those
+telephones, for example, which correspond with the foot-lights of the
+theater are more affected by the sounds of the large instnuments of
+the orchestra than those which occupy the middle of the foot-lights;
+but, as an offset to this, the latter are affected by the voice of the
+prompter. In order to equalize the effects as much as possible, Mr.
+Ader has arranged it so that the two transmitters of each series shall
+be placed under conditions that are diametrically opposite. Thus, the
+transmitter at the end of the foot-lights, on the left side,
+corresponds with the transmitter of the series to the right, nearest
+to the middle of the stage; and the arrangement is the same, but in an
+inverse direction, for the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights
+to the right. But the series which produces the best effects is, as
+may be readily comprehended, that which corresponds with the
+transmitters occupying the middle of the right and left rows. These
+considerations easily explain the different opinions expressed by
+certain auditors in relation to the predominant sounds that they have
+heard, and why it is that some of them who have listened in different
+parts of the same hall have not had the same impressions. Naturally,
+the fault has beeen laid to the telephones; but, although these may
+vary in quality, it is more particularly to the arrangement of the
+transmitters on the stage that are to be attributed the differences
+that are noted.
+
+As the Opera does not give representations every day, Mr. Ader has had
+the idea of occupying the attention of the public on Tuesday,
+Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday with the telephonic effects of
+flourishes of trumpets, which imitate pretty well the effects of
+French horns. These experiments have taken place in the hall in which
+is installed the little theater, and we must really say that in the
+effects produced French horns count for nothing.--_La Lumiere
+Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ACTION OF COLD ON THE VOLT
+
+
+When the voltaic arc plays between two metallic rheophores, of copper
+for instance, each formed of a U-tube traversed by a rapid current of
+cold water, and placed horizontally opposite each other, the following
+facts are observed: The luminous power of the arc is considerably
+weakened; it is reduced to a mere luminous point even when a current
+of 50 to 75 Bunsen elements of the large pattern is employed. The arc
+is very unstable and the least breath is sufficient to extinguish it.
+If a leaf of paper is placed above the arc at the distance of 0.004 to
+0.005 meter a black point is produced in a few moments, which spreads
+and becomes a perforation, but the paper does not ignite. The arc
+consists of a luminous globule, moving between the two rheophores up
+and down and back again. The form of this globule, as well as its
+extreme mobility, causes it to resemble a drop of water in a
+spheroidal state. If we approach to the voltaic arc the south pole of
+a magnet the arc is attracted to such a degree that it leaves the
+rheophores and is extinguished. The same facts are observed in an
+intense form on presenting the north pole of a magnet to the arc. The
+quantity of ozone seems greater than when the arc is not refrigerated.
+It is to be noted that notwithstanding the refrigeration of the
+rheophores the flame of the arc is slightly green, proving that a
+portion of the copper is burning. It becomes a question whether the
+arc would be produced on taking as rheophores two tubes of platinum in
+which is caused to circulate, e.g., alcohol cooled to -30°.--_D.
+Tommasi._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WATCHMAN'S DETECTER.
+
+
+We herewith illustrate an exceedingly simple form of detecter, to show
+if the night watchmen perform their visits regularly and punctually.
+In the case, C, is a clockwork apparatus driving the axle, S, at the
+end of which is a worm which gears into the wheel of the drum, D. The
+rotation of D, thus obtained unrolls a strip of paper from the other
+drum, D. This paper passes over the poles of as many electro-magnets
+as there are points to be visited, and underneath the armatures of
+these electro-magnets. Each armature has a sharp point fixed on its
+under side, and when a current passing through the coils causes the
+attraction of the armature, this point perforates the paper. The
+places to be visited are connected electrically with the binding
+screws shown, and the watchman has merely to press a button to make
+the electric circuit complete. It has been found in practice that
+plain paper answers every purpose, as the clock giving an almost
+uniform motion enables the reader, after having seen the perforated
+slips once or twice, to determine fairly well the time which elapses
+between each pressure of the button.--_The Engineer._
+
+[Illustration: WATCHMAN'S DETECTER]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INTEGRATING APPARATUS.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the London Physical Society, Mr. C. Vernon Boys
+read a paper on "Integrating Apparatus." After referring to his
+original "cart" machine for integrating, described at a former meeting
+of the society, he showed how he had been led to construct the new
+machine exhibited, in which a cylinder is caused to reciprocate
+longitudinally in contact with a disk, and give the integral by its
+rotation. Integrators were of three kinds: (1) radius machines; (2)
+cosine machines; (3) tangent machines. Sliding friction and inertia
+render the first two kinds unsuitable where there are delicate forces
+or rapid variation in the function to be integrated. Tangent machines
+depend on pure rolling, and the inertia and friction are
+inappreciable. They are, therefore, more practical than the other
+sort. It is to this class that Mr. Boys' machines belong. The author
+then described a theoretical tangent integrator depending on the
+mutual rolling of two smoke rings, and showed how the steering of a
+bicycle or wheelbarrow could be applied to integrate directly with a
+cylinder either the quotient or product of two functions. If the
+tangent wheel is turned through a right angle at starting, the machine
+will integrate reciprocals, or it can be made to integrate functions
+by an inverse process. If instead of a cylinder some other surface of
+evolution is employed as an integrating surface, then special
+integrations can be effected. He showed a polar planimeter in which
+the integrating surface is a sphere. A special use of these
+integrators is for finding the total work done by a fluid pressure
+reciprocating engine. The difference of pressure on the two sides of
+the piston determines the tangent of the inclination of the tangent
+wheel which runs on the integrating cylinder; while the motion of the
+latter is made to keep time with that of the piston. In this case the
+number of evolutions of the cylinder measures the total amount of work
+done by the engine. The disk cylinder integrator may also be applied
+to find the total amount of work transmitted by shafting or belting
+from one part of a factory to another. An electric current meter may
+be made by giving inclination to the disk, which is for this purpose
+made exceedingly small and delicate, by means of a heavy magnetic
+needle deflected by the current. This, like Edison's, is a direction
+meter; but a meter in which no regard is paid to the direction of the
+current can be made by help of an iron armature of such a shape that
+the force with which it is attracted to fill the space between the
+poles of an electro-magnet is inversely as its displacement. Then by
+resisting this motion by a spring or pendulum the movement is
+proportional to the current, and a tangent wheel actuated by this
+movement causes the reciprocating cylinder on which it runs to
+integrate the current strength. Mr. Boys exhibited two such electric
+energy meters, that is, machines which integrate the product of the
+current strength by the difference of potential between two points
+with respect to time. In these the main current is made to pass
+through a pair of concentric solenoids, and in the annular space
+between these is hung a solenoid, the upper half of which is wound in
+the opposite direction to the lower half. By the use of what Mr. Boys
+calls "induction traps" of iron, the magnetic force is confined to a
+small portion of the suspended solenoid, and by this means the force
+is independent of the position. The solenoid is hung to one end of a
+beam, and its motion is resisted by a pendulum weight, by which the
+energy meters may be regulated like clocks to give standard measure.
+The beam carries the tangent wheels, and the rotation of the cylinder
+gives the energy expanded in foot-pounds or other measures. The use of
+an equal number of turns in opposite directions on the movable
+solenoid causes the instrument to be uninfluenced by external magnetic
+forces. Mr. Boys showed on the screen an image of an electric arc, and
+by its side was a spot of light, whose position indicated the energy,
+and showed every flicker of the light and fluctuation of current in
+the arc. He showed on the screen that if the poles are brought too
+near the energy expended is less, though the current is stronger, and
+that if the poles are too far apart, though the electromotive force is
+greater the energy is less; so that the apparatus may be made to find
+the distance at which the greatest energy, and so the greatest heat
+and light, may be produced.
+
+At the conclusion of the paper, Prof. W.G. Adams and Prof. G.C. Foster
+could not refrain from expressing their high admiration of the
+ingenious and able manner in which Mr. Boys had developed the subject.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A CANAL BOAT PROPELLED BY AIR.
+
+
+A novelty in canal boats lies in Charles River, near the foot of
+Chestnut street, which is calculated to attract considerable
+attention. It is called a pneumatic canal boat and was built at
+Wiscasset, Me., as devised by the owner, Mr. R.H. Tucker, of Boston,
+who claims to hold patents for its design in England and the United
+States. The specimen shown on Charles River, which is designed to be
+used on canals without injuring the banks, is a simple structure,
+measuring sixty-two feet long and twenty wide. It is three feet in
+depth and draws seventeen inches of water. It is driven entirely by
+air, Root's blower No. 4 being used, the latter operated by an
+eight-horse-power engine. The air is forced down a central shaft to
+the bottom, where it is deflected, and, being confined between keels,
+passes backward and upward, escaping at the stern through an orifice
+nineteen feet wide, so as to form a sort of air wedge between the boat
+and the surface of the water. The force with which the air strikes the
+water is what propels it. The boat has a speed of four miles an hour,
+but requires a thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop its full
+capabilities. The patentee claims a great advantage in doing away with
+the heavy machinery of screws and side-wheels, and believes that the
+contrivance gives full results, in proportion to the power employed.
+It is also contrived for backing and steering by air propulsion.
+Owing to the slight disturbance which it causes to the water, it is
+thought to be very well adapted for work on canals without injury to
+the sides.--_Boston Journal._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEAD LININGS OF PASSENGER CARS.
+
+
+The veneer ceilings are considered as much superior to cloth as cloth
+was to the roof-ceiling. They are remarkably chaste, and so solid and
+substantial that but little decoration is necessary to produce a
+pleasing effect. The agreeable contrast between the natural grain of
+the wood and the deeper shade of the bands and mouldings is all that
+is necessary to harmonize with the other parts of the interiors of
+certain classes of cars--smoking and dining cars, for example. But in
+the case of parlor and dining-room cars, the decorations of these
+ceilings should be in keeping with the style of the cars, by giving
+such a character to the lines, curves, and colors, as will be
+suggestive of cheerfulness and life. While these head linings are
+deserving of the highest commendation as an important improvement upon
+previous ones, they are still open to some objections. One barrier to
+their general adoption is their increased cost. It is true that
+superior quality implies higher prices, but when the prices exceed so
+much those of cloth linings, it is difficult to induce road managers
+to increase expenses by introducing the new linings, when the great
+object is to reduce expenses. Another objection to wood linings is
+their liability to injury from heat and moisture, a liability which
+results from the way in which they are put together. A heated roof or
+a leak swells the veneering, and in many cases takes it off in strips.
+To obviate these objections, I have, during the past eighteen months,
+been experimenting with some materials that would be less affected by
+these causes, and at the same time make a handsome ceiling. About a
+year ago I fitted up one car in this way, and it has proved a success.
+The material used is heavy tar-board pressed into the form of the roof
+and strengthened by burlaps. It is then grained and decorated in the
+usual manner, and when finished has the same appearance as the
+veneers, will wear as well, and can be finished at much less
+cost.--_D.D. Robertson._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED MORTAR MIXER.
+
+
+The engravings herewith illustrate a new form of mixing or pugging
+machine for making mortar or any other similar material. It has been
+designed by Mr. R.R. Gubbins, more especially for mixing emery with
+agglutinating material for making emery wheels; and a machine is at
+work on this material in the manufactory of the Standard Emery Wheel
+Company, Greek Street, Soho. The machine is shown in perspective in
+Fig. 1 with the side door of the mixing box let down as it is when the
+box is being emptied; and in Fig. 2 it is shown in transverse section.
+The principle of the machine is the employment of disks fixed at an
+angle of about 45 deg. on shafts revolving in a mixing box, to which a
+slow reciprocating movement of short range is given.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2--IMPROVED MORTAR MIXING
+MACHINE.]
+
+In our illustrations, C is a knife-edge rail, upon which run grooved
+wheels supporting the pugging box. To the axle of one grooved wheel a
+connecting rod from crank arm, F is attached to effect the to-and-fro
+motion of the mixing box, B. G is the door of the box, B, hinged at H,
+and secured by hinged pins carrying fly nuts. A cover and hopper and
+also a trap may be supplied to the box, B, for continuously feeding
+and discharging the material operated upon. L, L, are the pugging
+blades or discs on shafts, M. The shafts, M, pass through a slot in
+the box, B, and the packing of these shafts is effected by the face
+plate sliding and bearing against the face on the standard of the
+machine. P is a guide piece on the standard, against which bears and
+slides the piece, Q, bolted on to box, B, to support and guide the
+box, B, in its movement. The forked ends of a yoke engage with the
+collars, S, on the shafts, M, this yoke being set by a screw so that
+the shafts may be easily removed. The machine is driven from the
+pulleys and shaft, T, through gearing, T2 and T3, and by the Ewart's
+chain on the wheel and pinion, V and U.--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 311, page 4960.]
+
+
+
+
+PRACTICAL NOTES ON PLUMBING.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: From the London _Building News_.]
+
+BY P.J. DAVIES, H.M.A.S.P., ETC.
+
+
+TINNING IRON PIPES, COPPER OR BRASS-WORK, BITS, ETC.
+
+Previously, I described the method of tinning the bit, etc., with
+resin; but before this work on joints can be considered complete, I
+find it necessary to speak of tinning the ends of iron pipes, etc.,
+which have within the last fifty years been much used in conjunction
+with leaden pipes. This is done as follows: Take some spirits of salts
+(otherwise known as hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, hydrogen
+chloride, HCl), in a gallipot, and put as much sheet-zinc in it as the
+spirit will dissolve; you have then obtained chloride of zinc (ZnCl).
+A little care is required when making this, as the acid is decomposed
+and is spread about by the discharged hydrogen, and will rust anything
+made of iron or steel, such as tools, etc. It also readily absorbs
+ammoniacal gas, so that, in fact, sal ammoniac may also be dissolved
+in it, or sal ammoniac dissolved in water will answer the purpose of
+the chloride of zinc.
+
+Having the killed spirits, as it is sometimes called, ready, file the
+end of your iron or bit and plunge this part into the spirits, then
+touch your dipped end with some fine solder, and dip it again and
+again into the spirits until you have a good tinned face upon your
+iron, etc.; next you require a spirit-brush.
+
+
+SPIRIT-BRUSH.
+
+You can make this by cutting a few bristles out of a broom or brush,
+push them into a short piece of compo tube, say 1/4 in., and hammer up
+the end to hold the bristles; next cut the ends of the bristles to
+about 3/8 in. long, and the brush is ready for use.
+
+
+SOLDERING IRON TO LEAD.
+
+Suppose you want to make a joint round a lead and iron pipe. First
+file the end of your iron pipe as far up as you would shave it if it
+were lead, and be sure to file it quite bright and free from grease;
+heat your soldering-iron; then, with your spirit-brush, paint the
+prepared end of your iron, and with your bit, rub over the pipe plenty
+of solder, until the pipe is properly tinned, not forgetting to use
+plenty of spirits; this done, you can put your joint together, and
+wipe in the usual manner. Caution.--Do not put too much heat on your
+iron pipe, either when tinning or making the joint, or the solder will
+not take or stand.
+
+
+DUMMIES FOR PIPE-BENDING.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 38. and 38B.]
+
+Figs. 38 and 38B. This tool I had better describe before
+proceeding to the method of bending. To make it take a piece of, say,
+½ in. iron pipe, 3 ft. long, or the length required, bent a little at
+one end, as shown at A B in Fig. 38 and Fig. 38B. Tin the end
+about 2 in. up, make a hole with a small plumbing-iron in some sand,
+and place the tinned end of the iron pipe, B, into this hole; fill the
+hole up with good hot lead, and the dummy, after it has been rasped up
+a little, is ready for use. It will be found handy to have three or
+four different lengths, and bent to different angles, to suit your
+work. A straight one (Fig. 38B.) made to screw into an iron
+socket or length of gas-pipe, will be found very handy for getting
+dents out of long lengths of soil-pipe.
+
+
+BENDS AND SET-OFFS.
+
+Before you begin bending solid pressed pipes always put the thickest
+part of your pipe _at the back_. Lead, in a good plumber's hands, may
+be twisted into every conceivable shape; but, as in all other trades,
+there is a right and a wrong way of doing everything, and there are
+many different methods, each having a right and wrong way, which I
+shall describe. I shall be pleased if my readers will adopt the style
+most suitable for their particular kind of work; of course I shall say
+which is the best for the class of work required.
+
+For small pipes, such as from ½ in. to 1 in. "_stout_ pipe," you may
+pull them round without trouble or danger; but for larger sizes, say,
+from 1¼ in. to 2 in., some little care is necessary, even in stout
+pipes.
+
+Fig. 37 illustrates a badly made bend, and also shows how it comes
+together at the throat, X, and back, E; L is the enlarged section of X
+E, looking at the pipe endways. The cause of this contraction is
+pulling the bend too quickly, and too much at a time, without dressing
+in the sides at B B as follows: After you have pulled the pipe round
+until it just begins to flatten, take a soft dresser, or a piece of
+soft wood, and a hammer, and turn the pipe on its side as at Fig. 37;
+then strike the bulged part of the pipe from X B toward E, until it
+appears round like section K. Now pull your pipe round again as
+before, and keep working it until finished. If you find that it
+becomes smaller at the bend, take a long bolt and work the throat part
+out until you have it as required.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+
+BENDING WITH WATER (LIGHT PIPES).
+
+Fig. 39. This style of bending is much in use abroad, but not much
+practiced in London, though a splendid method of work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+It is a well known fact that, practically speaking, for such work,
+water is incompressible, but may be turned and twisted about to any
+shape, provided it is inclosed in a solid case--Fig. 39 is that case.
+The end, A, is stopped, and the stopcock, B, soldered into the other
+end. Now fill up this pipe quite full with warm water and shut the
+cock, take the end, A, and pull round the pipe, at the same time
+dressing the molecules of lead from the throat, C, toward D E, which
+will flow if properly worked.
+
+You can hammer away as much as you please, but be quick about it, so
+that the water does not cool down, thereby contracting; in fact, you
+should open the cock now and then, and recharge it to make sure of
+this.
+
+
+SAND BENDING.
+
+This is a very old method of bending lead pipes, and answers every
+purpose for long, easy bends. Proceed in this way: The length of the
+pipe to be 5 ft., fill and well ram this pipe solid with sand 2 ft.
+up, then have ready a metal-pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe one
+foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold sand, ramming it as
+firmly as possible, stop the end and work it round as you did the
+water bend, but do not strike it too hard in one place, or you will
+find it give way and require to be dummied out again, or if you cannot
+get the dent out with the dummy send a ball through (see "Bending with
+Balls").
+
+
+BENDING WITH BALLS OR BOBBINS.
+
+This style of work is much practiced on small pipes, such as 2 in. to
+3 in., especially by London plumbers. Method: Suppose your pipe to be
+2 in., then you require your ball or bobbin about 1/16 in. less than
+the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull the
+pipe round until it just begins to flatten, as at Fig. 37, put the
+ball into the pipe, and with some short pieces of wood (say, 2 in.
+long by 1½ in. diameter) force the ball through the dented part of the
+pipe, or you may use several different-sized balls, as at A B C, Fig.
+40, and ram them through the pipe with a short mandrel, as at D M. You
+will require to proceed very carefully about this ramming, or
+otherwise you will most likely drive the bobbins through the back at L
+K J. You must also watch the throat part, G H I, to keep it from
+kinking or buckling-up; dress this part from the throat toward the
+back, in order to get rid of the surplus in the throat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+
+THREE-BALL OR LEAD DRIVING BALL AND DOUBLE-BALL BENDING.
+
+Fig. 41 shows a method of bending with three balls, one of lead being
+used as a driver attached to a piece of twine. This is a country
+method, and very good, because the two balls are kept constantly to
+the work. First, put the two balls just where you require the bend,
+then pull the pipe slightly round; take the leaden ball and drop it
+on the ball, B, then turn the pipe the other end up and drop it on A,
+and do so until your bend is the required shape. You must be careful
+not to let your leaden ball touch the back of the pipe. Some use a
+piece of smaller leaden pipe run full of lead for the ball, C, and I
+do not think it at all a bad method, as you can get a much greater
+weight for giving the desired blow to your _boxwood_ balls.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.]
+
+
+BENDING WITH WINDLASS AND BRASS BALL.
+
+This is an excellent method of bending small pipes. Fig. 42 will
+almost describe itself. A is a brass or gun metal ball having a copper
+or wire rope running through it, and pulled through the flattened part
+of the pipe as shown. It will be quite as well to tack the bend down
+to the bench, as at B, when pulling the ball through; well dress the
+lead from front to back to thicken the back. I have seen some plumbers
+put an extra thickness of lead on the back before beginning to bend.
+Notice: nearly all solid pressed pipes are thicker on one side than
+the other (as before remarked), always place the thickest part at the
+back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+
+HYDRAULIC OR CUP-LEATHER AND BALL BENDING.
+
+Fig 43. This is my own method of pipe-bending, and is very useful when
+properly handled with plenty of force, but requires great care and
+practice. You must have a union sweated on the end, A, Fig. 43, and
+the ball, B, to fit the pipe. The cup-leather, E, should have a plate
+fixed on the front to press the ball forward. Pull up the pipe as you
+please, and pump the ball through; it will take all the dents out, and
+that too very quickly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+
+BENDING BY SPLITTING OR SPLIT-MADE BENDS.
+
+This method of bending is much practiced in the provinces, and, for
+anything I know to the contrary, is one of the best methods in use, as
+by it you are likely to get a good substance of metal on the back of
+the bend whether the plumber be a good or a bad workman. Proceed as
+follows: Cut the pipe down the center to suit the length of your bend,
+as shown at A B, Fig. 44. It will be quite as well if you first set
+out this bend on the bench, then you may measure round the back, as
+from C to L, to obtain the distance of the cut, which should always be
+three or four inches longer than the bend. You may also in this way
+obtain the correct length for the throat, G H I; here you will see
+that you have a quantity of lead to spare, i.e., from A to E, all of
+which has to be got rid of in uncut bends--some plumbers shift from
+front to back, but how many? Not one in twenty. After you have cut the
+pipe, open the throat part, bend out the sides, and pull this part
+round a little at a time, then with a dummy, Fig. 38, work the
+internal part of the throat outward to as nearly the shape as you can.
+Go carefully to work, and do not attempt to work up the sides, A D B,
+until your throat is nearly to the proper shape, after which you may
+do so with a small boxwood dresser or bossing-stick (It is not
+necessary to explain minutely what a bosser or dressing-stick is, as
+they can be bought at almost any lead-merchants--the dresser is shown
+at E, Fig. 1; the bossing-stick is somewhat similar, the only
+difference being that it has a rounded face instead of flat.) Keep the
+dummy up against the sides when truing it. If you have proceeded
+properly with this throat part, you will not require to work up the
+sides or edges, as in working the throat back the sides will come up
+by themselves. Next take the back, pull it round a little at a time,
+the dummy being held inside, with your dresser work the two edges and
+sides slowly round, and the back will follow. Never strike the back
+from the underside with the dummy. After you have made a dozen or two
+you will be able to make them as fast as you please, but do not hurry
+them at first, as the greater part of this work is only to be learned
+by patient application, perseverance, and practice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but
+before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the
+edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch
+his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so
+that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a
+gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge
+attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look
+like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine
+solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a
+well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to
+A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being
+especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A.
+Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no
+importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared,
+that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will
+have a "higgledy-piggledy" appearance. Some difference of opinion
+exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will
+make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one
+will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained
+in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it
+is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint
+with the ladle and plumbing-iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one
+joint on the back.
+
+
+PULLING UP BENDS.
+
+In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them.
+Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you
+require the bend, lay it (_with the seam at the side_) upon a pillow,
+made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust;
+have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length
+of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about ½ in. smaller than the pipe, and
+a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few
+burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough
+to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat
+is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the
+end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place
+a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then
+pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the
+throat. Now, with a _hot_ dummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round
+like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made,
+occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow
+on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides
+run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from
+inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back
+with a view to thickening the back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+
+SET-OFFS.
+
+A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and
+made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always
+make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found
+to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make
+the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff
+from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different
+shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double
+bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent
+dummy shown at Fig. 38.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+
+BAD BENDS.
+
+These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at
+Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD
+to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next
+strike the back part of the pipe, E, _with the same force_, and if it
+dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of
+these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed
+together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.--Care must be
+taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+
+BAD FALLS IN BENDS.
+
+The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as
+much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for
+pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad
+bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such
+bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is
+not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for
+soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good
+fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends
+requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for
+opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future
+paragraph on "Preparing for Fixing."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+
+BENDS MADE INTO TRAPS OR RETARDERS.
+
+It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when
+running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another
+course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been
+done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I,
+after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing
+new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with
+provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it
+has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in
+his "Sanitary Engineering," says it was introduced and has been used
+for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at
+South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a
+medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of
+their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as
+joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into
+this Exhibition--in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the
+Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article
+on Fixing, in a future part.
+
+
+BENDS MADE WITH THE "SNARLING DUMMY."
+
+This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy
+made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of
+working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents,
+strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction
+gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape
+required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of
+in working up embossed vases, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+_(To be continued)_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.
+
+
+The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires
+the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors
+at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are
+adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary
+one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling
+mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines
+constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature,
+because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever.
+
+[Illustration: THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.]
+
+The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen
+Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is
+new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it
+more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schönherr, Crompton,
+and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors,
+a1, a2, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary
+motion of which acts upon the box, c, by means of the lever, b,
+the box being caused to descend again by the spring, d. Parallel
+with the breast beam there is mounted an axle, e, and upon one of
+the extremities of this is fixed the sector, a1, while the other
+extremity carries two fixed disks, f1, f2, two loose disks,
+f3, f4, and the sector, a2, which is connected with the
+latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake, g. The pawls,
+h1 and h2, are supported on a lever, i, on a level with the
+disks, and are connected with the cam, l, by the spring, k. This
+cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against
+the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls
+on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors,
+a1 and a2, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the
+desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls, h, are connected
+by wires with the bent levers, m, of the draught machine, which
+carry also the pawls, n. The upper position of the pawls, h, is
+limited by the direct resting of the levers, m, on the tappet, o,
+and the lower position by the resting of the pawls, n. The plates,
+p, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means
+of the eccentric, q, the crank, r, and the bent lever, s. The
+raised plates abut against the corresponding levers, m, and thus
+bring about the descent of the pawls, h, which are suspended from
+these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the
+pawls, n, upon the tappet, o, until the lowering of the
+corresponding plate has set the pawl, n, free. The lever, m, then
+gives way to the action of the spring, t, and the pawl, h, rises
+again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is
+effected by the motion of the bent lever, s.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL ART FOR WOMEN--CARPET DESIGNING.
+
+
+A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the
+possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women.
+
+Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical
+Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the
+proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could
+be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex
+to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative
+industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first
+woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country.
+She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no
+school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial
+purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught
+theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two,
+however, in many branches of industrial design women have been
+pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated
+from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now
+working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print
+factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers
+for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a
+china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted
+for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light,
+pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far
+exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe,
+particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars'
+worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made
+in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent.
+One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing
+department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign
+markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing
+than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair
+knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving.
+Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible,
+for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent
+instruction in this branch of industrial art is given.
+
+There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may
+be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price
+of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for
+an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels
+or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as
+good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For
+moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists
+are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to
+$100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the
+manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be
+purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist
+to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the
+work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75
+extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for
+making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three
+per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and
+Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the
+elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the
+designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time
+from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries
+run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from
+$2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from
+$1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per
+week.
+
+Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial
+art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls
+might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French
+said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and
+disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial
+art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of
+decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the
+time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical
+designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art
+might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department,
+explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public
+schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and
+high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American
+people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing
+they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The
+beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that
+she had ever witnessed in the old countries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY UPON CANVAS.
+
+
+One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of
+Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If
+you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will
+produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The
+success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not
+produce colored work--or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part
+to do so--but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic
+portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the
+dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering
+with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself
+maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true
+lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs.
+Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear
+to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path,
+and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be
+purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an
+enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about
+"painted photographs," and in these days of cheap club portraits there
+is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a
+well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is
+willing to concede that the picture has merit.
+
+"We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it," said
+one of our hosts; "it seems to contain so much fatty matter." The
+German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for
+photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and
+rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several
+pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and
+there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large
+horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that
+all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of
+water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its
+running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process,
+and this is the first operation.
+
+Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put
+the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in
+any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It
+is of _papier mâché_, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly,
+only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is
+adopted:
+
+Bromide of potassium................... 3 parts.
+Iodide of potassium.................... 1 part.
+Bromide of cadmium..................... 1  "
+Water................................ 240 parts.
+
+Four assistants are required in the operation, and the same number
+when it comes to sensitizing and developing, all of which processes
+are commenced in the same way. The bath is tilted so that the liquid
+collects at one end, and near this end two assistants hold across the
+bath a stout glass rod; then the canvas is dipped into the liquid, and
+drawn out by two other assistants over the glass rod. In this way the
+canvas is thoroughly saturated, and, at the same time, drained of
+superfluous liquid.
+
+The canvas is hung up to dry; but as sometime must elapse before this
+particular piece will be ready for sensitizing, we proceed with
+another canvas which is fit and proper for that process. The room, we
+should have mentioned, is provided with windows of yellow glass; but
+as there is plenty of light nevertheless, the fact hardly strikes one
+on entering. The sensitizing, with a solution of nitrate of silver, is
+conducted with a glass rod in the same way as before, the solution
+being thus compounded:
+
+Nitrate of silver........................ 4 parts.
+Citric acid.............................. 1 part.
+Water.................................. 140 parts.
+
+Again the canvas is dried, and then comes its exposure.
+
+This is done in a room adjoining. We lift a curtain and enter a space
+that reminds one of the underground regions of a theater. There are
+curtained partitions and wooden structures on every hand; dark murky
+corners combined with brilliant illumination. Messrs. Winter use the
+electric light for enlarging, a lamp of Siemens' driven by a six-horse
+power engine. The lamp is outside the enlarging room, and three large
+lenses, or condensers, on three sides of the light, permit the making
+of three enlargements at one end at the same time. (See Fig.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The condenser collects the rays, and these shine into a camera
+arrangement in which the small negative is contained. The enlarged
+image is then projected, magic lantern fashion, upon the screen, to
+which is fastened the sensitized canvas. The screen in question is
+upon a tramway--there are three tramways and three screens in all, as
+shown in our sketch--and for this reason it is easy to advance and
+retire the canvas, for the purpose of properly focusing it.
+
+Even with the electric light now employed, it is necessary to expose a
+considerable time to secure a vigorous impression. From ten minutes to
+half an hour is the usual period, determined by the assistant, whose
+experienced eye is the only guide. We should estimate the distance of
+the cameras from the enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen or
+fifteen feet in the instance we saw, and when the canvas was taken
+down, a distinct outline of the image was visible on its surface.
+
+By the way, we ought to mention that the canvas is in a decidedly limp
+state during these operations. It has just sufficient stiffness to
+keep smooth on the screen, and that is all; the treatment it has
+received appears to have imparted no increase of substance to it.
+Again it is brought into the red-brick washing apartment, and again
+treated in one of the white enameled baths as before. This time it is
+the developer that is contained in the bath, and the small limp
+tablecloth--for that is what it looks like--after being drawn over the
+glass rod, is put back into the bath, and the developing solution
+rocked to and fro over it. The whiteness of the bath lining assists
+one in forming a judgment of the image as it now gradually develops
+and grows stronger. Here is the formula of the developer:
+
+Pyrogallic acid......................... 10 parts.
+Citric acid............................. 45 "
+Water...................................410 "
+
+The developer--which, it will be noted, is very acid--is warmed before
+it is used, say to a temperature of 30° to 40° C.; nevertheless, the
+development does not proceed very quickly. As we watched, exactly
+eight minutes elapsed before Mr. Winter cried out sharply, "That will
+do." Immediately one of the assistants seizes the wet canvas, crumples
+it up without more ado, as if it were dirty linen, and takes it off to
+a wooden washing trough, where it is kneaded and washed in true
+washerwoman fashion. Water in plenty is sluiced over it, and after
+more vigorous manipulation still, it is passed from trough to trough
+until deemed sufficiently free from soluble salts to tone. The
+toning--done in the ordinary way with gold--removes any unpleasant
+redness the picture possesses, and then follows the fixing operation
+in hyposulphite. As canvas is more permeable than paper, these two
+last processes are quickly got through.
+
+The final washing of the canvas is very thorough. Again it is treated
+with all the vigor with which a good laundry-maid attacks dirty linen,
+the canvas, in the end, being consigned to a regular washing-machine,
+in which it is systematically worked for some time.
+
+When the canvas picture at last is finished, it presents a very rough
+appearance, by reason of the tiny fibers that stand erect all over the
+surface. To lay these, and also to improve the surface generally, the
+canvas is waxed, the fabric is stretched, and a semi-fluid mass rubbed
+into it, heat being used in the process, which not only gives
+brilliancy, but seems also to impart transparency to the shadows of
+the picture. The result is a pleasant finish, without vulgar glare or
+glaze, the high lights remaining beautifully pure and white.
+
+Of course, the price of these canvas enlargements varies with the
+amount of artistic work subsequently put upon them; but the usual
+charge made by Messrs. Winter for a well-finished life-size portrait,
+three quarter length, is sixty florins, or about £5 sterling as the
+exchange now stands. Besides working for photographers, Messrs. Winter
+are reproducing a large number of classic paintings and cartoons by
+photography on canvas in this way (some of them almost absolutely
+untouched), and these, as may be supposed, are finding a very large
+sale among dealers. Such copies must necessarily be of considerable
+value to artists and collectors, and altogether it would seem that
+Messrs. Winter have hit upon a novel undertaking, which bids fair to
+make them a handsome return for the outlay (large as it undoubtedly
+has been) made upon their Vienna establishment.--_Photo. News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DETECTION OF STARCH SUGAR SIRUP MIXED WITH SUGAR-HOUSE
+MOLASSES.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: A Paper read before the American Chemical Society,
+    September 2, 1881.]
+
+BY P. CASAMAJOR.
+
+
+In previous communications I have given processes for detecting the
+adulteration of cane-sugar by starch-sugar. The adulteration of
+sugar-house sirups by starch glucose is still more extensively
+practiced than that of sugar, and a great portion of sirups sold by
+retailers in this market is adulterated with starch glucose. This form
+of adulteration may be very easily detected by the use of strong
+methylic alcohol, in which the alcoholometer of Tralles or of Gay
+Lussac will indicate about 93½°.
+
+A straight sugar-house sirup when mixed with three times its volume of
+this strong methylic alcohol will dissolve by stirring, giving a very
+slight turbidity, which remains suspended; while sirups containing the
+usual admixture of starch sugar give a very turbid liquid, which
+separates, when left at rest, into two layers, the lower being a thick
+viscous deposit containing the glucose sirup.
+
+Considerable quantities are sold of a thin sirup, of about 32° Baumé,
+in which the proportion of sugar to the impurities is greater than in
+common sugar-house molasses. When a sirup of this kind is stirred with
+three times its volume of methylic alcohol, a marked turbidity and
+deposition will take place, which consists of pure sugar. The crystals
+are hard and gritty. They adhere to the sides of the glass, and are
+deposited on the bottom. There is no resemblance between this
+precipitate and that due to starch sugar sirup.
+
+It may not be useless to mention that if a straight sugar-house sirup
+of about 40° B. density is stirred with three times its volume of
+_ethylic_ alcohol of about 93½° the sirup will not dissolve. Hence
+ethylic alcohol of this strength is not suitable for distinguishing a
+sirup mixed with starch glucose from a _straight_ sugar-house sirup.
+
+The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may be easily
+detected by the optical saccharometer when the sirup has the usual
+density of about 40° B., and when starch sugar has been added in the
+usual quantities.
+
+For making the test the usual weight should be taken (16.35 grammes
+for Duboscq's saccharometer, and 26.048 grammes for Ventzke's
+instrument). The direct test should show a percentage of sugar not
+higher than the number of Baumé degrees indicating the density, and it
+may be from 2 to 3 per cent. lower. To understand this, we must refer
+to the composition of cane-sugar molasses of 40° B.:
+
+Sugar.......................................37.5
+Insoluble impurities........................37.5
+Water.......................................25
+
+If the direct test should indicate 55 per cent. of sugar, and if the
+molasses were straight, the composition would be--
+
+Sugar...........................................55
+Soluble impurities..............................20
+Water...........................................25
+
+Now, a product of this composition would not be a clear sirup at 40°
+B., but a mixture of sirup and crystals. Therefore, if the product is
+a clear sirup at 40° B., and it tests 55 per cent., it cannot be
+_straight_.
+
+The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may also be
+detected by the copper test. The possibility of applying this test, as
+well as those already indicated, rests on the fact that starch glucose
+is always added in very large quantities for the purposes of
+adulteration. A very small addition could not be satisfactorily
+detected.
+
+The detection by the copper test rests on the observation that very
+nearly one-half of the soluble impurities in sugar-house molasses
+consists of glucose in the shape of inverted sugar. We have seen above
+that for a molasses of 40° B. the soluble impurities amount to about
+37½ per cent. We may, then, lay down the rule: that the percentage of
+glucose shown by the copper test cannot, in a straight sugar-house
+molasses, be much greater than one-half of the number expressing the
+density in Baumé degrees. The reason is obvious from what has been
+said of the test by the optical saccharometer.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FALSE VERMILION.--A curious case has been noticed in Germany,
+where a small cargo of vermilion was purchased, and, upon being
+analyzed, turned out to be red oxide of lead colored by eosine. This
+is an entirely novel sophistication. The eosine was separated from the
+oxide of lead by digesting the product for twenty-four hours in very
+strong alcohol. A much shorter time is sufficient to color the spirit
+enough to enable an expert chemist to detect the presence of this
+splendid organic coloring matter. Another kind of "vermilion" consists
+entirely of peroxide of iron, prepared especially to imitate the
+brilliant and costly sulphide of mercury, which it does very well, and
+is largely used in England, France, and America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE POSITION OF MANGANESE IN MODERN INDUSTRY.
+
+BY M.V. DESHAYES.
+
+
+No body among the metals and the metalloids (silicium, titanium,
+tungsten, chromium, phosphorus, etc.) has occupied a more prominent
+position in modern metallurgy than _manganese_, and it is chiefly due
+to its great affinity for oxygen. When this substance was discovered,
+more than a century ago (1774), by the celebrated Swedish chemist and
+mineralogist, Gahn, by treating the black oxide of manganese in the
+crucible, no one would have thought that the new element, so delicate
+by itself, without any direct industrial use, would become, in the
+middle of the nineteenth century, one of the most powerful and
+necessary instruments for the success of the Bessemer process, as well
+for its deoxidizing properties as for the qualities which it imparts
+to steel, increasing its resistance, its durability, and its
+elasticity, as has been shown elsewhere.
+
+Without entering into a complete history (for it is beyond the task
+which we have here assumed),[1] it will not be without interest to
+recall how, when manganese was first obtained in a pure state, that it
+was supposed that it would remain simply an object of curiosity in the
+laboratory; but when its presence was proved in spiegeleisen and when
+it came to be considered an essential ingredient in the best German
+and English works for cutlery steel (where it is thrown into the
+crucible as the peroxide), then we find that its qualities become
+better and better appreciated; and it is surprising that no
+technologist ever devoted his attention to the production of manganese
+alloys.
+
+   [Footnote 1: See _Engineering_, May 27, 1881]
+
+It was not till after the investigations of Dr. Percy, Tamm, Prieger,
+and Bessemer, who employed crucibles for the production of these
+alloys, that Hendersen received the idea of utilizing it in the
+Siemens furnace. So important a compound could not remain unemployed.
+The works at Terre Noire produced, by the Martin furnace, for a number
+of years, ferro-manganese of 70 to 80 per cent. Shortly afterward,
+when competition in the market was established, the works at Carniola
+and at Carinthia, some English factories, and more especially the
+works at Saint-Louis, near Marseilles, of Terre Noire, of Montluçon,
+etc., successfully adopted the manufacture of _ferro-manganese with
+the blast furnace_, which is without doubt the method best adapted for
+the reduction of metallic oxides, as well in consideration of the
+reactions as from an economical point of view. Before very long it was
+possible to produce, by the blast furnace, alloys of 40, 60, 80, and
+even 86 per cent., in using the hot air apparatus of Siemens, Cowper,
+and Witwell, with the employment of good coke, and principally by
+calculating the charges for the fusion in such a manner as to obtain
+an extra basic and refractory slag.
+
+Following in the same path, the Phoenix Co., of Ruhrort, sent, in
+1880, to the Metallurgical Exposition of Dusseldorf, samples of
+ferro-manganese obtained in a blast furnace, with an extra basic slag
+in which the silica was almost entirely replaced by alumina. The works
+of L'Esperance, at Oberhausen, exhibited similar products, quite pure
+as to sulphur and phosphorus, and they had a double interest at the
+exhibition, in consideration of the agitation over the Thomas and
+Gilchrist process (see the discussions which were raised at the
+meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute). This process unfortunately
+requires for its prompt success the use of a very large quantity of
+spiegel or of ferro-manganese, in order to sufficiently carburize and
+deoxidize the burnt iron, which is the final product of the blowing.
+
+The production of ferro-manganese by the blast furnace depends upon
+the following conditions.
+
+    1. A high temperature.
+
+    2. On a proper mixture of the iron ores and the manganese.
+
+    3. On the production of slag rich in bases.
+
+These different conditions may be obtained with but slight variations
+at the different works, but the condition of a high temperature is one
+of the most important considerations, not only for the alloys of
+manganese, but equally as well for the alloys of iron, manganese,
+silicium, those of chromium, of tungsten, etc. It is also necessary to
+study the effects produced either in the crucible or in the blast
+furnace, and to examine the ores which for a long while have been
+regarded as not reducible.
+
+The works of Terre Noire especially made at the same time, in the
+blast furnace, ferro-silicon with manganese, alloys which are daily
+becoming more important for the manufacture of steels tempered soft
+and half soft without blowing.
+
+These alloys, rich in silicon, present the peculiarity of being poor
+in carbon, the amount of this latter element varying with the
+proportions of manganese. In addition to the alloys used in the iron
+and steel industry, we shall proceed to relate the recent progress
+obtained in the metallurgy of other materials (especially copper) by
+the use of _cupro-manganese_:
+
++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------
+|   |   Mn.   |   C.  |    Si.  |    S.   |  P.  |
+|   |per cent.|       |         |         |      |
++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+
+| A | 18 to 20| 2 to 3| 10 to 12| Traces  |      |Extra Quality for soft metals.
+| B | 15 to 18| 3.00  | 10 to 8 | scarcely|About |} Medium Quality
+| C | 15 to 10| 3.25  |  8 to 6 | percep- |0.100.|}
+| D |  5 to 10| 3.50  |  4 to 6 | tible.  |      |Ordinary for hard metals.
++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------
+
+The first alloys of manganese and copper were made in 1848, by Von
+Gersdorff; soon after Prof. Schrötter of Vienna made compounds
+containing 18 or 20 per cent. of manganese by reducing in a crucible
+the oxides of copper and manganese mixed with wood charcoal and
+exposing to a high heat.
+
+These alloys were quite ductile, very hard, very tenacious, and
+capable of receiving a beautiful polish; their color varies from white
+to rose color, according to the respective proportions of the two
+bodies; they are particularly interesting on account of the results
+which were obtained by adding them to certain metallic fusions.
+
+It is well known that in the fining of copper by oxidation there is
+left in the fined metal the suboxide of copper, which must then be
+removed by the refining process, using carbon to reduce the copper to
+its metallic state. M. Manhès, taking advantage of the greater
+affinity of manganese for oxygen, found that if this last element was
+introduced into the bath of copper during the operation of refining,
+the copper suboxide would be reduced and the copper obtained in its
+metallic condition. For this purpose during these last years real
+cupro-manganese has been prepared, occupying the same position to
+copper as the spiegel or the ferro-manganese does toward the
+manufacture of steel. M. Manhès used these same alloys for the fusion
+of bronze and brass, and recommended the following proportions:
+
+      3 to 4 kilog. of cupro-manganese for 100 kilog. of bronze.
+  0.250 to 1         do.           do.       do.         brass.
+  0.150 to 1.2       do.           do.       do.         copper.
+
+In every case the alloy is introduced at the moment of pouring, as is
+the case in the Bessemer or Martin process, taking care to cover the
+fusion with charcoal in order to prevent the contact with air,
+together with the use of some kind of a flux to aid in the
+scorification of the manganese.
+
+According to M. Manhès a slight proportion of manganese added to
+bronze appears to increase its resistance and its ductility, as is
+shown in the following table, provided, however, that these different
+alloys have been subjected to the same operations from a physical
+point of view; that is, pouring, rolling, etc.
+
+--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+
+                          |     |     |      |  Weight  |            |
+                          | Cu. | Sn. |  Mn. |   of     | Elongation |
+                          |     |     |      | fracture |            |
+--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+
+Ordinary Bronze           | 90  | 10  |      | 20 kil.  |    4.00    |
+Bronze with Manganese, A, | 90  | 10  |  0.5 | 24  "    |   15.00    |
+    Do.    do.         B, | 90  | 10  |  1.0 | 26  "    |   20.00    |
+--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+
+
+The White Brass Co., of London, exhibited at Paris, in 1878, manganese
+bronzes of four grades of durability, destined for different uses and
+corresponding to about 20 to 25 kilos of the limit of elasticity, and
+36 to 37 kilos of resistance to fracture; the number 0 is equivalent
+after rolling to a resistance to fracture of 46.5 kilos, and 20 to 25
+per cent. of elongation.
+
+Such results show beyond contradiction the great interest there is in
+economically producing alloys of copper, manganese, tin, zinc, etc. In
+addition, they may be added to metallic fusions, for deoxidizing and
+also to communicate to the commercial alloys (such as bronze, brass,
+etc.) the greatest degree of resistance and tenacity.
+
+While many investigators have tried to form alloys of copper and
+manganese by combining them in the metallic state (that is to say, by
+the simultaneous reduction of their oxides), the Hensler Bros., of
+Dillenburg, have found it best to first prepare the _metallic
+manganese_ and then to alloy it in proper proportions with other
+metals. Their method consisted of reducing the pure pyrolusite in
+large plumbago crucibles, in the presence of carbon and an extra basic
+flux; the operation was carried on in a strong coke fire, and at the
+end of about six hours the _crude manganese_ is poured out, having the
+following composition:
+
+  Manganese          90   to 92
+  Carbon              6   to  6.5
+  Iron                0.5 to  1.5
+  Silicon             0.5 to  1.2
+
+By refining, the manganese can be brought up to 94 to 95 per cent. of
+purity. It is from this casting of pure manganese that is obtained the
+substance used as a base for the alloys. This metal is white,
+crystalline, when exposed to the damp air slowly oxidizes, and readily
+combines with copper to form the _cupro-manganese_ of the variety
+having the composition--
+
+  Copper             70
+  Manganese          30
+
+Cast in ingots or in pigs it becomes an article of commerce which may
+be introduced in previously determined proportions into bronze, gun
+metal, bell metal, brass, etc. It may also be used, as we have already
+mentioned, for the refining of copper according to Manhès's process.
+
+Tests made from this standpoint at the works of Mansfield have shown
+that the addition of 0.45 per cent. of cupro-manganese is sufficient
+to give tenacity to the copper, which, thus treated, will not contain
+more than 0.005 to 0.022 of oxygen, the excess passing off with the
+manganese into the scorias.
+
+On the other hand, the addition of cupro-manganese is recommended,
+when it is desirable to cast thin pieces of the metal, such as tubes,
+caldrons, kitchen utensils, which formerly could only be obtained by
+beating and stamping.
+
+The tenacity obtained for tubes of only three centimeters in diameter
+and 1.75 millimeters in thickness is such that they are able to
+withstand a pressure of 1,100 pounds to the square inch.
+
+The _manganese bronze_, which we have previously referred to, and
+which is used by the White Brass Company of London, is an alloy of
+copper, with from one to ten per cent. of manganese; the highest
+qualities of resistance, ductility, tenacity, and durability are
+obtained with one to four per cent. of manganese, while with twelve
+per cent. the metal becomes too weak for industrial uses.
+
+  +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+
+  | Manganese |         |           | Weight of   |            |
+  | bronze.   |  Copper.| Manganese.| fracture in | Elongation.|
+  |           |         |           | kilos per   |            |
+  |           |         |           | square mm.  |            |
+  +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+
+  | A         |  96.00  |    4.00   |    19.00    |   14.60    |
+  | B         |  95.00  |    5.00   |    20.62    |   10.00    |
+  | C         |  94.00  |    6.00   |    20.80    |   14.60    |
+  | D         |  90.00  |   10.00   |    16.56    |    5.00    |
+  +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+
+
+The preceding table gives some of the experimental results obtained
+with the testing machine at Friedrich-Wilhelmshütte on the crude cast
+ingots; the resistance is increased, as with copper, by rolling or
+hammering.
+
+The _manganese German silver_ consists of
+
+  Copper................ 70.00
+  Manganese............. 15.00
+  Zinc.................. 15.00
+
+But as this alloy often breaks in rolling, the preference is given to
+the following proportions:
+
+  Copper................ 80.00
+  Manganese............. 15.00
+  Zinc..................  5.00
+
+This results in a white, ductile metal, which is easily worked and
+susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish, like the alloys of
+nickel, which it may in time completely replace.
+
+The _bronzes of manganese, tin, and zinc_ were perhaps the first upon
+which important investigations were made; they were obtained by adding
+to an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin (ordinary bronze) a definite
+quantity of the cupro-manganese of the type indicated above (Cu 70, Mn
+30). By this means the resistance is increased fully nine per cent.,
+probably in the same way as the copper, that is, by the deoxidizing
+effect of the manganese, as both the copper and the tin are always
+more or less oxidized in ordinary bronzes.
+
+Manganese combines with tin just the same as it does with copper, and
+the proportion which is recommended as giving the highest resistances
+is three to six per cent. of cupro-manganese.
+
+However, notwithstanding the use of cupro-manganese, the tin, as in
+ordinary bronzes, has a tendency to liquate in those portions of the
+mould which are the hottest, and which become solid the last,
+especially in the case of moulds having a great width.
+
+From a series of experiments made at Isabelle Hütte, it has been found
+that the metal which has the greatest resisting qualities was obtained
+from
+
+  Copper......................85.00
+  Manganese................... 6.00
+  Zinc........................ 5.00
+
+5 per cent. of cupro-manganese = manganese 1.00 remaining in the
+metal.
+
+The best method of procedure is first to melt the copper in a
+crucible, and then to add the tin and the zinc; finally the
+cupro-manganese is added just at the moment of pouring, as in the
+Manhès process; then the reaction on the oxides is very effective,
+there is a boiling with scintillation similar to the action produced
+in the Bessemer and Martin process when ferro-manganese is added to
+the bath of steel.
+
+The following are some of the results obtained from thirteen alloys
+obtained in this manner. These samples were taken direct from the
+casting and were tested with the machine at Friedrich-Wilhelms-hütte,
+and with the one at the shops of the Rhine Railroad. Their resistance
+was considerably increased, as with the other alloys, by rolling or
+hammering.
+
+-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+
+       |      |      |     |         |         |          | Weight |       |
+       |      |      |     |         |         |Limit of  |  of    | Elong-|
+       |Nature|      |     |         |         |elasticity|fracture| ation,|
+       |  of  |      |     |         |  Cupro- |in kilos  |in kilos|  per- |
+Numbers|mould.|Copper| Tin.|  Zinc.  |manganese|per mm.   | per mm.|centage|
+-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+
+   1   | Sand | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |         |   11.30  |  16.00 |   --  |
+   2   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |   4.00  |   13.00  |  16.10 |  2.00 |
+   3   | Cast.| 87.00| 8.70|   4.30  |   4.00  |     --   |  19.40 |   --  |
+   4   |  --  | 85.00| 6.90|   5.00  |   6.00  |     --   |  18.80 |  6.00 |
+   5   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |   6.00  |     --   |  19.75 |  7.00 |
+   6   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |  10.00  |     --   |  17.15 |  4.00 |
+   7   | Sand | 87.00| 5.20|   4.33  |   3.47  |     --   |  19.70 |  8.70 |
+   8   |  --  | 87.00| 5.20|   4.33  |   3.47  |     --   |  19.70 |  8.90 |
+   9   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |   3.00  |   16.80  |  22.00 |   --  |
+  10   |  --  | 74.00|10.00|   5.00  |   3.30  |   13.80  |  18.70 |   --  |
+       |      |      |     |(7.66 Pb)|         |          |        |       |
+  11   |  --  | 78.70| 8.00| ( 8 Pb) |   3.30  |   13.80  |  20.70 |   --  |
+  12   |  --  | 82.00| 9.80|   4.90  |   3.30  |   14.75  |  19.75 |   --  |
+  13   |  --  | 86.20|16.50|    --   |   3.30  |   14.30  |  24.70 |   --  |
+-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+
+
+The results of the tests of ductility which are here given, with
+reference to the _cupro-manganese_, _manganese bronze_, the _alloys_
+with _zinc_ and _tin_, are taken from M.C. Hensler's very valuable
+communication to the Berlin Society for the Advancement of the
+Industrial Arts.
+
+These various alloys, as well as the _phosphorus bronze_, of which we
+make no mention here, are at present very largely used in the
+manufacture of technical machines, as well as for supports, valves,
+stuffing-boxes, screws, bolts, etc., which require the properties of
+resistance and durability. They vastly surpass in these qualities the
+brass and like compounds which have been used hitherto for these
+purposes.--_Bull. Soc. Chim., Paris_, xxxvi. p. 184.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ECONOMICAL WASHING OF COAL GAS AND SMOKE.
+
+
+In a recent number of the _Journal des Usines à Gaz_ appears a note by
+M. Chevalet, on the chemical and physical purification of gas, which
+was one of the papers submitted to the Société Technique de
+l'Industrie du Gaz en France at the last ordinary meeting. This
+communication is noticeable, apart from the author's conclusions, for
+the fact that the processes described were not designed originally for
+use in gas manufacture, but were first used to purify, or rather to
+remove the ammonia which is to be found in all factory chimneys, and
+especially in certain manufactories of bone-black, and in spirit
+distilleries. It is because of the success which attended M.
+Chevalet's treatment of factory smoke that he turned his attention to
+coal gas. The communication in which M. Chevalet's method is described
+deals first with chimney gases, in order to show the difficulties of
+the first class of work done by the author's process. Like coal gas,
+chimney gases contain in suspension solid particles, such as soot and
+ashes. Before washing these gases in a bath of sulphuric acid, in
+order to retain the ammonia, there were two problems to be solved. It
+was first of all necessary to cool the gases down to a point which
+should not exceed the boiling-point of the acid employed in washing;
+and then to remove the solid particles which would otherwise foul the
+acid. In carrying out this mechanical purification it was impossible,
+for two reasons, to make use of apparatus of the kind used in gas
+works; the first obstacle was the presence of solid particles carried
+forward by the gaseous currents, and the other difficulty was the
+volume of gas to be dealt with. In the example to which the author's
+attention was directed he had to purify 600 cubic meters of chimney
+gas per minute, or 36,000 cubic meters per hour, while the gas
+escaped from the flues at a temperature of from 400° to 500° C. (752°
+to 932° Fahr.), and a large quantity of cinders had frequently to be
+removed from the main chimney flues. After many trials a simple
+appliance was constructed which successfully cooled the gases and
+freed them from ashes. This consisted of a vertical screen, with bars
+three mm. apart, set in water. This screen divided the gases into thin
+sheets before traversing the water, and by thus washing and
+evaporating the water the gases were cooled, and threw down the soot
+and ashes, and these impurities fell to the bottom of the water bath.
+The gases after this process are divested of the greater part of any
+tarry impurities which they may have possessed, and are ready for the
+final purification, in which ammonia is extracted. This is effected by
+means of a series of shallow trays, covered with water or weak acid,
+and pierced with a number of fine holes, through which the gas is made
+to bubble. The washing apparatus is therefore strangely similar in
+principle to that designed by Mr G. Livesey. M. Chevalet states that
+this double process is applicable to gas works as well as to the
+purification of smoke, with the difference that for the latter purpose
+the washing trays are filled with acid for the retention of ammonia,
+while in the former application gas liquor or water is used. The
+arrangement is said to be a practical success.--_Journal of Gas
+Lighting._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN IN HAIR, WOOL, DRIED BLOOD, FLESH MEAL,
+AND LEATHER SCRAPS.
+
+BY DR. C. KRAUCH.
+
+
+Differences obtained in the estimation of nitrogen in the above
+substances are frequently the source of much annoyance. The cause of
+these discrepancies is chiefly due to the lack of uniformity in the
+material, and from its not being in a sufficiently fine state during
+the combustion. The hair which is found in commerce for the
+manufacture of fertilizers, is generally mixed with sand and dust.
+Wool dust often contains old buttons, pieces of wood, shoe pegs, and
+all sorts of things. The flesh fertilizers are composed of light
+particles of flesh mixed with the heavier bone dust.
+
+Even after taking all possible precautions to finely comminute these
+substances by mechanical means, still only imperfect results are
+obtained, for the impurities, that is to say, the sand, can never be
+so intimately mixed with the lighter particles that a sample of 0.5 to
+0.8 gramme, such as is used in the determination of nitrogen, will
+correspond to the correct average contents. In substances such as
+dried blood, pulverization is very tedious. A very good method of
+overcoming these difficulties, and of obtaining from the most mixed
+substances a perfectly homogeneous mass, is that recommended by
+Grandeau[1] of decomposing with sulphuric acid--a method which as yet
+does not seem to be generally known. From a large quantity of the
+substance to be examined, the coarse stones, etc., are removed by
+picking or sifting, and the prepared substance, or in cases where the
+impurities cannot be separated, the original substance, is treated
+with sulphuric acid; after it is decomposed, the acid is neutralized
+with calcium carbonate, and the nitrogen is determined in this mass.
+
+   [Footnote 1: _Handbook d. Agrict. Chem. Analyst._, p. 18.]
+
+In order to operate rapidly, it is best to use as little sulphuric
+acid as possible. If too much sulphuric acid is used, necessarily a
+large amount of calcium carbonate is essential to get it into proper
+condition for pulverizing. Under such circumstances the percentage of
+nitrogen becomes very low, and a slight error will become
+correspondingly high.
+
+20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 10 c.c. are sufficient for
+30 to 40 grammes of material. After the substance and liquid have been
+thoroughly stirred in a porcelain dish, they are warmed on a water
+bath and continually stirred until the mass forms a homogeneous
+liquid. The sirupy liquid thus obtained is then mixed with 80 to 100
+grammes of pulverized calcium carbonate (calcspar), dried for fifteen
+minutes at 40 to 60° C., and after standing for one to two hours the
+dish and its contents are weighed. From the total weight the weight of
+the dish is subtracted, which gives the weight of the calcium sulphate
+and the calcium carbonate, and the known weight of the wool dust, etc.
+This material is then intimately ground, and 2 to 3 grammes of it are
+taken for the determination of the nitrogen, which is then calculated
+for the original substance.
+
+Although the given quantities of water and sulphuric acid hardly
+appear sufficient for such a large quantity of hair or wool, still in
+the course of a few minutes to a quarter of an hour, after continual
+stirring, there is obtained a liquid which, after the addition of the
+calcium carbonate, is readily converted into a pulverized mass.
+Frequently a smaller quantity of sulphuric acid will suffice,
+especially if the material is moist. The chief merit of this process
+is that in a short time a large quantity of material, having a uniform
+character, is obtained. Its use is, therefore, recommended for general
+employment.
+
+When the coarser stones, etc., are weighed, and the purified portion
+decomposed, absolutely correct results are obtained, and in this way
+the awkward discrepancies from different analysts may be
+avoided.--_Chemiker Zeitung_, v. 7, p. 703.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TESTING WHITE BEESWAX FOR CERESINE AND PARAFFINS.
+
+BY A. PELTZ.
+
+
+The method which is here recommended originated with Dr. M. Buchner,
+and consists in preparing a concentrated solution of alcoholic caustic
+potash--one part caustic potash to three of 90 per cent. alcohol--and
+then boiling one to two grammes of the suspected wax in a small flask
+with the above solution. The liquid is poured into a glass cylinder to
+prevent solidification of the contents, and it is then placed for
+about one half hour in boiling water. With pure wax the solution
+remains clear white; when ceresine and paraffine are present, they
+will float on the surface of the alkali solution as an oily layer, and
+on cooling they will appear lighter in color than the saponified mass,
+and thus they may be quantitatively estimated. The author likewise
+gives a superficial method for the determination of the purity of
+beeswax. It depends on the formation of wax crystals when the fused
+wax solidifies. These crystals form on the surface on cooling, and are
+still visible after solidification when examining the surface from the
+side. The test succeeds best when the liquid wax is poured into a
+shallow tin mould After cooling another peculiar property of the wax
+becomes apparent. While the beeswax fills a smaller volume, that is,
+separates from the sides of the mould, the Japanese wax, without
+separating from the sides, becomes covered with cracks on cooling
+which have a depth corresponding to the thickness of the wax.--_Neuste
+Erfindungen und Erfahrungen_, viii., p. 430.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PREVENTION OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION BY FUNGI.
+
+BY PROF. E. REICHARD.
+
+
+The manager of a well directed brewery, which was built according to
+the latest improvements and provided with ice-cooling arrangements,
+found that the alcoholic fermentation of lager beer did not advance
+with proper regularity. The beer did not clarify well, it remained
+turbid and had a tendency to assume a disagreeable odor and taste.
+Microscopic examination of the yeast, however, showed the same to be
+bottom yeast. After some time its action apparently diminished, or
+rather, the fermentation, which began well, ceased, and at the same
+time a white foam formed in the center of the vat. The manager
+observing this, again submitted it to microscopic examination. The
+instrument revealed a number of much smaller forms of fungi, similar
+to those of young yeast, and some which were excessively large, a
+variety never found in bottom yeast. Fully appreciating the
+microscopic examination, and aware of the danger which the spread of
+the fungi could cause, the manager resorted to all known means to
+retard its pernicious influence. Fresh yeast was employed, and the
+fermenting vats throughly cleaned, both inside and out, but the
+phenomena reappeared, showing that the transmission took place through
+the air. A microscopic examination of a gelatinous coating on the wall
+of the fermenting room further explained the matter. Beginning at the
+door of the ice cellar, the walls were covered with a gelatinous mass,
+which, even when placed beneath the microscope, showed no definite
+organic structure; however it contained numerous threads of fungi.
+Notwithstanding the precautions which were taken for cleanliness,
+these germs traveled from the ceiling through the air into the
+fermenting liquid and there produced a change, which would ultimately
+have caused the destruction of all the beer.
+
+For a third time and by altogether different means, it was
+demonstrated that the air was the bearer of these germs. The whole
+atmosphere was infected, and a simple change of air was by no manner
+of means sufficient, as has already been shown. In addition, these
+observations throw considerable light on the means by which contagious
+diseases are spread, for often a room, a house, or the entire
+neighborhood appears to be infected. It must also be remembered how,
+in times of plague, large fires were resorted as to a method of
+purifying the air.
+
+With the infinite distribution of germs, and as they are always
+present in all places where any organic portions of vegetable or
+animal matter are undergoing decomposition, it becomes, under certain
+circumstances, exceedingly difficult, and at times even impossible, to
+trace the direct effect of these minute germs. The organism is exposed
+to the destructive action of the most minute creation; several changes
+in this case give to them the direct effect of the acting germs. The
+investigation of the chemist does not extend beyond the chemical
+changes; nevertheless these phenomena are directly explained by the
+microscope, without which, in the present case, the discovery of the
+cause would have remained unknown.--_Arch. der Pharm._, 214, 158.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW REACTION OF GLYCERINE.
+
+
+If two drops of phenic acid are diluted with three thousand to five
+thousand parts of water, a distinct blue color is produced by one drop
+of solution of perchloride of iron.
+
+The addition of six or eight drops of glycerine entirely removes the
+color, and if any glycerine was present in the liquid the reaction
+does not take place at all. By this test the presence of 1 per cent.
+of glycerine can be detected. It may be applied to the analysis of
+wines, beers, etc., but when there is much sugar, extractive or
+coloring matter, the test can only be applied after evaporating,
+dissolving the residue in alcohol and ether, evaporating again, and
+then redissolving in water. Alkaline solutions must be first
+acidulated.--_Pharm. Zeit. für Russ._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LYCOPODINE.
+
+
+While the phanerogams or flowering plants annually contribute to the
+list of newly discovered alkaloids, with the exception of muscarine
+and amanitine, no alkaloid has as yet been definitely recognized among
+the cryptogams.
+
+Karl Bödeker, of Göttingen, has opened the road in this direction, and
+gives in a paper sent to Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 15,
+1881, the following account of an alkaloid, which, from the name of
+the plant in which it occurs, he calls lycopodine.
+
+The plant yielding the alkaloid, _Lycopodium complanatum_, belongs to
+the group of angiospermous cryptogams. It is distributed throughout
+the whole of north and middle Europe, and contains the largest
+proportion of aluminum of any known plant. Its bitter taste led the
+author to suspect an alkaloid in it.
+
+To prepare the alkaloid the dried plant is chopped up and twice
+exhausted with boiling alcohol of 90 per cent. The residue is squeezed
+out while hot, and the extract, after being allowed to settle awhile,
+is decanted off, and evaporated to a viscid consistency over a water
+bath. This is then repeatedly kneaded up with fresh quantities of
+lukewarm water until the washings cease to taste bitter, and to give a
+reddish brown coloration when treated with a strong aqueous solution
+of iodine. The several washings are collected and precipitated with
+basic lead acetate, the precipitate filtered off, and the lead in the
+filtrate removed by sulphureted hydrogen. The filtrate from the lead
+sulphide is evaporated down over a water bath, then made strongly
+alkaline with a solution of caustic soda, and repeatedly shaken up
+with fresh quantities of ether so long as the washings taste bitter
+and give a precipitate with iodine water. After distilling off the
+ether, the residue is treated with strong hydrochloric acid, the
+neutral or slightly acid solution filtered off from resinous
+particles, slowly evaporated to crystallization, and the crystals
+purified by repeated recrystallization. To prepare the pure base a
+very concentrated solution of this pure hydrochlorate is treated with
+an excess of a very concentrated solution of caustic soda, and pieces
+of caustic potash are added, whereupon the free alkaloid separates out
+at first as a colorless resinous stringy mass, which, however, upon
+standing, turns crystalline, forming monoclinic crystals similar to
+tartaric acid or glycocol. The crystals are rapidly washed with water,
+and dried between soft blotting paper.
+
+Thus prepared, lycopodine has a composition which may be represented
+by the formula C_{32}H_{52}N_{2}O_{3}. It melts at 114° to 115° C.
+without loss of weight. It is tolerable soluble in water and in ether,
+and very soluble indeed in alcohol, chloroform, benzol, or amyl
+alcohol. Lycopodine has a very pure bitter taste.
+
+The author has formed several salts of the base, all of a crystalline
+nature, and containing water of crystallization.
+
+The hydrochlorate gives up a part of its water of crystallization at
+the ordinary temperature under a desiccator over sulphuric acid, and
+the whole of it upon heating.--_Chemist and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONCHINAMINE.
+
+
+Some years ago, O. Hesse, when preparing chinamine from the renewed
+bark of _Cinchona succirubra_, found in the mother liquid a new
+alkaloid, which he then briefly designated as conchinamine. He has
+lately given his attention to the separation and preparation of this
+alkaloid, and gives in Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 31, 1881,
+the following description of it:
+
+_Preparation._--The alcoholic mother lye from chinamine is evaporated
+down and protractedly exhausted with boiling ligroine, whereby
+conchinamine and a small quantity of certain amorphous bases are
+dissolved out. Upon cooling the greater part of the amorphous bases
+precipitates out. The ligroine solution is then first treated with
+dilute acetic acid, and then with a dilute solution of caustic soda,
+whereupon a large quantity of a resinous precipitate is formed. This
+is kneaded up with lukewarm water to remove adherent soda, and then
+dissolved in hot alcohol. The alcoholic solution is saturated with
+nitric acid, which has been previously diluted with half its volume of
+water, and the whole set aside for a few days to crystallize. The
+crystals of conchinamine nitrate are purified by recrystallization
+from boiling water. On dissolving these pure crystals of the nitrate
+in hot alcohol of 60 per cent., and adding ammonia, absolute pure
+conchinamine separates out on cooling.
+
+_Composition._--Conchinamine may be represented by the formula
+C_{19}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, without water of crystallization.
+
+_Properties._--Conchinamine is easily soluble in hot alcohol of 60 per
+cent., and in ether and ligroine, from which solutions it crystallizes
+in quadrilateral shining prisms. It is extremely soluble in
+chloroform, but almost insoluble in water. It melts at 121° C.,
+forming crystalline stars on cooling.
+
+_Salts._--The salts of conchinamine, like the base itself, have much
+in common with chinamine, but are, as a rule, more easily
+crystallizable. They are prepared by neutralizing an alcoholic
+solution of the base with the acid in question.--_Chemist and
+Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHINOLINE.
+
+
+The valuable properties of which chinoline has been found to be
+possessed have led to its admission as a therapeutic agent, and the
+discoverer of these properties, Jul. Donath, of Baja, in Hungary, in a
+paper sent to the _Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft_,
+September 12, 1881, gives the following further details as to this
+interesting substance.
+
+_Antiseptic Properties._--Chinoline appears to be an excellent
+antiseptic. The author found that 100 grammes of a Bucholze's solution
+for the propagation of bacteria, charged with 0.20 g. of chinoline
+hydrochlorate, had remained perfectly clear and free from bacteria
+after standing forty-six days exposed to the air, while a similar
+solution, placed under the same conditions, without chinoline, had
+turned muddy and contained bacteria after only twelve days' standing.
+
+_Antizymotic Properties._--Chinoline, even in the proportion of 5 per
+cent., does not prevent alcoholic fermentation, while in as small a
+quantity as 0.20 per cent. it does not prevent lactic acid
+fermentation.
+
+_Physiological Effects._--The author gave a healthy man during several
+days various doses of chinoline tartrate, which in no way affected the
+individual operated on, nor was any trace of chinoline found in his
+urine. The author, therefore, considers that the base is oxidized by
+the blood to carbopyridinic acid, which is a still more powerful
+antiseptic than chinoline itself. Chinoline taken internally would,
+therefore, be a useful and safe agent in cases of internal putrid
+fungoid or other growth.
+
+_Chemical Reactions._--Chinoline yields very characteristic reactions
+with a number of chemical reagents, for a description of which we
+refer to the original paper.--_Chemist and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF CONIINE.
+
+
+Dr. J. Schorm, of Vienna, the author of this paper, after remarking
+that in spite of the increase of the consumption of coniine, the
+methods hitherto in vogue for preparing it yielded an article which
+darkened on exposure to the air, and the salts of which crystallized
+but badly, gives the following method for preparing pure coniine and
+its salts:
+
+
+_PREPARATION OF CRUDE CONIINE._
+
+A.--100 kilogrammes of hemlock seed are moistened with hot water, and
+after swelling up are treated with 4 kilogrammes of sodium carbonate
+previously dissolved in the requisite quantity of water (caustic
+alkalies cannot be used). The swollen seed is worked up uniformly with
+shovels, and then placed in an apparatus of 400 kilogrammes capacity,
+similar to that used in the distillation of ethereal oils, and charged
+with steam under a pressure of three atmospheres. Coniine distills
+over with the steam, the greater part separating out in the receiver
+as an oily stratum, while a part remains dissolved in the water. The
+riper the seeds, the greater is the percentage yield of oily coniine,
+and the sooner is the distillation ended. The distillate is
+neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the whole evaporated to a weak
+sirupy consistence. When cool, this sirup yields successive crops of
+sal-ammoniac crystals, which latter are removed by shaking up the mass
+with twice its volume of strong alcohol, and filtering. This filtrate
+is freed from alcohol by evaporation over a water bath, the
+approximate quantity of a solution of caustic soda then added, and the
+whole shaken up with ether. The ethereal solution is then cooled down
+to a low temperature, whereby it is separated from conhydrine, which,
+being somewhat difficultly soluble in ether, crystallizes out.
+
+B.--The bruised hemlock seed is treated in a vacuum extractor with
+water acidulated with acetic acid, and the extract evaporated in vacuo
+to a sirupy consistence. The sirup is treated with magnesia, and the
+coniine dissolved out by shaking up with ether.
+
+The B method yields a less percentage of coniine than A, but of a
+better quality.
+
+
+_RECTIFICATION OF THE CRUDE CONIINE._
+
+The solution of crude coniine in ether obtained by either of the above
+processes is evaporated over a water bath to remove the ether, mixed
+with dry potassium carbonate, and then submitted to fractional
+distillation from an air bath. The portion distilling over at 168° C.
+to 169° C. is pure coniine, and represents 60 per cent. of the crude
+coniine.
+
+Coniine thus prepared is a colorless oily liquid, volatile at the
+ordinary temperature, and has a specific gravity of 0.886. At a
+temperature of 25°C it absorbs water, which it gives up again upon
+heating. It is soluble in 90 parts of water. It is not altered by
+light.
+
+The author has formed a number of salts from coniine thus prepared,
+and finds them all crystallizable and unaffected by light.--_Berichte
+der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft._--_Chem. and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STRONTIANITE.
+
+
+Since it has been shown by Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, that
+strontium is the most powerful medium of extraction in sugar refining,
+owing to its capacity of combining with three parts of saccharate, the
+idea suggests itself that the same medium might be successfully
+employed in the arts, and form a most interesting subject of
+experiment for the chemist.
+
+Hitherto native strontianite, that is, the 90 to 95 per cent. pure
+carbonate of strontium (not the celestine which frequently is mistaken
+by the term strontianite), has not been worked systematically in
+mines, but what used to be brought to the market was an inferior stone
+collected in various parts of Germany, chiefly in Westphalia, where it
+is found on the surface of the fields. Little also has been collected
+in this manner, and necessarily the quality was subject to the
+greatest fluctuations.
+
+By Dr. Scheibler's important discovery, a new era has begun in the
+matter of strontianite. Deposits of considerable importance have been
+opened in the Westphalian districts at a very great depth, and the
+supply of several 10,000 tons per annum seems to be secured, whereas
+only a short time ago it was not thought possible that more than a few
+hundred tons could in all be provided.--_Chemist and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARANGI--A NEWLY DESCRIBED DISEASE.
+
+
+A peculiar contagious disease, called framboesia, or the yaws, has
+long been known to exist in Africa, the West Indies, and the northern
+parts of the British Islands. It is chronic in character, and is
+distinguished by the development of raspberry-like tumors of
+granulation tissue on different parts of the body.
+
+A disease of a somewhat similar, but severer type, has for many years
+prevailed in Ceylon. Even less was known of this affection than of its
+supposed congener, until a recent careful report upon the subject by
+Mr. W.R. Kinsey, principal civil medical officer of Ceylon.
+
+The disease in question is called "parangi," and is defined by Mr.
+Kinsey (_British Medical Journal_) as a specific disease, produced by
+such causes as lead to debilitation of the system; propagated by
+contagion, generally through an abrasion or sore, but sometimes by
+simple contact with a sound surface; marked by an ill-defined period
+of incubation, followed by certain premonitory symptoms referable to
+the general system, then by the evolution of successive crops of a
+characteristic eruption, which pass on in weakly subjects into
+unhealthy and spreading ulcers whose cicatrices are very prone to
+contraction; running a definite course; attacking all ages, and
+amenable to appropriate treatment.
+
+The disease seems to develop especially in places where the water
+supply, which in Ceylon is kept in tanks, is insufficient or poor. The
+bad food, dirty habits, and generally unhygienic mode of life of the
+people, help on the action of the disease.
+
+Parangi, when once developed, spreads generally by contagion from the
+discharges of the eruptions and ulcers. The natural secretions do not
+convey the poison. The disease may be inherited also.
+
+In the clinical history of the disease there are, according to Mr.
+Kinsey, four stages. The first is that of incubation. It lasts from
+two weeks to two months. A sore will be found somewhere upon the body
+at this time, generally over some bony prominence. The second is the
+stage of invasion, and is characterized by the development of slight
+fever, malaise, dull pains in the joints. As this stage comes on the
+initial sore heals. This second stage lasts only from two to seven
+days, and ends with an eruption which ushers in the third stage. The
+eruption appears in successive crops, the first often showing itself
+on the face, the next on the body, and the last on the extremities.
+This eruptive stage of the disease continues for several weeks or
+months, and it ends either in convalescence or the onset of a train of
+sequelæ, which may prolong the disease for years.
+
+Parangi may attack any one, though the poorly fed and housed are more
+susceptible. One attack seems to confer immunity from another.
+
+Although some of the sequelæ of the disease are most painful, yet
+death does not often directly result from them, nor is parangi itself
+a fatal disease. Persons who have had parangi and passed safely
+through it, are not left in impaired health at all, but often live to
+an old age.
+
+The similarity of the disease, in its clinical history, to syphilis,
+is striking. Mr. Kinsey, however, considers it, as we have stated,
+allied to, if not identical with framboesia.--_Medical Record._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A CASTOR OIL SUBSTITUTE.
+
+
+So far back as 1849, Mr. Alexander Ure investigated the purgative
+properties of the oil of anda. The specimen with which the experiments
+were tried had not been freshly prepared, and had indeed been long
+regarded as a curiosity. Twelve ounces were alone available, and it
+was a yellowish oil, quite bright, about the consistence of oleum
+olivæ, devoid of smell, and free from the viscid qualities of castor
+oil. There was a small supply of anda fruits differing a good deal in
+appearance one from the other, but we are not aware whether these were
+utilized and the oil expressed; as far as our recollection serves, the
+subject was abandoned. It was known that the natives of Brazil used
+the seeds as an efficient purgative in doses of from one to three, and
+it was in contemplation to introduce this remedy into England, though
+it was by no means certain that under distinctly different climatic
+influences equally beneficial results might be expected. Mr. Ure
+determined, by actual experiment, to ascertain the value of the oil in
+his own hospital practice. He found that small doses were better than
+larger ones, and in several reported cases it appeared that twenty
+drops administered on sugar proved successful. Oil of anda-açu, or
+assu, therefore, would stand mid-way between ol. ricini and ol.
+crotonis. These researches seem to have been limited to the original
+sample, although the results obtained would appear to justify a more
+extended trial. M. Mello-Oliveira. of Rio Janeiro, has endeavored to
+bring the remedy into notice under the name of "Huile d'Anda-Assu,"
+and possibly may not have been acquainted with the attempt to
+introduce it into English practice. He describes the anda as a fine
+tree (_Johanesia princeps_, Euphorbiaceæ), with numerous branches and
+persistent leaves, growing in different parts of Brazil, and known
+under the name of "coco purgatif." The fruit is quadrangular,
+bilocular, with two kernels, which on analysis yield an active
+principle for which the name "Johaneseine" is proposed. This is a
+substance sparingly soluble in water and alcohol, and insoluble in
+chloroform, benzine, ether, and bisulphide of carbon. Evidence derived
+from experiments with the sulphate of this principle did not give
+uniform results: one opinion being that, contrary to the view of many
+Brazilian physicians, this salt had no toxic effect on either men or
+animals. Local medical testimony, however, was entirely in favor of
+the oil. Dr. Torrès, professor at Rio Janeiro, using a dose of two
+teaspoonfuls, had been successful. Dr. Tazenda had obtained excellent
+results, and Dr. Castro, with a somewhat larger dose (3 ijss.), was
+even enthusiastic in its praise. It might, therefore, be desirable at
+a time when new remedies are so much in vogue, not to abandon
+altogether a Brazilian medicament the value of which is confirmed both
+by popular native use and by professional treatment. M. Mello-Oliveira
+comes to the conclusion that oleum anda assu (or açu) may be employed
+wherever castor oil is indicated, and with these distinct advantages:
+first, that its dose is considerably less; secondly, that it is free
+from disagreeable odor and pungent taste; and thirdly, being
+sufficiently fluid, it is not adherent to the mouth so as to render it
+nauseous to the patient. In this short abstract the spelling of the
+French original has been retained. As this therapeutic agent claimed
+attention thirty years ago, and has again been deemed worthy of notice
+in scientific journals, some of our enterprising pharmacists might be
+inclined to add it to the list of their commercial ventures.--_Chemist
+and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOUSEHOLD AND OTHER RECIPES.
+
+
+Mr. Jas. W. Parkinson gives in a recent number of the _Confectioner's
+Journal_ the following useful recipes:
+
+
+CHRISTMAS PLUM PUDDING.
+
+Stone a pound of bloom raisins; wash and clean a pound of Zante
+currants; mince finely a pound of beef suet; mix with this, in a large
+pan, a pound of stale bread crumbs and half a pound of sifted flour.
+Beat together in another pan six eggs, and mix with them half a pint
+of milk. Pour this over the suet and flour, and stir and beat the
+whole well together; then add the raisins, currants, and a seasoning
+of ground cinnamon, grated nutmeg, powdered ginger, and a little
+ground cloves, a teaspoonful of salt, one pound of sugar, and a glass
+of Jamaica rum. This pudding may now be boiled in a floured cloth or
+in an ornamental mould tied up in a cloth. In either way it requires
+long and constant boiling, six hours at least for one such as the
+above. Every pudding in a cloth should be boiled briskly, till
+finished, in plenty of water, in a large pot, so as to allow it to
+move about freely.
+
+To take the boiled pudding out of the cloth without breaking it, dip
+it into cold water for a minute or two, then place it in a round
+bottomed basin that will just hold it, untie the cloth and lay bare
+the pudding down to the edge of the basin; then place upon it, upside
+down, the dish on which it is to be served, and invert the whole so
+that the pudding may rest on the dish; lastly, lift off the basin and
+remove the cloth. The use of the cold water is to chill and solidify
+the surface, so that it may part from the cloth smoothly.
+
+Plum pudding may also be baked in a mould or pan, which must be well
+buttered inside before pouring the pudding into it. Two hours' boiling
+suffices.
+
+
+PLUM-PUDDING SAUCE.
+
+Put into a saucepan two ounces of best butter and a tablespoonful of
+flour; mix these well together with a wooden spoon, and stir in half a
+pint of cold water and a little salt and pepper. Set this on the fire
+and stir constantly till nearly boiling; then add half a tumbler of
+Madeira wine, brandy, or Jamaica rum, fine sugar to the taste, and a
+little ground cinnamon or grated nutmeg. Make the sauce very hot, and
+serve over each portion of the pudding.
+
+
+NATIONAL PLUM PUDDING.
+
+An excellent plum pudding is made as follows: Half a pound of flour,
+half a pound of grated bread crumbs, a pound of Zante currants, washed
+and picked; a pound of raisins, stoned; an ounce of mixed spices, such
+as cinnamon, mace, cloves, and nutmeg; an ounce of butter, two ounces
+of blanched almonds, cut small; six ounces of preserved citron and
+preserved orange peel, cut into small pieces; four eggs, a little
+salt, four ounces of fine sugar, and half a pint of brandy. Mix all
+these well together, adding sufficient milk to bring the mixture to a
+proper consistency. Boil in a floured cloth or mould for eight hours.
+
+
+THE SAUCE FOR THE ABOVE.
+
+Into a gill of melted butter put an ounce of powdered sugar, a little
+grated nutmeg, two wine glasses of Madeira wine and one of Curacoa.
+Stir all well together, make very hot, and pour it over the pudding.
+
+
+EGG-NOG, OR AULD MAN'S MILK.
+
+Separate the whites and yolks of a dozen fresh eggs. Put the yolks
+into a basin and beat them to a smooth cream with half a pound of
+finely pulverized sugar. Into this stir half a pint of brandy, and the
+same quantity of Jamaica rum; mix all well together and add three
+quarts of milk or cream, half a nutmeg (grated), and stir together.
+Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth; stir lightly into them
+two or three ounces of the finest sugar powder, add this to the
+mixture, and dust powdered cinnamon over the top.
+
+
+EGG FLIP.
+
+Beat up in a bowl half a dozen fresh eggs; add half a pound of
+pulverized sugar; stir well together, and pour in one quart or more of
+boiling water, about half a pint at a time, mixing well as you pour it
+in; when all is in, add two tumblers of best brandy and one of Jamaica
+rum.
+
+
+ROAST TURKEY.
+
+The turkey is without doubt the most savory and finest flavored of all
+our domestic fowls, and is justly held in the highest estimation by
+the good livers in all countries where it is known. Singe, draw, and
+truss the turkey in the same manner as other fowls; then fill with a
+stuffing made of bread crumbs, butter, sweet herbs rubbed fine,
+moistened with eggs and seasoned with pepper, salt, and grated nutmeg.
+Sausage meat or a forced meat, made of boiled chicken meat, boiled ham
+grated fine, chopped oysters, roasted or boiled chestnuts rubbed fine,
+stewed mushrooms, or last but not the least in estimation, a dozen
+fine truffles cut into pieces and sauted in the best of butter, and
+added part to the stuffing and part to the sauce which is made from
+the drippings (made into a good brown gravy by the addition of a
+capful of cold water thickened with a little flour, with the giblets
+boiled and chopped fine in it). A turkey of ten pounds will require
+two and a half hours' roasting and frequent basting. Currant jelly,
+cranberry jelly, or cranberry sauce should always be on the table with
+roast turkey.
+
+
+WOODCOCKS AND SNIPE.
+
+Some epicures say that the woodcock should never be drawn, but that
+they should be fastened to a small bird spit, and should be put to
+roast before a clear fire; a slice of toast, put in a pan below each
+bird, in order to catch the trail; baste them with melted butter; lay
+the toast on a hot dish, and the birds on the toast. They require from
+fifteen to twenty minutes to roast. Snipe are dressed in the same
+manner, but require less time to cook. My pet plan to cook woodcock is
+to draw the bird and split it down the back, and then to broil it,
+basting it with butter; chop up the intestines, season them with
+pepper and salt, and saute them on a frying pan with butter; lay the
+birds on toast upon a hot dish and pour the saute over them.
+
+
+CANVAS-BACK DUCKS.
+
+Select young fat ducks; pick them nicely, singe, and draw them
+carefully without washing them so as to preserve the blood and
+consequently the full flavor of the bird; then truss it and place it
+on the spit before a brisk fire, or in a pan in a hot oven for at
+least fifteen or twenty minutes; then serve it hot with its own gravy,
+which is formed by its own blood and juices, on a hot dish. It may
+also be a little less cooked, and then carved and placed on a chafing
+dish with red currant jelly, port wine, and a little butter.
+
+
+
+PHEASANTS.
+
+A pheasant should have a clear, steady fire, but not a fierce one. The
+pheasant, being a rather dry bird, requires to be larded, or put a
+piece of beef or a rump steak into the inside of it before roasting.
+
+
+
+WILD DUCKS.
+
+In order to serve these birds in their most succulent state and finest
+flavor, let them hang in their feathers for a few days after being
+shot; then pluck, clean, and draw, and roast them in a quick oven or
+before a brisk fire; dredge and baste them well, and allow them twenty
+minutes to roast; serve them with gravy sauce and red currant jelly,
+or with a gravy sauce to which a chopped shallot and the juice of an
+orange has been added.
+
+
+WILD FOWL SAUCE.
+
+The following exquisite sauce is applicable to all wild fowl: Take one
+saltspoon of salt, half to two-thirds salt spoon of Cayenne, one
+dessert spoon lemon juice, one dessert spoon powdered sugar, two
+dessert spoons Harvey sauce, three dessert spoons port wine, well
+mixed and heated; score the bird and pour the sauce over it.
+
+
+BROWN FRICASSEE OF RABBITS.
+
+Cut a couple of rabbits into joints, fry these in a little fresh
+butter till they are of a light brown color; then put them into a
+stewpan, with a pint of water, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, the
+same of mushroom catchup, one of Worcester sauce, and a couple of
+burnt onions, a little Cayenne and salt; stew over a slow fire till
+perfectly done; then take out the meat, strain the gravy, and thicken
+it with a little flour if necessary; make it quite hot, and pour it
+over the rabbits.
+
+
+ORANGE PUDDING.
+
+Beat up the yolks of eight eggs, grate the yellow rinds from two
+oranges, add these to a quarter of a pound of finely powdered sugar,
+the same weight of fresh butter, three teaspoonfuls of orange-flower
+water, two glasses of sherry wine, two or three stale Naples biscuits
+or lady fingers, and a teacupful of cream. Line a dish with puff
+paste, pour in the ingredients, and bake for half an hour in a good
+oven.
+
+
+VENISON PASTRY.
+
+A neck or breast of venison is rendered very savory by treating it as
+follows: Take off the skin and cut the meat off the bones into pieces
+of about an inch square; put these, with the bones, into a stewpan,
+cover them with veal or mutton broth, add two thirds of a teaspoon of
+powdered mace, half a dozen allspice, three shallots chopped fine, a
+teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of Cayenne, and a tumbler of port
+wine; stew over a slow fire until the meat is half done, then take it
+out and let the gravy remain on the fire ten or fifteen minutes
+longer. Line a good sized dish with pastry, arrange your meat on it,
+pour the gravy upon it through a sieve, adding the juice of a lemon;
+put on the top crust, and bake for a couple of hours in a slow oven.
+
+
+CHRISTMAS RED ROUND.
+
+Rub well into a round of beef a half pound of saltpeter, finely
+powdered. Next day mix half an ounce of cloves, half an ounce of black
+pepper, the same quantity of ground allspice, with half a pound of
+salt; wash and rub the beef in the brine for a fortnight, adding every
+other day a tablespoonful of salt. At the expiration of the fortnight,
+wipe the beef quite free from the brine, and stuff every interstice
+that you can find with equal portions of chopped parsley, and mixed
+sweet herbs in powder, seasoned with ground allspice, mace, salt, and
+Cayenne. Do not be sparing of this mixture. Put the round into a deep
+earthen pan, fill it with strong ale, and bake it in a very slow oven
+for eight hours, turning it in the liquor every two hours, and adding
+more ale if necessary. This is an excellent preparation to assist in
+the "keeping of the Christmas season."
+
+
+PLUM PORRIDGE FOR CHRISTMAS FESTIVITIES.
+
+Make a good strong broth from four pounds of veal and an equal
+quantity of shin of beef. Strain and skim off the fat when cold. Wash
+and stone three pounds and a half of raisins; wash and well dry the
+same weight of best Zante currants; take out the stones from two and a
+half pounds of French prunes; grate up the crumbs of two small loaves
+of wheat bread; squeeze the juice of eight oranges and four lemons;
+put these, with a teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon, a grated nutmeg,
+half a dozen cloves, and five pounds of sugar into your broth; stir
+well together, and then pour in three quarts of sherry. Set the vessel
+containing the mixture on a slow fire. When the ingredients are soft
+add six bottles of hock; stir the porridge well, and as soon as it
+boils it is fit for use.
+
+
+SUGARED PEARS.
+
+Half a dozen of those fine pears called the "Bartlett" will make a
+small dish worthy the attention of any good Christian who has a sweet
+tooth in his head. Pare the fruit, cut out the cores, squeeze lemon
+juice over them, which will prevent their discoloration. Boil them
+gently in enough sirup to cover them till they become tender. Serve
+them cold, with Naples biscuit round the dish.
+
+
+TABLE BEER.
+
+Table beer of a superior quality may be brewed in the following
+manner, a process well worth the attention of the gentleman, the
+mechanic, and the farmer, whereby the beer is altogether prevented
+from working out of the cask, and the fermentation conducted without
+any apparent admission of the external air. I have made the scale for
+one barrel, in order to make it more generally useful to the community
+at large; however the same proportions will answer for a greater or
+less quantity, only proportioning the materials and utensils. Take one
+peck of good malt, ground, one pound of hops, put them in twenty
+gallons of water, and boil them for half an hour; then run them into a
+hair-cloth bag or sieve, so as to keep back the hops and malt from the
+wort, which when cooled down to sixty-five degrees by Fahrenheit's
+thermometer, add to it two gallons of molasses, with one pint, or a
+little less, of good yeast. Mix these with your wort, and put the
+whole into a clean barrel, and fill it up with cold water to within
+six inches of the bung hole (this space is requisite to leave room for
+fermentation), bung down tight. If brewed for family use, would
+recommend putting in the cock at the same time, as it will prevent the
+necessity of disturbing the cask afterward. In one fortnight this beer
+may be drawn and will be found to improve to the last.
+
+
+MINCE MEAT.
+
+This inevitable Christmas luxury is vastly improved by being mixed
+some days before it is required for use; this gives the various
+ingredients time to amalgamate and blend.
+
+Peel, core, and chop fine a pound of pippin apples, wash and clean a
+pound of Zante currants, stone one pound of bloom raisins, cut into
+small pieces a pound of citron, remove the skin and gristle from a
+pound and a half of cold roast or boiled beef, and carefully pick a
+pound of beef suet; chop these well together. Cut into small bits
+three-quarters of a pound of mixed candied orange and lemon peel; mix
+all these ingredients well together in a large earthen pan. Grate one
+nutmeg, half an ounce of powdered ginger, quarter of an ounce of
+ground cloves, quarter of an ounce of ground allspice and coriander
+seed mixed, and half an ounce of salt. Grate the yellow rind of three
+lemons, and squeeze the juice over two pounds of fine sugar. Put the
+grated yellow rind and all the other ingredients in a pan; mix well
+together, and over all pour one pint of brandy, one pint of sherry,
+and one pint of hard cider; stir well together, cover the pan closely,
+and when about to use the mince meat, take it from the bottom of the
+pan.
+
+
+PUMPKIN PIE.
+
+  "What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye?
+   What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin pie?"
+
+Stew about two pounds of pumpkins, then add to it three-quarters of a
+pound of sugar, and the same quantity of butter, well worked together;
+stir these into the pumpkin and add a teaspoonful of powdered mace and
+grated nutmeg, and a little ground cinnamon; then add a gill of
+brandy, beat them well together, and stir in the yolks of eight
+well-beaten eggs. Line the pie plates with puff paste, fill them with
+the pumpkin mixture, grate a little nutmeg over the top, and bake.
+
+
+BRANDY PUNCH.
+
+Take three dozen lemons, chip off the yellow rinds, taking care that
+none of the white underlying pith is taken, as that would make the
+punch bitter, whereas the yellow portion of the rinds is that in which
+the flavor resides and in which the cells are placed containing the
+essential oil. Put this yellow rind into a punch bowl, add to it two
+pounds of lump sugar; stir the sugar and peel together with a wooden
+spoon or spatula for nearly half an hour, thereby extracting a greater
+quantity of the essential oil. Now add boiling water, and stir until
+the sugar is completely dissolved. Squeeze and strain the juice from
+the lemons and add it to the mixture; stir together and taste it; add
+more acid or more sugar, as required, and take care not to render it
+too watery. "Rich of the fruit and plenty of sweetness," is the maxim.
+Now measure the sherbet, and to every three quarts add a pint of
+cognac brandy and a pint of old Jamaica rum, the spirit being well
+stirred as poured in. This punch may be bottled and kept in a cool
+cellar; it will be found to improve with age.
+
+
+BOEUF A LA MODE (FAMILY STYLE).
+
+The rump is the most applicable for this savory dish. Take six or
+eight pounds of it, and cut it into bits of a quarter of a pound each;
+chop a couple of onions very fine; grate one or two carrots; put these
+into a large stewpan with a quarter of a pound of fresh butter, or
+fresh and well clarified beef drippings; while this is warming, cover
+the pieces of beef with flour; put them into the pan and stir them for
+ten minutes, adding a little more flour by slow degrees, and taking
+great care that the meat does not burn. Pour in, a little at a time, a
+gallon of boiling water; then add a couple of drachms of ground
+allspice, one of black pepper, a couple of bay leaves, a pinch each of
+ground cloves and mace. Let all this stew on a slow fire, and very
+gently, for three hours and a quarter; ascertain with a fork if the
+meat be tender; if so, you may serve it in a tureen or deep dish. A
+well-dressed salad is the proper accompaniment of boeuf à la mode.
+
+
+PUNCH JELLY.
+
+Make a bowl of punch according to the directions for brandy punch,
+only a _little_ stronger. To every pint of punch add an ounce of
+gelatine dissolved in half a pint of water; pour this into the punch
+while quite hot, and then fill your moulds, taking care not to disturb
+it until the jelly is completely set. This preparation is a very
+agreeable refreshment, but should be used in moderation. The strength
+of the punch is so artfully concealed by its admixture with the
+gelatine that many persons, particularly of the softer sex, have been
+tempted to partake so plentifully of it as to render them somewhat
+unfit for waltzing or quadrilling after supper.
+
+
+ORANGE SALAD.
+
+This somewhat inappropriately-named dish is made by removing the rind
+and cutting the fruit in slices crosswise and adding equal quantities
+of brandy and Madeira, in proportion to the quantity of fruit thus
+dressed, strewing a liberal allowance of finely-powdered sugar over
+all.
+
+
+CRANBERRY JELLY.
+
+Put two quarts of cranberries into a large earthen pipkin, and cover
+them with water; place them on a moderate fire, and boil them until
+they are reduced to a soft pulp; then strain and press them through a
+hair sieve into an earthen or stone ware pan, and for each pint of
+liquid pulp allow one pound of pulverized sugar; mix the pulp and
+sugar together in a bright copper basin and boil, stirring constantly
+for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture begins to coagulate
+upon the spatula; then remove it from the fire and fill your moulds;
+let them stand in a cool place to set. When wanted for use, turn it
+out of the mould in the same manner as other jellies.
+
+
+JOVE'S NECTAR.
+
+For three gallons, peel the yellow rind from one and a half dozen
+fresh lemons, very thin, and steep the peelings for forty-eight hours
+in a gallon of brandy; then add the juice of the lemons, with five
+quarts of water, three pounds of loaf sugar, and two nutmegs grated;
+stir it till the sugar is completely dissolved, then pour in three
+quarts of new milk, _boiling hot_, and let it stand two hours, after
+which run it through a jelly bag till it is fine. This is fit for
+immediate use, but may be kept for years in bottles, and will be
+improved by age.
+
+
+PLUM, OR BLACK CAKE.
+
+For this Christmas luxury take one pound of butter and one pound of
+pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream, stir in one dozen
+eggs beaten to a froth, beat well together, and add one pound of
+sifted flour; continue the beating for ten minutes, then add and stir
+in three pounds of stoned raisins, three pounds of Zante currants,
+washed, cleaned, and dried, a pound and a half of citron sliced and
+cut into small pieces, three grated nutmegs, quarter of an ounce of
+powdered mace, half an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and half a
+teaspoonful of ground cloves; mix all well together; bake in a
+well-buttered pan in a slow oven for four hours and a half.
+
+
+BLACK CAKE (PARKINSON'S OWN).
+
+  "If you have lips, prepare to smack them now."
+                     --_Shakspeare, slightly altered._
+
+Take one and a half pounds of the best butter, and the same weight of
+pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream; stir into this two
+dozen eggs, beaten to a froth; add one gill of old Jamaica rum; then
+add one and a half pounds of sifted flour. Stir and beat all well
+together, and add two pounds of finest bloom raisins, stoned; two
+pounds of Zante currants, washed, cleaned, and dried; one pound of
+preserved citron, sliced thinly and cut into small pieces; one pound
+of preserved French cherries, in halves; one pound of green gages, and
+one pound of preserved apricots, stoned and cut into small pieces;
+half a pound of preserved orange and lemon peel, mixed, and cut into
+small pieces; three grated nutmegs, half an ounce of ground mace, half
+an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and a quarter ounce of ground cloves.
+Mix all the ingredients well together, and bake in a well-buttered
+mould or pan, in a _slow oven_, for five and a half hours.
+
+This cake is vastly improved by age. Those intended for the Christmas
+festivities should be made at or about the first of October; then put
+the cake into a round tin box, half an inch larger in diameter than
+the cake; then pour over it a bottle of the best brandy mixed with
+half a pint of pure lemon, raspberry, strawberry, or simple sirup, and
+one or more bottles of champagne. Now put on the lid of the box, and
+have it carefully soldered on, so as to make all perfectly air-tight.
+Put it away in your store-room, and let stand till Christmas, only
+reversing the box occasionally, in order that the liquors may permeate
+the cake thoroughly.
+
+This heroic treatment causes the ingredients to amalgamate, and the
+flavors to harmonize and blend more freely; and when, on Christmas
+day, you bring out this hermit, after doing a three months' penance in
+a dark cell, it will come out rich, succulent, and unctuous; you will
+not only have a luxury, "fit to set before a king," or before the
+Empress of India, but fit to crown a feast of the very gods
+themselves, on high Olympus' top.
+
+
+POTATOES (PARKINSON STYLE).
+
+Take two or three fine white potatoes, raw; peel and chop them up
+_very, very fine_. Then chop up just as fine the breast of a
+good-sized boiled fowl; they should be chopped as fine as unboiled
+rice; mix the meat and the potatoes together, and dust a _very little_
+flour over them and a pinch or two of salt. Now put an ounce or so of
+the best butter into a frying pan, and when it is hot, put in the
+mixture, and stir constantly with a wooden spatula until they are
+fried to a nice golden color, then immediately serve on a hot plate.
+
+Cold boiled ham grated fine, or boiled beef tongue chopped very fine,
+may be used instead of chicken, omitting the salt. A dozen or two of
+prime oysters, parboiled, drained, and chopped fine, mixed with the
+potatoes prepared as above, and fried, makes a most delicious lunch or
+supper dish. Try any of the above styles, and say no, if you can.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY COMET.
+
+
+Professor Hind, of the British Nautical Almanac Office, recently sent
+an interesting letter to the London _Times_ on the comet depicted in
+that famous piece of embroidery known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Probably
+no one of the great comets recorded in history has occasioned a more
+profound impression upon mankind in the superstitious ages than the
+celebrated body which appeared in the spring of the year 1066, and was
+regarded as the precursor of the invasion of England by William the
+Norman. As Pingre, the eminent cometographer, remarks, it forms the
+subject of an infinite number of relations in the European chronicles.
+The comet was first seen in China on April 2, 1066. It appeared in
+England about Easter Sunday, April 16, and disappeared about June 8.
+Professor Hind finds in ancient British and Chinese records abundant
+grounds for believing that this visitant was only an earlier
+appearance of Halley's great comet, and he traces back the appearances
+of this comet at its several perihelion passages to B.C. 12. The last
+appearance of Halley's comet was in 1835, and according to
+Pontecoulant's calculations, its next perihelion passage will take
+place May 24, 1910.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LACK OF SUN LIGHT.
+
+
+Some interesting information as to the way in which the human system
+is affected under the peculiar conditions of work in mines has been
+furnished by M. Fabre, from experiences connected with the coal mines
+of France. He finds that the deprivation of solar light causes a
+diminution in the pigment of the skin, and absence of sunburning, but
+there is no globular anæmia--that is, diminution in the number of
+globules in the blood. Internal maladies seem to be more rare. While
+there is no essential anæmia in the miners, the blood globules are
+often found smaller and paler than in normal conditions of life, this
+being due to respiration of noxious gases, especially where
+ventilation is difficult. The men who breathe too much the gases
+liberated on explosion of powder or dynamite suffer more than other
+miners from affections of the larynx, the bronchia, and the stomach.
+Ventilation sometimes works injury by its cooling effect.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SYNTHETIC EXPERIMENTS ON THE ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF
+METEORITES.
+
+
+By means of igneous fusion the authors have succeeded in reproducing
+two types of crystalline associations, which, in their mineralogical
+composition and the principal features of their structure, are
+analogous, if not identical with certain oligosideric meteorites. The
+only notable difference results from the habitual brecchoid state of
+the meteorites, which contrasts with state of quiet solidification of
+the artificial compounds.--_F. Fouqué and Michel Lévy._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific
+papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had
+gratis at this office.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
+
+Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.
+
+All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the
+commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be
+supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
+stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.
+
+COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and
+one copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year,
+postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+  MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+  37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & CO. are
+Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 35 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all Inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the
+Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction
+often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN & CO.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for
+procuring advances on inventions. Address
+
+  MUNN & CO., 37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK.
+Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+315,  January 14, 1882, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 18345-8.txt or 18345-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/3/4/18345/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/18345-8.zip b/18345-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ae8e4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-8.zip
diff --git a/18345-h.zip b/18345-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..315f09c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h.zip
diff --git a/18345-h/18345-h.htm b/18345-h/18345-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fffa54d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/18345-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,4835 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
+
+<title>
+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American Supplement, January 14, 1882
+</title>
+
+<style type="text/css">
+<!--
+       body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white}
+       img {border: 0;}
+       p     { text-align: justify;}
+       h1, h2, h3 {text-align: center;}
+
+       hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;}
+       hr.short {width: 25%;}
+       hr.long  {width: 75%;}
+       hr.full  {width: 100%;}
+       sup, sub {font-size: .7em;}
+
+       .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; margin-bottom: 1em;}
+
+       .caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+       .longcaption {margin-left: 10%;
+                     margin-right: 10%;
+                     text-align: left; }
+
+       .center {text-align: center;
+                margin-left: auto;
+                margin-right: auto; }
+       .center table {
+                margin-left: auto;
+                margin-right: auto; }
+
+       .signature {font-variant: small-caps;
+                   text-align: right;}
+       .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;}
+
+       .figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+       .figleft     {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                     margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+       .figright    {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+                     margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;}
+
+       .toc1   { vertical-align: top;
+                 text-align: left;}
+       .toc2   { text-align: left;}
+       .toc3   { vertical-align: bottom;
+                 text-align: right;}
+
+-->
+</style>
+</head>
+
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 315, 
+January 14, 1882, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 315,  January 14, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 8, 2006 [EBook #18345]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p class="center" style="margin-left: -10%; margin-right: -10%"><a href="./images/title.png"><img src="./images/title_th.png" alt="Issue Title" /></a></p>
+<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 315</h1>
+<h2>NEW YORK, JANUARY 14, 1882</h2>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIII., No. 315.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4>
+<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4>
+<hr />
+
+<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5">
+<tr>
+<th colspan="2" align="center">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td>PAGE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">  I.</td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art01">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.&mdash;Watchman's Detecter.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art02">Integrating Apparatus.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art03">A Canal Boat Propelled by Air.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art04">Head Linings of Passenger Cars.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art05">Improved Mortar Mixer. 2 figures.</a></td><td class="toc3">5023</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art06">Practical Notes on Plumbing. By <span class="smcap">J.P. Davies.</span> Figs.
+     37 to 53. Tinning iron pipes, copper or brass work,
+     bits, etc.&mdash;Spirit brush.&mdash;Soldering iron to lead.&mdash;
+     Dummies for pipe bending.&mdash;Bends and set-offs.&mdash;
+     Bending with water.&mdash;Sand bending.&mdash;Bending with
+     balls or bobbins.&mdash;Three-ball or lead driving ball
+     and double ball bending.&mdash;Bending with windlass and
+     brass ball.&mdash;Hydraulic or cup leather and ball
+     bending.&mdash;Bending by splitting, or split made bends.
+     &mdash;Pulling up bends.&mdash;Set-offs.&mdash;Bad bends.&mdash;Bad
+     falls in bends.&mdash;Bends made into traps or retarders.
+     &mdash;Bends made with the &quot;snarling dummy.&quot;</a></td><td class="toc3">5024</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art07">The Grossenhain Shuttle Driver. 1 figure.</a></td><td class="toc3">5025</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"> II.</td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art08">ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, ETC.&mdash;The Electro-Magnetic
+     Apparatus of Dr. Pacinotti. 8 figures. The Pacinotti
+     electro-magnetic machine of 1860.&mdash;The Elias
+     electro-motor of 1842.</a></td><td class="toc3">5015</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art09">The Elias Electro-Motor.</a></td><td class="toc3">5016</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art10">Bjerknes's Experiments. 7 figures.</a></td><td class="toc3">5016</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art11">The Arc Electric Light. By <span class="smcap">Leo Daft.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5018</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art12">Hedges' Electric Lamps. 4 figures.</a></td><td class="toc3">5019</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art13">Electric Railway Apparatus at the Paris Electrical
+     Exhibition. 17 figures. Lartigue's switch
+     controller, elevation and sections.&mdash;Position of
+     commutators during the maneuver.&mdash;Pedal for sending
+     warning to railway crossing, with elevation and end
+     and plan views.&mdash;Electric Alarm.&mdash;Lartigue's bellows
+     pedal, with plan and sections.&mdash;Brunot's Controller.
+     &mdash;Guggemos' correspondence apparatus.&mdash;Annunciator
+     apparatus.&mdash;Lartigue's controller for water tanks.&mdash;
+     Vérité controller for water tanks.</a></td><td class="toc3">5019</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art14">The Telephonic Halls of the Electrical Exhibition.
+     1 figure.</a></td><td class="toc3">5022</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art15">The Action of Cold on the Voltaic Arc.</a></td><td class="toc3">5022</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">III.</td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art16">TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.&mdash;Industrial Art for Women.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art17">Photography upon Canvas. 1 figure.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art18">Detection of Starch Sugar Sirup Mixed with Sugar
+     House Molasses.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art19">False Vermilion.</a></td><td class="toc3">5026</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art20">The Position of Manganese in Modern Industry.&mdash;By
+     <span class="smcap">M.V. Deshaeys.</span> Ferro-manganese.&mdash;Cupro-manganese.&mdash;
+     Manganese bronzes.&mdash;Metallic manganese.&mdash;Manganese
+     German silver.&mdash;Phosphorus bronze.</a></td><td class="toc3">5027</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art21">The Economical Washing of Coal Gas and Smoke.&mdash;M.
+     Chevalet's method.</a></td><td class="toc3">5027</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art22">Determination of Nitrogen in Hair, Wool, Dried
+     Blood, Flesh Meal, and Leather Scraps. By Dr. <span class="smcap">C.
+     Krauch.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art23">Testing White Beeswax for Ceresine and Paraffine. By
+     <span class="smcap">A. Peltz.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art24">The Prevention of Alcoholic Fermentation by Fungi.
+     By Prof. <span class="smcap">E. Reichard.</span></a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art25">New Reaction of Glycerine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art26">Lycopodine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art27">Conchinamine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art28">Chinoline.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art29">Preparation of Coniine.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art30">Strontianite.</a></td><td class="toc3">5028</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"> IV.</td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art31">MISCELLANEOUS.&mdash;Household and Other Recipes.
+     Christmas plum pudding.&mdash;Plum pudding sauce.&mdash;
+     National plum pudding and sauce.&mdash;Egg nog.&mdash;Egg
+     flip.&mdash;Roast Turkey.&mdash;Woodcock and Snipe.&mdash;Canvas-back
+     duck.&mdash;Pheasants.&mdash;Wild ducks.&mdash;Wild fowl
+     sauce.&mdash;Brown fricassee of rabbits.&mdash;Orange pudding.
+     &mdash;Venison pastry.&mdash;Christmas red round.&mdash;Plum
+     porridge.&mdash;Sugared pears.&mdash;Table beer.&mdash;Mince meat.
+     &mdash;Pumpkin pie.&mdash;Brandy punch.&mdash;B&oelig;uf a la mode.&mdash;
+     Punch jelly.&mdash;Orange salad.&mdash;Cranberry jelly.&mdash;Plum
+     cake.&mdash;Black cake.&mdash;Potatoes.</a></td><td class="toc3">5029</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art32">The Bayeux Tapestry Comet.</a></td><td class="toc3">5030</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art33">Synthetic Experiments on the Artificial Reproduction
+     of Meteorites.</a></td><td class="toc3">5030</td>
+</tr>
+
+
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">  V.</td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art34">HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.&mdash;Parangi; a newly described
+     disease.</a></td><td class="toc3">5029</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art35">A Castor Oil Substitute.</a></td><td class="toc3">5029</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td></td>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#art36">Lack of Sun Light.</a></td><td class="toc3">5030</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table>
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art08" id="art08"></a>THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC APPARATUS OF DR. PACINOTTI.</h2>
+
+<p>In admiring the recent developments of electric science as evidenced
+by the number of important inventions which have during the past few
+years been given to the world, especially in those branches of applied
+science which deal more particularly with the generation of
+electricity and the production of the electric light, there is often
+too great a tendency to forget, or, at least, to pass over in
+comparative silence the claims which the great pioneer workers and
+discoverers undoubtedly have to a large share of the merit of this
+scientific development.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, obviously impossible in anything approaching a
+retrospect of the science of magneto-electric induction or its
+application to illumination to pass slightly over the names of
+Oersted, of Ampère, of Davy, and of Faraday, but, in other respects,
+their work is too often lost sight of in the splendid modern
+developments of their discoveries. Again, there is another group of
+discoverer-inventors who occupy an intermediate position between the
+abstract discoverers above named and the inventors and adapters of
+still more recent times. To this group belong the names of Pixii and
+Saxton, Holmes and Nollet, Wilde, Varley, Siemens, Wheatstone, and
+Pacinotti, who was the first to discover a means of constructing a
+machine capable of giving a continuous current always in the same
+direction, and which has since proved itself to be the type of nearly
+all the direct current electric machines of the present day, and
+especially those such as the Gramme and Brush and De Meritens
+machines, in which the rotating armature is of annular form; and when
+it is considered what a large number of the well known electric
+generators are founded upon this discovery, it must be a matter of
+general gratification that the recent International Jury of the Paris
+Exhibition of Electricity awarded to Dr. Antonio Pacinotti one of
+their highest awards.</p>
+
+<p>The original machine designed by Dr. Pacinotti in the year 1860, and
+which we illustrate on the present page, formed one of the most
+interesting exhibits in the Paris Exhibition, and conferred upon the
+Italian Section a very distinctive feature, and we cannot but think
+that while all were interested in examining it, there must have been
+many who could not help being impressed with the fact that it took
+something away from the originality of design in several of the
+machines exhibited in various parts of the building.</p>
+
+<p>This very interesting machine was first illustrated and described by
+its inventor in the <i>Nuovo Cimento</i> in the year 1864, under the title
+&quot;A Description of a Small Electro-Magnetic Machine,&quot; and to this
+description we are indebted for the information and diagrams contained
+in this notice, but the perspective view is taken from the instrument
+itself in the Paris Exhibition.</p>
+
+<p>In this very interesting historical communication the author commences
+by describing a new form of electro-magnet, consisting of an iron ring
+around which is wound (as in the Gramme machine) a single helix of
+insulated copper wire completely covering the ring, and the two ends
+of the annular helix being soldered together, an annular magnet is
+produced, enveloped in an insulated helix forming a closed circuit,
+the convolutions of which are all in the same direction. If in such a
+system any two points of the coil situated at opposite ends of the
+same diameter of the ring be connected respectively with the two poles
+of a voltaic battery, the electric current having two courses open to
+it, will divide into two portions traversing the coil around each half
+of the ring from one point of contact to the other, and the direction
+of the current, in each portion will be such as to magnetize the iron
+core, so that its magnetic poles will be situated at the points where
+the current enters and leaves the helix, and a straight line joining
+these points may be looked upon as the magnetic axis of the system.
+From this construction it is clear that, by varying the position of
+the points of contact of the battery wires and the coil, the position
+of the magnetic axis will be changed accordingly, and can be made to
+take up any diametrical position with respect to the ring, of which
+the two halves (separated by the diameter joining the points of
+contact of the battery wires with the coil) may be regarded as made up
+of two semicircular horseshoe electro-magnets having their similar
+poles joined. To this form of instrument the name &quot;Transversal electro
+magnet&quot; (<i>Eletro calamita transversale</i>) was given by its inventor, to
+whom is undoubtedly due the merit of having been the first to
+construct an electro-magnet the position of whose poles could be
+varied at will by means of a circular commutator.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/1a.png"><img src="./images/1a_th.png" width="395" height="450" alt="PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.&mdash;MADE IN 1860." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.&mdash;MADE IN 1860.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>By applying the principle to an electro-magnetic engine, Dr. Pacinotti
+produced the machine which we illustrate on the present page. The
+armature consists of a turned ring of iron, having around its
+circumference sixteen teeth of equal size and at equal angular
+distance apart, as shown in Fig. 1, forming between them as many
+spaces or notches, which are filled up by coiling within them helices
+of insulated copper wire, <i>r r r</i>, in a similar manner to that adopted
+in winding the Brush armature, and between them are fixed as many
+wooden wedges, <i>m m</i>, by which the helices are firmly held in their
+place. All the coils are wound round the ring in the same direction,
+and the terminating end of each coil is connected to the commencing
+end of the next or succeeding helix, and the junctions so made are
+attached to conducting wires which are gathered together close to the
+vertical shaft on which the armature ring is fixed, passing through
+holes at equal distances apart in a wooden collar fixed to the same
+shaft, and being attached at their lower extremities to the metallic
+contact pieces of the commutator, <i>c</i>, shown at the lower part of Fig.
+3, which is an elevation of the machine, while Fig. 4 is a plan of the
+same apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The commutator consists of a small boxwood cylinder, carrying around
+its cylindrical surface two rows of eight holes, one above the other,
+in which are fitted sixteen contact pieces of brass which slightly
+project above the surface of the wood, the positions of those in the
+upper circle alternating or &quot;breaking joint&quot; with those in the lower,
+and each contact piece is in metallic connection with its
+corresponding conducting wire, and, therefore, with the junction of
+two of the helices on the armature. Against the edge of the commutator
+are pressed by means of adjustable levers two small brass contact
+rollers, <i>k k</i>, which are respectively connected with the positive and
+negative poles of the voltaic battery (either through or independent
+of the coils of a fixed electro-magnet, to which we shall presently
+refer), and the magnetic axis of the ring will lie in the same plane
+as the line joining the points of contact of the battery and rotating
+helix, this axis remaining nearly fixed notwithstanding the rotation
+of the iron ring in which the magnetism is induced.</p>
+
+<p>In the apparatus figured in Figs. 3 and 4, the armature rotates
+between the two vertical limbs, A B, of a fixed electro-magnet
+furnished with extended pole pieces, A A, B B (Fig. 4), each of which
+embraces about six of the armature coils. The fixed electro-magnet is
+constructed of two vertical iron cylindrical bars, A and B, united at
+their lower extremities by a horizontal iron bar, F F, the one being
+rigidly and permanently attached to it, while the other is fastened to
+it by a screw, G, passing through a slot so that the distance of the
+pole pieces from one another and from the armature ring is capable of
+adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>The connections of the machine, which are shown in Fig. 3, are made as
+follows: The positive current, entering by the attachment screw, <i>h</i>,
+passes by a wire to the right hand commutator screw, <i>l</i>, to the
+right-hand roller, <i>k</i>, through the commutator to the ring, around
+which it traverses to the left-hand roller, <i>k¹</i>, and screw, <i>l¹</i>, to
+the magnet coil, A, and thence through the coil of the magnet, B, to
+the terminal screw, <i>h</i>, on the right hand of the figure. This method
+of coupling up is of very great historical interest, for it is the
+first instance on record of the magnet coils and armature of a machine
+being included in one circuit, giving to it the principle of
+construction of a dynamo-electric machine, and antedating in
+publication, by two years, the interesting machines of Siemens,
+Wheatstone, and Varley, and preceding them in construction by a still
+longer period.</p>
+
+<p>With this apparatus Dr. Pacinotti made the following interesting
+experiments with the object of determining the amount of mechanical
+work produced by the machine (when worked as an electro-magnetic
+engine), and the corresponding consumption of the elements of the
+battery: Attached to the spindle of the machine was a small pulley, Q
+Q (Fig. 3), for the purpose of driving, by means of a cord, another
+pulley on a horizontal spindle carrying a drum on which was wound a
+cord carrying a weight, and on the same spindle was also a brake and
+brake-wheel, the lever of which was loaded so as just to prevent the
+weight setting into motion the whole system, consisting of the two
+machines, when no current was flowing. In this condition, when the
+machine was set in motion by connecting the battery, the mechanical
+work expended in overcoming the friction of the brake was equal to
+that required to raise the weight; and, in order to obtain the total
+work done, all that was necessary was to multiply the weight lifted by
+the distance through which it was raised. The consumption of the
+battery was estimated at the same time by interposing in the circuit a
+sulphate of copper voltameter, of which the copper plate was weighed
+before and after the experiment. The following are some of the results
+obtained by Dr. Pacinotti in experimenting after the manner just
+described. With the current from a battery of four small Bunsen
+elements, the machine raised a weight of 3.2812 kilos to a height of
+8.66 m. (allowing for friction), so that the mechanical work was
+represented by 28.45 m. During the experiment the positive plate of
+the voltameter lost in weight 0.224 gramme, the negative gaining 0.235
+gramme, giving an average of chemical work performed in the voltameter
+of 0.229 gramme, and multiplying this figure by the ratio between the
+equivalent of zinc to that of copper, and by the number of the
+elements of the battery, the weight of zinc consumed in the battery
+was computed at 0.951 gramme, so that to produce one kilogrammeter of
+mechanical work 33 milligrammes of zinc would be consumed in the
+battery. In another experiment, made with five elements, the
+consumption of zinc was found to be 36 milligrammes for every
+kilogrammeter of mechanical work performed. In recording these
+experiments, Dr. Pacinotti points out that although these results do
+not show any special advantage in his machine over those of other
+construction, still they are very encouraging, when it is considered
+that the apparatus with which the experiments were made were full of
+defects of workmanship, the commutator, being eccentric to the axis,
+causing the contacts between it and the rollers to be very imperfect
+and unequal.</p>
+
+<p>In his communication to the <i>Nuovo Cimento</i>, Dr. Pacinotti states that
+the reasons which induced him to construct the apparatus on the
+principle which we have just described, were: (1) That according to
+this system the electric current is continuously traversing the coils
+of the armature, and the machine is kept in motion not by a series of
+intermittent impulses succeeding one another with greater or less
+rapidity, but by a constantly acting force producing a more uniform
+effect. (2) The annular form of the revolving armature contributes
+(together with the preceding method of continuous magnetization) to
+give regularity to its motion and at the same time reduces the loss of
+motive power, through mechanical shocks and friction, to a minimum.
+(3) In the annular system no attempt is made suddenly to magnetize and
+demagnetize the iron core of the rotating armature, as such changes of
+magnetization would be retarded by the setting up of extra currents,
+and also by the permanent residual magnetism which cannot be entirely
+eliminated from the iron; and with this annular construction such
+charges are not required, all that is necessary being that each
+portion of the iron of the ring should pass, in its rotation, through
+the various degrees of magnetization in succession, being subjected
+thereby to the influence of the electro-dynamic forces by which its
+motion is produced. (4) The polar extension pieces of the fixed
+electro-magnet, by embracing a sufficiently large number of the iron
+projecting pieces on the armature ring, continue to exercise an
+influence upon them almost up to the point at which their
+magnetization ceases when passing the neutral axis. (5) By the method
+of construction adopted, sparks, while being increased in number, are
+diminished in intensity, there being no powerful extra currents
+produced at the breaking of the circuit, and Dr. Pacinotti points out
+that when the machine is in rotation a continuous current is induced
+in the circuit which is opposed to that of the battery; and this leads
+to what, looked at by the light of the present state of electric
+science, is by far the most interesting part of Dr. Pacinotti's paper,
+published, as it was, more than seventeen years ago.</p>
+
+<p>In the part to which we refer, Dr. Pacinotti states that it occurred
+to him that the value of the apparatus would be greatly increased if
+it could be altered from an electro-magnetic to a magneto-electric
+machine, so as to produce a continuous current. Thus, if the
+electro-magnet, A B (Figs. 3 and 4), be replaced by a permanent
+magnet, and the annular armature were made to revolve, the apparatus
+would become a magneto-electric generator, which would produce a
+continuous induced current always in the same direction, and in
+analyzing the action of such a machine Dr. Pacinotti observes that, as
+the position of the magnetic field is fixed, and the iron armature
+with its coils rotates within it, the action may be regarded as the
+same as if the iron ring were made up of two fixed semicircular
+horseshoe magnets with their similar poles joined, and the coils were
+loose upon it and were caused to rotate over it, and this mode of
+expressing the phenomenon was exactly what we adopted when describing
+the Gramme machine, without having at that time seen what Dr.
+Pacinotti had written fifteen years before.</p>
+
+<p>In explanation of the physical phenomena involved in the induction of
+the electric currents in the armature when the machine is in action as
+a generator, Dr. Pacinotti makes the following remarks: Let us trace
+the action of one of the coils in the various positions that it can
+assume in one complete revolution; starting from the position marked
+N, Fig. 2, and moving toward S, an electric current will be developed
+in it in one direction while moving through the portion of the circle,
+N <i>a</i>, and after passing the point, <i>a</i>, and while passing through the
+arc, <i>a</i> S, the induced current will be in the opposite direction,
+which direction will be maintained until the point, <i>b</i>, is reached,
+after which the currents will be in the same direction as between N
+and <i>a</i>; and as all the coils are connected together, all the currents
+in a given direction will unite and give the combined current a
+direction indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2, and in order to collect
+it (so as to transmit it into the external circuit), the most eminent
+position for the collectors will be at points on the commutator at
+opposite ends of a diameter which is perpendicular to the magnetic
+axis of the magnetic field. With reference to Fig. 2, we imagine
+either that the two arrows to the right of the figure are incorrectly
+placed by the engraver, or that Dr. Pacinotti intended this diagram to
+express the direction of the current throughout the whole circuit, as
+if it started from <i>a</i>, and after traversing the external circuit
+entered again at <i>b</i>, thus completing the whole cycle made up of the
+external and internal circuits.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Pacinotti calls attention to the fact that the direction of the
+current generated by the machine is reversed by a reversal of the
+direction of rotation, as well as by a shifting of the position of the
+collectors from one side to the other of their neutral point, and
+concludes his most interesting communication by describing experiments
+made with it in order to convert it into a magneto-electric machine.
+&quot;I brought,&quot; he says, &quot;near to the coiled armature the opposite poles
+of two permanent magnets, and I also excited by the current from a
+battery the fixed electro-magnets (see Figs. 3 and 4), and by
+mechanical means I rotated the annular armature on its axis. By both
+methods I obtained an induced electric current, which was continuous
+and always in the same direction, and which, as was indicated by a
+galvanometer, proved to be of considerable intensity, although it had
+traversed the sulphate of copper voltameter which was included in the
+circuit.&quot;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Pacinotti goes on to show that there would be an obvious advantage
+in constructing electric generating machines upon this principle, for
+by such a system electric currents can be produced which are
+continuous and in one direction without the necessity of the
+inconvenient and more or less inefficient mechanical arrangements for
+commutating the currents and sorting them, so as to collect and
+combine those in one direction, separating them from those which are
+in the opposite; and he also points our the reversibility of the
+apparatus, showing that as an electro-magnetic engine it is capable of
+converting a current of electricity into mechanical motion capable of
+performing work, while as a magneto-electric machine it is made to
+transform mechanical energy into an electric current, which in other
+apparatus, forming part of its external circuit, is capable of
+performing electric, chemical, or mechanical work.</p>
+
+<p>All these statements are matters of everyday familiarity at the
+present day, but it must be remembered that they are records of
+experiments made twenty years ago, and as such they entitle their
+author to a very distinguished place among the pioneers of electric
+science, and it is somewhat remarkable that they did not lead him
+straight to the discovery of the &quot;action and reaction&quot; principle of
+dynamo-electric magnetic induction to which he approached so closely,
+and it is also a curious fact that so suggestive and remarkable a
+paper should have been written and published as far back as 1864, and
+that it should not have produced sooner than it did a revolution in
+electric science.&mdash;<i>Engineering.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art09" id="art09"></a>THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.</h2>
+
+<p>We lately published a short description of a very interesting
+apparatus which may be considered in some sense as a prototype of the
+Gramme machine, although it has very considerable, indeed radical
+differences, and which, moreover, was constructed for a different
+purpose, the Elias machine being, in fact, an electromotor, while the
+Gramme machine is, it is almost unnecessary to say, an electric
+generator. This apparent resemblance makes it, however, necessary to
+describe the Elias machine, and to explain the difference between it
+and the Gramme. Its very early date (1842), moreover, gives it an
+exceptional interest. The figures on the previous page convey an exact
+idea of the model that was exhibited at the Paris Electrical
+Exhibition, and which was contributed by the Ecole Polytechnique of
+Delft in the Dutch Section. This model is almost identical with that
+illustrated and described in a pamphlet accompanying the exhibit. The
+perspective illustrations show the machine very clearly, and the
+section explains the construction still further. The apparatus
+consists of an exterior ring made of iron, about 14 in. in diameter
+and 1.5 in wide. It is divided into six equal sections by six small
+blocks which project from the inner face of the ring, and which act as
+so many magnetic poles. On each of the sections between the blocks is
+rolled a coil, of one thickness only, of copper wire about 0.04 in. in
+diameter, inclosed in an insulating casing of gutta percha, giving to
+the conductor thus protected a total thickness of 0.20 in.; this wire
+is coiled, as shown in the illustration. It forms twenty-nine turns in
+each section, and the direction of winding changes at each passage in
+front of a pole piece. The ends of the wire coinciding with the
+horizontal diameter of the ring are stripped of the gutta percha, and
+are connected to copper wires which are twisted together and around
+two copper rods, which are placed vertically, their lower ends
+entering two small cavities made in the base of the apparatus. The
+circuit is thus continuous with two ends at opposite points of the
+same diameter. The ring is about 1.1 in. thick, and is fixed, as
+shown, to two wooden columns, B B, by two blocks of copper, <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/1b.png"><img src="./images/1b_th.png" width="600" height="251" alt="THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.&mdash;MADE IN 1842." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.&mdash;MADE IN 1842.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It will be seen from the mode of coiling the wire on this ring, that
+if a battery be connected by means of the copper rods, the current
+will create six consecutive poles on the various projecting blocks.
+The inner ring, E, is about 11 in. in outside diameter, and is also
+provided with a series of six projecting pieces which pass before
+those on the exterior ring with very little clearance. Between these
+projections the space between the inner face of the outer, and the
+outer face of the inner ring, is 0.40 in. The latter is movable, and
+is supported by three wooden arms, F, fixed to a boss, G, which is
+traversed by a spindle supported in bearings by the columns, A and C.
+A coil is rolled around the ring in exactly the same way as that on
+the outer ring, the wire being of the same size, and the insulation of
+the same thickness. The ends of the wire are also bared at points of
+the diameter opposite each other, and the coil connected in pairs so
+as to form a continuous circuit. At the two points of junction they
+are connected with a hexagonal commutator placed on the central
+spindle, one end corresponding to the sides 1, 3, and 5, and the other
+to the sides 2, 4, and 6. Two copper rods, J, fixed on the base to two
+plates of copper furnished with binding screws, are widened and
+flattened at their upper ends to rest against opposite parallel sides
+of the hexagon. It will be seen that if the battery is put in circuit
+by means of the binding screws, the current in the interior ring will
+determine six consecutive poles, the names of which will change as the
+commutator plates come into contact successively with the sides of the
+hexagon. Consequently, if at first the pole-pieces opposite each other
+are magnetized with the same polarity, a repulsion between them will
+be set up which will set the inner ring in motion, and the effect will
+be increased on account of the attraction of the next pole of the
+outer ring. At the moment when the pole piece thus attracted comes
+into the field of the pole of opposite polarity, the action of the
+commutator will change its magnetization, while that of the pole-piece
+on the fixed ring always remains the same; the same phenomenon of
+repulsion will be produced, and the inner ring will continue its
+movement in the same direction, and so on. To the attractive and
+repulsive action of the magnetic poles has to be added the reciprocal
+action of the coils around the two rings, the action of which is
+similar. From this brief explanation the differences between the Elias
+machine and the Gramme will be understood. The Dutch physicist did not
+contemplate the production of a current; he utilized two distinct
+sources of electricity to set the inner ring in motion, and did not
+imagine that it was possible, by suppressing one of the inducing
+currents and putting the ring in rapid rotation, to obtain a
+continuous current. Moreover, if ever this apparent resemblance had
+been real, the merit of the Gramme invention would not have been
+affected by it. It has happened very many times that inventors living
+in different countries, and strangers to one another, have been
+inspired with the same idea, and have followed it by similar methods,
+either simultaneously or at different periods, without the application
+having led to the same results. It does not suffice even for the seed
+to be the same; it must have fallen in good ground, and be cultivated
+with care; here it scarcely germinates, there it produces a vigorous
+plant and abundant fruit.&mdash;<i>Engineering.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art10" id="art10"></a>BJERKNES'S EXPERIMENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>As a general thing, too much trust should not be placed in words. In
+the first place, it frequently happens that their sense is not well
+defined, or that they are not understood exactly in the same way by
+everybody, and this leads to sad misunderstandings. But even in case
+they are precise, and are received everywhere under a single
+acceptation, there still remains one danger, and that is that of
+passing from the word to the idea, and of being led to believe that,
+because there is a word, there is a real thing designated by this
+word.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take, for example, the word <i>electricity</i>. If we understand by
+this term the common law which embraces a certain category of
+phenomena, it expresses a clear and useful idea; but as for its
+existence, it is not permitted to believe <i>a priori</i> that there is a
+distinct agent called electricity which is the efficient cause of the
+phenomena. We ought never, says the old rule of philosophy, to admit
+entities without an absolute necessity. The march of science has
+always consisted in gradually eliminating these provisory conceptions
+and in reducing the number of causes. This fact is visible without
+going back to the ages of ignorance, when every new phenomenon brought
+with it the conception of a special being which caused it and directed
+it. In later ages they had <i>spirits</i> in which there was everything:
+volatile liquids, gases, and theoretical conceptions, such as
+phlogiston. At the end of the last century, and at the beginning of
+our own, ideas being more rational, the notion of the &quot;fluid&quot; had been
+admitted, a mysterious and still vague enough category (but yet an
+already somewhat definite one) in which were ranged the unknown and
+ungraspable causes of caloric, luminous, electric, etc., phenomena.
+Gradually, the &quot;fluid&quot; has vanished, and we are left (or rather, we
+were a short time ago) at the notion of forces&mdash;a precise and
+mathematically graspable notion, but yet an essentially mysterious
+one. We see this conception gradually disappearing to leave finally
+only the elementary ideas of matter and motion&mdash;ideas, perhaps, which
+are not much clearer philosophically than the others, particularly
+that of matter taken <i>per se</i>, but which, at least, are necessary,
+since all the others supposed them.</p>
+
+<p>Among those notions that study and time are reducing to other and
+simpler ones, that of electricity should be admitted; for it presents
+itself more and more as one of the peculiar cases of the general
+motion of matter. It will be to the eternal honor of Fresnel for
+having introduced into science and mathematically constituted the
+theory of undulations (already proposed before him, however), thus
+giving the first example of the notion of motion substituted for that
+of force. Since the principle of the conservation of energy has taken
+the eminent place in science that it now occupies, and we have seen a
+continual transformation of one series of phenomena into another, the
+mind is at once directed to the aspect of a new fact toward an
+explanation of this kind. Still, it is certain that these hypotheses
+are difficult of justification; for those motions that are at present
+named molecular, and that we cannot help presuming to be at the base
+of all actions, are <i>per se</i> ungraspable and can only be demonstrated
+by the coincidence of a large number of results. There is, however,
+another means of rendering them probable, and that is by employing
+analogy. If, by vibrations which are directly ascertainable, we can
+reproduce the effects of electricity, there will be good reason for
+admitting that the latter is nothing else than a system of vibration
+differing only, perhaps, in special qualities, such as dimensions,
+direction, rapidity, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the result that is attained by the very curious experiments
+that are due to Mr. Bjerknes. These constitute an <i>ensemble</i> of very
+striking results, which are perfectly concordant and exhibit very
+close analogies with electrical effects, as we shall presently see.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/2.png" width="302" height="450" alt="Fig. 1." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>They are based on the presence of bodies set in vibration in a liquid.
+The vibrations produced by Mr. Bjerknes are of two kinds&mdash;pulsations
+and oscillations. The former of these are obtained by the aid of small
+drums with flexible ends, as shown to the left in Fig. 1. A small pump
+chamber or cylinder is, by means of a tube, put in communication with
+one of these closed drums in which the rapid motion of a piston
+alternately sucks in and expels the air. The two flexible ends are
+successively thrust outward and attracted toward the center. In an
+apparatus of this kind the two ends repulse and attract the liquid at
+the same time. Their motions are of the same phase; if it were desired
+that one should repulse while the other was attracting, it would be
+necessary to place two drums back to back, separated by a stiff
+partition, and put them in connection with two distinct pump chambers
+whose movements were so arranged that one should be forcing in while
+the other was exhausting. A system of this nature is shown to the
+right in Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>The vibrations are obtained by the aid of small metal spheres fixed in
+tubular supports by movable levers to which are communicated the
+motions of compression and dilatation of the air in the pump chamber.
+They oscillate in a plane whose direction may be varied according to
+the arrangement of the sphere, as seen in the two apparatus of this
+kind shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 will give an idea of the general
+arrangement. The two pistons of the air-pumps are connected to cranks
+that may be fixed in such a way as to regulate the phases as may be
+desired, either in coincidence or opposition. The entire affair is put
+in motion by a wheel and cord permitting of rapid vibrations being
+obtained. The air is let into the apparatus by rubber tubing without
+interfering with their motions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/3a.png"><img src="./images/3a_th.png" width="519" height="450" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 2.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may now enter into the details of the experiments:</p>
+
+<p>The first is represented in Fig. 2. In a basin of water there is
+placed a small frame carrying a drum fixed on an axle and capable of
+revolving. It also communicates with one of the air cylinders. The
+operator holds in his hand a second drum which communicates with the
+other cylinder. The pistons are adjusted in such a way that they shall
+move parallel with each other; then the ends of the drums inflate and
+collapse at the same time; the <i>motions are of the same phase</i>; but if
+the drums are brought near each other a very marked attraction occurs,
+the revolving drum follows the other. If the cranks are so adjusted
+that the pistons move in an opposite direction, the <i>phases are
+discordant</i>&mdash;there is a repulsion, and the movable drum moves away
+from the other. The effect, then, is analogous to that of two magnets,
+with about this difference, that here it is the like phases that
+attract and the different phases that repel each other, while in
+magnets like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to remark that it is indifferent which face of the
+drum is presented, since both possess the same phase. The drum
+behaves, then, like an insulated pole of a magnet, or, better, like a
+magnet having in its middle a succeeding point. In order to have two
+poles a double drum must be employed. The experiment then becomes more
+complicated; for it is necessary to have two pump chambers with
+opposite phases for this drum alone, and one or two others for the
+revolving drum. The effects, as we shall see, are more easily shown
+with the vibrating spheres.</p>
+
+<p>This form has the advantage that the vibrating body exhibits the two
+phases at the same time; relatively to the liquid, one of its ends
+advances while the other recedes. Thus with a vibrating sphere
+presented to the movable drum, there may be obtained repulsion or
+attraction, according as the side which is approached is concordant or
+discordant with the end of the drum that it faces.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/3b.png"><img src="./images/3b_th.png" width="325" height="450" alt="Fig. 3." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 3.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the arrangement shown in Fig. 3 there may be performed an
+interesting series of experiments. The two spheres supported by the
+frame are set in simultaneous vibration, and the frame, moreover, is
+free to revolve about its axis. The effect is analogous to that which
+would be produced by two short magnets carried by the same revolving
+support; on presenting the vibrating sphere to the extremities the
+whole affair is attracted or repulsed, according to its phase and
+according to the point at which it is presented; on replacing the
+transverse support by a single sphere (as indicated in the figure by a
+dotted line) we obtain the analogue of a short magnet carried on a
+pivot like a small compass needle. This sphere follows the pole of a
+vibrating sphere which is presented to it, as the pole of a magnet
+would do, with this difference always, that in the magnet, like poles
+repel, while in oscillating bodies like phases attract.</p>
+
+<p>In all the preceding experiments the bodies brought in presence were
+both in motion and the phenomena were analogous to those of permanent
+magnetism. We may also reproduce those which result from magnetism by
+induction. For this purpose we employ small balls of different
+materials suspended from floats, as shown in Fig. 4 (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>).
+Let us, for example, take the body, <i>b</i>, which is a small metal
+sphere, and present to it either a drum which is caused to pulsate, on
+an oscillating sphere, and it will be attracted, thus representing the
+action of a magnet upon a bit of soft iron. A curious experiment may
+serve to indicate the transition between this new series and the
+preceding. If we present to each other two drums of opposite phases,
+but so arranged that one of them vibrates faster than the other, we
+shall find, on carefully bringing them together, that the repulsion
+which manifested itself at first is changing to attraction. On
+approaching each other the drum having the quicker motion finally has
+upon the other, the same action as if the latter were immovable; and
+the effect is analogous to that which takes place between a strong and
+weak magnet presented by their like poles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/3c.png" width="427" height="400" alt="Fig. 4." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 4.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>By continuing these experiments we arrive at a very important point.
+Instead of the body, <i>b</i> (Fig. 4), let us take <i>c</i>. As the figure
+shows, this is a sphere lighter than water, kept in the liquid by a
+weight. If we present to it the vibrating body, it will be repelled,
+and we shall obtain the results known by the name of diamagnetism.
+This curious experiment renders evident the influence of media. As
+well known, Faraday attributed such effects to the action of the air;
+and he thought that magnetic motions always resulted from a difference
+between the attraction exerted by the magnet upon the body under
+experiment, and the attraction exerted by the air. If the body is more
+sensitive than the air, there is direct magnetism, but if it is less
+so, there is diamagnetism. Water between the bodies, in the Bjerknes
+experiments, plays the same role; it is this which, by its vibration,
+transmits the motions and determines the phases in the suspended body.
+If the body is heavier than water its motion is less than that of the
+liquid, and, consequently, relatively to the vibrating body, it is of
+like phase; and if it is lighter, the contrary takes place, and the
+phases are in discordance. These effects may be very well verified by
+the aid of the little apparatus shown in Fig. 5, and which carries two
+bars, one of them lighter and the other heavier than water. On
+presenting to them the vibrating body, one presents its extremity and
+takes an axial direction, while the other arranges itself crosswise
+and takes the equatorial direction. These experiments may be varied in
+different ways that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon in this
+place, as they may be seen at the Electrical Exhibition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/3d.png" width="370" height="450" alt="Fig. 5." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Very curious effects are also obtained with the arrangement shown in
+Fig. 6. Between the two drums there is introduced a body sustained by
+a float such as represented at <i>a</i>, Fig. 4. Various results may, then,
+be obtained according to the combinations adopted. Let us suppose that
+the phases are alike, and that the interposed body is heavier than
+water; in this case it is repelled as far as the circumference of the
+drums, at which point it stops. If the phases are different, the
+influenced body behaves in the opposite manner and stops at the
+center. If the body is lighter than water the effects are naturally
+changed. Placed between two like phases, it is attracted within a
+certain radius and repelled when it is placed further off; if the
+phases are unlike, it is always repelled. We may easily assure
+ourselves that these effects are analogous to those which are produced
+on bodies placed between the poles of wide and powerful magnets. It
+is useless to repeat that the analogies are always inverse.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/3e.png" width="308" height="450" alt="Fig. 6." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 6.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Bjerknes has carried the examination of these phenomena still
+further in studying experimentally the actions that occur in the
+depths of the liquid; and for this purpose he has made use of the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 7. By the side of the vibrating body there
+is placed a light body mounted on a very flexible spring. This assumes
+the motion of that portion of the fluid in which it is immersed, and,
+by the aid of a small pencil, its direction is inscribed upon a plate
+located above it. By placing this registering apparatus in different
+directions the entire liquid may be explored. We find by this means
+figures that are perfectly identical with magnetic phantoms. All the
+circumstances connected with these can be reproduced, the vibrating
+sphere giving the phantom of a magnet with its two poles. We may even
+exhibit the mutual action of two magnets. The figures show with
+remarkable distinctness&mdash;much more distinct, perhaps, than those that
+are obtained by true magnets.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/3f.png" width="319" height="450" alt="Fig. 7." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>However, it must not be thought that these so interesting facts are
+the result of groping in the dark and the outcome of some fortunate
+experiment; for they have, on the contrary, been foreseen and
+predetermined. Mr. Bjerknes is especially a mathematician, and it was
+a study, through calculation, of the vibratory motion of a body or
+system of bodies in a medium that led him to the results that he
+afterwards materialized.</p>
+
+<p>After the production, by Mr. Lejeune, of his solutions, Mr. Bjerknes
+in 1865 entered upon a complete study of the subject, and recognized
+the fact that the result of such motions was the production of regular
+mechanical actions. He calculated the directions of these, and, along
+about 1875, perceived the possibility of reproducing the effects of
+permanent magnetism. More recently, in 1879, he saw that magnetism by
+derivation might likewise be explained by those hypotheses, and
+figured by actions of this kind. It was not till then that he
+performed the experiments, and submitted a body to the results of
+calculation.</p>
+
+<p>The same process has led him to the conclusion that the action of
+currents might be represented in the same manner; only, instead of
+bodies in vibration, it would require bodies in alternating rotation.
+The effects are much more difficult to ascertain, since it is
+necessary to employ viscid liquids.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the experiments have been performed. Up to the present time
+attractions and repulsions have not been shown, and I do not know
+whether Mr. Bjerknes has obtained them. But, by the process pointed
+out, the lines of action (electric phantoms, if I may so express
+myself) have been traced, and they are very curious. By supposing the
+current perpendicular to the plate, and in the presence of the pole of
+a magnet, the influences produced around it are very well seen, and
+the figures are very striking, especially in the case of two currents.
+Mr. Bjerknes does not appear as yet to have obtained from these
+experiments all that he expects from them. And yet, such as they are,
+they have already led him to important conclusions. Thus, calculation,
+confirmed by application, has led him to renounce the formula proposed
+by Ampère and to adopt that of Regnard as modified by Clausius. Is he
+right? This is what more prolonged experimentation will allow to be
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>These researches, however, are beset with difficulties of a special
+nature, and the use of viscid liquids is a subject for discussion. Mr.
+Bjerknes desired to employ them for reproducing the effects that he
+had obtained from water, but he found that the lines of force were no
+longer the same, and that the phenomena were modified. It is
+necessary, then, to hold as much as possible to liquids that are
+perfect. The experimenter is at present endeavoring to use these
+liquids by employing cylinders having a fluted surface; but it is
+clear that this, too, is not without its difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>This series of experiments offers a rare example of the verification
+of algebraic calculation by direct demonstration. In general, we may
+employ geometry, which gives a graphic representation of calculation
+and furnishes a valuable control. Sometimes we have practical
+application, which is a very important verification in some respects,
+but only approximate in others. But it is rare that we employ, as Mr.
+Bjerknes has done, a material, direct, and immediate translation,
+which, while it brings the results into singular prominence, permits
+of comparing them with known facts and of generalizing the views upon
+which they are based.</p>
+
+<p>Hypotheses as to the nature of electricity being as yet only tolerably
+well established, we should neglect nothing that may contribute to
+give them a solid basis. Assuming that electricity <i>is</i> a vibratory
+motion (and probably there is no doubt about it), yet the fact is not
+so well established with regard to it as it is to that of light. Every
+proof that comes to support this idea is welcome, and especially so
+when it is not derived from a kind of accident, but is furnished by a
+calculated and mathematical combination. Viewed from this double
+standpoint, the experiments of Mr. Bjerknes are very remarkable, and,
+I may add, they are very curious to behold, and I recommend all
+visitors to the Exhibition to examine them.&mdash;<i>Frank Geraldy, in La
+Lumiere Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art11" id="art11"></a>THE ARC ELECTRIC LIGHT.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">Leo Daft</span>.</h3>
+
+<p>I shall experience one difficulty in addressing you this evening,
+which is, that although I do not wish to take up your time with purely
+elementary matter, I wish to make the subject clear to those who may
+not be familiar with its earlier struggles.</p>
+
+<p>If we begin at the beginning we have to go back to the time when
+Faraday made the discovery that light could be produced by the
+separation of two carbon rods conducting a current of considerable
+tension. That is the historical point when electric lighting first
+loomed up as a giant possibility of the near future. This occurred
+about the year 1846. In some experiments he found that although the
+circuit could not be interrupted by any considerable interval when
+metallic terminals were used without breaking the current, when carbon
+was substituted the interval could be largely increased, and a light
+of dazzling brilliancy appeared between the points.</p>
+
+<p>This remarkable effect appears to be produced by the rarefaction of
+the air, due to the great heat evolved by the combustion of the
+carbon, and also to the passage of incandescent particles of carbon
+from pole to pole, thus reducing the resistance, otherwise too great
+for the current tension.</p>
+
+<p>That was the beginning of electric lighting; and perhaps it will be
+well to bridge the long and comparatively uninteresting interval which
+elapsed between this discovery and the equally important one which
+alone gave it commercial value&mdash;I refer to the production of suitable
+currents by mechanical means. That is to say, the substitution of
+energy obtained from coal in the form of steam power reduced the cost
+to a fraction of what it necessarily was when the galvanic elements
+were used. Here is the point; the cost of zinc today is something over
+fifty times that of coal, while its energy as a vitalizing agent is
+only about five times greater, leaving a very large margin in favor of
+the &quot;black diamonds.&quot; This is not the only advantage, for the
+resulting impulse in the case of mechanical production is much more
+uniform in action, and therefore better suited to the end in view,
+while the amount of adjustment and attention required is beyond
+comparison in favor of the latter means.</p>
+
+<p>The machines adopted were of the magneto variety, and many ingenious
+machines of this class were operated with more or less success, being,
+however, quickly abandoned upon the introduction of the
+dynamo-machine, which gave currents of much greater electromotive
+force from the same amount of material, the advantage being chiefly
+due to the large increase of magnetic intensity in the field magnets.
+At this period lights of enormous power were produced with ease and by
+the use of costly lamps. With complicated mechanism a new era in
+artificial illumination seemed close at hand, but a grave difficulty
+stood in the way&mdash;namely, the proper distribution or subdivision of
+the light. It was quickly found that the electric difficulty of
+subdividing the light, added to the great cost of the lamps then made,
+was an apparently insurmountable obstacle to its general adoption, and
+the electric light was gradually taking its place as a brilliant
+scientific toy, when the world was startled by the introduction of the
+Jablochkoff candle, which may fairly claim to have given a greater
+impetus to the new light than any previous invention, a stimulus
+without which it is even probable that electric lighting might have
+slumbered for another decade.</p>
+
+<p>The Jablochkoff candle embodies a very beautiful philosophical
+principle, and though its promises have not been fulfilled in general
+practice, we must not forget that we owe it much for arousing
+scientific men from a dangerous lethargy.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this time the light had always been produced by approximation of
+carbon rods with their axes in the same plane; but the Jablochkoff
+candle consisted of like rods arranged parallel to each other and
+about one-eighth of an inch apart, the intervening space being filled
+with plaster of Paris, and the interval at the top bridged by a
+conducting medium. The object of the plaster, which is a fairly good
+insulating material at ordinary temperatures, is to prevent the
+passage of the current except at the top, where the conducting
+material just referred to assisted the formation of the arc at that
+point, and the resulting intense heat maintained the plaster in a
+moderately conducting state until the whole carbon was consumed. Here,
+then, was literally an electric &quot;candle,&quot; which could be operated
+without the costly and unsteady lamps, and fortunately its birthplace
+was Paris&mdash;then the center of philosophical research; from that period
+the future of electric lighting was assured.</p>
+
+<p>When we reflect that owing to the greater disruptive energy of the
+positive terminal, the carbon so connected to an ordinary dynamo
+machine is consumed very much faster than the negative&mdash;sometimes in
+the ratio of 3 to 1&mdash;it will be clear that some other means of
+consuming the Jablochkoff candle had to be used, since the arc would
+cease to exist in a very short time by reason of the unequal
+consumption of the carbons, and the subsequent increase of the
+intervening space beyond the limit of the current tension.</p>
+
+<p>This difficulty M. Gramme overcame with characteristic ingenuity by
+adding to the ordinary system a &quot;distributer&quot; capable of delivering
+plus and minus currents alternately, thus equalizing the consumption,
+besides being able to supply a large number of candles on the multiple
+circuit system, each circuit supporting four or five lamps. Thus it
+will be seen that a result was attained which at least gave such men
+as Siemens, Gramme, and their peers, if such there be, confidence in
+the future and a courage which quickly placed the new science safely
+beyond the limits of the laboratory. I will not occupy your time by
+stating the apparent reasons why the Jablochkoff candle has not fully
+sustained its brilliant promise&mdash;it will, perhaps, be sufficient to
+state that it is now superseded practically, though it must always
+occupy an honorable place in scientific annals.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now for a few moments consider what the electric light really
+accomplished at about this period, I mean from an economical
+standpoint. It appears from some data furnished by an engineer
+commissioned by the French Government that the machines were then
+capable of maintaining a light equal to from 220 to 450 candles,
+measured by comparison with the Carcel burner, per horse power
+absorbed&mdash;a very good showing considering the youth of the discovery,
+but presenting rather a gloomy aspect when we consider that according
+to Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat, which is 772 foot pounds, or
+the power required to raise one pound of water one degree&mdash;and for
+lack of anything better, we are obliged to accept that at this
+moment&mdash;the whole force contained in one pound of coal would maintain
+a light equal to 13,000 candles for one hour! That is the ultimate
+force, and what we are now able to accomplish is but a small fraction
+of this amount.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately we are but common mortals, and cannot, like Mr. Keely,
+lightly throw off the trammels of natural law; we must, therefore,
+endeavor to close this gap by patient study and experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The limited time at my disposal, and a keen consideration for your
+feelings, will not permit me to follow the long series of struggles
+between mind and matter immediately following Jablochkoff's brilliant
+invention; suffice it to say, that the few years just passed have
+yielded beyond comparison the most marvelous results in the scientific
+history of the world, and it will be superfluous to remind you that a
+great part of this has undoubtedly been due to the researches made in
+an effort to reduce electric lighting to a commercial basis. To say
+that this has been fully accomplished is but to repeat a well known
+fact; and in proof of this I quote a high scientific authority by
+stating that a result so high as 4,000 candles evolved for 40,000
+foot-pounds absorbed has recently been obtained&mdash;an efficiency six or
+seven times greater than the record of six years ago. In accepting
+this statement we must not lose sight of the extreme probability that
+such effects were evolved under conditions rarely if ever found in
+common practice. Of course, I now refer to the arc system. The volume
+of light so generated is incomparably greater than by any other known
+method, though in subdivision the limit is sooner reached.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Hawkesworth&mdash;Let me ask you a question, please. Supposing that it
+required a one-horse power to produce an arc light of, say, 2,000
+candles, would it be possible to produce ten arc lights of 200 candles
+each?</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Daft&mdash;No, sir; I will tell you why. It would, if no other element
+than the simple resistance of the arcs opposed the passage of a
+current; then a machine that would produce an inch arc in one light,
+if placed on a circuit of sixteen lamps would give to each an arc
+one-sixteenth of an inch long naturally; but another difficulty here
+presents itself in the shape of a resisting impulse of considerable
+electromotive force in the opposite direction, apparently caused by
+the intense polarity of the two terminals. The resistance of the arc
+itself varies much according to the volume of current used being
+usually small with a large quantity of current, and greater with a
+current of tension; but this opposing element is always found, and
+appears to be the only real obstacle in the way of infinite
+subdivision.</p>
+
+<p>Almost every objection which human ingenuity could suggest has been
+urged against lighting by electricity, but fortunately electricians
+have been able in most cases either to meet the difficulty or prove it
+groundless.</p>
+
+<p>In this connection I am led to speak of the common idea that electric
+light is injurious to the eyes, first, because of its unsteady
+character, and secondly, by reason of the great excess of the more
+refrangible rays. Both objections undoubtedly hold good where the
+alleged causes exist; but we can now show you a light which is
+certainly as steady as the ordinary gaslight&mdash;indeed more steady in an
+apartment where even feeble currents of air circulate; and I am sure
+you will readily acknowledge that the latter objection is disposed of
+when I assure you that our light presents the only example with which
+I am acquainted of an exact artificial reproduction of the solar
+light, as shown by decomposition. The two spectra, placed side by
+side, show in the most conclusive manner the identity in composition
+of our light with that of the sun.</p>
+
+<p>The remarkable coolness of the electric light, as compared with its
+volume by gas, is also due in a great measure to the conspicuous
+absence of that large excess of less refrangible, or heat-radiating
+principle, which distinguishes almost equally all other modes of
+artificial illumination. After the foregoing statement it may seem a
+paradox to claim that the electric arc develops the greatest heat with
+which we have yet had to deal, but this is so; and the heat has an
+intensity quite beyond the reach of accurate measurement by any
+instrument now known&mdash;it has been variously estimated anywhere between
+5,000° and 50,000° F. It is sufficient for our present purpose to know
+that the most refractory substances quickly disappear when brought
+under its influence&mdash;even the imperial diamond must succumb in a short
+time. In order to reconcile this fact with its coolness as an
+illuminating agent, we have to take into consideration the extreme
+smallness of the point from which the light radiates in the electric
+arc. A light having the power of many thousand candles will expose but
+a fraction of the surface for heat radiation which is shown by one
+gas-jet, and, as I have endeavored to explain, these rays contain very
+much less of the heating principle than those from gas or other
+artificial light.</p>
+
+<p>The purity of electric light has another important aspect, which can
+scarcely be overestimated&mdash;namely, the facility with which all the
+most delicate shades of color can be distinguished. I understand from
+persons better skilled than myself in such matters that this can be
+done almost as readily by electric as by day light, and I have little
+doubt that the slight difference in this respect will entirely
+disappear when people become somewhat more familiar with the different
+conditions&mdash;the effect of such shades viewed by electric light being
+more like that with comparatively feeble direct sunlight than the
+subdued daylight usually prevailing in stores and warehouses.</p>
+
+<p>Again, it has frequently been urged that persons working by electric
+light have thus induced inflammation of the eyes. No doubt this is so
+with light containing the highly refrangible rays in excess; but it is
+difficult to see how such an effect can occur with light composed as
+is the light with which the eyes are constructed to operate in perfect
+harmony.</p>
+
+<p>As you are aware, there are other methods of obtaining light by
+electric energy, and in order to make a fair comparison of one which
+has lately attracted a great deal of attention and capital, I will
+relate to you the result of observations made during a recent visit to
+the office of an eminent electrician. The light was that known as
+incandescent&mdash;a filament of carbon raised to a light-emitting heat in
+vacuo. The exclusion of the air is necessary to prevent the otherwise
+rapid destruction of the carbon by combination with oxygen. At the
+time of my visit there were 62 lamps in circuit. According to their
+statement each lamp was of 16-candle power&mdash;I accept their statement
+as correct; this will give us an aggregate of 992 candles. The
+generator was vitalized by an engine rated by the attendants in charge
+at 6-horse power. I found that it was a 5×7 cylinder, working with
+very little expansion 430 revolutions per minute, with 90 pounds of
+live steam, in a boiler not 15 feet from the engine. I have every
+reason to believe that the steam was delivered at the cylinder with an
+almost inappreciable loss on 90 pounds. Under those conditions I think
+it is perfectly fair to assume (you have the data, so that you can
+calculate it afterwards) that 750,000 foot pounds were consumed in
+producing those 60 lights, aggregating 992 candles. In the kind of
+engine they had, 750,000 foot pounds requires a consumption of about
+100 pounds of coal per hour. It was an ordinary high speed engine.
+That 750,000 foot pounds, I assume, required 100 pounds of coal. That
+is the only weak point in my data; I do not know that to be true; but
+I never saw an engine of that form yet capable of delivering 1-horse
+power with less consumption than four to five pounds of coal per horse
+power per hour. I want to be as fair as I can in the matter. I wish to
+compare this, as they have taken particular pains to compare it, with
+gas, at the present cost of gas.</p>
+
+<p>The hundred pounds of coal will produce 400 feet of gas; 400 feet of
+gas will evolve the effect of 1,500 candles. So you see the position
+we are in. In consuming that coal directly by destructive distillation
+you can produce 1,500 candles light; by converting it into power, and
+then again into light by incandescence, you produce 992! Expressing
+this in other words, we may say that in producing the light from coal
+by the incandescent system you lose one-third of the power as compared
+with gas, by actually converting the coal into gas, and delivering it
+in the ordinary manner. Those are facts. It has been suggested to me
+that I am too liberal in my estimate of coal consumed&mdash;that those
+engines consume more than four or five pounds per horse power per
+hour; but I prefer to give them the benefit of the doubt.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Rothschild&mdash;If I understood you correctly, this electric light
+costs more than gas?</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Daft&mdash;<i>Must</i> do by this system. You cannot do better, so far as
+our philosophy goes. But this whole system of illumination, as now
+practiced is a financial fallacy.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Rothschild&mdash;That is what Professor Sawyer says.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Daft&mdash;The same amount of energy converted into light by our arc
+system will produce 30,000 candles. We are perfectly willing to
+demonstrate that at any time. I am free to admit that the minute
+subdivision obtained by the Edisonian, Swan, or Fox system&mdash;they do
+not differ materially&mdash;is a great desideratum; but this cannot bridge
+the financial gulf.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lendrum&mdash;Now please state what we have accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Daft&mdash;Certainly; and in so doing I prefer to give our results as
+actually occurring in everyday work; and in this connection let me
+remind you that in no branch of physics are the purely experimental
+effects so well calculated to deceive, if not fairly conditioned. As
+we have seen, it is claimed on excellent authority that the equivalent
+of 4,000 candles appeared in an arc by expending 40,000 foot pounds of
+energy at the generator, but with everyday conditions it is at present
+idle to expect such efficiency. Commercially we can give by our own
+system 3,000 candles for 40,000 foot pounds absorbed; this may be done
+for an indefinite length of time and leave nothing to be desired on
+the score of steadiness. Unfortunately there is no unit of photometric
+measurement generally recognized in this country, each electrician
+having so far adopted one to suit his own convenience; but in making
+the foregoing statement I wish it to be understood that our efficiency
+would appear still greater if measured by some of the methods now
+employed. For our own satisfaction we have endeavored to be at least
+approximately accurate, at the same time wishing to avoid the
+affectation of extreme precision, such, for example, as adding twenty
+or thirty candles to measurements of so many thousands, and we are
+satisfied that the most critical expert tests will prove our claim to
+be within the mark. The limit of subdivision is only reached when the
+difficulty of further increasing the electromotive force of the
+machines, involving great care in insulation and a host of other
+troubles arising, so to speak, at very high pressure, is balanced by
+the objections to working in multiple arc; this appears to occur now
+at something below 40 lights, but will in all probability be greatly
+extended within a short time. The machines are so constructed that the
+local currents, usually productive of dangerous heating, are turned to
+useful account, so that the point where radiation exceeds production
+is soon reached, and provided the machines are not speeded beyond the
+proper limit, they may be run continuously without the slightest
+indication of lost vitality. I need scarcely remind you that this is a
+most important feature, and by no means a common one.</p>
+
+<p>The lamps used in our system I believe to be the simplest known form
+of regulator; indeed it seems scarcely possible that anything less
+complicated could perform the necessary work; as a matter of fact we
+may confidently assert that it cannot be made less liable to
+derangement. It has frequently been placed on circuit by persons
+totally inexperienced in such matters, and still has yielded results
+which we are quite willing to quote at any time.</p>
+
+<p>I will not now trespass on your patience further than will enable me
+to state that experiments now in hand indicate conclusively that
+domestic electric lighting of the immediate future will be
+accomplished in a manner more beautiful and wondrous than was ever
+shadowed in an Arabian Night's dream. I hesitate somewhat to make
+these vague allusions, since so many wild promises, for which I am not
+responsible, remain unfulfilled, but the time is surely near at hand
+when a single touch will illuminate our homes with a light which will
+combine all the elements of beauty, steadiness, softness, and absolute
+safety, to a degree as yet undreamed of. I do not ask you to accept
+this without question, but only to remember that within the last
+decade wires have been taught to convey not only articulate sounds,
+but the individual voices you know amidst a thousand, and even light
+and heat have each been made the medium of communicating our thoughts
+to distant places!</p>
+
+<p>Not the least remarkable phenomenon in this connection is the
+intellectual condition of the people who have welcomed these marvelous
+achievements and allowed them to enter into their everyday life, thus
+removing the greatest barriers of the past and paving the way for that
+philosophical millennium inevitably awaiting those who may be
+fortunate enough to survive the next decade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>A recent address before the New York Electric Light
+Association.</p></div>
+<hr />
+
+<h3>SUCCESS OF THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS, NEW YORK.</h3>
+
+<p>The travel over the elevated steam street railways of New York city
+for month of October, 1881, was the heaviest yet recorded, aggregating
+7,121,961 passengers, as against 5,881,474, for the corresponding
+month of 1880, an increase of 1,240,487, representing just about the
+entire population of the city.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art12" id="art12"></a>HEDGES' ELECTRIC LAMPS.</h2>
+
+<p>We illustrate a very curious and interesting form of electric
+regulator which is exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of Electricity by
+Mr. Killingworth Hedges, whose name will be known to our readers as
+the author of a little book on the electric light. Mr. Hedges' lamp
+belongs to the same category of electric regulators as the lamp of M.
+Rapieff, and to one form of M. Reynier's lamp, that is to say, the
+position of the ends of the carbons, and therefore of the arc, is
+determined not by clockwork or similar controlling mechanism, but by
+the locus of the geometrical intersection of the axes of the carbon
+rods, the positions of which axes being determined by simple
+mechanical means.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/5a-1.png" width="597" height="450" alt="Fig. 1" title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 1</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/5a-2.png" width="411" height="450" alt="Fig. 2
+HEDGES&#39; ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 2<br />
+HEDGES&#39; ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Referring to Fig. 1, A and B are two troughs rectangular in cross
+section attached to the supports in such positions that their axes are
+inclined to one another so as to form the letter V, as shown in the
+figure. Within these troughs slide freely the two carbon pencils,
+which are of circular cross section, meeting, when no current is
+passing, at the lower point, E. The carbon-holder, B, to the right of
+the figure, is rigidly attached to the framing of the lamp, but the
+trough, A, which carries the negative carbon, is attached to the
+framing by a pivot shown in the figure, and on this pivot the carbon
+holder can rock, its motion being controlled by the position of the
+armature of an electro-magnet, M, the coils of which are included in
+the circuit of the apparatus. By this means, the moment the current is
+established through the lamp, the armature is attracted, and the
+points of the two carbons are separated, thus forming the arc. The
+positive carbon, B, is held from sliding and dropping through the
+trough by the gentle pressure against it of the smaller carbon rod,
+C¹, which also slides in a trough or tube fixed in such a position
+that the point of contact between the two rods is sufficiently near
+the arc for the smaller rod to be slowly consumed as the other is
+burnt away; the latter in that way is permitted to slide gradually
+down the trough as long as the lamp is in action. The negative
+carbon-holder, A, is provided with a little adjustable platinum stop,
+E, which by pressing against the side of the conical end of the
+negative carbon, holds the latter in its place and prevents it sliding
+down the trough except under the influence of the slow combustion of
+the cone during the process of producing the arc. The position of the
+stop with respect to the conical end is determined by a small
+adjusting screw shown in the figure. This arrangement of stop is
+identical in principle with that adopted by Messrs. Siemens Brothers
+in their &quot;abutment pole&quot; lamp, and is found to work very well in
+practice on the negative electrodes, but is inapplicable on the
+positive carbons on account of the higher temperature of the latter,
+which is liable to destroy the metallic stop by fusion, and it is for
+this reason that the positive carbon in Mr. Hedges' lamp is controlled
+by the method we have already described. For alternating currents,
+however, the abutment stop may be used on both electrodes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/5b.png" width="441" height="450" alt="Figs. 3 and 4." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">Figs. 3 and 4.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to maintain a good electrical contact between the fixed
+conducting portions of the lamp and the sliding carbons, Mr. Hedges
+fits to each carbon-holder a little contact piece, F F, hinged to its
+respective trough at its upper end, and carrying at its lower or free
+end a somewhat heavy little block of brass grooved out to fit the
+cylindrical side of the carbon, against which it presses with an even
+pressure. This arrangement offers another advantage, namely, that the
+length of that portion of the carbon rods which is conveying the
+current is always the same notwithstanding the shortening of their
+total length by combustion; the resistance of the carbon electrodes
+is, therefore, maintained constant, and, for the reason that the
+contact piece presses against the rods very near their lower ends,
+that resistance is reduced to a minimum. In this way very long
+carbons, such, for instance, as will burn for ten or sixteen hours,
+can be used without introducing any increase of resistance into the
+circuit. The length of the arc can be determined by the adjustment of
+the screw, G, by which the amount of movement of the armature is
+limited.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 2 represents a modified form of Mr. Hedges' lamp designed for
+installation when it is desirable to burn a number of lamps in series.
+In this arrangement the carbons are separated by the attractive
+influence of a solenoid upon an iron plunger, to which is attached (by
+a non-magnetic connection) the armature of an electro-magnet, the
+coils (which are of fine wire) forming a shunt circuit between the two
+terminals of the lamp, and so disposed with respect to the armature as
+to influence it in an opposite direction to that of the solenoid. When
+the circuit of the lamp is completed with the electric generator the
+carbons are drawn apart by the action of the solenoid on the plunger,
+and the distance to which they are separated is determined by the
+difference of attractive force exercised upon the armature by the
+solenoid and the magnet; but as the latter forms a short circuit to
+that of the arc, it follows that should the resistance of the arc
+circuit increase either through the arc becoming too long or through
+imperfection in the carbons or contacts, a greater percentage of
+current will flow through the magnet coils, and the arc will be
+shortened, thereby reducing its resistance and regulating it to the
+strength of the current. In other words, the distance between the
+carbons, that is to say, the length of the arc, is determined by the
+position of the armature of the electro-magnet between its magnets and
+the solenoid, which position is in its turn determined by the
+difference between the strength of current passing through the coil of
+the solenoid and that of the magnet.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Killingworth Hedges exhibits also a third form of his lamp, in
+most respects similar to the lamp figured in Fig. 1, but in which the
+ends of the two carbons rest against the side of a small cylinder of
+fireclay or other refractory material, which is mounted on a
+horizontal axis and can be rotated thereon by a worm and worm-wheel
+actuated by an endless cord passing over a grooved pulley. In the lamp
+one of the carbon-holders is rigidly fixed to the framing of the
+apparatus, and the other is mounted on a point so as to enable the
+length of the arc playing over the clay cylinder to be regulated by
+the action of an electro-magnet attracting an armature in opposition
+to the tension of an adjustable spring.</p>
+
+<p>In the same exhibit will be found specimens of Mr. Hedges' two-way
+switches, which have been designed to reduce the tendency to sparking
+and consequent destruction which so often accompanies the action of
+switches of the ordinary form. The essential characteristic of this
+switch, which we illustrate in elevation in Fig. 3 and in plan in Fig.
+4, lies first in the circular form of contact-piece shown in Fig. 4,
+and next in the fact that the space between the two fixed
+contact-pieces is filled up with a block composed of compressed
+asbestos, the surface of which is flush with the upper surfaces of the
+two contact-pieces. The circular contact-piece attached to the switch
+lever can be turned round so as to present a fresh surface when that
+which has been in use shows indications of being worn, and a good firm
+contact with the fixed contact-pieces is insured by the presence of a
+spiral spring shown in the upper figure, and which, owing to an error
+in engraving, appears more like a screw than a spring. In order to
+prevent bad connection through dust or other impurities collecting
+within the joint, the electrical connection between the fulcrum of the
+switch lever and the circular contact-piece is made through the bent
+spring shown edgeways in Fig. 3.&mdash;<i>Engineering.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art13" id="art13"></a>RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</h2>
+
+<p><i>Lartigue's Switch Controller.</i>&mdash;The object of this apparatus is to
+warn the switch tender in case the switch does not entirely respond to
+the movement of the maneuvering lever.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-1.png"><img src="./images/6-1_th.png" width="600" height="156" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Lartigue&#39;s Switch Controller" title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Lartigue&#39;s Switch Controller</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-23.png"><img src="./images/6-23_th.png" width="600" height="192" alt="Fig. 2&mdash;Transverse SectionFig. 3&mdash;Longitudinal Section" title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 2&mdash;Transverse Section<br />Fig. 3&mdash;Longitudinal Section</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-4.png"><img src="./images/6-4_th.png" width="600" height="144" alt="Fig. 4.&mdash;Position of the Commutators during the Manuever" title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Position of the Commutators during the Manuever</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The apparatus, which is represented in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, 3,
+and 4, consists of the following parts:</p>
+
+<p>(1.) A mercurial commutator, O, which is fixed on a lever, B,
+connected with a piece, A, which is applied against the external
+surface of the web of the main rails, opposite the extremity of the
+switch plates;</p>
+
+<p>(2.) A bar, C, which traverses the web of the rail and projects on the
+opposite side, and which carries a nut, D, against which the switch
+plate abuts;</p>
+
+<p>(3.) An electrical alarm and a pile, located near the switch lever.
+As long as one of the two plates of the switch is applied against the
+rail, one of the two commutators is inclined and no current passes. A
+space of one millimeter is sufficient to bring the commutator to a
+horizontal position and to cause the electric alarm to ring
+continuously. If the apparatus gets out of order, it is known at once;
+for if the alarm does not work during the maneuver of the switch, the
+tender will be warned that the electric communications are
+interrupted, and that he must consequently at once make known the
+position of his switch until the necessary repairs have been made.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pedals for Transmitting Signals to Crossings.</i>&mdash;On railways having a
+double track and doing a large amount of business it becomes very
+necessary to announce to the flagmen at railway crossings the approach
+of trains, so as to give them time to stop all crossing of the tracks.
+On railway lines provided with electro-semaphores there may be used
+for this purpose those small apparatus that have been styled semaphore
+repeaters.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Lartigue has invented two automatic apparatus, by means of which
+the train itself signals its approach.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-5.png"><img src="./images/6-5_th.png" width="600" height="180" alt="Fig. 5.&mdash;Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing&mdash;Elevation." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing&mdash;Elevation.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/7-6.png"><img src="./images/7-6_th.png" width="600" height="153" alt="Fig. 6.&mdash;Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing&mdash;Plan View." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 6.&mdash;Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway Crossing&mdash;Plan View.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/6-7.png" width="358" height="450" alt="Fig. 7.&mdash;End View." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;End View.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-8.png"><img src="./images/6-8_th.png" width="327" height="450" alt="Fig. 8.&mdash;Electric Alarm." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Electric Alarm.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. The first of these, which is generally placed at about 6,000 feet
+from the point to be covered, consists (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8) of a
+very light pedal fixed to the inside of the rail, and acting upon a
+mercurial commutator. A spring, R, carried upon the arm, <i>a</i>, of a
+lever, A, projects slightly above the level of the rail, while the
+other arm, <i>b</i>, carries a commutator.</p>
+
+<p>The spring, R, on being depressed tilts the box containing the
+mercury, closes the circuit, and causes an alarm, S, located at the
+crossing, to immediately ring. In this alarm (Fig. 8) a piece, P, is
+disconnected by the passage of the current into the electro-magnet, E,
+which attracts the armature, <i>a</i>, and, a permanent current being set
+up, the apparatus operates like an ordinary alarm, until the piece, P,
+is placed by hand in its first position again.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/7-9.png"><img src="./images/7-9_th.png" width="600" height="242" alt="Fig. 9.&mdash;Lartigue&#39;s Bellows Pedal&mdash;Longitundinal Section" title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Lartigue&#39;s Bellows Pedal&mdash;Longitundinal Section</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/7-10.png"><img src="./images/7-10_th.png" width="600" height="334" alt="Fig. 10.&mdash;General Plan." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;General Plan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. The second apparatus, exhibited by the Railway Company of the
+North, and also the invention of Mr. Lartigue, bears the name of the
+&quot;Bellows Pedal.&quot; It consists (Figs. 9 and 10) of a pedal, properly so
+called, P, placed along the rail, one of its extremities forming a
+lever and the other being provided with a counterpoise, C. When a
+train passes over the pedal, the arm, B, fixed to its axle, on falling
+closes the circuit of an ordinary electrical alarm, and at the same
+time the bellows, S, becomes rapidly filled with air, and, after the
+passage of the train, is emptied again very slowly under the action of
+the counterpoise. The contact is thus kept up for some few minutes.
+This apparatus works very satisfactorily, but is cumbersome and
+relatively high-priced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/8a.png"><img src="./images/8a_th.png" width="218" height="450" alt="Fig. 11.&mdash;Brunot&#39;s Controller." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Brunot&#39;s Controller.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Brunot Controller as a Controller of the Passage of Trains.</i>&mdash;The
+Brunot Controller, which has been employed for several years on the
+Railway of the North, is designed to control the regularity of the
+running of trains, and to make automatically a contradictory
+verification of the figures on the slips carried by the conductors. In
+Fig. 11 we give a longitudinal section of the apparatus. It consists
+of a wooden case containing a clockwork movement, H, upon the axle of
+which is mounted a cardboard disk, C, divided into hours and minutes,
+and regulated like a watch, that is to say, making one complete
+revolution in twelve hours. The metallic pencil, <i>c</i>, which is capable
+of displacing itself on the cardboard in a horizontal direction
+opposite a groove on the other side of the disk, traces, when pressure
+is brought to bear on it, a spiral curve. The transverse travel of
+the pencil is effected in ninety-six hours. The displacement of the
+pencil is brought about by means of a cam. Under the influence of the
+jarring of the train in motion, a weight, P, suspended from a flexible
+strip, <i>l</i>, strikes against the pencil, <i>c</i>, which traces a series of
+points. During stoppages there is, of course, an interruption in the
+tracing of the curve.</p>
+
+<p>Up to this point no electricity is involved&mdash;the apparatus is simply a
+controller of regularity. Mr. Brunot has conceived the idea of
+utilizing his apparatus for controlling the passage of trains at
+certain determined points on the line; for example, at the top of
+heavy grades. For this purpose it has only been necessary to add to
+the apparatus that we have just described an electro-magnet, E,
+connected electrically with a fixed contact located on the line. When
+the current passes, that is to say, at the moment the circuit is
+closed by the passage of a train, the armature, A, is attracted, and
+the pencil marks a point on the cardboard disk. This modification of
+the apparatus has not as yet been practically applied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electrical Corresponding Apparatus.</i>&mdash;The object of these apparatus
+is to quickly transmit to a distance a certain number of phrases that
+have been prepared in advance. The Company of the North employs two
+kinds of correspondence apparatus&mdash;the Guggemos and the annunciator
+apparatus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-12.png"><img src="./images/6-12_th.png" width="460" height="450" alt="Fig. 12.&mdash;Guggemos&#39;s Correspondence Apparatus&mdash;External View." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Guggemos&#39;s Correspondence Apparatus&mdash;External View.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Guggemos Apparatus.</i>&mdash;This apparatus serves at once as a
+manipulator and receiver, and consists of an inner movement surmounted
+by a dial, over the face of which moves an index hand. Around the
+circumference of the dial there is arranged a series of circular
+cases, C, containing the messages to be received, and similar
+triangular cases, containing the messages to be forwarded, radiating
+from the center of the dial. Between each of these there is a button,
+<i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-13.png"><img src="./images/6-13_th.png" width="400" height="450" alt="Fig. 13.&mdash;Interior of the Same." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Interior of the Same.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Fig. 13 represents the interior of an apparatus for twenty messages.
+It consists of a key-board, M, an electro-magnet, B, a clock-work
+movement, Q, an escapement, <i>s</i>, and an interrupter, F G.</p>
+
+<p>When one of the buttons, <i>b</i>, is pressed, one of the levers of the
+key-board arrangement touches the disk, M, which is insulated from the
+other portions of the key-board, and the current then passes from the
+terminal C to M, and there bifurcating, one portion of it goes to the
+bobbins of the apparatus and thence to the earth, while the other goes
+to actuate the correspondence apparatus. The index-hands of the two
+apparatus thereupon begin their movement simultaneously, and only stop
+when the pressure is removed from the button and the current is
+consequently interrupted. H is a ratchet-wheel, which, like the
+key-board, is insulated from the rest of the apparatus. The button, K,
+located over each of the dials, serves to bring the index-needles back
+to their position under the cross shown in Fig. 12. The key, X, serves
+for winding up the clock-work movement.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-14.png"><img src="./images/6-14_th.png" width="600" height="193" alt="Fig. 14.&mdash;Annunciator Apparatus." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 14.&mdash;Annunciator Apparatus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Annunciator Apparatus.</i>&mdash;This apparatus, which performs the same
+role as the one just described, is simply an ingenious modification of
+the annunciator used in hotels, etc.</p>
+
+<p>It consists of a wooden case, containing as many buttons as there are
+phrases to be exchanged. Over each button, <i>b</i>, there is a circular
+aperture, behind which drops the disk containing the phrase. Between
+the buttons and the apertures are rectangular plates, P, in which are
+inscribed the answers given by pressing on the button of the receiving
+tablet&mdash;a pressure which, at the same time, removes the corresponding
+disk from the aperture. Two disks located at the upper part carry
+these inscriptions: &quot;Error, I repeat;&quot; &quot;Wait.&quot; The tablets on
+exhibition have eight disks, and can thus be used for exchanging six
+different phrases. In the interior, opposite each aperture, there is a
+Hughes magnet, between the arms of which there oscillates a vertical
+soft-iron rod, carrying a disk. The maneuver &quot;is simple.&quot; By pressing
+upon a button there is sent into the bobbins of the magnet
+corresponding to this button a current which causes the disk to appear
+before one of the apertures, while at the same time an alarm begins to
+ring. The same maneuver performed by the agent at the receiving-post
+has the effect of causing the disk to disappear. The two contact
+springs in communication at each aperture with the alarm and the line
+are connected by a strip of ebonite, M, against the center of which
+presses the button.</p>
+
+<p><i>Electrical Controllers for Water-Tanks.</i>&mdash;The object of these
+apparatus is to warn the person in charge of a water-tank that the
+latter is full, and that he must stop the engine-pump; or, that the
+tank is empty, and that he must at once proceed to fill it. The
+Company of the North has on exhibition two such apparatus&mdash;one of them
+Lartigue's, and the other Vérité's.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/6-15.png"><img src="./images/6-15_th.png" width="396" height="450" alt="Fig. 15.&mdash;Controller for Water Tanks (Lartigue System)." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 15.&mdash;Controller for Water Tanks (Lartigue System).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. <i>The Lartigue Controller</i> (Fig. 15).&mdash;This apparatus consists of a
+long lever, A, which carries at one of its extremities a funnel, E,
+having a very narrow orifice and which is placed under the overflow
+pipe of the tank. The lever is kept normally in a horizontal position
+by a counterpoise; but, as soon as the overflow runs into the funnel,
+the weight of the water tilts the lever, and the mercurial commutator,
+F, closes the circuit of a pile, which actuates an alarm-bell located
+near the pump and engine. The two stops, <i>a</i> and <i>a'</i>, limit the play
+of the lever.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/7-16.png"><img src="./images/7-16_th.png" width="600" height="236" alt="Fig. 16.&mdash;Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System)." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Controller for Water Tanks (Vérité System).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Vérité Controller</i> (Fig. 16).&mdash;This apparatus consists of a
+float, F, provided with a catch, C, calculated in such a way as to act
+only when the float has reached a certain definite height. At that
+moment it lifts the extremity of the weighted lever, E, which in
+falling back acts upon the extremity, <i>a</i>, of another lever, N,
+pivoted at the point, O. The piece, P, which is normally in contact
+with the magnet, A, being suddenly detached by this movement of the
+lever, N, the induced current which is then produced causes the
+display, near the pump, of a disk, Q, upon which is inscribed the word
+&quot;Full.&quot; This is a signal to stop pumping.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art14" id="art14"></a>THE TELEPHONIC HALLS OF THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</h2>
+
+<p>Telephonic communication between the Opera and the Exhibition of
+Electricity is obtained by means of twenty conducting wires, which are
+divided between two halls hung with carpets to deaden external noises.
+We represent in the accompanying engraving one of these halls, and the
+one which is lighted by the Lane-Fox system of lamps. As may be seen,
+there are affixed against the hangings, all around the room, long
+mahogany boards, to which are fastened about twenty small tablets
+provided with hooks, from which are suspended the telephones. The
+latter are connected with the underground conductors by extensible
+wires which project from the wooden wainscot of which we have just
+spoken, so that it is very easy for the auditors to put the telephones
+to their ears.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/8b.png"><img src="./images/8b_th.png" width="553" height="450" alt="ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the telephones are connected in series of eight with the same
+couple of microphone transmitters, and as each of these transmitting
+couples occupies a different position on the stage, it results that
+the effects are not the same at different points of each hall. Those
+telephones, for example, which correspond with the foot-lights of the
+theater are more affected by the sounds of the large instnuments of
+the orchestra than those which occupy the middle of the foot-lights;
+but, as an offset to this, the latter are affected by the voice of the
+prompter. In order to equalize the effects as much as possible, Mr.
+Ader has arranged it so that the two transmitters of each series shall
+be placed under conditions that are diametrically opposite. Thus, the
+transmitter at the end of the foot-lights, on the left side,
+corresponds with the transmitter of the series to the right, nearest
+to the middle of the stage; and the arrangement is the same, but in an
+inverse direction, for the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights
+to the right. But the series which produces the best effects is, as
+may be readily comprehended, that which corresponds with the
+transmitters occupying the middle of the right and left rows. These
+considerations easily explain the different opinions expressed by
+certain auditors in relation to the predominant sounds that they have
+heard, and why it is that some of them who have listened in different
+parts of the same hall have not had the same impressions. Naturally,
+the fault has beeen laid to the telephones; but, although these may
+vary in quality, it is more particularly to the arrangement of the
+transmitters on the stage that are to be attributed the differences
+that are noted.</p>
+
+<p>As the Opera does not give representations every day, Mr. Ader has had
+the idea of occupying the attention of the public on Tuesday,
+Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday with the telephonic effects of
+flourishes of trumpets, which imitate pretty well the effects of
+French horns. These experiments have taken place in the hall in which
+is installed the little theater, and we must really say that in the
+effects produced French horns count for nothing.&mdash;<i>La Lumiere
+Electrique.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art15" id="art15"></a>THE ACTION OF COLD ON THE VOLT</h2>
+
+<p>When the voltaic arc plays between two metallic rheophores, of copper
+for instance, each formed of a U-tube traversed by a rapid current of
+cold water, and placed horizontally opposite each other, the following
+facts are observed: The luminous power of the arc is considerably
+weakened; it is reduced to a mere luminous point even when a current
+of 50 to 75 Bunsen elements of the large pattern is employed. The arc
+is very unstable and the least breath is sufficient to extinguish it.
+If a leaf of paper is placed above the arc at the distance of 0.004 to
+0.005 meter a black point is produced in a few moments, which spreads
+and becomes a perforation, but the paper does not ignite. The arc
+consists of a luminous globule, moving between the two rheophores up
+and down and back again. The form of this globule, as well as its
+extreme mobility, causes it to resemble a drop of water in a
+spheroidal state. If we approach to the voltaic arc the south pole of
+a magnet the arc is attracted to such a degree that it leaves the
+rheophores and is extinguished. The same facts are observed in an
+intense form on presenting the north pole of a magnet to the arc. The
+quantity of ozone seems greater than when the arc is not refrigerated.
+It is to be noted that notwithstanding the refrigeration of the
+rheophores the flame of the arc is slightly green, proving that a
+portion of the copper is burning. It becomes a question whether the
+arc would be produced on taking as rheophores two tubes of platinum in
+which is caused to circulate, <i>e.g.</i>, alcohol cooled to -30°.&mdash;<i>D.
+Tommasi.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art01" id="art01"></a>WATCHMAN'S DETECTER.</h2>
+
+<p>We herewith illustrate an exceedingly simple form of detecter, to show
+if the night watchmen perform their visits regularly and punctually.
+In the case, C, is a clockwork apparatus driving the axle, S, at the
+end of which is a worm which gears into the wheel of the drum, D. The
+rotation of D, thus obtained unrolls a strip of paper from the other
+drum, D. This paper passes over the poles of as many electro-magnets
+as there are points to be visited, and underneath the armatures of
+these electro-magnets. Each armature has a sharp point fixed on its
+under side, and when a current passing through the coils causes the
+attraction of the armature, this point perforates the paper. The
+places to be visited are connected electrically with the binding
+screws shown, and the watchman has merely to press a button to make
+the electric circuit complete. It has been found in practice that
+plain paper answers every purpose, as the clock giving an almost
+uniform motion enables the reader, after having seen the perforated
+slips once or twice, to determine fairly well the time which elapses
+between each pressure of the button.&mdash;<i>The Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/9a.png" width="383" height="450" alt="WATCHMAN&#39;S DETECTER" title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">WATCHMAN&#39;S DETECTER</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art02" id="art02"></a>INTEGRATING APPARATUS.</h2>
+
+<p>At a recent meeting of the London Physical Society, Mr. C. Vernon Boys
+read a paper on &quot;Integrating Apparatus.&quot; After referring to his
+original &quot;cart&quot; machine for integrating, described at a former meeting
+of the society, he showed how he had been led to construct the new
+machine exhibited, in which a cylinder is caused to reciprocate
+longitudinally in contact with a disk, and give the integral by its
+rotation. Integrators were of three kinds: (1) radius machines; (2)
+cosine machines; (3) tangent machines. Sliding friction and inertia
+render the first two kinds unsuitable where there are delicate forces
+or rapid variation in the function to be integrated. Tangent machines
+depend on pure rolling, and the inertia and friction are
+inappreciable. They are, therefore, more practical than the other
+sort. It is to this class that Mr. Boys' machines belong. The author
+then described a theoretical tangent integrator depending on the
+mutual rolling of two smoke rings, and showed how the steering of a
+bicycle or wheelbarrow could be applied to integrate directly with a
+cylinder either the quotient or product of two functions. If the
+tangent wheel is turned through a right angle at starting, the machine
+will integrate reciprocals, or it can be made to integrate functions
+by an inverse process. If instead of a cylinder some other surface of
+evolution is employed as an integrating surface, then special
+integrations can be effected. He showed a polar planimeter in which
+the integrating surface is a sphere. A special use of these
+integrators is for finding the total work done by a fluid pressure
+reciprocating engine. The difference of pressure on the two sides of
+the piston determines the tangent of the inclination of the tangent
+wheel which runs on the integrating cylinder; while the motion of the
+latter is made to keep time with that of the piston. In this case the
+number of evolutions of the cylinder measures the total amount of work
+done by the engine. The disk cylinder integrator may also be applied
+to find the total amount of work transmitted by shafting or belting
+from one part of a factory to another. An electric current meter may
+be made by giving inclination to the disk, which is for this purpose
+made exceedingly small and delicate, by means of a heavy magnetic
+needle deflected by the current. This, like Edison's, is a direction
+meter; but a meter in which no regard is paid to the direction of the
+current can be made by help of an iron armature of such a shape that
+the force with which it is attracted to fill the space between the
+poles of an electro-magnet is inversely as its displacement. Then by
+resisting this motion by a spring or pendulum the movement is
+proportional to the current, and a tangent wheel actuated by this
+movement causes the reciprocating cylinder on which it runs to
+integrate the current strength. Mr. Boys exhibited two such electric
+energy meters, that is, machines which integrate the product of the
+current strength by the difference of potential between two points
+with respect to time. In these the main current is made to pass
+through a pair of concentric solenoids, and in the annular space
+between these is hung a solenoid, the upper half of which is wound in
+the opposite direction to the lower half. By the use of what Mr. Boys
+calls &quot;induction traps&quot; of iron, the magnetic force is confined to a
+small portion of the suspended solenoid, and by this means the force
+is independent of the position. The solenoid is hung to one end of a
+beam, and its motion is resisted by a pendulum weight, by which the
+energy meters may be regulated like clocks to give standard measure.
+The beam carries the tangent wheels, and the rotation of the cylinder
+gives the energy expanded in foot-pounds or other measures. The use of
+an equal number of turns in opposite directions on the movable
+solenoid causes the instrument to be uninfluenced by external magnetic
+forces. Mr. Boys showed on the screen an image of an electric arc, and
+by its side was a spot of light, whose position indicated the energy,
+and showed every flicker of the light and fluctuation of current in
+the arc. He showed on the screen that if the poles are brought too
+near the energy expended is less, though the current is stronger, and
+that if the poles are too far apart, though the electromotive force is
+greater the energy is less; so that the apparatus may be made to find
+the distance at which the greatest energy, and so the greatest heat
+and light, may be produced.</p>
+
+<p>At the conclusion of the paper, Prof. W.G. Adams and Prof. G.C. Foster
+could not refrain from expressing their high admiration of the
+ingenious and able manner in which Mr. Boys had developed the subject.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art03" id="art03"></a>A CANAL BOAT PROPELLED BY AIR.</h2>
+
+<p>A novelty in canal boats lies in Charles River, near the foot of
+Chestnut street, which is calculated to attract considerable
+attention. It is called a pneumatic canal boat and was built at
+Wiscasset, Me., as devised by the owner, Mr. R.H. Tucker, of Boston,
+who claims to hold patents for its design in England and the United
+States. The specimen shown on Charles River, which is designed to be
+used on canals without injuring the banks, is a simple structure,
+measuring sixty-two feet long and twenty wide. It is three feet in
+depth and draws seventeen inches of water. It is driven entirely by
+air, Root's blower No. 4 being used, the latter operated by an
+eight-horse-power engine. The air is forced down a central shaft to
+the bottom, where it is deflected, and, being confined between keels,
+passes backward and upward, escaping at the stern through an orifice
+nineteen feet wide, so as to form a sort of air wedge between the boat
+and the surface of the water. The force with which the air strikes the
+water is what propels it. The boat has a speed of four miles an hour,
+but requires a thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop its full
+capabilities. The patentee claims a great advantage in doing away with
+the heavy machinery of screws and side-wheels, and believes that the
+contrivance gives full results, in proportion to the power employed.
+It is also contrived for backing and steering by air propulsion.
+Owing to the slight disturbance which it causes to the water, it is
+thought to be very well adapted for work on canals without injury to
+the sides.&mdash;<i>Boston Journal.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art04" id="art04"></a>HEAD LININGS OF PASSENGER CARS.</h2>
+
+<p>The veneer ceilings are considered as much superior to cloth as cloth
+was to the roof-ceiling. They are remarkably chaste, and so solid and
+substantial that but little decoration is necessary to produce a
+pleasing effect. The agreeable contrast between the natural grain of
+the wood and the deeper shade of the bands and mouldings is all that
+is necessary to harmonize with the other parts of the interiors of
+certain classes of cars&mdash;smoking and dining cars, for example. But in
+the case of parlor and dining-room cars, the decorations of these
+ceilings should be in keeping with the style of the cars, by giving
+such a character to the lines, curves, and colors, as will be
+suggestive of cheerfulness and life. While these head linings are
+deserving of the highest commendation as an important improvement upon
+previous ones, they are still open to some objections. One barrier to
+their general adoption is their increased cost. It is true that
+superior quality implies higher prices, but when the prices exceed so
+much those of cloth linings, it is difficult to induce road managers
+to increase expenses by introducing the new linings, when the great
+object is to reduce expenses. Another objection to wood linings is
+their liability to injury from heat and moisture, a liability which
+results from the way in which they are put together. A heated roof or
+a leak swells the veneering, and in many cases takes it off in strips.
+To obviate these objections, I have, during the past eighteen months,
+been experimenting with some materials that would be less affected by
+these causes, and at the same time make a handsome ceiling. About a
+year ago I fitted up one car in this way, and it has proved a success.
+The material used is heavy tar-board pressed into the form of the roof
+and strengthened by burlaps. It is then grained and decorated in the
+usual manner, and when finished has the same appearance as the
+veneers, will wear as well, and can be finished at much less
+cost.&mdash;<i>D.D. Robertson.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art05" id="art05"></a>IMPROVED MORTAR MIXER.</h2>
+
+<p>The engravings herewith illustrate a new form of mixing or pugging
+machine for making mortar or any other similar material. It has been
+designed by Mr. R.R. Gubbins, more especially for mixing emery with
+agglutinating material for making emery wheels; and a machine is at
+work on this material in the manufactory of the Standard Emery Wheel
+Company, Greek Street, Soho. The machine is shown in perspective in
+Fig. 1 with the side door of the mixing box let down as it is when the
+box is being emptied; and in Fig. 2 it is shown in transverse section.
+The principle of the machine is the employment of disks fixed at an
+angle of about 45 deg. on shafts revolving in a mixing box, to which a
+slow reciprocating movement of short range is given.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="./images/9b.png"><img src="./images/9b_th.png" width="600" height="339" alt="Figs. 1." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 1</span>
+<br />
+<a href="./images/9c.png"><img src="./images/9c_th.png" width="479" height="400" alt="Fig. 2." title="" />
+</a><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 2&mdash;IMPROVED MORTAR MIXING MACHINE.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In our illustrations, C is a knife-edge rail, upon which run grooved
+wheels supporting the pugging box. To the axle of one grooved wheel a
+connecting rod from crank arm, F is attached to effect the to-and-fro
+motion of the mixing box, B. G is the door of the box, B, hinged at H,
+and secured by hinged pins carrying fly nuts. A cover and hopper and
+also a trap may be supplied to the box, B, for continuously feeding
+and discharging the material operated upon. L, L, are the pugging
+blades or discs on shafts, M. The shafts, M, pass through a slot in
+the box, B, and the packing of these shafts is effected by the face
+plate sliding and bearing against the face on the standard of the
+machine. P is a guide piece on the standard, against which bears and
+slides the piece, Q, bolted on to box, B, to support and guide the
+box, B, in its movement. The forked ends of a yoke engage with the
+collars, S, on the shafts, M, this yoke being set by a screw so that
+the shafts may be easily removed. The machine is driven from the
+pulleys and shaft, T, through gearing, T2 and T3, and by the Ewart's
+chain on the wheel and pinion, V and U.&mdash;<i>The Engineer.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<div class="center">[Continued from <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, No. 311, page
+4960.]</div>
+
+<h2><a name="art06" id="art06"></a>PRACTICAL NOTES ON PLUMBING.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By P.J. DAVIES, H.M.A.S.P., etc.</h3>
+
+<h3>TINNING IRON PIPES, COPPER OR BRASS-WORK, BITS, ETC.</h3>
+
+<p>Previously, I described the method of tinning the bit, etc., with
+resin; but before this work on joints can be considered complete, I
+find it necessary to speak of tinning the ends of iron pipes, etc.,
+which have within the last fifty years been much used in conjunction
+with leaden pipes. This is done as follows: Take some spirits of salts
+(otherwise known as hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, hydrogen
+chloride, HCl), in a gallipot, and put as much sheet-zinc in it as the
+spirit will dissolve; you have then obtained chloride of zinc (ZnCl).
+A little care is required when making this, as the acid is decomposed
+and is spread about by the discharged hydrogen, and will rust anything
+made of iron or steel, such as tools, etc. It also readily absorbs
+ammoniacal gas, so that, in fact, sal ammoniac may also be dissolved
+in it, or sal ammoniac dissolved in water will answer the purpose of
+the chloride of zinc.</p>
+
+<p>Having the killed spirits, as it is sometimes called, ready, file the
+end of your iron or bit and plunge this part into the spirits, then
+touch your dipped end with some fine solder, and dip it again and
+again into the spirits until you have a good tinned face upon your
+iron, etc.; next you require a spirit-brush.</p>
+
+<h3>SPIRIT-BRUSH.</h3>
+
+<p>You can make this by cutting a few bristles out of a broom or brush,
+push them into a short piece of compo tube, say ¼ in., and hammer up
+the end to hold the bristles; next cut the ends of the bristles to
+about 3/8 in. long, and the brush is ready for use.</p>
+
+<h3>SOLDERING IRON TO LEAD.</h3>
+
+<p>Suppose you want to make a joint round a lead and iron pipe. First
+file the end of your iron pipe as far up as you would shave it if it
+were lead, and be sure to file it quite bright and free from grease;
+heat your soldering-iron; then, with your spirit-brush, paint the
+prepared end of your iron, and with your bit, rub over the pipe plenty
+of solder, until the pipe is properly tinned, not forgetting to use
+plenty of spirits; this done, you can put your joint together, and
+wipe in the usual manner. Caution.&mdash;Do not put too much heat on your
+iron pipe, either when tinning or making the joint, or the solder will
+not take or stand.</p>
+
+<h3>DUMMIES FOR PIPE-BENDING.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10a.png" width="512" height="450" alt="FIGS. 38. and 38b." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIGS. 38. and 38b.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Figs. 38 and 38<span class="smcap">b</span>. This tool I had better describe before
+proceeding to the method of bending. To make it take a piece of, say,
+½ in. iron pipe, 3 ft. long, or the length required, bent a little at
+one end, as shown at A B in Fig. 38 and Fig. 38<span class="smcap">b</span>. Tin the end
+about 2 in. up, make a hole with a small plumbing-iron in some sand,
+and place the tinned end of the iron pipe, B, into this hole; fill the
+hole up with good hot lead, and the dummy, after it has been rasped up
+a little, is ready for use. It will be found handy to have three or
+four different lengths, and bent to different angles, to suit your
+work. A straight one (Fig. 38<span class="smcap">b</span>.) made to screw into an iron
+socket or length of gas-pipe, will be found very handy for getting
+dents out of long lengths of soil-pipe.</p>
+
+<h3>BENDS AND SET-OFFS.</h3>
+
+<p>Before you begin bending solid pressed pipes always put the thickest
+part of your pipe <i>at the back</i>. Lead, in a good plumber's hands, may
+be twisted into every conceivable shape; but, as in all other trades,
+there is a right and a wrong way of doing everything, and there are
+many different methods, each having a right and wrong way, which I
+shall describe. I shall be pleased if my readers will adopt the style
+most suitable for their particular kind of work; of course I shall say
+which is the best for the class of work required.</p>
+
+<p>For small pipes, such as from ½ in. to 1 in. &quot;<i>stout</i> pipe,&quot; you may
+pull them round without trouble or danger; but for larger sizes, say,
+from 1¼ in. to 2 in., some little care is necessary, even in stout
+pipes.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 37 illustrates a badly made bend, and also shows how it comes
+together at the throat, X, and back, E; L is the enlarged section of X
+E, looking at the pipe endways. The cause of this contraction is
+pulling the bend too quickly, and too much at a time, without dressing
+in the sides at B B as follows: After you have pulled the pipe round
+until it just begins to flatten, take a soft dresser, or a piece of
+soft wood, and a hammer, and turn the pipe on its side as at Fig. 37;
+then strike the bulged part of the pipe from X B toward E, until it
+appears round like section K. Now pull your pipe round again as
+before, and keep working it until finished. If you find that it
+becomes smaller at the bend, take a long bolt and work the throat part
+out until you have it as required.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10b.png" width="454" height="450" alt="FIG. 37." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 37.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>BENDING WITH WATER (LIGHT PIPES).</h3>
+
+<p>Fig. 39. This style of bending is much in use abroad, but not much
+practiced in London, though a splendid method of work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10c.png" width="299" height="450" alt="FIG. 39." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 39.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is a well known fact that, practically speaking, for such work,
+water is incompressible, but may be turned and twisted about to any
+shape, provided it is inclosed in a solid case&mdash;Fig. 39 is that case.
+The end, A, is stopped, and the stopcock, B, soldered into the other
+end. Now fill up this pipe quite full with warm water and shut the
+cock, take the end, A, and pull round the pipe, at the same time
+dressing the molecules of lead from the throat, C, toward D E, which
+will flow if properly worked.</p>
+
+<p>You can hammer away as much as you please, but be quick about it, so
+that the water does not cool down, thereby contracting; in fact, you
+should open the cock now and then, and recharge it to make sure of
+this.</p>
+
+<h3>SAND BENDING.</h3>
+
+<p>This is a very old method of bending lead pipes, and answers every
+purpose for long, easy bends. Proceed in this way: The length of the
+pipe to be 5 ft., fill and well ram this pipe solid with sand 2 ft.
+up, then have ready a metal-pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe one
+foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold sand, ramming it as
+firmly as possible, stop the end and work it round as you did the
+water bend, but do not strike it too hard in one place, or you will
+find it give way and require to be dummied out again, or if you cannot
+get the dent out with the dummy send a ball through (see &quot;Bending with
+Balls&quot;).</p>
+
+<h3>BENDING WITH BALLS OR BOBBINS.</h3>
+
+<p>This style of work is much practiced on small pipes, such as 2 in. to
+3 in., especially by London plumbers. Method: Suppose your pipe to be
+2 in., then you require your ball or bobbin about 1/16 in. less than
+the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull the
+pipe round until it just begins to flatten, as at Fig. 37, put the
+ball into the pipe, and with some short pieces of wood (say, 2 in.
+long by 1½ in. diameter) force the ball through the dented part of the
+pipe, or you may use several different-sized balls, as at A B C, Fig.
+40, and ram them through the pipe with a short mandrel, as at D M. You
+will require to proceed very carefully about this ramming, or
+otherwise you will most likely drive the bobbins through the back at L
+K J. You must also watch the throat part, G H I, to keep it from
+kinking or buckling-up; dress this part from the throat toward the
+back, in order to get rid of the surplus in the throat.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10d.png" width="463" height="450" alt="FIG. 40." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 40.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>THREE-BALL OR LEAD DRIVING BALL AND DOUBLE-BALL BENDING.</h3>
+
+<p>Fig. 41 shows a method of bending with three balls, one of lead being
+used as a driver attached to a piece of twine. This is a country
+method, and very good, because the two balls are kept constantly to
+the work. First, put the two balls just where you require the bend,
+then pull the pipe slightly round; take the leaden ball and drop it
+on the ball, B, then turn the pipe the other end up and drop it on A,
+and do so until your bend is the required shape. You must be careful
+not to let your leaden ball touch the back of the pipe. Some use a
+piece of smaller leaden pipe run full of lead for the ball, C, and I
+do not think it at all a bad method, as you can get a much greater
+weight for giving the desired blow to your <i>boxwood</i> balls.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10e.png" width="383" height="450" alt="FIG. 41." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 41.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>BENDING WITH WINDLASS AND BRASS BALL.</h3>
+
+<p>This is an excellent method of bending small pipes. Fig. 42 will
+almost describe itself. A is a brass or gun metal ball having a copper
+or wire rope running through it, and pulled through the flattened part
+of the pipe as shown. It will be quite as well to tack the bend down
+to the bench, as at B, when pulling the ball through; well dress the
+lead from front to back to thicken the back. I have seen some plumbers
+put an extra thickness of lead on the back before beginning to bend.
+Notice: nearly all solid pressed pipes are thicker on one side than
+the other (as before remarked), always place the thickest part at the
+back.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10f.png" width="600" height="328" alt="FIG. 42." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 42.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>HYDRAULIC OR CUP-LEATHER AND BALL BENDING.</h3>
+
+<p>Fig 43. This is my own method of pipe-bending, and is very useful when
+properly handled with plenty of force, but requires great care and
+practice. You must have a union sweated on the end, A, Fig. 43, and
+the ball, B, to fit the pipe. The cup-leather, E, should have a plate
+fixed on the front to press the ball forward. Pull up the pipe as you
+please, and pump the ball through; it will take all the dents out, and
+that too very quickly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/10g.png" width="438" height="450" alt="FIG. 43." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 43.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>BENDING BY SPLITTING OR SPLIT-MADE BENDS.</h3>
+
+<p>This method of bending is much practiced in the provinces, and, for
+anything I know to the contrary, is one of the best methods in use, as
+by it you are likely to get a good substance of metal on the back of
+the bend whether the plumber be a good or a bad workman. Proceed as
+follows: Cut the pipe down the center to suit the length of your bend,
+as shown at A B, Fig. 44. It will be quite as well if you first set
+out this bend on the bench, then you may measure round the back, as
+from C to L, to obtain the distance of the cut, which should always be
+three or four inches longer than the bend. You may also in this way
+obtain the correct length for the throat, G H I; here you will see
+that you have a quantity of lead to spare, <i>i.e.</i>, from A to E, all of
+which has to be got rid of in uncut bends&mdash;some plumbers shift from
+front to back, but how many? Not one in twenty. After you have cut the
+pipe, open the throat part, bend out the sides, and pull this part
+round a little at a time, then with a dummy, Fig. 38, work the
+internal part of the throat outward to as nearly the shape as you can.
+Go carefully to work, and do not attempt to work up the sides, A D B,
+until your throat is nearly to the proper shape, after which you may
+do so with a small boxwood dresser or bossing-stick (It is not
+necessary to explain minutely what a bosser or dressing-stick is, as
+they can be bought at almost any lead-merchants&mdash;the dresser is shown
+at E, Fig. 1; the bossing-stick is somewhat similar, the only
+difference being that it has a rounded face instead of flat.) Keep the
+dummy up against the sides when truing it. If you have proceeded
+properly with this throat part, you will not require to work up the
+sides or edges, as in working the throat back the sides will come up
+by themselves. Next take the back, pull it round a little at a time,
+the dummy being held inside, with your dresser work the two edges and
+sides slowly round, and the back will follow. Never strike the back
+from the underside with the dummy. After you have made a dozen or two
+you will be able to make them as fast as you please, but do not hurry
+them at first, as the greater part of this work is only to be learned
+by patient application, perseverance, and practice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11a.png" width="454" height="400" alt="FIG. 44." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 44.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but
+before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the
+edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch
+his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so
+that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a
+gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge
+attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look
+like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine
+solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a
+well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to
+A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being
+especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A.
+Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no
+importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared,
+that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will
+have a &quot;higgledy-piggledy&quot; appearance. Some difference of opinion
+exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will
+make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one
+will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained
+in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it
+is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint
+with the ladle and plumbing-iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11b.png" width="600" height="331" alt="FIG. 45." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 45.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one
+joint on the back.</p>
+
+<h3>PULLING UP BENDS.</h3>
+
+<p>In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them.
+Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you
+require the bend, lay it (<i>with the seam at the side</i>) upon a pillow,
+made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust;
+have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length
+of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about ½ in. smaller than the pipe, and
+a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few
+burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough
+to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat
+is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the
+end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place
+a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then
+pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the
+throat. Now, with a <i>hot</i> dummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round
+like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made,
+occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow
+on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides
+run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from
+inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back
+with a view to thickening the back.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11c.png" width="482" height="400" alt="FIG. 46." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 46.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>SET-OFFS.</h3>
+
+<p>A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and
+made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always
+make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found
+to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make
+the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff
+from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different
+shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double
+bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent
+dummy shown at Fig. 38.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11d.png" width="600" height="347" alt="FIG. 47." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 47.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>BAD BENDS.</h3>
+
+<p>These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at
+Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD
+to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next
+strike the back part of the pipe, E, <i>with the same force</i>, and if it
+dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of
+these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed
+together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.&mdash;Care must be
+taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11e.png" width="394" height="450" alt="FIG. 48." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 48.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>BAD FALLS IN BENDS.</h3>
+
+<p>The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as
+much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for
+pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad
+bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such
+bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is
+not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for
+soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good
+fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends
+requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for
+opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future
+paragraph on &quot;Preparing for Fixing.&quot;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11f.png" width="515" height="400" alt="FIG. 49." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 49.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11g.png" width="515" height="450" alt="FIG. 50." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 50.</span>
+</div>
+
+<h3>BENDS MADE INTO TRAPS OR RETARDERS.</h3>
+
+<p>It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when
+running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another
+course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been
+done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I,
+after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing
+new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with
+provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it
+has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in
+his &quot;Sanitary Engineering,&quot; says it was introduced and has been used
+for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11h.png" width="460" height="400" alt="FIG. 51." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 51.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11i.png" width="252" height="450" alt="FIG. 52." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 52.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at
+South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a
+medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of
+their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as
+joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into
+this Exhibition&mdash;in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the
+Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article
+on Fixing, in a future part.</p>
+
+<h3>BENDS MADE WITH THE &quot;SNARLING DUMMY.&quot;</h3>
+
+<p>This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy
+made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of
+working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents,
+strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction
+gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape
+required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of
+in working up embossed vases, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11j.png" width="600" height="303" alt="FIG. 53." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">FIG. 53.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>(To be continued)</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>From the London <i>Building News</i>.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art07" id="art07"></a>THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.</h2>
+
+<p>The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires
+the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors
+at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are
+adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary
+one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling
+mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines
+constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature,
+because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/11k.png" width="373" height="450" alt="THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER." title="" />
+<br /><span class="caption">THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen
+Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is
+new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it
+more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schönherr, Crompton,
+and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors,
+<i>a<sub>1</sub></i>, <i>a<sub>2</sub></i>, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary
+motion of which acts upon the box, <i>c</i>, by means of the lever, <i>b</i>,
+the box being caused to descend again by the spring, <i>d</i>. Parallel
+with the breast beam there is mounted an axle, <i>e</i>, and upon one of
+the extremities of this is fixed the sector, <i>a<sub>1</sub></i>, while the other
+extremity carries two fixed disks, <i>f<sub>1</sub></i>, <i>f<sub>2</sub></i>, two loose disks,
+<i>f<sub>3</sub></i>, <i>f<sub>4</sub></i>, and the sector, <i>a<sub>2</sub></i>, which is connected with the
+latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake, <i>g</i>. The pawls,
+<i>h<sub>1</sub></i> and <i>h<sub>2</sub></i>, are supported on a lever, <i>i</i>, on a level with the
+disks, and are connected with the cam, <i>l</i>, by the spring, <i>k</i>. This
+cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against
+the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls
+on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors,
+<i>a<sub>1</sub></i> and <i>a<sub>2</sub></i>, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the
+desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls, <i>h</i>, are connected
+by wires with the bent levers, <i>m</i>, of the draught machine, which
+carry also the pawls, <i>n</i>. The upper position of the pawls, <i>h</i>, is
+limited by the direct resting of the levers, <i>m</i>, on the tappet, <i>o</i>,
+and the lower position by the resting of the pawls, <i>n</i>. The plates,
+<i>p</i>, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means
+of the eccentric, <i>q</i>, the crank, <i>r</i>, and the bent lever, <i>s</i>. The
+raised plates abut against the corresponding levers, <i>m</i>, and thus
+bring about the descent of the pawls, <i>h</i>, which are suspended from
+these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the
+pawls, <i>n</i>, upon the tappet, <i>o</i>, until the lowering of the
+corresponding plate has set the pawl, <i>n</i>, free. The lever, <i>m</i>, then
+gives way to the action of the spring, <i>t</i>, and the pawl, <i>h</i>, rises
+again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is
+effected by the motion of the bent lever, <i>s</i>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art16" id="art16"></a>INDUSTRIAL ART FOR WOMEN&mdash;CARPET DESIGNING.</h2>
+
+<p>A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the
+possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical
+Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the
+proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could
+be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex
+to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative
+industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first
+woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country.
+She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no
+school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial
+purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught
+theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two,
+however, in many branches of industrial design women have been
+pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated
+from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now
+working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print
+factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers
+for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a
+china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted
+for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light,
+pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far
+exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe,
+particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars'
+worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made
+in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent.
+One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing
+department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign
+markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing
+than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair
+knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving.
+Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible,
+for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent
+instruction in this branch of industrial art is given.</p>
+
+<p>There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may
+be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price
+of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for
+an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels
+or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as
+good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For
+moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists
+are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to
+$100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the
+manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be
+purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist
+to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the
+work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75
+extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for
+making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three
+per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and
+Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the
+elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the
+designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time
+from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries
+run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from
+$2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from
+$1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per
+week.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial
+art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls
+might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French
+said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and
+disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial
+art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of
+decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the
+time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical
+designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art
+might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department,
+explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public
+schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and
+high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American
+people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing
+they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The
+beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that
+she had ever witnessed in the old countries.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art17" id="art17"></a>PHOTOGRAPHY UPON CANVAS.</h2>
+
+<p>One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of
+Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If
+you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will
+produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The
+success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not
+produce colored work&mdash;or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part
+to do so&mdash;but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic
+portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the
+dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering
+with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself
+maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true
+lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs.
+Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear
+to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path,
+and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be
+purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an
+enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about
+&quot;painted photographs,&quot; and in these days of cheap club portraits there
+is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a
+well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is
+willing to concede that the picture has merit.</p>
+
+<p>&quot;We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it,&quot; said
+one of our hosts; &quot;it seems to contain so much fatty matter.&quot; The
+German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for
+photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and
+rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several
+pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and
+there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large
+horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that
+all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of
+water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its
+running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process,
+and this is the first operation.</p>
+
+<p>Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put
+the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in
+any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It
+is of <i>papier mâché</i>, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly,
+only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is
+adopted:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Bromide of potassium</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iodide of potassium</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">part.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bromide of cadmium</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">240</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Four assistants are required in the operation, and the same number
+when it comes to sensitizing and developing, all of which processes
+are commenced in the same way. The bath is tilted so that the liquid
+collects at one end, and near this end two assistants hold across the
+bath a stout glass rod; then the canvas is dipped into the liquid, and
+drawn out by two other assistants over the glass rod. In this way the
+canvas is thoroughly saturated, and, at the same time, drained of
+superfluous liquid.</p>
+
+<p>The canvas is hung up to dry; but as sometime must elapse before this
+particular piece will be ready for sensitizing, we proceed with
+another canvas which is fit and proper for that process. The room, we
+should have mentioned, is provided with windows of yellow glass; but
+as there is plenty of light nevertheless, the fact hardly strikes one
+on entering. The sensitizing, with a solution of nitrate of silver, is
+conducted with a glass rod in the same way as before, the solution
+being thus compounded:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Nitrate of silver</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Citric acid</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="left">part.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">140</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Again the canvas is dried, and then comes its exposure.</p>
+
+<p>This is done in a room adjoining. We lift a curtain and enter a space
+that reminds one of the underground regions of a theater. There are
+curtained partitions and wooden structures on every hand; dark murky
+corners combined with brilliant illumination. Messrs. Winter use the
+electric light for enlarging, a lamp of Siemens' driven by a six-horse
+power engine. The lamp is outside the enlarging room, and three large
+lenses, or condensers, on three sides of the light, permit the making
+of three enlargements at one end at the same time. (See Fig.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="./images/12.png" width="600" height="326" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The condenser collects the rays, and these shine into a camera
+arrangement in which the small negative is contained. The enlarged
+image is then projected, magic lantern fashion, upon the screen, to
+which is fastened the sensitized canvas. The screen in question is
+upon a tramway&mdash;there are three tramways and three screens in all, as
+shown in our sketch&mdash;and for this reason it is easy to advance and
+retire the canvas, for the purpose of properly focusing it.</p>
+
+<p>Even with the electric light now employed, it is necessary to expose a
+considerable time to secure a vigorous impression. From ten minutes to
+half an hour is the usual period, determined by the assistant, whose
+experienced eye is the only guide. We should estimate the distance of
+the cameras from the enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen or
+fifteen feet in the instance we saw, and when the canvas was taken
+down, a distinct outline of the image was visible on its surface.</p>
+
+<p>By the way, we ought to mention that the canvas is in a decidedly limp
+state during these operations. It has just sufficient stiffness to
+keep smooth on the screen, and that is all; the treatment it has
+received appears to have imparted no increase of substance to it.
+Again it is brought into the red-brick washing apartment, and again
+treated in one of the white enameled baths as before. This time it is
+the developer that is contained in the bath, and the small limp
+tablecloth&mdash;for that is what it looks like&mdash;after being drawn over the
+glass rod, is put back into the bath, and the developing solution
+rocked to and fro over it. The whiteness of the bath lining assists
+one in forming a judgment of the image as it now gradually develops
+and grows stronger. Here is the formula of the developer:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Pyrogallic acid</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="left">parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Citric acid</td><td align="right">45</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">410</td><td align="center">&quot;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The developer&mdash;which, it will be noted, is very acid&mdash;is warmed before
+it is used, say to a temperature of 30° to 40° C.; nevertheless, the
+development does not proceed very quickly. As we watched, exactly
+eight minutes elapsed before Mr. Winter cried out sharply, &quot;That will
+do.&quot; Immediately one of the assistants seizes the wet canvas, crumples
+it up without more ado, as if it were dirty linen, and takes it off to
+a wooden washing trough, where it is kneaded and washed in true
+washerwoman fashion. Water in plenty is sluiced over it, and after
+more vigorous manipulation still, it is passed from trough to trough
+until deemed sufficiently free from soluble salts to tone. The
+toning&mdash;done in the ordinary way with gold&mdash;removes any unpleasant
+redness the picture possesses, and then follows the fixing operation
+in hyposulphite. As canvas is more permeable than paper, these two
+last processes are quickly got through.</p>
+
+<p>The final washing of the canvas is very thorough. Again it is treated
+with all the vigor with which a good laundry-maid attacks dirty linen,
+the canvas, in the end, being consigned to a regular washing-machine,
+in which it is systematically worked for some time.</p>
+
+<p>When the canvas picture at last is finished, it presents a very rough
+appearance, by reason of the tiny fibers that stand erect all over the
+surface. To lay these, and also to improve the surface generally, the
+canvas is waxed, the fabric is stretched, and a semi-fluid mass rubbed
+into it, heat being used in the process, which not only gives
+brilliancy, but seems also to impart transparency to the shadows of
+the picture. The result is a pleasant finish, without vulgar glare or
+glaze, the high lights remaining beautifully pure and white.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the price of these canvas enlargements varies with the
+amount of artistic work subsequently put upon them; but the usual
+charge made by Messrs. Winter for a well-finished life-size portrait,
+three quarter length, is sixty florins, or about £5 sterling as the
+exchange now stands. Besides working for photographers, Messrs. Winter
+are reproducing a large number of classic paintings and cartoons by
+photography on canvas in this way (some of them almost absolutely
+untouched), and these, as may be supposed, are finding a very large
+sale among dealers. Such copies must necessarily be of considerable
+value to artists and collectors, and altogether it would seem that
+Messrs. Winter have hit upon a novel undertaking, which bids fair to
+make them a handsome return for the outlay (large as it undoubtedly
+has been) made upon their Vienna establishment.&mdash;<i>Photo. News.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<h2><a name="art18" id="art18"></a>DETECTION OF STARCH SUGAR SIRUP MIXED WITH SUGAR-HOUSE
+MOLASSES.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3"><sup>1</sup></a></h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">P. Casamajor.</span></h3>
+
+<p>In previous communications I have given processes for detecting the
+adulteration of cane-sugar by starch-sugar. The adulteration of
+sugar-house sirups by starch glucose is still more extensively
+practiced than that of sugar, and a great portion of sirups sold by
+retailers in this market is adulterated with starch glucose. This form
+of adulteration may be very easily detected by the use of strong
+methylic alcohol, in which the alcoholometer of Tralles or of Gay
+Lussac will indicate about 93½°.</p>
+
+<p>A straight sugar-house sirup when mixed with three times its volume of
+this strong methylic alcohol will dissolve by stirring, giving a very
+slight turbidity, which remains suspended; while sirups containing the
+usual admixture of starch sugar give a very turbid liquid, which
+separates, when left at rest, into two layers, the lower being a thick
+viscous deposit containing the glucose sirup.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable quantities are sold of a thin sirup, of about 32° Baumé,
+in which the proportion of sugar to the impurities is greater than in
+common sugar-house molasses. When a sirup of this kind is stirred with
+three times its volume of methylic alcohol, a marked turbidity and
+deposition will take place, which consists of pure sugar. The crystals
+are hard and gritty. They adhere to the sides of the glass, and are
+deposited on the bottom. There is no resemblance between this
+precipitate and that due to starch sugar sirup.</p>
+
+<p>It may not be useless to mention that if a straight sugar-house sirup
+of about 40° B. density is stirred with three times its volume of
+<i>ethylic</i> alcohol of about 93½° the sirup will not dissolve. Hence
+ethylic alcohol of this strength is not suitable for distinguishing a
+sirup mixed with starch glucose from a <i>straight</i> sugar-house sirup.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may be easily
+detected by the optical saccharometer when the sirup has the usual
+density of about 40° B., and when starch sugar has been added in the
+usual quantities.</p>
+
+<p>For making the test the usual weight should be taken (16.35 grammes
+for Duboscq's saccharometer, and 26.048 grammes for Ventzke's
+instrument). The direct test should show a percentage of sugar not
+higher than the number of Baumé degrees indicating the density, and it
+may be from 2 to 3 per cent. lower. To understand this, we must refer
+to the composition of cane-sugar molasses of 40° B.:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="left">37.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Insoluble impurities</td><td align="left">37.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="left">25</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>If the direct test should indicate 55 per cent. of sugar, and if the
+molasses were straight, the composition would be&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td align="left">Sugar</td><td align="right">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Soluble impurities</td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Water</td><td align="right">25</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Now, a product of this composition would not be a clear sirup at 40°
+B., but a mixture of sirup and crystals. Therefore, if the product is
+a clear sirup at 40° B., and it tests 55 per cent., it cannot be
+<i>straight</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may also be
+detected by the copper test. The possibility of applying this test, as
+well as those already indicated, rests on the fact that starch glucose
+is always added in very large quantities for the purposes of
+adulteration. A very small addition could not be satisfactorily
+detected.</p>
+
+<p>The detection by the copper test rests on the observation that very
+nearly one-half of the soluble impurities in sugar-house molasses
+consists of glucose in the shape of inverted sugar. We have seen above
+that for a molasses of 40° B. the soluble impurities amount to about
+37½ per cent. We may, then, lay down the rule: that the percentage of
+glucose shown by the copper test cannot, in a straight sugar-house
+molasses, be much greater than one-half of the number expressing the
+density in Baumé degrees. The reason is obvious from what has been
+said of the test by the optical saccharometer.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3">[1]</a></p><div class="note">
+<p>A Paper read before the American Chemical Society, September 2, 1881.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+
+<p><a name="art19" id="art19"></a><span class="smcap">False Vermilion.</span>&mdash;A curious case has been noticed in Germany,
+where a small cargo of vermilion was purchased, and, upon being
+analyzed, turned out to be red oxide of lead colored by eosine. This
+is an entirely novel sophistication. The eosine was separated from the
+oxide of lead by digesting the product for twenty-four hours in very
+strong alcohol. A much shorter time is sufficient to color the spirit
+enough to enable an expert chemist to detect the presence of this
+splendid organic coloring matter. Another kind of &quot;vermilion&quot; consists
+entirely of peroxide of iron, prepared especially to imitate the
+brilliant and costly sulphide of mercury, which it does very well, and
+is largely used in England, France, and America.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art20" id="art20"></a>THE POSITION OF MANGANESE IN MODERN INDUSTRY.</h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">M.V. Deshayes.</span></h3>
+
+<p>No body among the metals and the metalloids (silicium, titanium,
+tungsten, chromium, phosphorus, etc.) has occupied a more prominent
+position in modern metallurgy than <i>manganese</i>, and it is chiefly due
+to its great affinity for oxygen. When this substance was discovered,
+more than a century ago (1774), by the celebrated Swedish chemist and
+mineralogist, Gahn, by treating the black oxide of manganese in the
+crucible, no one would have thought that the new element, so delicate
+by itself, without any direct industrial use, would become, in the
+middle of the nineteenth century, one of the most powerful and
+necessary instruments for the success of the Bessemer process, as well
+for its deoxidizing properties as for the qualities which it imparts
+to steel, increasing its resistance, its durability, and its
+elasticity, as has been shown elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>Without entering into a complete history (for it is beyond the task
+which we have here assumed),<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4"><sup>1</sup></a> it will not be without interest to
+recall how, when manganese was first obtained in a pure state, that it
+was supposed that it would remain simply an object of curiosity in the
+laboratory; but when its presence was proved in spiegeleisen and when
+it came to be considered an essential ingredient in the best German
+and English works for cutlery steel (where it is thrown into the
+crucible as the peroxide), then we find that its qualities become
+better and better appreciated; and it is surprising that no
+technologist ever devoted his attention to the production of manganese
+alloys.</p>
+
+<p>It was not till after the investigations of Dr. Percy, Tamm, Prieger,
+and Bessemer, who employed crucibles for the production of these
+alloys, that Hendersen received the idea of utilizing it in the
+Siemens furnace. So important a compound could not remain unemployed.
+The works at Terre Noire produced, by the Martin furnace, for a number
+of years, ferro-manganese of 70 to 80 per cent. Shortly afterward,
+when competition in the market was established, the works at Carniola
+and at Carinthia, some English factories, and more especially the
+works at Saint-Louis, near Marseilles, of Terre Noire, of Montluçon,
+etc., successfully adopted the manufacture of <i>ferro-manganese with
+the blast furnace</i>, which is without doubt the method best adapted for
+the reduction of metallic oxides, as well in consideration of the
+reactions as from an economical point of view. Before very long it was
+possible to produce, by the blast furnace, alloys of 40, 60, 80, and
+even 86 per cent., in using the hot air apparatus of Siemens, Cowper,
+and Witwell, with the employment of good coke, and principally by
+calculating the charges for the fusion in such a manner as to obtain
+an extra basic and refractory slag.</p>
+
+<p>Following in the same path, the Ph&oelig;nix Co., of Ruhrort, sent, in
+1880, to the Metallurgical Exposition of Dusseldorf, samples of
+ferro-manganese obtained in a blast furnace, with an extra basic slag
+in which the silica was almost entirely replaced by alumina. The works
+of L'Esperance, at Oberhausen, exhibited similar products, quite pure
+as to sulphur and phosphorus, and they had a double interest at the
+exhibition, in consideration of the agitation over the Thomas and
+Gilchrist process (see the discussions which were raised at the
+meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute). This process unfortunately
+requires for its prompt success the use of a very large quantity of
+spiegel or of ferro-manganese, in order to sufficiently carburize and
+deoxidize the burnt iron, which is the final product of the blowing.</p>
+
+<p>The production of ferro-manganese by the blast furnace depends upon
+the following conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="note">
+<p>    1. A high temperature.</p>
+
+<p>    2. On a proper mixture of the iron ores and the manganese.</p>
+
+<p>    3. On the production of slag rich in bases.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These different conditions may be obtained with but slight variations
+at the different works, but the condition of a high temperature is one
+of the most important considerations, not only for the alloys of
+manganese, but equally as well for the alloys of iron, manganese,
+silicium, those of chromium, of tungsten, etc. It is also necessary to
+study the effects produced either in the crucible or in the blast
+furnace, and to examine the ores which for a long while have been
+regarded as not reducible.</p>
+
+<p>The works of Terre Noire especially made at the same time, in the
+blast furnace, ferro-silicon with manganese, alloys which are daily
+becoming more important for the manufacture of steels tempered soft
+and half soft without blowing.</p>
+
+<p>These alloys, rich in silicon, present the peculiarity of being poor
+in carbon, the amount of this latter element varying with the
+proportions of manganese. In addition to the alloys used in the iron
+and steel industry, we shall proceed to relate the recent progress
+obtained in the metallurgy of other materials (especially copper) by
+the use of <i>cupro-manganese</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="" border="1">
+<tr><th>&nbsp;</th><th align="center">Mn.<br />per cent.</th><th align="center">C.</th><th align="center">Si.</th><th align="center">S.</th><th align="center">P.</th><th>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">A</td><td align="right">18 to 20</td><td align="left">2 to 3</td><td align="right">10 to 12</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="4">Traces<br />scarcely<br />perceptible.</td><td align="center" valign="middle" rowspan="4">About<br />0.100.</td><td align="left">Extra Quality for soft metals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">B</td><td align="right">15 to 18</td><td align="left">3.00</td><td align="right"> 10 to 8</td><td align="left" rowspan="2">Medium Quality.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">C</td><td align="right">15 to 10</td><td align="left">3.25</td><td align="right">8 to 6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">D</td><td align="right">5 to 10</td><td align="left">3.50</td><td align="right">4 to 6</td><td align="left">Ordinary for hard metals.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The first alloys of manganese and copper were made in 1848, by Von
+Gersdorff; soon after Prof. Schrötter of Vienna made compounds
+containing 18 or 20 per cent. of manganese by reducing in a crucible
+the oxides of copper and manganese mixed with wood charcoal and
+exposing to a high heat.</p>
+
+<p>These alloys were quite ductile, very hard, very tenacious, and
+capable of receiving a beautiful polish; their color varies from white
+to rose color, according to the respective proportions of the two
+bodies; they are particularly interesting on account of the results
+which were obtained by adding them to certain metallic fusions.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that in the fining of copper by oxidation there is
+left in the fined metal the suboxide of copper, which must then be
+removed by the refining process, using carbon to reduce the copper to
+its metallic state. M. Manhès, taking advantage of the greater
+affinity of manganese for oxygen, found that if this last element was
+introduced into the bath of copper during the operation of refining,
+the copper suboxide would be reduced and the copper obtained in its
+metallic condition. For this purpose during these last years real
+cupro-manganese has been prepared, occupying the same position to
+copper as the spiegel or the ferro-manganese does toward the
+manufacture of steel. M. Manhès used these same alloys for the fusion
+of bronze and brass, and recommended the following proportions:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td align="right">3</td><td align="center"> to </td><td align="left">4</td><td align="center"> kilog. of </td><td align="center">cupro-manganese</td><td align="center">for 100 kilog. of</td><td align="left">bronze.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.250</td><td align="center"> to </td><td align="left">1</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="left">brass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.150</td><td align="center"> to </td><td align="left">1.2</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="center">do.</td><td align="left">copper.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In every case the alloy is introduced at the moment of pouring, as is
+the case in the Bessemer or Martin process, taking care to cover the
+fusion with charcoal in order to prevent the contact with air,
+together with the use of some kind of a flux to aid in the
+scorification of the manganese.</p>
+
+<p>According to M. Manhès a slight proportion of manganese added to
+bronze appears to increase its resistance and its ductility, as is
+shown in the following table, provided, however, that these different
+alloys have been subjected to the same operations from a physical
+point of view; that is, pouring, rolling, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="" border="1">
+<tr><th colspan="2">&nbsp;</th><th align="center">Cu.</th><th align="center">Sn.</th><th align="center">Mn.</th>
+<th align="center">Weight<br />of<br />fracture.</th><th align="center">Elongation</th></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Ordinary Bronze</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="right">10</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">20 kil.</td><td align="right">4.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bronze with Manganese,</td><td align="right">A,</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">0.5</td><td align="right">24 kil.</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Do.</td><td align="right">B,</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="right">10</td><td align="right">1.0</td><td align="right">26 kil.</td><td align="right">20.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The White Brass Co., of London, exhibited at Paris, in 1878, manganese
+bronzes of four grades of durability, destined for different uses and
+corresponding to about 20 to 25 kilos of the limit of elasticity, and
+36 to 37 kilos of resistance to fracture; the number 0 is equivalent
+after rolling to a resistance to fracture of 46.5 kilos, and 20 to 25
+per cent. of elongation.</p>
+
+<p>Such results show beyond contradiction the great interest there is in
+economically producing alloys of copper, manganese, tin, zinc, etc. In
+addition, they may be added to metallic fusions, for deoxidizing and
+also to communicate to the commercial alloys (such as bronze, brass,
+etc.) the greatest degree of resistance and tenacity.</p>
+
+<p>While many investigators have tried to form alloys of copper and
+manganese by combining them in the metallic state (that is to say, by
+the simultaneous reduction of their oxides), the Hensler Bros., of
+Dillenburg, have found it best to first prepare the <i>metallic
+manganese</i> and then to alloy it in proper proportions with other
+metals. Their method consisted of reducing the pure pyrolusite in
+large plumbago crucibles, in the presence of carbon and an extra basic
+flux; the operation was carried on in a strong coke fire, and at the
+end of about six hours the <i>crude manganese</i> is poured out, having the
+following composition:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2">
+<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">90</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">92</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carbon</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">6.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iron</td><td align="right">0.5</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">1.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silicon</td><td align="right">0.5</td><td align="center">to</td><td align="right">1.2</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>By refining, the manganese can be brought up to 94 to 95 per cent. of
+purity. It is from this casting of pure manganese that is obtained the
+substance used as a base for the alloys. This metal is white,
+crystalline, when exposed to the damp air slowly oxidizes, and readily
+combines with copper to form the <i>cupro-manganese</i> of the variety
+having the composition&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2" >
+<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">70</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">30</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Cast in ingots or in pigs it becomes an article of commerce which may
+be introduced in previously determined proportions into bronze, gun
+metal, bell metal, brass, etc. It may also be used, as we have already
+mentioned, for the refining of copper according to Manhès's process.</p>
+
+<p>Tests made from this standpoint at the works of Mansfield have shown
+that the addition of 0.45 per cent. of cupro-manganese is sufficient
+to give tenacity to the copper, which, thus treated, will not contain
+more than 0.005 to 0.022 of oxygen, the excess passing off with the
+manganese into the scorias.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the addition of cupro-manganese is recommended,
+when it is desirable to cast thin pieces of the metal, such as tubes,
+caldrons, kitchen utensils, which formerly could only be obtained by
+beating and stamping.</p>
+
+<p>The tenacity obtained for tubes of only three centimeters in diameter
+and 1.75 millimeters in thickness is such that they are able to
+withstand a pressure of 1,100 pounds to the square inch.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>manganese bronze</i>, which we have previously referred to, and
+which is used by the White Brass Company of London, is an alloy of
+copper, with from one to ten per cent. of manganese; the highest
+qualities of resistance, ductility, tenacity, and durability are
+obtained with one to four per cent. of manganese, while with twelve
+per cent. the metal becomes too weak for industrial uses.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="" cellspacing="2" >
+<tr><th align="center">Manganese<br /> bronze.</th><th align="center">Copper.</th>
+<th align="center">Manganese.</th>
+<th align="center">Weight of<br />fracture in<br /> kilos per<br /> square mm.</th><th align="center">Elongation</th></tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">A</td><td align="right">96.00</td><td align="right">4.00</td><td align="right">19.00</td><td align="right">14.60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">B</td><td align="right">95.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">20.62</td><td align="right">10.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">C</td><td align="right">94.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">20.80</td><td align="right">14.60</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td align="center">D</td><td align="right">90.00</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="right">16.56</td><td align="right">5.00</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The preceding table gives some of the experimental results obtained
+with the testing machine at Friedrich-Wilhelmshütte on the crude cast
+ingots; the resistance is increased, as with copper, by rolling or
+hammering.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>manganese German silver</i> consists of</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2" >
+<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">70.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>But as this alloy often breaks in rolling, the preference is given to
+the following proportions:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="" cellpadding="2" >
+<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">80.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">15.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">5.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>This results in a white, ductile metal, which is easily worked and
+susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish, like the alloys of
+nickel, which it may in time completely replace.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>bronzes of manganese, tin, and zinc</i> were perhaps the first upon
+which important investigations were made; they were obtained by adding
+to an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin (ordinary bronze) a definite
+quantity of the cupro-manganese of the type indicated above (Cu 70, Mn
+30). By this means the resistance is increased fully nine per cent.,
+probably in the same way as the copper, that is, by the deoxidizing
+effect of the manganese, as both the copper and the tin are always
+more or less oxidized in ordinary bronzes.</p>
+
+<p>Manganese combines with tin just the same as it does with copper, and
+the proportion which is recommended as giving the highest resistances
+is three to six per cent. of cupro-manganese.</p>
+
+<p>However, notwithstanding the use of cupro-manganese, the tin, as in
+ordinary bronzes, has a tendency to liquate in those portions of the
+mould which are the hottest, and which become solid the last,
+especially in the case of moulds having a great width.</p>
+
+<p>From a series of experiments made at Isabelle Hütte, it has been found
+that the metal which has the greatest resisting qualities was obtained
+from</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" summary="" cellspacing="2" >
+<tr><td align="left">Copper</td><td align="right">85.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manganese</td><td align="right">6.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Zinc</td><td align="right">5.00</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>5 per cent. of cupro-manganese = manganese 1.00 remaining in the
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>The best method of procedure is first to melt the copper in a
+crucible, and then to add the tin and the zinc; finally the
+cupro-manganese is added just at the moment of pouring, as in the
+Manhès process; then the reaction on the oxides is very effective,
+there is a boiling with scintillation similar to the action produced
+in the Bessemer and Martin process when ferro-manganese is added to
+the bath of steel.</p>
+
+<p>The following are some of the results obtained from thirteen alloys
+obtained in this manner. These samples were taken direct from the
+casting and were tested with the machine at Friedrich-Wilhelms-hütte,
+and with the one at the shops of the Rhine Railroad. Their resistance
+was considerably increased, as with the other alloys, by rolling or
+hammering.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="1" summary="" cellspacing="4" >
+<tr>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Numbers.</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Nature of mould.</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Copper</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Tin.</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Zinc.</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Cupro-<br />manganese.</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Limit<br /> of <br />elasticity<br />in kilos<br /> per mm.</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Weight<br /> of<br /> fracture<br /> in kilos<br /> per mm.</th>
+<th align="center" valign="bottom">Elongation,<br />percentage.</th>
+</tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td><td align="center">Sand</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td>&mdash;</td><td align="right">11.30</td><td align="right">16.00</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">2</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">4.00</td><td align="right">13.00</td><td align="right">16.10</td><td align="center">2.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">3</td><td align="center">Cast.</td><td align="right">87.00</td><td align="right">8.70</td><td align="right">4.30</td><td align="right">4.00</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">19.40</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">4</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.90</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">18.80</td><td align="center">6.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">19.75</td><td align="center">7.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">6</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">17.15</td><td align="center">4.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">7</td><td align="center">Sand</td><td align="right">87.00</td><td align="right">5.20</td><td align="right">4.33</td><td align="right">3.47</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">19.70</td><td align="center">8.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">87.00</td><td align="right">5.20</td><td align="right">4.33</td><td align="right">3.47</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">19.70</td><td align="center">8.90</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">9</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">85.00</td><td align="right">6.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">3.00</td><td align="right">16.80</td><td align="right">22.00</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">10</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">74.00</td><td align="right">10.00</td><td align="right">5.00</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">13.80</td><td align="right">18.70</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">11</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">78.70</td><td align="right">8.00</td><td align="center">(7.66 Pb)<br />( 8 Pb)</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">13.80</td><td align="right">20.70</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">12</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">82.00</td><td align="right">9.80</td><td align="right">4.90</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">14.75</td><td align="right">19.75</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">13</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">86.20</td><td align="right">16.50</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td><td align="right">3.30</td><td align="right">14.30</td><td align="right">24.70</td><td align="center">&mdash;</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The results of the tests of ductility which are here given, with
+reference to the <i>cupro-manganese</i>, <i>manganese bronze</i>, the <i>alloys</i>
+with <i>zinc</i> and <i>tin</i>, are taken from M.C. Hensler's very valuable
+communication to the Berlin Society for the Advancement of the
+Industrial Arts.</p>
+
+<p>These various alloys, as well as the <i>phosphorus bronze</i>, of which we
+make no mention here, are at present very largely used in the
+manufacture of technical machines, as well as for supports, valves,
+stuffing-boxes, screws, bolts, etc., which require the properties of
+resistance and durability. They vastly surpass in these qualities the
+brass and like compounds which have been used hitherto for these
+purposes.&mdash;<i>Bull. Soc. Chim., Paris</i>, xxxvi. p. 184.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p>See <i>Engineering</i>, May 27, 1881</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art21" id="art21"></a>THE ECONOMICAL WASHING OF COAL GAS AND SMOKE.</h2>
+
+<p>In a recent number of the <i>Journal des Usines à Gaz</i> appears a note by
+M. Chevalet, on the chemical and physical purification of gas, which
+was one of the papers submitted to the Société Technique de
+l'Industrie du Gaz en France at the last ordinary meeting. This
+communication is noticeable, apart from the author's conclusions, for
+the fact that the processes described were not designed originally for
+use in gas manufacture, but were first used to purify, or rather to
+remove the ammonia which is to be found in all factory chimneys, and
+especially in certain manufactories of bone-black, and in spirit
+distilleries. It is because of the success which attended M.
+Chevalet's treatment of factory smoke that he turned his attention to
+coal gas. The communication in which M. Chevalet's method is described
+deals first with chimney gases, in order to show the difficulties of
+the first class of work done by the author's process. Like coal gas,
+chimney gases contain in suspension solid particles, such as soot and
+ashes. Before washing these gases in a bath of sulphuric acid, in
+order to retain the ammonia, there were two problems to be solved. It
+was first of all necessary to cool the gases down to a point which
+should not exceed the boiling-point of the acid employed in washing;
+and then to remove the solid particles which would otherwise foul the
+acid. In carrying out this mechanical purification it was impossible,
+for two reasons, to make use of apparatus of the kind used in gas
+works; the first obstacle was the presence of solid particles carried
+forward by the gaseous currents, and the other difficulty was the
+volume of gas to be dealt with. In the example to which the author's
+attention was directed he had to purify 600 cubic meters of chimney
+gas per minute, or 36,000 cubic meters per hour, while the gas
+escaped from the flues at a temperature of from 400° to 500° C. (752°
+to 932° Fahr.), and a large quantity of cinders had frequently to be
+removed from the main chimney flues. After many trials a simple
+appliance was constructed which successfully cooled the gases and
+freed them from ashes. This consisted of a vertical screen, with bars
+three mm. apart, set in water. This screen divided the gases into thin
+sheets before traversing the water, and by thus washing and
+evaporating the water the gases were cooled, and threw down the soot
+and ashes, and these impurities fell to the bottom of the water bath.
+The gases after this process are divested of the greater part of any
+tarry impurities which they may have possessed, and are ready for the
+final purification, in which ammonia is extracted. This is effected by
+means of a series of shallow trays, covered with water or weak acid,
+and pierced with a number of fine holes, through which the gas is made
+to bubble. The washing apparatus is therefore strangely similar in
+principle to that designed by Mr G. Livesey. M. Chevalet states that
+this double process is applicable to gas works as well as to the
+purification of smoke, with the difference that for the latter purpose
+the washing trays are filled with acid for the retention of ammonia,
+while in the former application gas liquor or water is used. The
+arrangement is said to be a practical success.&mdash;<i>Journal of Gas
+Lighting.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art22" id="art22"></a>DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN IN HAIR, WOOL, DRIED BLOOD, FLESH MEAL,
+AND LEATHER SCRAPS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">Dr. C. Krauch.</span></h3>
+
+<p>Differences obtained in the estimation of nitrogen in the above
+substances are frequently the source of much annoyance. The cause of
+these discrepancies is chiefly due to the lack of uniformity in the
+material, and from its not being in a sufficiently fine state during
+the combustion. The hair which is found in commerce for the
+manufacture of fertilizers, is generally mixed with sand and dust.
+Wool dust often contains old buttons, pieces of wood, shoe pegs, and
+all sorts of things. The flesh fertilizers are composed of light
+particles of flesh mixed with the heavier bone dust.</p>
+
+<p>Even after taking all possible precautions to finely comminute these
+substances by mechanical means, still only imperfect results are
+obtained, for the impurities, that is to say, the sand, can never be
+so intimately mixed with the lighter particles that a sample of 0.5 to
+0.8 gramme, such as is used in the determination of nitrogen, will
+correspond to the correct average contents. In substances such as
+dried blood, pulverization is very tedious. A very good method of
+overcoming these difficulties, and of obtaining from the most mixed
+substances a perfectly homogeneous mass, is that recommended by
+Grandeau<a name="FNanchor_1_5" id="FNanchor_1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_5"><sup>1</sup></a> of decomposing with sulphuric acid&mdash;a method which as yet
+does not seem to be generally known. From a large quantity of the
+substance to be examined, the coarse stones, etc., are removed by
+picking or sifting, and the prepared substance, or in cases where the
+impurities cannot be separated, the original substance, is treated
+with sulphuric acid; after it is decomposed, the acid is neutralized
+with calcium carbonate, and the nitrogen is determined in this mass.</p>
+
+<p>In order to operate rapidly, it is best to use as little sulphuric
+acid as possible. If too much sulphuric acid is used, necessarily a
+large amount of calcium carbonate is essential to get it into proper
+condition for pulverizing. Under such circumstances the percentage of
+nitrogen becomes very low, and a slight error will become
+correspondingly high.</p>
+
+<p>20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 10 c.c. are sufficient for
+30 to 40 grammes of material. After the substance and liquid have been
+thoroughly stirred in a porcelain dish, they are warmed on a water
+bath and continually stirred until the mass forms a homogeneous
+liquid. The sirupy liquid thus obtained is then mixed with 80 to 100
+grammes of pulverized calcium carbonate (calcspar), dried for fifteen
+minutes at 40 to 60° C., and after standing for one to two hours the
+dish and its contents are weighed. From the total weight the weight of
+the dish is subtracted, which gives the weight of the calcium sulphate
+and the calcium carbonate, and the known weight of the wool dust, etc.
+This material is then intimately ground, and 2 to 3 grammes of it are
+taken for the determination of the nitrogen, which is then calculated
+for the original substance.</p>
+
+<p>Although the given quantities of water and sulphuric acid hardly
+appear sufficient for such a large quantity of hair or wool, still in
+the course of a few minutes to a quarter of an hour, after continual
+stirring, there is obtained a liquid which, after the addition of the
+calcium carbonate, is readily converted into a pulverized mass.
+Frequently a smaller quantity of sulphuric acid will suffice,
+especially if the material is moist. The chief merit of this process
+is that in a short time a large quantity of material, having a uniform
+character, is obtained. Its use is, therefore, recommended for general
+employment.</p>
+
+<p>When the coarser stones, etc., are weighed, and the purified portion
+decomposed, absolutely correct results are obtained, and in this way
+the awkward discrepancies from different analysts may be
+avoided.&mdash;<i>Chemiker Zeitung</i>, v. 7, p. 703.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_5" id="Footnote_1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_5">[1]</a></p><div class="note"><p><i>Handbook d. Agrict. Chem. Analyst.</i>, p. 18.</p></div>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art23" id="art23"></a>TESTING WHITE BEESWAX FOR CERESINE AND PARAFFINS.</h2>
+
+<h3>By <span class="smcap">A. Peltz.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The method which is here recommended originated with Dr. M. Buchner,
+and consists in preparing a concentrated solution of alcoholic caustic
+potash&mdash;one part caustic potash to three of 90 per cent. alcohol&mdash;and
+then boiling one to two grammes of the suspected wax in a small flask
+with the above solution. The liquid is poured into a glass cylinder to
+prevent solidification of the contents, and it is then placed for
+about one half hour in boiling water. With pure wax the solution
+remains clear white; when ceresine and paraffine are present, they
+will float on the surface of the alkali solution as an oily layer, and
+on cooling they will appear lighter in color than the saponified mass,
+and thus they may be quantitatively estimated. The author likewise
+gives a superficial method for the determination of the purity of
+beeswax. It depends on the formation of wax crystals when the fused
+wax solidifies. These crystals form on the surface on cooling, and are
+still visible after solidification when examining the surface from the
+side. The test succeeds best when the liquid wax is poured into a
+shallow tin mould After cooling another peculiar property of the wax
+becomes apparent. While the beeswax fills a smaller volume, that is,
+separates from the sides of the mould, the Japanese wax, without
+separating from the sides, becomes covered with cracks on cooling
+which have a depth corresponding to the thickness of the wax.&mdash;<i>Neuste
+Erfindungen und Erfahrungen</i>, viii., p. 430.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art24" id="art24"></a>THE PREVENTION OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION BY FUNGI.</h2>
+
+<h3>By Prof. <span class="smcap">E. Reichard.</span></h3>
+
+<p>The manager of a well directed brewery, which was built according to
+the latest improvements and provided with ice-cooling arrangements,
+found that the alcoholic fermentation of lager beer did not advance
+with proper regularity. The beer did not clarify well, it remained
+turbid and had a tendency to assume a disagreeable odor and taste.
+Microscopic examination of the yeast, however, showed the same to be
+bottom yeast. After some time its action apparently diminished, or
+rather, the fermentation, which began well, ceased, and at the same
+time a white foam formed in the center of the vat. The manager
+observing this, again submitted it to microscopic examination. The
+instrument revealed a number of much smaller forms of fungi, similar
+to those of young yeast, and some which were excessively large, a
+variety never found in bottom yeast. Fully appreciating the
+microscopic examination, and aware of the danger which the spread of
+the fungi could cause, the manager resorted to all known means to
+retard its pernicious influence. Fresh yeast was employed, and the
+fermenting vats throughly cleaned, both inside and out, but the
+phenomena reappeared, showing that the transmission took place through
+the air. A microscopic examination of a gelatinous coating on the wall
+of the fermenting room further explained the matter. Beginning at the
+door of the ice cellar, the walls were covered with a gelatinous mass,
+which, even when placed beneath the microscope, showed no definite
+organic structure; however it contained numerous threads of fungi.
+Notwithstanding the precautions which were taken for cleanliness,
+these germs traveled from the ceiling through the air into the
+fermenting liquid and there produced a change, which would ultimately
+have caused the destruction of all the beer.</p>
+
+<p>For a third time and by altogether different means, it was
+demonstrated that the air was the bearer of these germs. The whole
+atmosphere was infected, and a simple change of air was by no manner
+of means sufficient, as has already been shown. In addition, these
+observations throw considerable light on the means by which contagious
+diseases are spread, for often a room, a house, or the entire
+neighborhood appears to be infected. It must also be remembered how,
+in times of plague, large fires were resorted as to a method of
+purifying the air.</p>
+
+<p>With the infinite distribution of germs, and as they are always
+present in all places where any organic portions of vegetable or
+animal matter are undergoing decomposition, it becomes, under certain
+circumstances, exceedingly difficult, and at times even impossible, to
+trace the direct effect of these minute germs. The organism is exposed
+to the destructive action of the most minute creation; several changes
+in this case give to them the direct effect of the acting germs. The
+investigation of the chemist does not extend beyond the chemical
+changes; nevertheless these phenomena are directly explained by the
+microscope, without which, in the present case, the discovery of the
+cause would have remained unknown.&mdash;<i>Arch. der Pharm.</i>, 214, 158.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art25" id="art25"></a>NEW REACTION OF GLYCERINE.</h2>
+
+<p>If two drops of phenic acid are diluted with three thousand to five
+thousand parts of water, a distinct blue color is produced by one drop
+of solution of perchloride of iron.</p>
+
+<p>The addition of six or eight drops of glycerine entirely removes the
+color, and if any glycerine was present in the liquid the reaction
+does not take place at all. By this test the presence of 1 per cent.
+of glycerine can be detected. It may be applied to the analysis of
+wines, beers, etc., but when there is much sugar, extractive or
+coloring matter, the test can only be applied after evaporating,
+dissolving the residue in alcohol and ether, evaporating again, and
+then redissolving in water. Alkaline solutions must be first
+acidulated.&mdash;<i>Pharm. Zeit. für Russ.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art26" id="art26"></a>LYCOPODINE.</h2>
+
+<p>While the phanerogams or flowering plants annually contribute to the
+list of newly discovered alkaloids, with the exception of muscarine
+and amanitine, no alkaloid has as yet been definitely recognized among
+the cryptogams.</p>
+
+<p>Karl Bödeker, of Göttingen, has opened the road in this direction, and
+gives in a paper sent to Liebig's <i>Annalen der Chemie</i>, August 15,
+1881, the following account of an alkaloid, which, from the name of
+the plant in which it occurs, he calls lycopodine.</p>
+
+<p>The plant yielding the alkaloid, <i>Lycopodium complanatum</i>, belongs to
+the group of angiospermous cryptogams. It is distributed throughout
+the whole of north and middle Europe, and contains the largest
+proportion of aluminum of any known plant. Its bitter taste led the
+author to suspect an alkaloid in it.</p>
+
+<p>To prepare the alkaloid the dried plant is chopped up and twice
+exhausted with boiling alcohol of 90 per cent. The residue is squeezed
+out while hot, and the extract, after being allowed to settle awhile,
+is decanted off, and evaporated to a viscid consistency over a water
+bath. This is then repeatedly kneaded up with fresh quantities of
+lukewarm water until the washings cease to taste bitter, and to give a
+reddish brown coloration when treated with a strong aqueous solution
+of iodine. The several washings are collected and precipitated with
+basic lead acetate, the precipitate filtered off, and the lead in the
+filtrate removed by sulphureted hydrogen. The filtrate from the lead
+sulphide is evaporated down over a water bath, then made strongly
+alkaline with a solution of caustic soda, and repeatedly shaken up
+with fresh quantities of ether so long as the washings taste bitter
+and give a precipitate with iodine water. After distilling off the
+ether, the residue is treated with strong hydrochloric acid, the
+neutral or slightly acid solution filtered off from resinous
+particles, slowly evaporated to crystallization, and the crystals
+purified by repeated recrystallization. To prepare the pure base a
+very concentrated solution of this pure hydrochlorate is treated with
+an excess of a very concentrated solution of caustic soda, and pieces
+of caustic potash are added, whereupon the free alkaloid separates out
+at first as a colorless resinous stringy mass, which, however, upon
+standing, turns crystalline, forming monoclinic crystals similar to
+tartaric acid or glycocol. The crystals are rapidly washed with water,
+and dried between soft blotting paper.</p>
+
+<p>Thus prepared, lycopodine has a composition which may be represented
+by the formula C<sub>32</sub>H<sub>52</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. It melts at 114° to 115° C.
+without loss of weight. It is tolerable soluble in water and in ether,
+and very soluble indeed in alcohol, chloroform, benzol, or amyl
+alcohol. Lycopodine has a very pure bitter taste.</p>
+
+<p>The author has formed several salts of the base, all of a crystalline
+nature, and containing water of crystallization.</p>
+
+<p>The hydrochlorate gives up a part of its water of crystallization at
+the ordinary temperature under a desiccator over sulphuric acid, and
+the whole of it upon heating.&mdash;<i>Chemist and Druggist.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art27" id="art27"></a>CONCHINAMINE.</h2>
+
+<p>Some years ago, O. Hesse, when preparing chinamine from the renewed
+bark of <i>Cinchona succirubra</i>, found in the mother liquid a new
+alkaloid, which he then briefly designated as conchinamine. He has
+lately given his attention to the separation and preparation of this
+alkaloid, and gives in Liebig's <i>Annalen der Chemie</i>, August 31, 1881,
+the following description of it:</p>
+
+<p><i>Preparation.</i>&mdash;The alcoholic mother lye from chinamine is evaporated
+down and protractedly exhausted with boiling ligroine, whereby
+conchinamine and a small quantity of certain amorphous bases are
+dissolved out. Upon cooling the greater part of the amorphous bases
+precipitates out. The ligroine solution is then first treated with
+dilute acetic acid, and then with a dilute solution of caustic soda,
+whereupon a large quantity of a resinous precipitate is formed. This
+is kneaded up with lukewarm water to remove adherent soda, and then
+dissolved in hot alcohol. The alcoholic solution is saturated with
+nitric acid, which has been previously diluted with half its volume of
+water, and the whole set aside for a few days to crystallize. The
+crystals of conchinamine nitrate are purified by recrystallization
+from boiling water. On dissolving these pure crystals of the nitrate
+in hot alcohol of 60 per cent., and adding ammonia, absolute pure
+conchinamine separates out on cooling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Composition.</i>&mdash;Conchinamine may be represented by the formula
+C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>24</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, without water of crystallization.</p>
+
+<p><i>Properties.</i>&mdash;Conchinamine is easily soluble in hot alcohol of 60 per
+cent., and in ether and ligroine, from which solutions it crystallizes
+in quadrilateral shining prisms. It is extremely soluble in
+chloroform, but almost insoluble in water. It melts at 121° C.,
+forming crystalline stars on cooling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salts.</i>&mdash;The salts of conchinamine, like the base itself, have much
+in common with chinamine, but are, as a rule, more easily
+crystallizable. They are prepared by neutralizing an alcoholic
+solution of the base with the acid in question.&mdash;<i>Chemist and
+Druggist.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art28" id="art28"></a>CHINOLINE.</h2>
+
+<p>The valuable properties of which chinoline has been found to be
+possessed have led to its admission as a therapeutic agent, and the
+discoverer of these properties, Jul. Donath, of Baja, in Hungary, in a
+paper sent to the <i>Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft</i>,
+September 12, 1881, gives the following further details as to this
+interesting substance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiseptic Properties.</i>&mdash;Chinoline appears to be an excellent
+antiseptic. The author found that 100 grammes of a Bucholze's solution
+for the propagation of bacteria, charged with 0.20 g. of chinoline
+hydrochlorate, had remained perfectly clear and free from bacteria
+after standing forty-six days exposed to the air, while a similar
+solution, placed under the same conditions, without chinoline, had
+turned muddy and contained bacteria after only twelve days' standing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antizymotic Properties.</i>&mdash;Chinoline, even in the proportion of 5 per
+cent., does not prevent alcoholic fermentation, while in as small a
+quantity as 0.20 per cent. it does not prevent lactic acid
+fermentation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physiological Effects.</i>&mdash;The author gave a healthy man during several
+days various doses of chinoline tartrate, which in no way affected the
+individual operated on, nor was any trace of chinoline found in his
+urine. The author, therefore, considers that the base is oxidized by
+the blood to carbopyridinic acid, which is a still more powerful
+antiseptic than chinoline itself. Chinoline taken internally would,
+therefore, be a useful and safe agent in cases of internal putrid
+fungoid or other growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chemical Reactions.</i>&mdash;Chinoline yields very characteristic reactions
+with a number of chemical reagents, for a description of which we
+refer to the original paper.&mdash;<i>Chemist and Druggist.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art29" id="art29"></a>PREPARATION OF CONIINE.</h2>
+
+<p>Dr. J. Schorm, of Vienna, the author of this paper, after remarking
+that in spite of the increase of the consumption of coniine, the
+methods hitherto in vogue for preparing it yielded an article which
+darkened on exposure to the air, and the salts of which crystallized
+but badly, gives the following method for preparing pure coniine and
+its salts:</p>
+
+<h3><i>Preparation of Crude Coniine.</i></h3>
+
+<p>A.&mdash;100 kilogrammes of hemlock seed are moistened with hot water, and
+after swelling up are treated with 4 kilogrammes of sodium carbonate
+previously dissolved in the requisite quantity of water (caustic
+alkalies cannot be used). The swollen seed is worked up uniformly with
+shovels, and then placed in an apparatus of 400 kilogrammes capacity,
+similar to that used in the distillation of ethereal oils, and charged
+with steam under a pressure of three atmospheres. Coniine distills
+over with the steam, the greater part separating out in the receiver
+as an oily stratum, while a part remains dissolved in the water. The
+riper the seeds, the greater is the percentage yield of oily coniine,
+and the sooner is the distillation ended. The distillate is
+neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the whole evaporated to a weak
+sirupy consistence. When cool, this sirup yields successive crops of
+sal-ammoniac crystals, which latter are removed by shaking up the mass
+with twice its volume of strong alcohol, and filtering. This filtrate
+is freed from alcohol by evaporation over a water bath, the
+approximate quantity of a solution of caustic soda then added, and the
+whole shaken up with ether. The ethereal solution is then cooled down
+to a low temperature, whereby it is separated from conhydrine, which,
+being somewhat difficultly soluble in ether, crystallizes out.</p>
+
+<p>B.&mdash;The bruised hemlock seed is treated in a vacuum extractor with
+water acidulated with acetic acid, and the extract evaporated in vacuo
+to a sirupy consistence. The sirup is treated with magnesia, and the
+coniine dissolved out by shaking up with ether.</p>
+
+<p>The B method yields a less percentage of coniine than A, but of a
+better quality.</p>
+
+<h3><i>Rectification of the Crude Coniine.</i></h3>
+
+<p>The solution of crude coniine in ether obtained by either of the above
+processes is evaporated over a water bath to remove the ether, mixed
+with dry potassium carbonate, and then submitted to fractional
+distillation from an air bath. The portion distilling over at 168° C.
+to 169° C. is pure coniine, and represents 60 per cent. of the crude
+coniine.</p>
+
+<p>Coniine thus prepared is a colorless oily liquid, volatile at the
+ordinary temperature, and has a specific gravity of 0.886. At a
+temperature of 25°C it absorbs water, which it gives up again upon
+heating. It is soluble in 90 parts of water. It is not altered by
+light.</p>
+
+<p>The author has formed a number of salts from coniine thus prepared,
+and finds them all crystallizable and unaffected by light.&mdash;<i>Berichte
+der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft.</i>&mdash;<i>Chem. and Druggist.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art30" id="art30"></a>STRONTIANITE.</h2>
+
+<p>Since it has been shown by Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, that
+strontium is the most powerful medium of extraction in sugar refining,
+owing to its capacity of combining with three parts of saccharate, the
+idea suggests itself that the same medium might be successfully
+employed in the arts, and form a most interesting subject of
+experiment for the chemist.</p>
+
+<p>Hitherto native strontianite, that is, the 90 to 95 per cent. pure
+carbonate of strontium (not the celestine which frequently is mistaken
+by the term strontianite), has not been worked systematically in
+mines, but what used to be brought to the market was an inferior stone
+collected in various parts of Germany, chiefly in Westphalia, where it
+is found on the surface of the fields. Little also has been collected
+in this manner, and necessarily the quality was subject to the
+greatest fluctuations.</p>
+
+<p>By Dr. Scheibler's important discovery, a new era has begun in the
+matter of strontianite. Deposits of considerable importance have been
+opened in the Westphalian districts at a very great depth, and the
+supply of several 10,000 tons per annum seems to be secured, whereas
+only a short time ago it was not thought possible that more than a few
+hundred tons could in all be provided.&mdash;<i>Chemist and Druggist.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art34" id="art34"></a>PARANGI&mdash;A NEWLY DESCRIBED DISEASE.</h2>
+
+<p>A peculiar contagious disease, called framb&oelig;sia, or the yaws, has
+long been known to exist in Africa, the West Indies, and the northern
+parts of the British Islands. It is chronic in character, and is
+distinguished by the development of raspberry-like tumors of
+granulation tissue on different parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>A disease of a somewhat similar, but severer type, has for many years
+prevailed in Ceylon. Even less was known of this affection than of its
+supposed congener, until a recent careful report upon the subject by
+Mr. W.R. Kinsey, principal civil medical officer of Ceylon.</p>
+
+<p>The disease in question is called &quot;parangi,&quot; and is defined by Mr.
+Kinsey (<i>British Medical Journal</i>) as a specific disease, produced by
+such causes as lead to debilitation of the system; propagated by
+contagion, generally through an abrasion or sore, but sometimes by
+simple contact with a sound surface; marked by an ill-defined period
+of incubation, followed by certain premonitory symptoms referable to
+the general system, then by the evolution of successive crops of a
+characteristic eruption, which pass on in weakly subjects into
+unhealthy and spreading ulcers whose cicatrices are very prone to
+contraction; running a definite course; attacking all ages, and
+amenable to appropriate treatment.</p>
+
+<p>The disease seems to develop especially in places where the water
+supply, which in Ceylon is kept in tanks, is insufficient or poor. The
+bad food, dirty habits, and generally unhygienic mode of life of the
+people, help on the action of the disease.</p>
+
+<p>Parangi, when once developed, spreads generally by contagion from the
+discharges of the eruptions and ulcers. The natural secretions do not
+convey the poison. The disease may be inherited also.</p>
+
+<p>In the clinical history of the disease there are, according to Mr.
+Kinsey, four stages. The first is that of incubation. It lasts from
+two weeks to two months. A sore will be found somewhere upon the body
+at this time, generally over some bony prominence. The second is the
+stage of invasion, and is characterized by the development of slight
+fever, malaise, dull pains in the joints. As this stage comes on the
+initial sore heals. This second stage lasts only from two to seven
+days, and ends with an eruption which ushers in the third stage. The
+eruption appears in successive crops, the first often showing itself
+on the face, the next on the body, and the last on the extremities.
+This eruptive stage of the disease continues for several weeks or
+months, and it ends either in convalescence or the onset of a train of
+sequel&aelig;, which may prolong the disease for years.</p>
+
+<p>Parangi may attack any one, though the poorly fed and housed are more
+susceptible. One attack seems to confer immunity from another.</p>
+
+<p>Although some of the sequel&aelig; of the disease are most painful, yet
+death does not often directly result from them, nor is parangi itself
+a fatal disease. Persons who have had parangi and passed safely
+through it, are not left in impaired health at all, but often live to
+an old age.</p>
+
+<p>The similarity of the disease, in its clinical history, to syphilis,
+is striking. Mr. Kinsey, however, considers it, as we have stated,
+allied to, if not identical with framb&oelig;sia.&mdash;<i>Medical Record.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art35" id="art35"></a>A CASTOR OIL SUBSTITUTE.</h2>
+
+<p>So far back as 1849, Mr. Alexander Ure investigated the purgative
+properties of the oil of anda. The specimen with which the experiments
+were tried had not been freshly prepared, and had indeed been long
+regarded as a curiosity. Twelve ounces were alone available, and it
+was a yellowish oil, quite bright, about the consistence of oleum
+oliv&aelig;, devoid of smell, and free from the viscid qualities of castor
+oil. There was a small supply of anda fruits differing a good deal in
+appearance one from the other, but we are not aware whether these were
+utilized and the oil expressed; as far as our recollection serves, the
+subject was abandoned. It was known that the natives of Brazil used
+the seeds as an efficient purgative in doses of from one to three, and
+it was in contemplation to introduce this remedy into England, though
+it was by no means certain that under distinctly different climatic
+influences equally beneficial results might be expected. Mr. Ure
+determined, by actual experiment, to ascertain the value of the oil in
+his own hospital practice. He found that small doses were better than
+larger ones, and in several reported cases it appeared that twenty
+drops administered on sugar proved successful. Oil of anda-açu, or
+assu, therefore, would stand mid-way between ol. ricini and ol.
+crotonis. These researches seem to have been limited to the original
+sample, although the results obtained would appear to justify a more
+extended trial. M. Mello-Oliveira. of Rio Janeiro, has endeavored to
+bring the remedy into notice under the name of &quot;Huile d'Anda-Assu,&quot;
+and possibly may not have been acquainted with the attempt to
+introduce it into English practice. He describes the anda as a fine
+tree (<i>Johanesia princeps</i>, Euphorbiace&aelig;), with numerous branches and
+persistent leaves, growing in different parts of Brazil, and known
+under the name of &quot;coco purgatif.&quot; The fruit is quadrangular,
+bilocular, with two kernels, which on analysis yield an active
+principle for which the name &quot;Johaneseine&quot; is proposed. This is a
+substance sparingly soluble in water and alcohol, and insoluble in
+chloroform, benzine, ether, and bisulphide of carbon. Evidence derived
+from experiments with the sulphate of this principle did not give
+uniform results: one opinion being that, contrary to the view of many
+Brazilian physicians, this salt had no toxic effect on either men or
+animals. Local medical testimony, however, was entirely in favor of
+the oil. Dr. Torrès, professor at Rio Janeiro, using a dose of two
+teaspoonfuls, had been successful. Dr. Tazenda had obtained excellent
+results, and Dr. Castro, with a somewhat larger dose (3 ijss.), was
+even enthusiastic in its praise. It might, therefore, be desirable at
+a time when new remedies are so much in vogue, not to abandon
+altogether a Brazilian medicament the value of which is confirmed both
+by popular native use and by professional treatment. M. Mello-Oliveira
+comes to the conclusion that oleum anda assu (or açu) may be employed
+wherever castor oil is indicated, and with these distinct advantages:
+first, that its dose is considerably less; secondly, that it is free
+from disagreeable odor and pungent taste; and thirdly, being
+sufficiently fluid, it is not adherent to the mouth so as to render it
+nauseous to the patient. In this short abstract the spelling of the
+French original has been retained. As this therapeutic agent claimed
+attention thirty years ago, and has again been deemed worthy of notice
+in scientific journals, some of our enterprising pharmacists might be
+inclined to add it to the list of their commercial ventures.&mdash;<i>Chemist
+and Druggist.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art31" id="art31"></a>HOUSEHOLD AND OTHER RECIPES.</h2>
+
+<p>Mr. Jas. W. Parkinson gives in a recent number of the <i>Confectioner's
+Journal</i> the following useful recipes:</p>
+
+<h3>CHRISTMAS PLUM PUDDING.</h3>
+
+<p>Stone a pound of bloom raisins; wash and clean a pound of Zante
+currants; mince finely a pound of beef suet; mix with this, in a large
+pan, a pound of stale bread crumbs and half a pound of sifted flour.
+Beat together in another pan six eggs, and mix with them half a pint
+of milk. Pour this over the suet and flour, and stir and beat the
+whole well together; then add the raisins, currants, and a seasoning
+of ground cinnamon, grated nutmeg, powdered ginger, and a little
+ground cloves, a teaspoonful of salt, one pound of sugar, and a glass
+of Jamaica rum. This pudding may now be boiled in a floured cloth or
+in an ornamental mould tied up in a cloth. In either way it requires
+long and constant boiling, six hours at least for one such as the
+above. Every pudding in a cloth should be boiled briskly, till
+finished, in plenty of water, in a large pot, so as to allow it to
+move about freely.</p>
+
+<p>To take the boiled pudding out of the cloth without breaking it, dip
+it into cold water for a minute or two, then place it in a round
+bottomed basin that will just hold it, untie the cloth and lay bare
+the pudding down to the edge of the basin; then place upon it, upside
+down, the dish on which it is to be served, and invert the whole so
+that the pudding may rest on the dish; lastly, lift off the basin and
+remove the cloth. The use of the cold water is to chill and solidify
+the surface, so that it may part from the cloth smoothly.</p>
+
+<p>Plum pudding may also be baked in a mould or pan, which must be well
+buttered inside before pouring the pudding into it. Two hours' boiling
+suffices.</p>
+
+<h3>PLUM-PUDDING SAUCE.</h3>
+
+<p>Put into a saucepan two ounces of best butter and a tablespoonful of
+flour; mix these well together with a wooden spoon, and stir in half a
+pint of cold water and a little salt and pepper. Set this on the fire
+and stir constantly till nearly boiling; then add half a tumbler of
+Madeira wine, brandy, or Jamaica rum, fine sugar to the taste, and a
+little ground cinnamon or grated nutmeg. Make the sauce very hot, and
+serve over each portion of the pudding.</p>
+
+<h3>NATIONAL PLUM PUDDING.</h3>
+
+<p>An excellent plum pudding is made as follows: Half a pound of flour,
+half a pound of grated bread crumbs, a pound of Zante currants, washed
+and picked; a pound of raisins, stoned; an ounce of mixed spices, such
+as cinnamon, mace, cloves, and nutmeg; an ounce of butter, two ounces
+of blanched almonds, cut small; six ounces of preserved citron and
+preserved orange peel, cut into small pieces; four eggs, a little
+salt, four ounces of fine sugar, and half a pint of brandy. Mix all
+these well together, adding sufficient milk to bring the mixture to a
+proper consistency. Boil in a floured cloth or mould for eight hours.</p>
+
+<h3>THE SAUCE FOR THE ABOVE.</h3>
+
+<p>Into a gill of melted butter put an ounce of powdered sugar, a little
+grated nutmeg, two wine glasses of Madeira wine and one of Curacoa.
+Stir all well together, make very hot, and pour it over the pudding.</p>
+
+<h3>EGG-NOG, OR AULD MAN'S MILK.</h3>
+
+<p>Separate the whites and yolks of a dozen fresh eggs. Put the yolks
+into a basin and beat them to a smooth cream with half a pound of
+finely pulverized sugar. Into this stir half a pint of brandy, and the
+same quantity of Jamaica rum; mix all well together and add three
+quarts of milk or cream, half a nutmeg (grated), and stir together.
+Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth; stir lightly into them
+two or three ounces of the finest sugar powder, add this to the
+mixture, and dust powdered cinnamon over the top.</p>
+
+<h3>EGG FLIP.</h3>
+
+<p>Beat up in a bowl half a dozen fresh eggs; add half a pound of
+pulverized sugar; stir well together, and pour in one quart or more of
+boiling water, about half a pint at a time, mixing well as you pour it
+in; when all is in, add two tumblers of best brandy and one of Jamaica
+rum.</p>
+
+<h3>ROAST TURKEY.</h3>
+
+<p>The turkey is without doubt the most savory and finest flavored of all
+our domestic fowls, and is justly held in the highest estimation by
+the good livers in all countries where it is known. Singe, draw, and
+truss the turkey in the same manner as other fowls; then fill with a
+stuffing made of bread crumbs, butter, sweet herbs rubbed fine,
+moistened with eggs and seasoned with pepper, salt, and grated nutmeg.
+Sausage meat or a forced meat, made of boiled chicken meat, boiled ham
+grated fine, chopped oysters, roasted or boiled chestnuts rubbed fine,
+stewed mushrooms, or last but not the least in estimation, a dozen
+fine truffles cut into pieces and sauted in the best of butter, and
+added part to the stuffing and part to the sauce which is made from
+the drippings (made into a good brown gravy by the addition of a
+capful of cold water thickened with a little flour, with the giblets
+boiled and chopped fine in it). A turkey of ten pounds will require
+two and a half hours' roasting and frequent basting. Currant jelly,
+cranberry jelly, or cranberry sauce should always be on the table with
+roast turkey.</p>
+
+<h3>WOODCOCKS AND SNIPE.</h3>
+
+<p>Some epicures say that the woodcock should never be drawn, but that
+they should be fastened to a small bird spit, and should be put to
+roast before a clear fire; a slice of toast, put in a pan below each
+bird, in order to catch the trail; baste them with melted butter; lay
+the toast on a hot dish, and the birds on the toast. They require from
+fifteen to twenty minutes to roast. Snipe are dressed in the same
+manner, but require less time to cook. My pet plan to cook woodcock is
+to draw the bird and split it down the back, and then to broil it,
+basting it with butter; chop up the intestines, season them with
+pepper and salt, and saute them on a frying pan with butter; lay the
+birds on toast upon a hot dish and pour the saute over them.</p>
+
+<h3>CANVAS-BACK DUCKS.</h3>
+
+<p>Select young fat ducks; pick them nicely, singe, and draw them
+carefully without washing them so as to preserve the blood and
+consequently the full flavor of the bird; then truss it and place it
+on the spit before a brisk fire, or in a pan in a hot oven for at
+least fifteen or twenty minutes; then serve it hot with its own gravy,
+which is formed by its own blood and juices, on a hot dish. It may
+also be a little less cooked, and then carved and placed on a chafing
+dish with red currant jelly, port wine, and a little butter.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PHEASANTS.</h3>
+
+<p>A pheasant should have a clear, steady fire, but not a fierce one. The
+pheasant, being a rather dry bird, requires to be larded, or put a
+piece of beef or a rump steak into the inside of it before roasting.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WILD DUCKS.</h3>
+
+<p>In order to serve these birds in their most succulent state and finest
+flavor, let them hang in their feathers for a few days after being
+shot; then pluck, clean, and draw, and roast them in a quick oven or
+before a brisk fire; dredge and baste them well, and allow them twenty
+minutes to roast; serve them with gravy sauce and red currant jelly,
+or with a gravy sauce to which a chopped shallot and the juice of an
+orange has been added.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WILD FOWL SAUCE.</h3>
+
+<p>The following exquisite sauce is applicable to all wild fowl: Take one
+saltspoon of salt, half to two-thirds salt spoon of Cayenne, one
+dessert spoon lemon juice, one dessert spoon powdered sugar, two
+dessert spoons Harvey sauce, three dessert spoons port wine, well
+mixed and heated; score the bird and pour the sauce over it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BROWN FRICASSEE OF RABBITS.</h3>
+
+<p>Cut a couple of rabbits into joints, fry these in a little fresh
+butter till they are of a light brown color; then put them into a
+stewpan, with a pint of water, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, the
+same of mushroom catchup, one of Worcester sauce, and a couple of
+burnt onions, a little Cayenne and salt; stew over a slow fire till
+perfectly done; then take out the meat, strain the gravy, and thicken
+it with a little flour if necessary; make it quite hot, and pour it
+over the rabbits.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ORANGE PUDDING.</h3>
+
+<p>Beat up the yolks of eight eggs, grate the yellow rinds from two
+oranges, add these to a quarter of a pound of finely powdered sugar,
+the same weight of fresh butter, three teaspoonfuls of orange-flower
+water, two glasses of sherry wine, two or three stale Naples biscuits
+or lady fingers, and a teacupful of cream. Line a dish with puff
+paste, pour in the ingredients, and bake for half an hour in a good
+oven.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VENISON PASTRY.</h3>
+
+<p>A neck or breast of venison is rendered very savory by treating it as
+follows: Take off the skin and cut the meat off the bones into pieces
+of about an inch square; put these, with the bones, into a stewpan,
+cover them with veal or mutton broth, add two thirds of a teaspoon of
+powdered mace, half a dozen allspice, three shallots chopped fine, a
+teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of Cayenne, and a tumbler of port
+wine; stew over a slow fire until the meat is half done, then take it
+out and let the gravy remain on the fire ten or fifteen minutes
+longer. Line a good sized dish with pastry, arrange your meat on it,
+pour the gravy upon it through a sieve, adding the juice of a lemon;
+put on the top crust, and bake for a couple of hours in a slow oven.</p>
+
+
+<h3>CHRISTMAS RED ROUND.</h3>
+
+<p>Rub well into a round of beef a half pound of saltpeter, finely
+powdered. Next day mix half an ounce of cloves, half an ounce of black
+pepper, the same quantity of ground allspice, with half a pound of
+salt; wash and rub the beef in the brine for a fortnight, adding every
+other day a tablespoonful of salt. At the expiration of the fortnight,
+wipe the beef quite free from the brine, and stuff every interstice
+that you can find with equal portions of chopped parsley, and mixed
+sweet herbs in powder, seasoned with ground allspice, mace, salt, and
+Cayenne. Do not be sparing of this mixture. Put the round into a deep
+earthen pan, fill it with strong ale, and bake it in a very slow oven
+for eight hours, turning it in the liquor every two hours, and adding
+more ale if necessary. This is an excellent preparation to assist in
+the &quot;keeping of the Christmas season.&quot;</p>
+
+
+<h3>PLUM PORRIDGE FOR CHRISTMAS FESTIVITIES.</h3>
+
+<p>Make a good strong broth from four pounds of veal and an equal
+quantity of shin of beef. Strain and skim off the fat when cold. Wash
+and stone three pounds and a half of raisins; wash and well dry the
+same weight of best Zante currants; take out the stones from two and a
+half pounds of French prunes; grate up the crumbs of two small loaves
+of wheat bread; squeeze the juice of eight oranges and four lemons;
+put these, with a teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon, a grated nutmeg,
+half a dozen cloves, and five pounds of sugar into your broth; stir
+well together, and then pour in three quarts of sherry. Set the vessel
+containing the mixture on a slow fire. When the ingredients are soft
+add six bottles of hock; stir the porridge well, and as soon as it
+boils it is fit for use.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SUGARED PEARS.</h3>
+
+<p>Half a dozen of those fine pears called the &quot;Bartlett&quot; will make a
+small dish worthy the attention of any good Christian who has a sweet
+tooth in his head. Pare the fruit, cut out the cores, squeeze lemon
+juice over them, which will prevent their discoloration. Boil them
+gently in enough sirup to cover them till they become tender. Serve
+them cold, with Naples biscuit round the dish.</p>
+
+<h3>TABLE BEER.</h3>
+
+<p>Table beer of a superior quality may be brewed in the following
+manner, a process well worth the attention of the gentleman, the
+mechanic, and the farmer, whereby the beer is altogether prevented
+from working out of the cask, and the fermentation conducted without
+any apparent admission of the external air. I have made the scale for
+one barrel, in order to make it more generally useful to the community
+at large; however the same proportions will answer for a greater or
+less quantity, only proportioning the materials and utensils. Take one
+peck of good malt, ground, one pound of hops, put them in twenty
+gallons of water, and boil them for half an hour; then run them into a
+hair-cloth bag or sieve, so as to keep back the hops and malt from the
+wort, which when cooled down to sixty-five degrees by Fahrenheit's
+thermometer, add to it two gallons of molasses, with one pint, or a
+little less, of good yeast. Mix these with your wort, and put the
+whole into a clean barrel, and fill it up with cold water to within
+six inches of the bung hole (this space is requisite to leave room for
+fermentation), bung down tight. If brewed for family use, would
+recommend putting in the cock at the same time, as it will prevent the
+necessity of disturbing the cask afterward. In one fortnight this beer
+may be drawn and will be found to improve to the last.</p>
+
+<h3>MINCE MEAT.</h3>
+
+<p>This inevitable Christmas luxury is vastly improved by being mixed
+some days before it is required for use; this gives the various
+ingredients time to amalgamate and blend.</p>
+
+<p>Peel, core, and chop fine a pound of pippin apples, wash and clean a
+pound of Zante currants, stone one pound of bloom raisins, cut into
+small pieces a pound of citron, remove the skin and gristle from a
+pound and a half of cold roast or boiled beef, and carefully pick a
+pound of beef suet; chop these well together. Cut into small bits
+three-quarters of a pound of mixed candied orange and lemon peel; mix
+all these ingredients well together in a large earthen pan. Grate one
+nutmeg, half an ounce of powdered ginger, quarter of an ounce of
+ground cloves, quarter of an ounce of ground allspice and coriander
+seed mixed, and half an ounce of salt. Grate the yellow rind of three
+lemons, and squeeze the juice over two pounds of fine sugar. Put the
+grated yellow rind and all the other ingredients in a pan; mix well
+together, and over all pour one pint of brandy, one pint of sherry,
+and one pint of hard cider; stir well together, cover the pan closely,
+and when about to use the mince meat, take it from the bottom of the
+pan.</p>
+
+<h3>PUMPKIN PIE.</h3>
+
+<div class="note">
+<p>&quot;What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye?<br />
+What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin pie?&quot;</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Stew about two pounds of pumpkins, then add to it three-quarters of a
+pound of sugar, and the same quantity of butter, well worked together;
+stir these into the pumpkin and add a teaspoonful of powdered mace and
+grated nutmeg, and a little ground cinnamon; then add a gill of
+brandy, beat them well together, and stir in the yolks of eight
+well-beaten eggs. Line the pie plates with puff paste, fill them with
+the pumpkin mixture, grate a little nutmeg over the top, and bake.</p>
+
+<h3>BRANDY PUNCH.</h3>
+
+<p>Take three dozen lemons, chip off the yellow rinds, taking care that
+none of the white underlying pith is taken, as that would make the
+punch bitter, whereas the yellow portion of the rinds is that in which
+the flavor resides and in which the cells are placed containing the
+essential oil. Put this yellow rind into a punch bowl, add to it two
+pounds of lump sugar; stir the sugar and peel together with a wooden
+spoon or spatula for nearly half an hour, thereby extracting a greater
+quantity of the essential oil. Now add boiling water, and stir until
+the sugar is completely dissolved. Squeeze and strain the juice from
+the lemons and add it to the mixture; stir together and taste it; add
+more acid or more sugar, as required, and take care not to render it
+too watery. &quot;Rich of the fruit and plenty of sweetness,&quot; is the maxim.
+Now measure the sherbet, and to every three quarts add a pint of
+cognac brandy and a pint of old Jamaica rum, the spirit being well
+stirred as poured in. This punch may be bottled and kept in a cool
+cellar; it will be found to improve with age.</p>
+
+<h3>B&OElig;UF A LA MODE (FAMILY STYLE).</h3>
+
+<p>The rump is the most applicable for this savory dish. Take six or
+eight pounds of it, and cut it into bits of a quarter of a pound each;
+chop a couple of onions very fine; grate one or two carrots; put these
+into a large stewpan with a quarter of a pound of fresh butter, or
+fresh and well clarified beef drippings; while this is warming, cover
+the pieces of beef with flour; put them into the pan and stir them for
+ten minutes, adding a little more flour by slow degrees, and taking
+great care that the meat does not burn. Pour in, a little at a time, a
+gallon of boiling water; then add a couple of drachms of ground
+allspice, one of black pepper, a couple of bay leaves, a pinch each of
+ground cloves and mace. Let all this stew on a slow fire, and very
+gently, for three hours and a quarter; ascertain with a fork if the
+meat be tender; if so, you may serve it in a tureen or deep dish. A
+well-dressed salad is the proper accompaniment of b&oelig;uf à la mode.</p>
+
+<h3>PUNCH JELLY.</h3>
+
+<p>Make a bowl of punch according to the directions for brandy punch,
+only a <i>little</i> stronger. To every pint of punch add an ounce of
+gelatine dissolved in half a pint of water; pour this into the punch
+while quite hot, and then fill your moulds, taking care not to disturb
+it until the jelly is completely set. This preparation is a very
+agreeable refreshment, but should be used in moderation. The strength
+of the punch is so artfully concealed by its admixture with the
+gelatine that many persons, particularly of the softer sex, have been
+tempted to partake so plentifully of it as to render them somewhat
+unfit for waltzing or quadrilling after supper.</p>
+
+<h3>ORANGE SALAD.</h3>
+
+<p>This somewhat inappropriately-named dish is made by removing the rind
+and cutting the fruit in slices crosswise and adding equal quantities
+of brandy and Madeira, in proportion to the quantity of fruit thus
+dressed, strewing a liberal allowance of finely-powdered sugar over
+all.</p>
+
+<h3>CRANBERRY JELLY.</h3>
+
+<p>Put two quarts of cranberries into a large earthen pipkin, and cover
+them with water; place them on a moderate fire, and boil them until
+they are reduced to a soft pulp; then strain and press them through a
+hair sieve into an earthen or stone ware pan, and for each pint of
+liquid pulp allow one pound of pulverized sugar; mix the pulp and
+sugar together in a bright copper basin and boil, stirring constantly
+for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture begins to coagulate
+upon the spatula; then remove it from the fire and fill your moulds;
+let them stand in a cool place to set. When wanted for use, turn it
+out of the mould in the same manner as other jellies.</p>
+
+
+<h3>JOVE'S NECTAR.</h3>
+
+<p>For three gallons, peel the yellow rind from one and a half dozen
+fresh lemons, very thin, and steep the peelings for forty-eight hours
+in a gallon of brandy; then add the juice of the lemons, with five
+quarts of water, three pounds of loaf sugar, and two nutmegs grated;
+stir it till the sugar is completely dissolved, then pour in three
+quarts of new milk, <i>boiling hot</i>, and let it stand two hours, after
+which run it through a jelly bag till it is fine. This is fit for
+immediate use, but may be kept for years in bottles, and will be
+improved by age.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PLUM, OR BLACK CAKE.</h3>
+
+<p>For this Christmas luxury take one pound of butter and one pound of
+pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream, stir in one dozen
+eggs beaten to a froth, beat well together, and add one pound of
+sifted flour; continue the beating for ten minutes, then add and stir
+in three pounds of stoned raisins, three pounds of Zante currants,
+washed, cleaned, and dried, a pound and a half of citron sliced and
+cut into small pieces, three grated nutmegs, quarter of an ounce of
+powdered mace, half an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and half a
+teaspoonful of ground cloves; mix all well together; bake in a
+well-buttered pan in a slow oven for four hours and a half.</p>
+
+
+<h3>BLACK CAKE (PARKINSON'S OWN).</h3>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;">&quot;If you have lips, prepare to smack them now.&quot;</p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30%">&mdash;<i>Shakspeare, slightly altered.</i></p>
+
+<p>Take one and a half pounds of the best butter, and the same weight of
+pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream; stir into this two
+dozen eggs, beaten to a froth; add one gill of old Jamaica rum; then
+add one and a half pounds of sifted flour. Stir and beat all well
+together, and add two pounds of finest bloom raisins, stoned; two
+pounds of Zante currants, washed, cleaned, and dried; one pound of
+preserved citron, sliced thinly and cut into small pieces; one pound
+of preserved French cherries, in halves; one pound of green gages, and
+one pound of preserved apricots, stoned and cut into small pieces;
+half a pound of preserved orange and lemon peel, mixed, and cut into
+small pieces; three grated nutmegs, half an ounce of ground mace, half
+an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and a quarter ounce of ground cloves.
+Mix all the ingredients well together, and bake in a well-buttered
+mould or pan, in a <i>slow oven</i>, for five and a half hours.</p>
+
+<p>This cake is vastly improved by age. Those intended for the Christmas
+festivities should be made at or about the first of October; then put
+the cake into a round tin box, half an inch larger in diameter than
+the cake; then pour over it a bottle of the best brandy mixed with
+half a pint of pure lemon, raspberry, strawberry, or simple sirup, and
+one or more bottles of champagne. Now put on the lid of the box, and
+have it carefully soldered on, so as to make all perfectly air-tight.
+Put it away in your store-room, and let stand till Christmas, only
+reversing the box occasionally, in order that the liquors may permeate
+the cake thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p>This heroic treatment causes the ingredients to amalgamate, and the
+flavors to harmonize and blend more freely; and when, on Christmas
+day, you bring out this hermit, after doing a three months' penance in
+a dark cell, it will come out rich, succulent, and unctuous; you will
+not only have a luxury, &quot;fit to set before a king,&quot; or before the
+Empress of India, but fit to crown a feast of the very gods
+themselves, on high Olympus' top.</p>
+
+
+<h3>POTATOES (PARKINSON STYLE).</h3>
+
+<p>Take two or three fine white potatoes, raw; peel and chop them up
+<i>very, very fine</i>. Then chop up just as fine the breast of a
+good-sized boiled fowl; they should be chopped as fine as unboiled
+rice; mix the meat and the potatoes together, and dust a <i>very little</i>
+flour over them and a pinch or two of salt. Now put an ounce or so of
+the best butter into a frying pan, and when it is hot, put in the
+mixture, and stir constantly with a wooden spatula until they are
+fried to a nice golden color, then immediately serve on a hot plate.</p>
+
+<p>Cold boiled ham grated fine, or boiled beef tongue chopped very fine,
+may be used instead of chicken, omitting the salt. A dozen or two of
+prime oysters, parboiled, drained, and chopped fine, mixed with the
+potatoes prepared as above, and fried, makes a most delicious lunch or
+supper dish. Try any of the above styles, and say no, if you can.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art32" id="art32"></a>THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY COMET.</h2>
+
+<p>Professor Hind, of the British Nautical Almanac Office, recently sent
+an interesting letter to the London <i>Times</i> on the comet depicted in
+that famous piece of embroidery known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Probably
+no one of the great comets recorded in history has occasioned a more
+profound impression upon mankind in the superstitious ages than the
+celebrated body which appeared in the spring of the year 1066, and was
+regarded as the precursor of the invasion of England by William the
+Norman. As Pingre, the eminent cometographer, remarks, it forms the
+subject of an infinite number of relations in the European chronicles.
+The comet was first seen in China on April 2, 1066. It appeared in
+England about Easter Sunday, April 16, and disappeared about June 8.
+Professor Hind finds in ancient British and Chinese records abundant
+grounds for believing that this visitant was only an earlier
+appearance of Halley's great comet, and he traces back the appearances
+of this comet at its several perihelion passages to B.C. 12. The last
+appearance of Halley's comet was in 1835, and according to
+Pontecoulant's calculations, its next perihelion passage will take
+place May 24, 1910.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art36" id="art36"></a>LACK OF SUN LIGHT.</h2>
+
+<p>Some interesting information as to the way in which the human system
+is affected under the peculiar conditions of work in mines has been
+furnished by M. Fabre, from experiences connected with the coal mines
+of France. He finds that the deprivation of solar light causes a
+diminution in the pigment of the skin, and absence of sunburning, but
+there is no globular an&aelig;mia&mdash;that is, diminution in the number of
+globules in the blood. Internal maladies seem to be more rare. While
+there is no essential an&aelig;mia in the miners, the blood globules are
+often found smaller and paler than in normal conditions of life, this
+being due to respiration of noxious gases, especially where
+ventilation is difficult. The men who breathe too much the gases
+liberated on explosion of powder or dynamite suffer more than other
+miners from affections of the larynx, the bronchia, and the stomach.
+Ventilation sometimes works injury by its cooling effect.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="art33" id="art33"></a>SYNTHETIC EXPERIMENTS ON THE ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF
+METEORITES.</h2>
+
+<p>By means of igneous fusion the authors have succeeded in reproducing
+two types of crystalline associations, which, in their mineralogical
+composition and the principal features of their structure, are
+analogous, if not identical with certain oligosideric meteorites. The
+only notable difference results from the habitual brecchoid state of
+the meteorites, which contrasts with state of quiet solidification of
+the artificial compounds.&mdash;<i>F. Fouqué and Michel Lévy.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific
+papers heretofore published in the <span class="smcap">Supplement</span>, may be had
+gratis at this office.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h3>THE</h3>
+<h2>Scientific American Supplement.</h2>
+
+<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3>
+
+<div class="center">Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</div>
+
+<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.</p>
+
+<p>All the back numbers of <span class="smcap">The Supplement</span>, from the
+commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p>
+
+<p>All the back volumes of <span class="smcap">The Supplement</span> can likewise be
+supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
+stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Combined Rates.</span>&mdash;One copy of <span class="smcap">Scientific American</span> and
+one copy of <span class="smcap">Scientific American Supplement</span>, one year,
+postpaid, $7.00.</p>
+
+<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<b>MUNN &amp; CO., Publishers,<br />
+37 Park Row, New York, N.Y.</b></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2>PATENTS.</h2>
+
+<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. <span class="smcap">Munn &amp;
+Co.</span> are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 35
+years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the
+world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p>
+
+<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of all
+Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and residence
+of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public
+attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or
+introduction often easily effected.</p>
+
+<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to <span class="smcap">Munn &amp; Co.</span></p>
+
+<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for
+procuring advances on inventions. Address</p>
+
+<p class="center">  <b>MUNN &amp; CO., 37 Park Row, New York.</b></p>
+<p>  Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+315,  January 14, 1882, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 18345-h.htm or 18345-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/3/4/18345/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/18345-h/images/10a.png b/18345-h/images/10a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..450e7db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/10a.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/10b.png b/18345-h/images/10b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..988434e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/10b.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/10c.png b/18345-h/images/10c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0540b5b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/10c.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/10d.png b/18345-h/images/10d.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9b228b3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/10d.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/10e.png b/18345-h/images/10e.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c68e5ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/10e.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/10f.png b/18345-h/images/10f.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..269fe89
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/10f.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/10g.png b/18345-h/images/10g.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7caa76f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/10g.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11a.png b/18345-h/images/11a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f903b02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11a.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11b.png b/18345-h/images/11b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6bf7f6f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11b.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11c.png b/18345-h/images/11c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92d6ac6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11c.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11d.png b/18345-h/images/11d.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df66f66
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11d.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11e.png b/18345-h/images/11e.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..115b694
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11e.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11f.png b/18345-h/images/11f.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..aefc4ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11f.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11g.png b/18345-h/images/11g.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fac6c3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11g.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11h.png b/18345-h/images/11h.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b045ad1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11h.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11i.png b/18345-h/images/11i.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ff25a7f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11i.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11j.png b/18345-h/images/11j.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7210007
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11j.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/11k.png b/18345-h/images/11k.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..42c4492
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/11k.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/12.png b/18345-h/images/12.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ddbea8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/12.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/1a.png b/18345-h/images/1a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3020c91
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/1a.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/1a_th.png b/18345-h/images/1a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6448a8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/1a_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/1b.png b/18345-h/images/1b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b6e155b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/1b.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/1b_th.png b/18345-h/images/1b_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df4e70f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/1b_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/2.png b/18345-h/images/2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0d5542e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/2.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3a.png b/18345-h/images/3a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc650df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3a.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3a_th.png b/18345-h/images/3a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3081753
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3a_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3b.png b/18345-h/images/3b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1220367
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3b.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3b_th.png b/18345-h/images/3b_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4df36cc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3b_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3c.png b/18345-h/images/3c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b8c7a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3c.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3d.png b/18345-h/images/3d.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cbad16a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3d.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3e.png b/18345-h/images/3e.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..84e6039
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3e.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/3f.png b/18345-h/images/3f.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25b9e03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/3f.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/5a-1.png b/18345-h/images/5a-1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5320581
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/5a-1.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/5a-2.png b/18345-h/images/5a-2.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88fbd65
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/5a-2.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/5b.png b/18345-h/images/5b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..19bcd04
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/5b.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-1.png b/18345-h/images/6-1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2322fdd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-1.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-12.png b/18345-h/images/6-12.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..70e3562
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-12.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-12_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-12_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f4858ab
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-12_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-13.png b/18345-h/images/6-13.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bfc8b2f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-13.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-13_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-13_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fdbc085
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-13_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-14.png b/18345-h/images/6-14.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f7e083
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-14.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-14_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-14_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7f98f7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-14_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-15.png b/18345-h/images/6-15.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b572334
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-15.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-15_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-15_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..71b196e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-15_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-1_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-1_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c7ea312
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-1_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-23.png b/18345-h/images/6-23.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0108a3e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-23.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-23_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-23_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e73e956
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-23_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-4.png b/18345-h/images/6-4.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab25ca2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-4.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-4_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-4_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c6d23ec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-4_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-5.png b/18345-h/images/6-5.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ac0440e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-5.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-5_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-5_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37ba07f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-5_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-7.png b/18345-h/images/6-7.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..02624ff
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-7.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-8.png b/18345-h/images/6-8.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..80be554
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-8.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/6-8_th.png b/18345-h/images/6-8_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a03aa3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/6-8_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-10.png b/18345-h/images/7-10.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..066ebca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-10.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-10_th.png b/18345-h/images/7-10_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d761ace
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-10_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-16.png b/18345-h/images/7-16.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc20338
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-16.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-16_th.png b/18345-h/images/7-16_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4dae062
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-16_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-6.png b/18345-h/images/7-6.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8083290
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-6.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-6_th.png b/18345-h/images/7-6_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..16dc830
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-6_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-9.png b/18345-h/images/7-9.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48e85c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-9.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/7-9_th.png b/18345-h/images/7-9_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..230831d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/7-9_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/8a.png b/18345-h/images/8a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e82ac7c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/8a.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/8a_th.png b/18345-h/images/8a_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..65b7ad3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/8a_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/8b.png b/18345-h/images/8b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..002fb15
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/8b.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/8b_th.png b/18345-h/images/8b_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6c3c96d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/8b_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/9a.png b/18345-h/images/9a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b86fee7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/9a.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/9b.png b/18345-h/images/9b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6028234
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/9b.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/9b_th.png b/18345-h/images/9b_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af8941a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/9b_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/9c.png b/18345-h/images/9c.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2ea9244
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/9c.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/9c_th.png b/18345-h/images/9c_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d10cb2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/9c_th.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/title.png b/18345-h/images/title.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3299a61
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/title.png
diff --git a/18345-h/images/title_th.png b/18345-h/images/title_th.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3330d6a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345-h/images/title_th.png
diff --git a/18345.txt b/18345.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8e3ff67
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,4686 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 315,
+January 14, 1882, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 315,  January 14, 1882
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: May 8, 2006 [EBook #18345]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 315
+
+
+
+
+NEW YORK, JANUARY 14, 1882.
+
+Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIII., No. 315.
+
+Scientific American established 1845
+
+Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.
+
+Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Watchman's Detecter.             5023
+
+     Integrating Apparatus.                                       5023
+
+     A Canal Boat Propelled by Air.                               5023
+
+     Head Linings of Passenger Cars.                              5023
+
+     Improved Mortar Mixer. 2 figures.                            5023
+
+     Practical Notes on Plumbing. By J.P. DAVIES. Figs.
+     37 to 53. Tinning iron pipes, copper or brass work, bits,
+     etc.--Spirit brush.--Soldering iron to lead.--Dummies for
+     pipe bending.--Bends and set-offs.--Bending with water.
+     --Sand bending.--Bending with balls or bobbins.--Three-ball
+     or lead driving ball and double ball bending.--Bending with
+     windlass and brass ball.--Hydraulic or cup leather and ball
+     bending.--Bending by splitting, or split made bends.
+     --Pulling up bends.--Set-offs.--Bad bends.--Bad falls in
+     bends.--Bends made into traps or retarders.--Bends made
+     with the "snarling dummy."                                   5024
+
+     The Grossenhain Shuttle Driver. 1 figure.                    5025
+
+
+ II. ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, ETC.--The Electro-Magnetic
+     Apparatus of Dr. Pacinotti. 8 figures. The Pacinotti
+     electro-magnetic machine of 1860.--The Elias
+     electro-motor of 1842.                                       5015
+
+     The Elias Electro-Motor.                                     5016
+
+     Bjerknes's Experiments. 7 figures.                           5016
+
+     The Arc Electric Light. By LEO DAFT.                         5018
+
+     Hedges' Electric Lamps. 4 figures.                           5019
+
+     Electric Railway Apparatus at the Paris Electrical
+     Exhibition. 17 figures. Lartigue's switch controller,
+     elevation and sections.--Position of commutators during
+     the maneuver.--Pedal for sending warning to railway
+     crossing, with elevation and end and plan views.--Electric
+     Alarm.--Lartigue's bellows pedal, with plan and
+     sections.--Brunot's Controller.--Guggemos' correspondence
+     apparatus.--Annunciator apparatus.--Lartigue's controller
+     for water tanks.--Verite controller for water tanks.         5019
+
+     The Telephonic Halls of the Electrical Exhibition.
+     1 figure.                                                    5022
+
+     The Action of Cold on the Voltaic Arc.                       5022
+
+
+III. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Industrial Art for Women.         5026
+
+     Photography upon Canvas. 1 figure.                           5026
+
+     Detection of Starch Sugar Sirup Mixed with Sugar
+     House Molasses.                                              5026
+
+     False Vermilion.                                             5026
+
+     The Position of Manganese in Modern Industry.--By
+     M.V. DESHAEYS. Ferro-manganese.--Cupro-manganese.--
+     Manganese bronzes.--Metallic manganese.--Manganese
+     German silver.--Phosphorus bronze.                           5027
+
+     The Economical Washing of Coal Gas and Smoke.--M.
+     Chevalet's method.                                           5027
+
+     Determination of Nitrogen in Hair, Wool, Dried Blood,
+     Flesh Meal, and Leather Scraps. By Dr. C. KRAUCH.            5028
+
+     Testing White Beeswax for Ceresine and Paraffine. By
+     A. PELTZ.                                                    5028
+
+     The Prevention of Alcoholic Fermentation by Fungi.
+     By Prof. E. REICHARD.                                        5028
+
+     New Reaction of Glycerine.                                   5028
+
+     Lycopodine.                                                  5028
+
+     Conchinamine.                                                5028
+
+     Chinoline.                                                   5028
+
+     Preparation of Coniine.                                      5028
+
+     Strontianite.                                                5028
+
+
+ IV. MISCELLANEOUS.--Household and Other Recipes.
+     Christmas plum pudding.--Plum pudding sauce.--
+     National plum pudding and sauce.--Egg nog.--Egg
+     flip.--Roast Turkey.--Woodcock and Snipe.--Canvas-back
+     duck.--Pheasants.--Wild ducks.--Wild fowl
+     sauce.--Brown fricassee of rabbits.--Orange pudding.
+     --Venison pastry.--Christmas red round.--Plum
+     porridge.--Sugared pears.--Table beer.--Mince meat.
+     --Pumpkin pie.--Brandy punch.--Boeuf a la mode.--
+     Punch jelly.--Orange salad.--Cranberry jelly.--Plum
+     cake.--Black cake.--Potatoes.                                5029
+
+     The Bayeux Tapestry Comet.                                   5030
+
+     Synthetic Experiments on the Artificial Reproduction
+     of Meteorites.                                               5030
+
+
+  V. HYGIENE AND MEDICINE.--Parangi; a newly described
+     disease.                                                     5029
+
+     A Castor Oil Substitute.                                     5029
+
+     Lack of Sun Light.                                           5030
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC APPARATUS OF DR. PACINOTTI.
+
+
+In admiring the recent developments of electric science as evidenced
+by the number of important inventions which have during the past few
+years been given to the world, especially in those branches of applied
+science which deal more particularly with the generation of
+electricity and the production of the electric light, there is often
+too great a tendency to forget, or, at least, to pass over in
+comparative silence the claims which the great pioneer workers and
+discoverers undoubtedly have to a large share of the merit of this
+scientific development.
+
+It is, of course, obviously impossible in anything approaching a
+retrospect of the science of magneto-electric induction or its
+application to illumination to pass slightly over the names of
+Oersted, of Ampere, of Davy, and of Faraday, but, in other respects,
+their work is too often lost sight of in the splendid modern
+developments of their discoveries. Again, there is another group of
+discoverer-inventors who occupy an intermediate position between the
+abstract discoverers above named and the inventors and adapters of
+still more recent times. To this group belong the names of Pixii and
+Saxton, Holmes and Nollet, Wilde, Varley, Siemens, Wheatstone, and
+Pacinotti, who was the first to discover a means of constructing a
+machine capable of giving a continuous current always in the same
+direction, and which has since proved itself to be the type of nearly
+all the direct current electric machines of the present day, and
+especially those such as the Gramme and Brush and De Meritens
+machines, in which the rotating armature is of annular form; and when
+it is considered what a large number of the well known electric
+generators are founded upon this discovery, it must be a matter of
+general gratification that the recent International Jury of the Paris
+Exhibition of Electricity awarded to Dr. Antonio Pacinotti one of
+their highest awards.
+
+The original machine designed by Dr. Pacinotti in the year 1860, and
+which we illustrate on the present page, formed one of the most
+interesting exhibits in the Paris Exhibition, and conferred upon the
+Italian Section a very distinctive feature, and we cannot but think
+that while all were interested in examining it, there must have been
+many who could not help being impressed with the fact that it took
+something away from the originality of design in several of the
+machines exhibited in various parts of the building.
+
+This very interesting machine was first illustrated and described by
+its inventor in the _Nuovo Cimento_ in the year 1864, under the title
+"A Description of a Small Electro-Magnetic Machine," and to this
+description we are indebted for the information and diagrams contained
+in this notice, but the perspective view is taken from the instrument
+itself in the Paris Exhibition.
+
+In this very interesting historical communication the author commences
+by describing a new form of electro-magnet, consisting of an iron ring
+around which is wound (as in the Gramme machine) a single helix of
+insulated copper wire completely covering the ring, and the two ends
+of the annular helix being soldered together, an annular magnet is
+produced, enveloped in an insulated helix forming a closed circuit,
+the convolutions of which are all in the same direction. If in such a
+system any two points of the coil situated at opposite ends of the
+same diameter of the ring be connected respectively with the two poles
+of a voltaic battery, the electric current having two courses open to
+it, will divide into two portions traversing the coil around each half
+of the ring from one point of contact to the other, and the direction
+of the current, in each portion will be such as to magnetize the iron
+core, so that its magnetic poles will be situated at the points where
+the current enters and leaves the helix, and a straight line joining
+these points may be looked upon as the magnetic axis of the system.
+From this construction it is clear that, by varying the position of
+the points of contact of the battery wires and the coil, the position
+of the magnetic axis will be changed accordingly, and can be made to
+take up any diametrical position with respect to the ring, of which
+the two halves (separated by the diameter joining the points of
+contact of the battery wires with the coil) may be regarded as made up
+of two semicircular horseshoe electro-magnets having their similar
+poles joined. To this form of instrument the name "Transversal electro
+magnet" (_Eletro calamita transversale_) was given by its inventor, to
+whom is undoubtedly due the merit of having been the first to
+construct an electro-magnet the position of whose poles could be
+varied at will by means of a circular commutator.
+
+[Illustration: PACINOTTI ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MACHINE.--MADE IN 1860.]
+
+By applying the principle to an electro-magnetic engine, Dr. Pacinotti
+produced the machine which we illustrate on the present page. The
+armature consists of a turned ring of iron, having around its
+circumference sixteen teeth of equal size and at equal angular
+distance apart, as shown in Fig. 1, forming between them as many
+spaces or notches, which are filled up by coiling within them helices
+of insulated copper wire, r r r, in a similar manner to that adopted
+in winding the Brush armature, and between them are fixed as many
+wooden wedges, m m, by which the helices are firmly held in their
+place. All the coils are wound round the ring in the same direction,
+and the terminating end of each coil is connected to the commencing
+end of the next or succeeding helix, and the junctions so made are
+attached to conducting wires which are gathered together close to the
+vertical shaft on which the armature ring is fixed, passing through
+holes at equal distances apart in a wooden collar fixed to the same
+shaft, and being attached at their lower extremities to the metallic
+contact pieces of the commutator, c, shown at the lower part of Fig.
+3, which is an elevation of the machine, while Fig. 4 is a plan of the
+same apparatus.
+
+The commutator consists of a small boxwood cylinder, carrying around
+its cylindrical surface two rows of eight holes, one above the other,
+in which are fitted sixteen contact pieces of brass which slightly
+project above the surface of the wood, the positions of those in the
+upper circle alternating or "breaking joint" with those in the lower,
+and each contact piece is in metallic connection with its
+corresponding conducting wire, and, therefore, with the junction of
+two of the helices on the armature. Against the edge of the commutator
+are pressed by means of adjustable levers two small brass contact
+rollers, k k, which are respectively connected with the positive and
+negative poles of the voltaic battery (either through or independent
+of the coils of a fixed electro-magnet, to which we shall presently
+refer), and the magnetic axis of the ring will lie in the same plane
+as the line joining the points of contact of the battery and rotating
+helix, this axis remaining nearly fixed notwithstanding the rotation
+of the iron ring in which the magnetism is induced.
+
+In the apparatus figured in Figs. 3 and 4, the armature rotates
+between the two vertical limbs, A B, of a fixed electro-magnet
+furnished with extended pole pieces, A A, B B (Fig. 4), each of which
+embraces about six of the armature coils. The fixed electro-magnet is
+constructed of two vertical iron cylindrical bars, A and B, united at
+their lower extremities by a horizontal iron bar, F F, the one being
+rigidly and permanently attached to it, while the other is fastened to
+it by a screw, G, passing through a slot so that the distance of the
+pole pieces from one another and from the armature ring is capable of
+adjustment.
+
+The connections of the machine, which are shown in Fig. 3, are made as
+follows: The positive current, entering by the attachment screw, h,
+passes by a wire to the right hand commutator screw, l, to the
+right-hand roller, k, through the commutator to the ring, around
+which it traverses to the left-hand roller, k¹, and screw, l¹, to
+the magnet coil, A, and thence through the coil of the magnet, B, to
+the terminal screw, h, on the right hand of the figure. This method
+of coupling up is of very great historical interest, for it is the
+first instance on record of the magnet coils and armature of a machine
+being included in one circuit, giving to it the principle of
+construction of a dynamo-electric machine, and antedating in
+publication, by two years, the interesting machines of Siemens,
+Wheatstone, and Varley, and preceding them in construction by a still
+longer period.
+
+With this apparatus Dr. Pacinotti made the following interesting
+experiments with the object of determining the amount of mechanical
+work produced by the machine (when worked as an electro-magnetic
+engine), and the corresponding consumption of the elements of the
+battery: Attached to the spindle of the machine was a small pulley, Q
+Q (Fig. 3), for the purpose of driving, by means of a cord, another
+pulley on a horizontal spindle carrying a drum on which was wound a
+cord carrying a weight, and on the same spindle was also a brake and
+brake-wheel, the lever of which was loaded so as just to prevent the
+weight setting into motion the whole system, consisting of the two
+machines, when no current was flowing. In this condition, when the
+machine was set in motion by connecting the battery, the mechanical
+work expended in overcoming the friction of the brake was equal to
+that required to raise the weight; and, in order to obtain the total
+work done, all that was necessary was to multiply the weight lifted by
+the distance through which it was raised. The consumption of the
+battery was estimated at the same time by interposing in the circuit a
+sulphate of copper voltameter, of which the copper plate was weighed
+before and after the experiment. The following are some of the results
+obtained by Dr. Pacinotti in experimenting after the manner just
+described. With the current from a battery of four small Bunsen
+elements, the machine raised a weight of 3.2812 kilos to a height of
+8.66 m. (allowing for friction), so that the mechanical work was
+represented by 28.45 m. During the experiment the positive plate of
+the voltameter lost in weight 0.224 gramme, the negative gaining 0.235
+gramme, giving an average of chemical work performed in the voltameter
+of 0.229 gramme, and multiplying this figure by the ratio between the
+equivalent of zinc to that of copper, and by the number of the
+elements of the battery, the weight of zinc consumed in the battery
+was computed at 0.951 gramme, so that to produce one kilogrammeter of
+mechanical work 33 milligrammes of zinc would be consumed in the
+battery. In another experiment, made with five elements, the
+consumption of zinc was found to be 36 milligrammes for every
+kilogrammeter of mechanical work performed. In recording these
+experiments, Dr. Pacinotti points out that although these results do
+not show any special advantage in his machine over those of other
+construction, still they are very encouraging, when it is considered
+that the apparatus with which the experiments were made were full of
+defects of workmanship, the commutator, being eccentric to the axis,
+causing the contacts between it and the rollers to be very imperfect
+and unequal.
+
+In his communication to the _Nuovo Cimento_, Dr. Pacinotti states that
+the reasons which induced him to construct the apparatus on the
+principle which we have just described, were: (1) That according to
+this system the electric current is continuously traversing the coils
+of the armature, and the machine is kept in motion not by a series of
+intermittent impulses succeeding one another with greater or less
+rapidity, but by a constantly acting force producing a more uniform
+effect. (2) The annular form of the revolving armature contributes
+(together with the preceding method of continuous magnetization) to
+give regularity to its motion and at the same time reduces the loss of
+motive power, through mechanical shocks and friction, to a minimum.
+(3) In the annular system no attempt is made suddenly to magnetize and
+demagnetize the iron core of the rotating armature, as such changes of
+magnetization would be retarded by the setting up of extra currents,
+and also by the permanent residual magnetism which cannot be entirely
+eliminated from the iron; and with this annular construction such
+charges are not required, all that is necessary being that each
+portion of the iron of the ring should pass, in its rotation, through
+the various degrees of magnetization in succession, being subjected
+thereby to the influence of the electro-dynamic forces by which its
+motion is produced. (4) The polar extension pieces of the fixed
+electro-magnet, by embracing a sufficiently large number of the iron
+projecting pieces on the armature ring, continue to exercise an
+influence upon them almost up to the point at which their
+magnetization ceases when passing the neutral axis. (5) By the method
+of construction adopted, sparks, while being increased in number, are
+diminished in intensity, there being no powerful extra currents
+produced at the breaking of the circuit, and Dr. Pacinotti points out
+that when the machine is in rotation a continuous current is induced
+in the circuit which is opposed to that of the battery; and this leads
+to what, looked at by the light of the present state of electric
+science, is by far the most interesting part of Dr. Pacinotti's paper,
+published, as it was, more than seventeen years ago.
+
+In the part to which we refer, Dr. Pacinotti states that it occurred
+to him that the value of the apparatus would be greatly increased if
+it could be altered from an electro-magnetic to a magneto-electric
+machine, so as to produce a continuous current. Thus, if the
+electro-magnet, A B (Figs. 3 and 4), be replaced by a permanent
+magnet, and the annular armature were made to revolve, the apparatus
+would become a magneto-electric generator, which would produce a
+continuous induced current always in the same direction, and in
+analyzing the action of such a machine Dr. Pacinotti observes that, as
+the position of the magnetic field is fixed, and the iron armature
+with its coils rotates within it, the action may be regarded as the
+same as if the iron ring were made up of two fixed semicircular
+horseshoe magnets with their similar poles joined, and the coils were
+loose upon it and were caused to rotate over it, and this mode of
+expressing the phenomenon was exactly what we adopted when describing
+the Gramme machine, without having at that time seen what Dr.
+Pacinotti had written fifteen years before.
+
+In explanation of the physical phenomena involved in the induction of
+the electric currents in the armature when the machine is in action as
+a generator, Dr. Pacinotti makes the following remarks: Let us trace
+the action of one of the coils in the various positions that it can
+assume in one complete revolution; starting from the position marked
+N, Fig. 2, and moving toward S, an electric current will be developed
+in it in one direction while moving through the portion of the circle,
+N a, and after passing the point, a, and while passing through the
+arc, a S, the induced current will be in the opposite direction,
+which direction will be maintained until the point, b, is reached,
+after which the currents will be in the same direction as between N
+and a; and as all the coils are connected together, all the currents
+in a given direction will unite and give the combined current a
+direction indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2, and in order to collect
+it (so as to transmit it into the external circuit), the most eminent
+position for the collectors will be at points on the commutator at
+opposite ends of a diameter which is perpendicular to the magnetic
+axis of the magnetic field. With reference to Fig. 2, we imagine
+either that the two arrows to the right of the figure are incorrectly
+placed by the engraver, or that Dr. Pacinotti intended this diagram to
+express the direction of the current throughout the whole circuit, as
+if it started from a, and after traversing the external circuit
+entered again at b, thus completing the whole cycle made up of the
+external and internal circuits.
+
+Dr. Pacinotti calls attention to the fact that the direction of the
+current generated by the machine is reversed by a reversal of the
+direction of rotation, as well as by a shifting of the position of the
+collectors from one side to the other of their neutral point, and
+concludes his most interesting communication by describing experiments
+made with it in order to convert it into a magneto-electric machine.
+"I brought," he says, "near to the coiled armature the opposite poles
+of two permanent magnets, and I also excited by the current from a
+battery the fixed electro-magnets (see Figs. 3 and 4), and by
+mechanical means I rotated the annular armature on its axis. By both
+methods I obtained an induced electric current, which was continuous
+and always in the same direction, and which, as was indicated by a
+galvanometer, proved to be of considerable intensity, although it had
+traversed the sulphate of copper voltameter which was included in the
+circuit."
+
+Dr. Pacinotti goes on to show that there would be an obvious advantage
+in constructing electric generating machines upon this principle, for
+by such a system electric currents can be produced which are
+continuous and in one direction without the necessity of the
+inconvenient and more or less inefficient mechanical arrangements for
+commutating the currents and sorting them, so as to collect and
+combine those in one direction, separating them from those which are
+in the opposite; and he also points our the reversibility of the
+apparatus, showing that as an electro-magnetic engine it is capable of
+converting a current of electricity into mechanical motion capable of
+performing work, while as a magneto-electric machine it is made to
+transform mechanical energy into an electric current, which in other
+apparatus, forming part of its external circuit, is capable of
+performing electric, chemical, or mechanical work.
+
+All these statements are matters of everyday familiarity at the
+present day, but it must be remembered that they are records of
+experiments made twenty years ago, and as such they entitle their
+author to a very distinguished place among the pioneers of electric
+science, and it is somewhat remarkable that they did not lead him
+straight to the discovery of the "action and reaction" principle of
+dynamo-electric magnetic induction to which he approached so closely,
+and it is also a curious fact that so suggestive and remarkable a
+paper should have been written and published as far back as 1864, and
+that it should not have produced sooner than it did a revolution in
+electric science.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.
+
+
+We lately published a short description of a very interesting
+apparatus which may be considered in some sense as a prototype of the
+Gramme machine, although it has very considerable, indeed radical
+differences, and which, moreover, was constructed for a different
+purpose, the Elias machine being, in fact, an electromotor, while the
+Gramme machine is, it is almost unnecessary to say, an electric
+generator. This apparent resemblance makes it, however, necessary to
+describe the Elias machine, and to explain the difference between it
+and the Gramme. Its very early date (1842), moreover, gives it an
+exceptional interest. The figures on the previous page convey an exact
+idea of the model that was exhibited at the Paris Electrical
+Exhibition, and which was contributed by the Ecole Polytechnique of
+Delft in the Dutch Section. This model is almost identical with that
+illustrated and described in a pamphlet accompanying the exhibit. The
+perspective illustrations show the machine very clearly, and the
+section explains the construction still further. The apparatus
+consists of an exterior ring made of iron, about 14 in. in diameter
+and 1.5 in wide. It is divided into six equal sections by six small
+blocks which project from the inner face of the ring, and which act as
+so many magnetic poles. On each of the sections between the blocks is
+rolled a coil, of one thickness only, of copper wire about 0.04 in. in
+diameter, inclosed in an insulating casing of gutta percha, giving to
+the conductor thus protected a total thickness of 0.20 in.; this wire
+is coiled, as shown in the illustration. It forms twenty-nine turns in
+each section, and the direction of winding changes at each passage in
+front of a pole piece. The ends of the wire coinciding with the
+horizontal diameter of the ring are stripped of the gutta percha, and
+are connected to copper wires which are twisted together and around
+two copper rods, which are placed vertically, their lower ends
+entering two small cavities made in the base of the apparatus. The
+circuit is thus continuous with two ends at opposite points of the
+same diameter. The ring is about 1.1 in. thick, and is fixed, as
+shown, to two wooden columns, B B, by two blocks of copper, a.
+
+[Illustration: THE ELIAS ELECTROMOTOR.--MADE IN 1842.]
+
+It will be seen from the mode of coiling the wire on this ring, that
+if a battery be connected by means of the copper rods, the current
+will create six consecutive poles on the various projecting blocks.
+The inner ring, E, is about 11 in. in outside diameter, and is also
+provided with a series of six projecting pieces which pass before
+those on the exterior ring with very little clearance. Between these
+projections the space between the inner face of the outer, and the
+outer face of the inner ring, is 0.40 in. The latter is movable, and
+is supported by three wooden arms, F, fixed to a boss, G, which is
+traversed by a spindle supported in bearings by the columns, A and C.
+A coil is rolled around the ring in exactly the same way as that on
+the outer ring, the wire being of the same size, and the insulation of
+the same thickness. The ends of the wire are also bared at points of
+the diameter opposite each other, and the coil connected in pairs so
+as to form a continuous circuit. At the two points of junction they
+are connected with a hexagonal commutator placed on the central
+spindle, one end corresponding to the sides 1, 3, and 5, and the other
+to the sides 2, 4, and 6. Two copper rods, J, fixed on the base to two
+plates of copper furnished with binding screws, are widened and
+flattened at their upper ends to rest against opposite parallel sides
+of the hexagon. It will be seen that if the battery is put in circuit
+by means of the binding screws, the current in the interior ring will
+determine six consecutive poles, the names of which will change as the
+commutator plates come into contact successively with the sides of the
+hexagon. Consequently, if at first the pole-pieces opposite each other
+are magnetized with the same polarity, a repulsion between them will
+be set up which will set the inner ring in motion, and the effect will
+be increased on account of the attraction of the next pole of the
+outer ring. At the moment when the pole piece thus attracted comes
+into the field of the pole of opposite polarity, the action of the
+commutator will change its magnetization, while that of the pole-piece
+on the fixed ring always remains the same; the same phenomenon of
+repulsion will be produced, and the inner ring will continue its
+movement in the same direction, and so on. To the attractive and
+repulsive action of the magnetic poles has to be added the reciprocal
+action of the coils around the two rings, the action of which is
+similar. From this brief explanation the differences between the Elias
+machine and the Gramme will be understood. The Dutch physicist did not
+contemplate the production of a current; he utilized two distinct
+sources of electricity to set the inner ring in motion, and did not
+imagine that it was possible, by suppressing one of the inducing
+currents and putting the ring in rapid rotation, to obtain a
+continuous current. Moreover, if ever this apparent resemblance had
+been real, the merit of the Gramme invention would not have been
+affected by it. It has happened very many times that inventors living
+in different countries, and strangers to one another, have been
+inspired with the same idea, and have followed it by similar methods,
+either simultaneously or at different periods, without the application
+having led to the same results. It does not suffice even for the seed
+to be the same; it must have fallen in good ground, and be cultivated
+with care; here it scarcely germinates, there it produces a vigorous
+plant and abundant fruit.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+BJERKNES'S EXPERIMENTS.
+
+
+As a general thing, too much trust should not be placed in words. In
+the first place, it frequently happens that their sense is not well
+defined, or that they are not understood exactly in the same way by
+everybody, and this leads to sad misunderstandings. But even in case
+they are precise, and are received everywhere under a single
+acceptation, there still remains one danger, and that is that of
+passing from the word to the idea, and of being led to believe that,
+because there is a word, there is a real thing designated by this
+word.
+
+Let us take, for example, the word _electricity_. If we understand by
+this term the common law which embraces a certain category of
+phenomena, it expresses a clear and useful idea; but as for its
+existence, it is not permitted to believe _a priori_ that there is a
+distinct agent called electricity which is the efficient cause of the
+phenomena. We ought never, says the old rule of philosophy, to admit
+entities without an absolute necessity. The march of science has
+always consisted in gradually eliminating these provisory conceptions
+and in reducing the number of causes. This fact is visible without
+going back to the ages of ignorance, when every new phenomenon brought
+with it the conception of a special being which caused it and directed
+it. In later ages they had _spirits_ in which there was everything:
+volatile liquids, gases, and theoretical conceptions, such as
+phlogiston. At the end of the last century, and at the beginning of
+our own, ideas being more rational, the notion of the "fluid" had been
+admitted, a mysterious and still vague enough category (but yet an
+already somewhat definite one) in which were ranged the unknown and
+ungraspable causes of caloric, luminous, electric, etc., phenomena.
+Gradually, the "fluid" has vanished, and we are left (or rather, we
+were a short time ago) at the notion of forces--a precise and
+mathematically graspable notion, but yet an essentially mysterious
+one. We see this conception gradually disappearing to leave finally
+only the elementary ideas of matter and motion--ideas, perhaps, which
+are not much clearer philosophically than the others, particularly
+that of matter taken _per se_, but which, at least, are necessary,
+since all the others supposed them.
+
+Among those notions that study and time are reducing to other and
+simpler ones, that of electricity should be admitted; for it presents
+itself more and more as one of the peculiar cases of the general
+motion of matter. It will be to the eternal honor of Fresnel for
+having introduced into science and mathematically constituted the
+theory of undulations (already proposed before him, however), thus
+giving the first example of the notion of motion substituted for that
+of force. Since the principle of the conservation of energy has taken
+the eminent place in science that it now occupies, and we have seen a
+continual transformation of one series of phenomena into another, the
+mind is at once directed to the aspect of a new fact toward an
+explanation of this kind. Still, it is certain that these hypotheses
+are difficult of justification; for those motions that are at present
+named molecular, and that we cannot help presuming to be at the base
+of all actions, are _per se_ ungraspable and can only be demonstrated
+by the coincidence of a large number of results. There is, however,
+another means of rendering them probable, and that is by employing
+analogy. If, by vibrations which are directly ascertainable, we can
+reproduce the effects of electricity, there will be good reason for
+admitting that the latter is nothing else than a system of vibration
+differing only, perhaps, in special qualities, such as dimensions,
+direction, rapidity, etc.
+
+Such is the result that is attained by the very curious experiments
+that are due to Mr. Bjerknes. These constitute an _ensemble_ of very
+striking results, which are perfectly concordant and exhibit very
+close analogies with electrical effects, as we shall presently see.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+They are based on the presence of bodies set in vibration in a liquid.
+The vibrations produced by Mr. Bjerknes are of two kinds--pulsations
+and oscillations. The former of these are obtained by the aid of small
+drums with flexible ends, as shown to the left in Fig. 1. A small pump
+chamber or cylinder is, by means of a tube, put in communication with
+one of these closed drums in which the rapid motion of a piston
+alternately sucks in and expels the air. The two flexible ends are
+successively thrust outward and attracted toward the center. In an
+apparatus of this kind the two ends repulse and attract the liquid at
+the same time. Their motions are of the same phase; if it were desired
+that one should repulse while the other was attracting, it would be
+necessary to place two drums back to back, separated by a stiff
+partition, and put them in connection with two distinct pump chambers
+whose movements were so arranged that one should be forcing in while
+the other was exhausting. A system of this nature is shown to the
+right in Fig. 1.
+
+The vibrations are obtained by the aid of small metal spheres fixed in
+tubular supports by movable levers to which are communicated the
+motions of compression and dilatation of the air in the pump chamber.
+They oscillate in a plane whose direction may be varied according to
+the arrangement of the sphere, as seen in the two apparatus of this
+kind shown in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 will give an idea of the general
+arrangement. The two pistons of the air-pumps are connected to cranks
+that may be fixed in such a way as to regulate the phases as may be
+desired, either in coincidence or opposition. The entire affair is put
+in motion by a wheel and cord permitting of rapid vibrations being
+obtained. The air is let into the apparatus by rubber tubing without
+interfering with their motions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+We may now enter into the details of the experiments:
+
+The first is represented in Fig. 2. In a basin of water there is
+placed a small frame carrying a drum fixed on an axle and capable of
+revolving. It also communicates with one of the air cylinders. The
+operator holds in his hand a second drum which communicates with the
+other cylinder. The pistons are adjusted in such a way that they shall
+move parallel with each other; then the ends of the drums inflate and
+collapse at the same time; the _motions are of the same phase_; but if
+the drums are brought near each other a very marked attraction occurs,
+the revolving drum follows the other. If the cranks are so adjusted
+that the pistons move in an opposite direction, the _phases are
+discordant_--there is a repulsion, and the movable drum moves away
+from the other. The effect, then, is analogous to that of two magnets,
+with about this difference, that here it is the like phases that
+attract and the different phases that repel each other, while in
+magnets like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.
+
+It is necessary to remark that it is indifferent which face of the
+drum is presented, since both possess the same phase. The drum
+behaves, then, like an insulated pole of a magnet, or, better, like a
+magnet having in its middle a succeeding point. In order to have two
+poles a double drum must be employed. The experiment then becomes more
+complicated; for it is necessary to have two pump chambers with
+opposite phases for this drum alone, and one or two others for the
+revolving drum. The effects, as we shall see, are more easily shown
+with the vibrating spheres.
+
+This form has the advantage that the vibrating body exhibits the two
+phases at the same time; relatively to the liquid, one of its ends
+advances while the other recedes. Thus with a vibrating sphere
+presented to the movable drum, there may be obtained repulsion or
+attraction, according as the side which is approached is concordant or
+discordant with the end of the drum that it faces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+With the arrangement shown in Fig. 3 there may be performed an
+interesting series of experiments. The two spheres supported by the
+frame are set in simultaneous vibration, and the frame, moreover, is
+free to revolve about its axis. The effect is analogous to that which
+would be produced by two short magnets carried by the same revolving
+support; on presenting the vibrating sphere to the extremities the
+whole affair is attracted or repulsed, according to its phase and
+according to the point at which it is presented; on replacing the
+transverse support by a single sphere (as indicated in the figure by a
+dotted line) we obtain the analogue of a short magnet carried on a
+pivot like a small compass needle. This sphere follows the pole of a
+vibrating sphere which is presented to it, as the pole of a magnet
+would do, with this difference always, that in the magnet, like poles
+repel, while in oscillating bodies like phases attract.
+
+In all the preceding experiments the bodies brought in presence were
+both in motion and the phenomena were analogous to those of permanent
+magnetism. We may also reproduce those which result from magnetism by
+induction. For this purpose we employ small balls of different
+materials suspended from floats, as shown in Fig. 4 (a, b, c).
+Let us, for example, take the body, b, which is a small metal
+sphere, and present to it either a drum which is caused to pulsate, on
+an oscillating sphere, and it will be attracted, thus representing the
+action of a magnet upon a bit of soft iron. A curious experiment may
+serve to indicate the transition between this new series and the
+preceding. If we present to each other two drums of opposite phases,
+but so arranged that one of them vibrates faster than the other, we
+shall find, on carefully bringing them together, that the repulsion
+which manifested itself at first is changing to attraction. On
+approaching each other the drum having the quicker motion finally has
+upon the other, the same action as if the latter were immovable; and
+the effect is analogous to that which takes place between a strong and
+weak magnet presented by their like poles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.]
+
+By continuing these experiments we arrive at a very important point.
+Instead of the body, b (Fig. 4), let us take c. As the figure
+shows, this is a sphere lighter than water, kept in the liquid by a
+weight. If we present to it the vibrating body, it will be repelled,
+and we shall obtain the results known by the name of diamagnetism.
+This curious experiment renders evident the influence of media. As
+well known, Faraday attributed such effects to the action of the air;
+and he thought that magnetic motions always resulted from a difference
+between the attraction exerted by the magnet upon the body under
+experiment, and the attraction exerted by the air. If the body is more
+sensitive than the air, there is direct magnetism, but if it is less
+so, there is diamagnetism. Water between the bodies, in the Bjerknes
+experiments, plays the same role; it is this which, by its vibration,
+transmits the motions and determines the phases in the suspended body.
+If the body is heavier than water its motion is less than that of the
+liquid, and, consequently, relatively to the vibrating body, it is of
+like phase; and if it is lighter, the contrary takes place, and the
+phases are in discordance. These effects may be very well verified by
+the aid of the little apparatus shown in Fig. 5, and which carries two
+bars, one of them lighter and the other heavier than water. On
+presenting to them the vibrating body, one presents its extremity and
+takes an axial direction, while the other arranges itself crosswise
+and takes the equatorial direction. These experiments may be varied in
+different ways that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon in this
+place, as they may be seen at the Electrical Exhibition.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+Very curious effects are also obtained with the arrangement shown in
+Fig. 6. Between the two drums there is introduced a body sustained by
+a float such as represented at a, Fig. 4. Various results may, then,
+be obtained according to the combinations adopted. Let us suppose that
+the phases are alike, and that the interposed body is heavier than
+water; in this case it is repelled as far as the circumference of the
+drums, at which point it stops. If the phases are different, the
+influenced body behaves in the opposite manner and stops at the
+center. If the body is lighter than water the effects are naturally
+changed. Placed between two like phases, it is attracted within a
+certain radius and repelled when it is placed further off; if the
+phases are unlike, it is always repelled. We may easily assure
+ourselves that these effects are analogous to those which are produced
+on bodies placed between the poles of wide and powerful magnets. It
+is useless to repeat that the analogies are always inverse.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.]
+
+Mr. Bjerknes has carried the examination of these phenomena still
+further in studying experimentally the actions that occur in the
+depths of the liquid; and for this purpose he has made use of the
+arrangement shown in Fig. 7. By the side of the vibrating body there
+is placed a light body mounted on a very flexible spring. This assumes
+the motion of that portion of the fluid in which it is immersed, and,
+by the aid of a small pencil, its direction is inscribed upon a plate
+located above it. By placing this registering apparatus in different
+directions the entire liquid may be explored. We find by this means
+figures that are perfectly identical with magnetic phantoms. All the
+circumstances connected with these can be reproduced, the vibrating
+sphere giving the phantom of a magnet with its two poles. We may even
+exhibit the mutual action of two magnets. The figures show with
+remarkable distinctness--much more distinct, perhaps, than those that
+are obtained by true magnets.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.]
+
+However, it must not be thought that these so interesting facts are
+the result of groping in the dark and the outcome of some fortunate
+experiment; for they have, on the contrary, been foreseen and
+predetermined. Mr. Bjerknes is especially a mathematician, and it was
+a study, through calculation, of the vibratory motion of a body or
+system of bodies in a medium that led him to the results that he
+afterwards materialized.
+
+After the production, by Mr. Lejeune, of his solutions, Mr. Bjerknes
+in 1865 entered upon a complete study of the subject, and recognized
+the fact that the result of such motions was the production of regular
+mechanical actions. He calculated the directions of these, and, along
+about 1875, perceived the possibility of reproducing the effects of
+permanent magnetism. More recently, in 1879, he saw that magnetism by
+derivation might likewise be explained by those hypotheses, and
+figured by actions of this kind. It was not till then that he
+performed the experiments, and submitted a body to the results of
+calculation.
+
+The same process has led him to the conclusion that the action of
+currents might be represented in the same manner; only, instead of
+bodies in vibration, it would require bodies in alternating rotation.
+The effects are much more difficult to ascertain, since it is
+necessary to employ viscid liquids.
+
+Meanwhile, the experiments have been performed. Up to the present time
+attractions and repulsions have not been shown, and I do not know
+whether Mr. Bjerknes has obtained them. But, by the process pointed
+out, the lines of action (electric phantoms, if I may so express
+myself) have been traced, and they are very curious. By supposing the
+current perpendicular to the plate, and in the presence of the pole of
+a magnet, the influences produced around it are very well seen, and
+the figures are very striking, especially in the case of two currents.
+Mr. Bjerknes does not appear as yet to have obtained from these
+experiments all that he expects from them. And yet, such as they are,
+they have already led him to important conclusions. Thus, calculation,
+confirmed by application, has led him to renounce the formula proposed
+by Ampere and to adopt that of Regnard as modified by Clausius. Is he
+right? This is what more prolonged experimentation will allow to be
+seen.
+
+These researches, however, are beset with difficulties of a special
+nature, and the use of viscid liquids is a subject for discussion. Mr.
+Bjerknes desired to employ them for reproducing the effects that he
+had obtained from water, but he found that the lines of force were no
+longer the same, and that the phenomena were modified. It is
+necessary, then, to hold as much as possible to liquids that are
+perfect. The experimenter is at present endeavoring to use these
+liquids by employing cylinders having a fluted surface; but it is
+clear that this, too, is not without its difficulties.
+
+This series of experiments offers a rare example of the verification
+of algebraic calculation by direct demonstration. In general, we may
+employ geometry, which gives a graphic representation of calculation
+and furnishes a valuable control. Sometimes we have practical
+application, which is a very important verification in some respects,
+but only approximate in others. But it is rare that we employ, as Mr.
+Bjerknes has done, a material, direct, and immediate translation,
+which, while it brings the results into singular prominence, permits
+of comparing them with known facts and of generalizing the views upon
+which they are based.
+
+Hypotheses as to the nature of electricity being as yet only tolerably
+well established, we should neglect nothing that may contribute to
+give them a solid basis. Assuming that electricity _is_ a vibratory
+motion (and probably there is no doubt about it), yet the fact is not
+so well established with regard to it as it is to that of light. Every
+proof that comes to support this idea is welcome, and especially so
+when it is not derived from a kind of accident, but is furnished by a
+calculated and mathematical combination. Viewed from this double
+standpoint, the experiments of Mr. Bjerknes are very remarkable, and,
+I may add, they are very curious to behold, and I recommend all
+visitors to the Exhibition to examine them.--_Frank Geraldy, in La
+Lumiere Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ARC ELECTRIC LIGHT.[1]
+
+    [Footnote 1: A recent address before the New York Electric Light
+     Association.]
+
+BY LEO DAFT.
+
+
+I shall experience one difficulty in addressing you this evening,
+which is, that although I do not wish to take up your time with purely
+elementary matter, I wish to make the subject clear to those who may
+not be familiar with its earlier struggles.
+
+If we begin at the beginning we have to go back to the time when
+Faraday made the discovery that light could be produced by the
+separation of two carbon rods conducting a current of considerable
+tension. That is the historical point when electric lighting first
+loomed up as a giant possibility of the near future. This occurred
+about the year 1846. In some experiments he found that although the
+circuit could not be interrupted by any considerable interval when
+metallic terminals were used without breaking the current, when carbon
+was substituted the interval could be largely increased, and a light
+of dazzling brilliancy appeared between the points.
+
+This remarkable effect appears to be produced by the rarefaction of
+the air, due to the great heat evolved by the combustion of the
+carbon, and also to the passage of incandescent particles of carbon
+from pole to pole, thus reducing the resistance, otherwise too great
+for the current tension.
+
+That was the beginning of electric lighting; and perhaps it will be
+well to bridge the long and comparatively uninteresting interval which
+elapsed between this discovery and the equally important one which
+alone gave it commercial value--I refer to the production of suitable
+currents by mechanical means. That is to say, the substitution of
+energy obtained from coal in the form of steam power reduced the cost
+to a fraction of what it necessarily was when the galvanic elements
+were used. Here is the point; the cost of zinc today is something over
+fifty times that of coal, while its energy as a vitalizing agent is
+only about five times greater, leaving a very large margin in favor of
+the "black diamonds." This is not the only advantage, for the
+resulting impulse in the case of mechanical production is much more
+uniform in action, and therefore better suited to the end in view,
+while the amount of adjustment and attention required is beyond
+comparison in favor of the latter means.
+
+The machines adopted were of the magneto variety, and many ingenious
+machines of this class were operated with more or less success, being,
+however, quickly abandoned upon the introduction of the
+dynamo-machine, which gave currents of much greater electromotive
+force from the same amount of material, the advantage being chiefly
+due to the large increase of magnetic intensity in the field magnets.
+At this period lights of enormous power were produced with ease and by
+the use of costly lamps. With complicated mechanism a new era in
+artificial illumination seemed close at hand, but a grave difficulty
+stood in the way--namely, the proper distribution or subdivision of
+the light. It was quickly found that the electric difficulty of
+subdividing the light, added to the great cost of the lamps then made,
+was an apparently insurmountable obstacle to its general adoption, and
+the electric light was gradually taking its place as a brilliant
+scientific toy, when the world was startled by the introduction of the
+Jablochkoff candle, which may fairly claim to have given a greater
+impetus to the new light than any previous invention, a stimulus
+without which it is even probable that electric lighting might have
+slumbered for another decade.
+
+The Jablochkoff candle embodies a very beautiful philosophical
+principle, and though its promises have not been fulfilled in general
+practice, we must not forget that we owe it much for arousing
+scientific men from a dangerous lethargy.
+
+Up to this time the light had always been produced by approximation of
+carbon rods with their axes in the same plane; but the Jablochkoff
+candle consisted of like rods arranged parallel to each other and
+about one-eighth of an inch apart, the intervening space being filled
+with plaster of Paris, and the interval at the top bridged by a
+conducting medium. The object of the plaster, which is a fairly good
+insulating material at ordinary temperatures, is to prevent the
+passage of the current except at the top, where the conducting
+material just referred to assisted the formation of the arc at that
+point, and the resulting intense heat maintained the plaster in a
+moderately conducting state until the whole carbon was consumed. Here,
+then, was literally an electric "candle," which could be operated
+without the costly and unsteady lamps, and fortunately its birthplace
+was Paris--then the center of philosophical research; from that period
+the future of electric lighting was assured.
+
+When we reflect that owing to the greater disruptive energy of the
+positive terminal, the carbon so connected to an ordinary dynamo
+machine is consumed very much faster than the negative--sometimes in
+the ratio of 3 to 1--it will be clear that some other means of
+consuming the Jablochkoff candle had to be used, since the arc would
+cease to exist in a very short time by reason of the unequal
+consumption of the carbons, and the subsequent increase of the
+intervening space beyond the limit of the current tension.
+
+This difficulty M. Gramme overcame with characteristic ingenuity by
+adding to the ordinary system a "distributer" capable of delivering
+plus and minus currents alternately, thus equalizing the consumption,
+besides being able to supply a large number of candles on the multiple
+circuit system, each circuit supporting four or five lamps. Thus it
+will be seen that a result was attained which at least gave such men
+as Siemens, Gramme, and their peers, if such there be, confidence in
+the future and a courage which quickly placed the new science safely
+beyond the limits of the laboratory. I will not occupy your time by
+stating the apparent reasons why the Jablochkoff candle has not fully
+sustained its brilliant promise--it will, perhaps, be sufficient to
+state that it is now superseded practically, though it must always
+occupy an honorable place in scientific annals.
+
+Let us now for a few moments consider what the electric light really
+accomplished at about this period, I mean from an economical
+standpoint. It appears from some data furnished by an engineer
+commissioned by the French Government that the machines were then
+capable of maintaining a light equal to from 220 to 450 candles,
+measured by comparison with the Carcel burner, per horse power
+absorbed--a very good showing considering the youth of the discovery,
+but presenting rather a gloomy aspect when we consider that according
+to Joule's mechanical equivalent of heat, which is 772 foot pounds, or
+the power required to raise one pound of water one degree--and for
+lack of anything better, we are obliged to accept that at this
+moment--the whole force contained in one pound of coal would maintain
+a light equal to 13,000 candles for one hour! That is the ultimate
+force, and what we are now able to accomplish is but a small fraction
+of this amount.
+
+Unfortunately we are but common mortals, and cannot, like Mr. Keely,
+lightly throw off the trammels of natural law; we must, therefore,
+endeavor to close this gap by patient study and experiment.
+
+The limited time at my disposal, and a keen consideration for your
+feelings, will not permit me to follow the long series of struggles
+between mind and matter immediately following Jablochkoff's brilliant
+invention; suffice it to say, that the few years just passed have
+yielded beyond comparison the most marvelous results in the scientific
+history of the world, and it will be superfluous to remind you that a
+great part of this has undoubtedly been due to the researches made in
+an effort to reduce electric lighting to a commercial basis. To say
+that this has been fully accomplished is but to repeat a well known
+fact; and in proof of this I quote a high scientific authority by
+stating that a result so high as 4,000 candles evolved for 40,000
+foot-pounds absorbed has recently been obtained--an efficiency six or
+seven times greater than the record of six years ago. In accepting
+this statement we must not lose sight of the extreme probability that
+such effects were evolved under conditions rarely if ever found in
+common practice. Of course, I now refer to the arc system. The volume
+of light so generated is incomparably greater than by any other known
+method, though in subdivision the limit is sooner reached.
+
+Mr. Hawkesworth--Let me ask you a question, please. Supposing that it
+required a one-horse power to produce an arc light of, say, 2,000
+candles, would it be possible to produce ten arc lights of 200 candles
+each?
+
+Mr. Daft--No, sir; I will tell you why. It would, if no other element
+than the simple resistance of the arcs opposed the passage of a
+current; then a machine that would produce an inch arc in one light,
+if placed on a circuit of sixteen lamps would give to each an arc
+one-sixteenth of an inch long naturally; but another difficulty here
+presents itself in the shape of a resisting impulse of considerable
+electromotive force in the opposite direction, apparently caused by
+the intense polarity of the two terminals. The resistance of the arc
+itself varies much according to the volume of current used being
+usually small with a large quantity of current, and greater with a
+current of tension; but this opposing element is always found, and
+appears to be the only real obstacle in the way of infinite
+subdivision.
+
+Almost every objection which human ingenuity could suggest has been
+urged against lighting by electricity, but fortunately electricians
+have been able in most cases either to meet the difficulty or prove it
+groundless.
+
+In this connection I am led to speak of the common idea that electric
+light is injurious to the eyes, first, because of its unsteady
+character, and secondly, by reason of the great excess of the more
+refrangible rays. Both objections undoubtedly hold good where the
+alleged causes exist; but we can now show you a light which is
+certainly as steady as the ordinary gaslight--indeed more steady in an
+apartment where even feeble currents of air circulate; and I am sure
+you will readily acknowledge that the latter objection is disposed of
+when I assure you that our light presents the only example with which
+I am acquainted of an exact artificial reproduction of the solar
+light, as shown by decomposition. The two spectra, placed side by
+side, show in the most conclusive manner the identity in composition
+of our light with that of the sun.
+
+The remarkable coolness of the electric light, as compared with its
+volume by gas, is also due in a great measure to the conspicuous
+absence of that large excess of less refrangible, or heat-radiating
+principle, which distinguishes almost equally all other modes of
+artificial illumination. After the foregoing statement it may seem a
+paradox to claim that the electric arc develops the greatest heat with
+which we have yet had to deal, but this is so; and the heat has an
+intensity quite beyond the reach of accurate measurement by any
+instrument now known--it has been variously estimated anywhere between
+5,000 deg. and 50,000 deg. F. It is sufficient for our present purpose to know
+that the most refractory substances quickly disappear when brought
+under its influence--even the imperial diamond must succumb in a short
+time. In order to reconcile this fact with its coolness as an
+illuminating agent, we have to take into consideration the extreme
+smallness of the point from which the light radiates in the electric
+arc. A light having the power of many thousand candles will expose but
+a fraction of the surface for heat radiation which is shown by one
+gas-jet, and, as I have endeavored to explain, these rays contain very
+much less of the heating principle than those from gas or other
+artificial light.
+
+The purity of electric light has another important aspect, which can
+scarcely be overestimated--namely, the facility with which all the
+most delicate shades of color can be distinguished. I understand from
+persons better skilled than myself in such matters that this can be
+done almost as readily by electric as by day light, and I have little
+doubt that the slight difference in this respect will entirely
+disappear when people become somewhat more familiar with the different
+conditions--the effect of such shades viewed by electric light being
+more like that with comparatively feeble direct sunlight than the
+subdued daylight usually prevailing in stores and warehouses.
+
+Again, it has frequently been urged that persons working by electric
+light have thus induced inflammation of the eyes. No doubt this is so
+with light containing the highly refrangible rays in excess; but it is
+difficult to see how such an effect can occur with light composed as
+is the light with which the eyes are constructed to operate in perfect
+harmony.
+
+As you are aware, there are other methods of obtaining light by
+electric energy, and in order to make a fair comparison of one which
+has lately attracted a great deal of attention and capital, I will
+relate to you the result of observations made during a recent visit to
+the office of an eminent electrician. The light was that known as
+incandescent--a filament of carbon raised to a light-emitting heat in
+vacuo. The exclusion of the air is necessary to prevent the otherwise
+rapid destruction of the carbon by combination with oxygen. At the
+time of my visit there were 62 lamps in circuit. According to their
+statement each lamp was of 16-candle power--I accept their statement
+as correct; this will give us an aggregate of 992 candles. The
+generator was vitalized by an engine rated by the attendants in charge
+at 6-horse power. I found that it was a 5x7 cylinder, working with
+very little expansion 430 revolutions per minute, with 90 pounds of
+live steam, in a boiler not 15 feet from the engine. I have every
+reason to believe that the steam was delivered at the cylinder with an
+almost inappreciable loss on 90 pounds. Under those conditions I think
+it is perfectly fair to assume (you have the data, so that you can
+calculate it afterwards) that 750,000 foot pounds were consumed in
+producing those 60 lights, aggregating 992 candles. In the kind of
+engine they had, 750,000 foot pounds requires a consumption of about
+100 pounds of coal per hour. It was an ordinary high speed engine.
+That 750,000 foot pounds, I assume, required 100 pounds of coal. That
+is the only weak point in my data; I do not know that to be true; but
+I never saw an engine of that form yet capable of delivering 1-horse
+power with less consumption than four to five pounds of coal per horse
+power per hour. I want to be as fair as I can in the matter. I wish to
+compare this, as they have taken particular pains to compare it, with
+gas, at the present cost of gas.
+
+The hundred pounds of coal will produce 400 feet of gas; 400 feet of
+gas will evolve the effect of 1,500 candles. So you see the position
+we are in. In consuming that coal directly by destructive distillation
+you can produce 1,500 candles light; by converting it into power, and
+then again into light by incandescence, you produce 992! Expressing
+this in other words, we may say that in producing the light from coal
+by the incandescent system you lose one-third of the power as compared
+with gas, by actually converting the coal into gas, and delivering it
+in the ordinary manner. Those are facts. It has been suggested to me
+that I am too liberal in my estimate of coal consumed--that those
+engines consume more than four or five pounds per horse power per
+hour; but I prefer to give them the benefit of the doubt.
+
+Mr. Rothschild--If I understood you correctly, this electric light
+costs more than gas?
+
+Mr. Daft--_Must_ do by this system. You cannot do better, so far as
+our philosophy goes. But this whole system of illumination, as now
+practiced is a financial fallacy.
+
+Mr. Rothschild--That is what Professor Sawyer says.
+
+Mr. Daft--The same amount of energy converted into light by our arc
+system will produce 30,000 candles. We are perfectly willing to
+demonstrate that at any time. I am free to admit that the minute
+subdivision obtained by the Edisonian, Swan, or Fox system--they do
+not differ materially--is a great desideratum; but this cannot bridge
+the financial gulf.
+
+Mr. Lendrum--Now please state what we have accomplished.
+
+Mr. Daft--Certainly; and in so doing I prefer to give our results as
+actually occurring in everyday work; and in this connection let me
+remind you that in no branch of physics are the purely experimental
+effects so well calculated to deceive, if not fairly conditioned. As
+we have seen, it is claimed on excellent authority that the equivalent
+of 4,000 candles appeared in an arc by expending 40,000 foot pounds of
+energy at the generator, but with everyday conditions it is at present
+idle to expect such efficiency. Commercially we can give by our own
+system 3,000 candles for 40,000 foot pounds absorbed; this may be done
+for an indefinite length of time and leave nothing to be desired on
+the score of steadiness. Unfortunately there is no unit of photometric
+measurement generally recognized in this country, each electrician
+having so far adopted one to suit his own convenience; but in making
+the foregoing statement I wish it to be understood that our efficiency
+would appear still greater if measured by some of the methods now
+employed. For our own satisfaction we have endeavored to be at least
+approximately accurate, at the same time wishing to avoid the
+affectation of extreme precision, such, for example, as adding twenty
+or thirty candles to measurements of so many thousands, and we are
+satisfied that the most critical expert tests will prove our claim to
+be within the mark. The limit of subdivision is only reached when the
+difficulty of further increasing the electromotive force of the
+machines, involving great care in insulation and a host of other
+troubles arising, so to speak, at very high pressure, is balanced by
+the objections to working in multiple arc; this appears to occur now
+at something below 40 lights, but will in all probability be greatly
+extended within a short time. The machines are so constructed that the
+local currents, usually productive of dangerous heating, are turned to
+useful account, so that the point where radiation exceeds production
+is soon reached, and provided the machines are not speeded beyond the
+proper limit, they may be run continuously without the slightest
+indication of lost vitality. I need scarcely remind you that this is a
+most important feature, and by no means a common one.
+
+The lamps used in our system I believe to be the simplest known form
+of regulator; indeed it seems scarcely possible that anything less
+complicated could perform the necessary work; as a matter of fact we
+may confidently assert that it cannot be made less liable to
+derangement. It has frequently been placed on circuit by persons
+totally inexperienced in such matters, and still has yielded results
+which we are quite willing to quote at any time.
+
+I will not now trespass on your patience further than will enable me
+to state that experiments now in hand indicate conclusively that
+domestic electric lighting of the immediate future will be
+accomplished in a manner more beautiful and wondrous than was ever
+shadowed in an Arabian Night's dream. I hesitate somewhat to make
+these vague allusions, since so many wild promises, for which I am not
+responsible, remain unfulfilled, but the time is surely near at hand
+when a single touch will illuminate our homes with a light which will
+combine all the elements of beauty, steadiness, softness, and absolute
+safety, to a degree as yet undreamed of. I do not ask you to accept
+this without question, but only to remember that within the last
+decade wires have been taught to convey not only articulate sounds,
+but the individual voices you know amidst a thousand, and even light
+and heat have each been made the medium of communicating our thoughts
+to distant places!
+
+Not the least remarkable phenomenon in this connection is the
+intellectual condition of the people who have welcomed these marvelous
+achievements and allowed them to enter into their everyday life, thus
+removing the greatest barriers of the past and paving the way for that
+philosophical millennium inevitably awaiting those who may be
+fortunate enough to survive the next decade.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUCCESS OF THE ELEVATED RAILWAYS, NEW YORK.
+
+The travel over the elevated steam street railways of New York city
+for month of October, 1881, was the heaviest yet recorded, aggregating
+7,121,961 passengers, as against 5,881,474, for the corresponding
+month of 1880, an increase of 1,240,487, representing just about the
+entire population of the city.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEDGES' ELECTRIC LAMPS.
+
+
+We illustrate a very curious and interesting form of electric
+regulator which is exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of Electricity by
+Mr. Killingworth Hedges, whose name will be known to our readers as
+the author of a little book on the electric light. Mr. Hedges' lamp
+belongs to the same category of electric regulators as the lamp of M.
+Rapieff, and to one form of M. Reynier's lamp, that is to say, the
+position of the ends of the carbons, and therefore of the arc, is
+determined not by clockwork or similar controlling mechanism, but by
+the locus of the geometrical intersection of the axes of the carbon
+rods, the positions of which axes being determined by simple
+mechanical means.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 1 and 2 HEDGES' ELECTRICAL LAMP AT THE PARIS
+ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+Referring to Fig. 1, A and B are two troughs rectangular in cross
+section attached to the supports in such positions that their axes are
+inclined to one another so as to form the letter V, as shown in the
+figure. Within these troughs slide freely the two carbon pencils,
+which are of circular cross section, meeting, when no current is
+passing, at the lower point, E. The carbon-holder, B, to the right of
+the figure, is rigidly attached to the framing of the lamp, but the
+trough, A, which carries the negative carbon, is attached to the
+framing by a pivot shown in the figure, and on this pivot the carbon
+holder can rock, its motion being controlled by the position of the
+armature of an electro-magnet, M, the coils of which are included in
+the circuit of the apparatus. By this means, the moment the current is
+established through the lamp, the armature is attracted, and the
+points of the two carbons are separated, thus forming the arc. The
+positive carbon, B, is held from sliding and dropping through the
+trough by the gentle pressure against it of the smaller carbon rod,
+C¹, which also slides in a trough or tube fixed in such a position
+that the point of contact between the two rods is sufficiently near
+the arc for the smaller rod to be slowly consumed as the other is
+burnt away; the latter in that way is permitted to slide gradually
+down the trough as long as the lamp is in action. The negative
+carbon-holder, A, is provided with a little adjustable platinum stop,
+E, which by pressing against the side of the conical end of the
+negative carbon, holds the latter in its place and prevents it sliding
+down the trough except under the influence of the slow combustion of
+the cone during the process of producing the arc. The position of the
+stop with respect to the conical end is determined by a small
+adjusting screw shown in the figure. This arrangement of stop is
+identical in principle with that adopted by Messrs. Siemens Brothers
+in their "abutment pole" lamp, and is found to work very well in
+practice on the negative electrodes, but is inapplicable on the
+positive carbons on account of the higher temperature of the latter,
+which is liable to destroy the metallic stop by fusion, and it is for
+this reason that the positive carbon in Mr. Hedges' lamp is controlled
+by the method we have already described. For alternating currents,
+however, the abutment stop may be used on both electrodes.
+
+[Illustration: Figs. 3 and 4.]
+
+In order to maintain a good electrical contact between the fixed
+conducting portions of the lamp and the sliding carbons, Mr. Hedges
+fits to each carbon-holder a little contact piece, F F, hinged to its
+respective trough at its upper end, and carrying at its lower or free
+end a somewhat heavy little block of brass grooved out to fit the
+cylindrical side of the carbon, against which it presses with an even
+pressure. This arrangement offers another advantage, namely, that the
+length of that portion of the carbon rods which is conveying the
+current is always the same notwithstanding the shortening of their
+total length by combustion; the resistance of the carbon electrodes
+is, therefore, maintained constant, and, for the reason that the
+contact piece presses against the rods very near their lower ends,
+that resistance is reduced to a minimum. In this way very long
+carbons, such, for instance, as will burn for ten or sixteen hours,
+can be used without introducing any increase of resistance into the
+circuit. The length of the arc can be determined by the adjustment of
+the screw, G, by which the amount of movement of the armature is
+limited.
+
+Fig. 2 represents a modified form of Mr. Hedges' lamp designed for
+installation when it is desirable to burn a number of lamps in series.
+In this arrangement the carbons are separated by the attractive
+influence of a solenoid upon an iron plunger, to which is attached (by
+a non-magnetic connection) the armature of an electro-magnet, the
+coils (which are of fine wire) forming a shunt circuit between the two
+terminals of the lamp, and so disposed with respect to the armature as
+to influence it in an opposite direction to that of the solenoid. When
+the circuit of the lamp is completed with the electric generator the
+carbons are drawn apart by the action of the solenoid on the plunger,
+and the distance to which they are separated is determined by the
+difference of attractive force exercised upon the armature by the
+solenoid and the magnet; but as the latter forms a short circuit to
+that of the arc, it follows that should the resistance of the arc
+circuit increase either through the arc becoming too long or through
+imperfection in the carbons or contacts, a greater percentage of
+current will flow through the magnet coils, and the arc will be
+shortened, thereby reducing its resistance and regulating it to the
+strength of the current. In other words, the distance between the
+carbons, that is to say, the length of the arc, is determined by the
+position of the armature of the electro-magnet between its magnets and
+the solenoid, which position is in its turn determined by the
+difference between the strength of current passing through the coil of
+the solenoid and that of the magnet.
+
+Mr. Killingworth Hedges exhibits also a third form of his lamp, in
+most respects similar to the lamp figured in Fig. 1, but in which the
+ends of the two carbons rest against the side of a small cylinder of
+fireclay or other refractory material, which is mounted on a
+horizontal axis and can be rotated thereon by a worm and worm-wheel
+actuated by an endless cord passing over a grooved pulley. In the lamp
+one of the carbon-holders is rigidly fixed to the framing of the
+apparatus, and the other is mounted on a point so as to enable the
+length of the arc playing over the clay cylinder to be regulated by
+the action of an electro-magnet attracting an armature in opposition
+to the tension of an adjustable spring.
+
+In the same exhibit will be found specimens of Mr. Hedges' two-way
+switches, which have been designed to reduce the tendency to sparking
+and consequent destruction which so often accompanies the action of
+switches of the ordinary form. The essential characteristic of this
+switch, which we illustrate in elevation in Fig. 3 and in plan in Fig.
+4, lies first in the circular form of contact-piece shown in Fig. 4,
+and next in the fact that the space between the two fixed
+contact-pieces is filled up with a block composed of compressed
+asbestos, the surface of which is flush with the upper surfaces of the
+two contact-pieces. The circular contact-piece attached to the switch
+lever can be turned round so as to present a fresh surface when that
+which has been in use shows indications of being worn, and a good firm
+contact with the fixed contact-pieces is insured by the presence of a
+spiral spring shown in the upper figure, and which, owing to an error
+in engraving, appears more like a screw than a spring. In order to
+prevent bad connection through dust or other impurities collecting
+within the joint, the electrical connection between the fulcrum of the
+switch lever and the circular contact-piece is made through the bent
+spring shown edgeways in Fig. 3.--_Engineering._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Lartigue's Switch Controller Fig.
+2--Transverse Section Fig. 3--Longitudinal Section Fig. 4.--Position
+of the Commutators during the Manuever Fig. 5.--Pedal for Sending
+Warning to Railway Crossing--Elevation. Fig. 7.--End View.
+
+Fig. 8.--Electric Alarm. Fig. 12.--Guggemos's Correspondence
+Apparatus--External View. Fig. 13.--Interior of the Same. Fig.
+14.--Annunciator Apparatus. Fig. 15.--Controller for Water Tanks
+(Lartigue System).
+
+RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.--Pedal for Sending Warning to Railway
+Crossing--Plan View. Fig. 9.--Lartigue's Bellows Pedal--Longitundinal
+Section Fig. 10.--General Plan.
+
+Fig. 16.--Controller for Water Tanks (Verite System). RAILWAY
+APPARATUS AT THE PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+_Lartigue's Switch Controller._--The object of this apparatus is to
+warn the switch tender in case the switch does not entirely respond to
+the movement of the maneuvering lever.
+
+The apparatus, which is represented in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, 3,
+and 4, consists of the following parts:
+
+(1.) A mercurial commutator, O, which is fixed on a lever, B,
+connected with a piece, A, which is applied against the external
+surface of the web of the main rails, opposite the extremity of the
+switch plates;
+
+(2.) A bar, C, which traverses the web of the rail and projects on the
+opposite side, and which carries a nut, D, against which the switch
+plate abuts;
+
+(3.) An electrical alarm and a pile, located near the switch lever.
+As long as one of the two plates of the switch is applied against the
+rail, one of the two commutators is inclined and no current passes. A
+space of one millimeter is sufficient to bring the commutator to a
+horizontal position and to cause the electric alarm to ring
+continuously. If the apparatus gets out of order, it is known at once;
+for if the alarm does not work during the maneuver of the switch, the
+tender will be warned that the electric communications are
+interrupted, and that he must consequently at once make known the
+position of his switch until the necessary repairs have been made.
+
+_Pedals for Transmitting Signals to Crossings._--On railways having a
+double track and doing a large amount of business it becomes very
+necessary to announce to the flagmen at railway crossings the approach
+of trains, so as to give them time to stop all crossing of the tracks.
+On railway lines provided with electro-semaphores there may be used
+for this purpose those small apparatus that have been styled semaphore
+repeaters.
+
+Mr. Lartigue has invented two automatic apparatus, by means of which
+the train itself signals its approach.
+
+1. The first of these, which is generally placed at about 6,000 feet
+from the point to be covered, consists (Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8) of a
+very light pedal fixed to the inside of the rail, and acting upon a
+mercurial commutator. A spring, R, carried upon the arm, a, of a
+lever, A, projects slightly above the level of the rail, while the
+other arm, b, carries a commutator.
+
+The spring, R, on being depressed tilts the box containing the
+mercury, closes the circuit, and causes an alarm, S, located at the
+crossing, to immediately ring. In this alarm (Fig. 8) a piece, P, is
+disconnected by the passage of the current into the electro-magnet, E,
+which attracts the armature, a, and, a permanent current being set
+up, the apparatus operates like an ordinary alarm, until the piece, P,
+is placed by hand in its first position again.
+
+2. The second apparatus, exhibited by the Railway Company of the
+North, and also the invention of Mr. Lartigue, bears the name of the
+"Bellows Pedal." It consists (Figs. 9 and 10) of a pedal, properly so
+called, P, placed along the rail, one of its extremities forming a
+lever and the other being provided with a counterpoise, C. When a
+train passes over the pedal, the arm, B, fixed to its axle, on falling
+closes the circuit of an ordinary electrical alarm, and at the same
+time the bellows, S, becomes rapidly filled with air, and, after the
+passage of the train, is emptied again very slowly under the action of
+the counterpoise. The contact is thus kept up for some few minutes.
+This apparatus works very satisfactorily, but is cumbersome and
+relatively high-priced.
+
+_The Brunot Controller as a Controller of the Passage of Trains._--The
+Brunot Controller, which has been employed for several years on the
+Railway of the North, is designed to control the regularity of the
+running of trains, and to make automatically a contradictory
+verification of the figures on the slips carried by the conductors. In
+Fig. 11 we give a longitudinal section of the apparatus. It consists
+of a wooden case containing a clockwork movement, H, upon the axle of
+which is mounted a cardboard disk, C, divided into hours and minutes,
+and regulated like a watch, that is to say, making one complete
+revolution in twelve hours. The metallic pencil, c, which is capable
+of displacing itself on the cardboard in a horizontal direction
+opposite a groove on the other side of the disk, traces, when pressure
+is brought to bear on it, a spiral curve. The transverse travel of
+the pencil is effected in ninety-six hours. The displacement of the
+pencil is brought about by means of a cam. Under the influence of the
+jarring of the train in motion, a weight, P, suspended from a flexible
+strip, l, strikes against the pencil, c, which traces a series of
+points. During stoppages there is, of course, an interruption in the
+tracing of the curve.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Brunot's Controller. RAILWAY APPARATUS AT THE
+PARIS ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.]
+
+Up to this point no electricity is involved--the apparatus is simply a
+controller of regularity. Mr. Brunot has conceived the idea of
+utilizing his apparatus for controlling the passage of trains at
+certain determined points on the line; for example, at the top of
+heavy grades. For this purpose it has only been necessary to add to
+the apparatus that we have just described an electro-magnet, E,
+connected electrically with a fixed contact located on the line. When
+the current passes, that is to say, at the moment the circuit is
+closed by the passage of a train, the armature, A, is attracted, and
+the pencil marks a point on the cardboard disk. This modification of
+the apparatus has not as yet been practically applied.
+
+_Electrical Corresponding Apparatus._--The object of these apparatus
+is to quickly transmit to a distance a certain number of phrases that
+have been prepared in advance. The Company of the North employs two
+kinds of correspondence apparatus--the Guggemos and the annunciator
+apparatus.
+
+1. _The Guggemos Apparatus._--This apparatus serves at once as a
+manipulator and receiver, and consists of an inner movement surmounted
+by a dial, over the face of which moves an index hand. Around the
+circumference of the dial there is arranged a series of circular
+cases, C, containing the messages to be received, and similar
+triangular cases, containing the messages to be forwarded, radiating
+from the center of the dial. Between each of these there is a button,
+b.
+
+Fig. 13 represents the interior of an apparatus for twenty messages.
+It consists of a key-board, M, an electro-magnet, B, a clock-work
+movement, Q, an escapement, s, and an interrupter, F G.
+
+When one of the buttons, b, is pressed, one of the levers of the
+key-board arrangement touches the disk, M, which is insulated from the
+other portions of the key-board, and the current then passes from the
+terminal C to M, and there bifurcating, one portion of it goes to the
+bobbins of the apparatus and thence to the earth, while the other goes
+to actuate the correspondence apparatus. The index-hands of the two
+apparatus thereupon begin their movement simultaneously, and only stop
+when the pressure is removed from the button and the current is
+consequently interrupted. H is a ratchet-wheel, which, like the
+key-board, is insulated from the rest of the apparatus. The button, K,
+located over each of the dials, serves to bring the index-needles back
+to their position under the cross shown in Fig. 12. The key, X, serves
+for winding up the clock-work movement.
+
+_The Annunciator Apparatus._--This apparatus, which performs the same
+role as the one just described, is simply an ingenious modification of
+the annunciator used in hotels, etc.
+
+It consists of a wooden case, containing as many buttons as there are
+phrases to be exchanged. Over each button, b, there is a circular
+aperture, behind which drops the disk containing the phrase. Between
+the buttons and the apertures are rectangular plates, P, in which are
+inscribed the answers given by pressing on the button of the receiving
+tablet--a pressure which, at the same time, removes the corresponding
+disk from the aperture. Two disks located at the upper part carry
+these inscriptions: "Error, I repeat;" "Wait." The tablets on
+exhibition have eight disks, and can thus be used for exchanging six
+different phrases. In the interior, opposite each aperture, there is a
+Hughes magnet, between the arms of which there oscillates a vertical
+soft-iron rod, carrying a disk. The maneuver "is simple." By pressing
+upon a button there is sent into the bobbins of the magnet
+corresponding to this button a current which causes the disk to appear
+before one of the apertures, while at the same time an alarm begins to
+ring. The same maneuver performed by the agent at the receiving-post
+has the effect of causing the disk to disappear. The two contact
+springs in communication at each aperture with the alarm and the line
+are connected by a strip of ebonite, M, against the center of which
+presses the button.
+
+_Electrical Controllers for Water-Tanks._--The object of these
+apparatus is to warn the person in charge of a water-tank that the
+latter is full, and that he must stop the engine-pump; or, that the
+tank is empty, and that he must at once proceed to fill it. The
+Company of the North has on exhibition two such apparatus--one of them
+Lartigue's, and the other Verite's.
+
+1. _The Lartigue Controller_ (Fig. 15).--This apparatus consists of a
+long lever, A, which carries at one of its extremities a funnel, E,
+having a very narrow orifice and which is placed under the overflow
+pipe of the tank. The lever is kept normally in a horizontal position
+by a counterpoise; but, as soon as the overflow runs into the funnel,
+the weight of the water tilts the lever, and the mercurial commutator,
+F, closes the circuit of a pile, which actuates an alarm-bell located
+near the pump and engine. The two stops, a and _a'_, limit the play
+of the lever.
+
+2. _The Verite Controller_ (Fig. 16).--This apparatus consists of a
+float, F, provided with a catch, C, calculated in such a way as to act
+only when the float has reached a certain definite height. At that
+moment it lifts the extremity of the weighted lever, E, which in
+falling back acts upon the extremity, a, of another lever, N,
+pivoted at the point, O. The piece, P, which is normally in contact
+with the magnet, A, being suddenly detached by this movement of the
+lever, N, the induced current which is then produced causes the
+display, near the pump, of a disk, Q, upon which is inscribed the word
+"Full." This is a signal to stop pumping.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE TELEPHONIC HALLS OF THE ELECTRICAL EXHIBITION.
+
+
+Telephonic communication between the Opera and the Exhibition of
+Electricity is obtained by means of twenty conducting wires, which are
+divided between two halls hung with carpets to deaden external noises.
+We represent in the accompanying engraving one of these halls, and the
+one which is lighted by the Lane-Fox system of lamps. As may be seen,
+there are affixed against the hangings, all around the room, long
+mahogany boards, to which are fastened about twenty small tablets
+provided with hooks, from which are suspended the telephones. The
+latter are connected with the underground conductors by extensible
+wires which project from the wooden wainscot of which we have just
+spoken, so that it is very easy for the auditors to put the telephones
+to their ears.
+
+[Illustration: ONE OF THE TELEPHONIC HALLS AT THE ELECTRICAL
+EXHIBITION.]
+
+As the telephones are connected in series of eight with the same
+couple of microphone transmitters, and as each of these transmitting
+couples occupies a different position on the stage, it results that
+the effects are not the same at different points of each hall. Those
+telephones, for example, which correspond with the foot-lights of the
+theater are more affected by the sounds of the large instnuments of
+the orchestra than those which occupy the middle of the foot-lights;
+but, as an offset to this, the latter are affected by the voice of the
+prompter. In order to equalize the effects as much as possible, Mr.
+Ader has arranged it so that the two transmitters of each series shall
+be placed under conditions that are diametrically opposite. Thus, the
+transmitter at the end of the foot-lights, on the left side,
+corresponds with the transmitter of the series to the right, nearest
+to the middle of the stage; and the arrangement is the same, but in an
+inverse direction, for the transmitter at the end of the foot-lights
+to the right. But the series which produces the best effects is, as
+may be readily comprehended, that which corresponds with the
+transmitters occupying the middle of the right and left rows. These
+considerations easily explain the different opinions expressed by
+certain auditors in relation to the predominant sounds that they have
+heard, and why it is that some of them who have listened in different
+parts of the same hall have not had the same impressions. Naturally,
+the fault has beeen laid to the telephones; but, although these may
+vary in quality, it is more particularly to the arrangement of the
+transmitters on the stage that are to be attributed the differences
+that are noted.
+
+As the Opera does not give representations every day, Mr. Ader has had
+the idea of occupying the attention of the public on Tuesday,
+Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday with the telephonic effects of
+flourishes of trumpets, which imitate pretty well the effects of
+French horns. These experiments have taken place in the hall in which
+is installed the little theater, and we must really say that in the
+effects produced French horns count for nothing.--_La Lumiere
+Electrique._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ACTION OF COLD ON THE VOLT
+
+
+When the voltaic arc plays between two metallic rheophores, of copper
+for instance, each formed of a U-tube traversed by a rapid current of
+cold water, and placed horizontally opposite each other, the following
+facts are observed: The luminous power of the arc is considerably
+weakened; it is reduced to a mere luminous point even when a current
+of 50 to 75 Bunsen elements of the large pattern is employed. The arc
+is very unstable and the least breath is sufficient to extinguish it.
+If a leaf of paper is placed above the arc at the distance of 0.004 to
+0.005 meter a black point is produced in a few moments, which spreads
+and becomes a perforation, but the paper does not ignite. The arc
+consists of a luminous globule, moving between the two rheophores up
+and down and back again. The form of this globule, as well as its
+extreme mobility, causes it to resemble a drop of water in a
+spheroidal state. If we approach to the voltaic arc the south pole of
+a magnet the arc is attracted to such a degree that it leaves the
+rheophores and is extinguished. The same facts are observed in an
+intense form on presenting the north pole of a magnet to the arc. The
+quantity of ozone seems greater than when the arc is not refrigerated.
+It is to be noted that notwithstanding the refrigeration of the
+rheophores the flame of the arc is slightly green, proving that a
+portion of the copper is burning. It becomes a question whether the
+arc would be produced on taking as rheophores two tubes of platinum in
+which is caused to circulate, e.g., alcohol cooled to -30 deg..--_D.
+Tommasi._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+WATCHMAN'S DETECTER.
+
+
+We herewith illustrate an exceedingly simple form of detecter, to show
+if the night watchmen perform their visits regularly and punctually.
+In the case, C, is a clockwork apparatus driving the axle, S, at the
+end of which is a worm which gears into the wheel of the drum, D. The
+rotation of D, thus obtained unrolls a strip of paper from the other
+drum, D. This paper passes over the poles of as many electro-magnets
+as there are points to be visited, and underneath the armatures of
+these electro-magnets. Each armature has a sharp point fixed on its
+under side, and when a current passing through the coils causes the
+attraction of the armature, this point perforates the paper. The
+places to be visited are connected electrically with the binding
+screws shown, and the watchman has merely to press a button to make
+the electric circuit complete. It has been found in practice that
+plain paper answers every purpose, as the clock giving an almost
+uniform motion enables the reader, after having seen the perforated
+slips once or twice, to determine fairly well the time which elapses
+between each pressure of the button.--_The Engineer._
+
+[Illustration: WATCHMAN'S DETECTER]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INTEGRATING APPARATUS.
+
+
+At a recent meeting of the London Physical Society, Mr. C. Vernon Boys
+read a paper on "Integrating Apparatus." After referring to his
+original "cart" machine for integrating, described at a former meeting
+of the society, he showed how he had been led to construct the new
+machine exhibited, in which a cylinder is caused to reciprocate
+longitudinally in contact with a disk, and give the integral by its
+rotation. Integrators were of three kinds: (1) radius machines; (2)
+cosine machines; (3) tangent machines. Sliding friction and inertia
+render the first two kinds unsuitable where there are delicate forces
+or rapid variation in the function to be integrated. Tangent machines
+depend on pure rolling, and the inertia and friction are
+inappreciable. They are, therefore, more practical than the other
+sort. It is to this class that Mr. Boys' machines belong. The author
+then described a theoretical tangent integrator depending on the
+mutual rolling of two smoke rings, and showed how the steering of a
+bicycle or wheelbarrow could be applied to integrate directly with a
+cylinder either the quotient or product of two functions. If the
+tangent wheel is turned through a right angle at starting, the machine
+will integrate reciprocals, or it can be made to integrate functions
+by an inverse process. If instead of a cylinder some other surface of
+evolution is employed as an integrating surface, then special
+integrations can be effected. He showed a polar planimeter in which
+the integrating surface is a sphere. A special use of these
+integrators is for finding the total work done by a fluid pressure
+reciprocating engine. The difference of pressure on the two sides of
+the piston determines the tangent of the inclination of the tangent
+wheel which runs on the integrating cylinder; while the motion of the
+latter is made to keep time with that of the piston. In this case the
+number of evolutions of the cylinder measures the total amount of work
+done by the engine. The disk cylinder integrator may also be applied
+to find the total amount of work transmitted by shafting or belting
+from one part of a factory to another. An electric current meter may
+be made by giving inclination to the disk, which is for this purpose
+made exceedingly small and delicate, by means of a heavy magnetic
+needle deflected by the current. This, like Edison's, is a direction
+meter; but a meter in which no regard is paid to the direction of the
+current can be made by help of an iron armature of such a shape that
+the force with which it is attracted to fill the space between the
+poles of an electro-magnet is inversely as its displacement. Then by
+resisting this motion by a spring or pendulum the movement is
+proportional to the current, and a tangent wheel actuated by this
+movement causes the reciprocating cylinder on which it runs to
+integrate the current strength. Mr. Boys exhibited two such electric
+energy meters, that is, machines which integrate the product of the
+current strength by the difference of potential between two points
+with respect to time. In these the main current is made to pass
+through a pair of concentric solenoids, and in the annular space
+between these is hung a solenoid, the upper half of which is wound in
+the opposite direction to the lower half. By the use of what Mr. Boys
+calls "induction traps" of iron, the magnetic force is confined to a
+small portion of the suspended solenoid, and by this means the force
+is independent of the position. The solenoid is hung to one end of a
+beam, and its motion is resisted by a pendulum weight, by which the
+energy meters may be regulated like clocks to give standard measure.
+The beam carries the tangent wheels, and the rotation of the cylinder
+gives the energy expanded in foot-pounds or other measures. The use of
+an equal number of turns in opposite directions on the movable
+solenoid causes the instrument to be uninfluenced by external magnetic
+forces. Mr. Boys showed on the screen an image of an electric arc, and
+by its side was a spot of light, whose position indicated the energy,
+and showed every flicker of the light and fluctuation of current in
+the arc. He showed on the screen that if the poles are brought too
+near the energy expended is less, though the current is stronger, and
+that if the poles are too far apart, though the electromotive force is
+greater the energy is less; so that the apparatus may be made to find
+the distance at which the greatest energy, and so the greatest heat
+and light, may be produced.
+
+At the conclusion of the paper, Prof. W.G. Adams and Prof. G.C. Foster
+could not refrain from expressing their high admiration of the
+ingenious and able manner in which Mr. Boys had developed the subject.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A CANAL BOAT PROPELLED BY AIR.
+
+
+A novelty in canal boats lies in Charles River, near the foot of
+Chestnut street, which is calculated to attract considerable
+attention. It is called a pneumatic canal boat and was built at
+Wiscasset, Me., as devised by the owner, Mr. R.H. Tucker, of Boston,
+who claims to hold patents for its design in England and the United
+States. The specimen shown on Charles River, which is designed to be
+used on canals without injuring the banks, is a simple structure,
+measuring sixty-two feet long and twenty wide. It is three feet in
+depth and draws seventeen inches of water. It is driven entirely by
+air, Root's blower No. 4 being used, the latter operated by an
+eight-horse-power engine. The air is forced down a central shaft to
+the bottom, where it is deflected, and, being confined between keels,
+passes backward and upward, escaping at the stern through an orifice
+nineteen feet wide, so as to form a sort of air wedge between the boat
+and the surface of the water. The force with which the air strikes the
+water is what propels it. The boat has a speed of four miles an hour,
+but requires a thirty-five-horsepower engine to develop its full
+capabilities. The patentee claims a great advantage in doing away with
+the heavy machinery of screws and side-wheels, and believes that the
+contrivance gives full results, in proportion to the power employed.
+It is also contrived for backing and steering by air propulsion.
+Owing to the slight disturbance which it causes to the water, it is
+thought to be very well adapted for work on canals without injury to
+the sides.--_Boston Journal._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HEAD LININGS OF PASSENGER CARS.
+
+
+The veneer ceilings are considered as much superior to cloth as cloth
+was to the roof-ceiling. They are remarkably chaste, and so solid and
+substantial that but little decoration is necessary to produce a
+pleasing effect. The agreeable contrast between the natural grain of
+the wood and the deeper shade of the bands and mouldings is all that
+is necessary to harmonize with the other parts of the interiors of
+certain classes of cars--smoking and dining cars, for example. But in
+the case of parlor and dining-room cars, the decorations of these
+ceilings should be in keeping with the style of the cars, by giving
+such a character to the lines, curves, and colors, as will be
+suggestive of cheerfulness and life. While these head linings are
+deserving of the highest commendation as an important improvement upon
+previous ones, they are still open to some objections. One barrier to
+their general adoption is their increased cost. It is true that
+superior quality implies higher prices, but when the prices exceed so
+much those of cloth linings, it is difficult to induce road managers
+to increase expenses by introducing the new linings, when the great
+object is to reduce expenses. Another objection to wood linings is
+their liability to injury from heat and moisture, a liability which
+results from the way in which they are put together. A heated roof or
+a leak swells the veneering, and in many cases takes it off in strips.
+To obviate these objections, I have, during the past eighteen months,
+been experimenting with some materials that would be less affected by
+these causes, and at the same time make a handsome ceiling. About a
+year ago I fitted up one car in this way, and it has proved a success.
+The material used is heavy tar-board pressed into the form of the roof
+and strengthened by burlaps. It is then grained and decorated in the
+usual manner, and when finished has the same appearance as the
+veneers, will wear as well, and can be finished at much less
+cost.--_D.D. Robertson._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+IMPROVED MORTAR MIXER.
+
+
+The engravings herewith illustrate a new form of mixing or pugging
+machine for making mortar or any other similar material. It has been
+designed by Mr. R.R. Gubbins, more especially for mixing emery with
+agglutinating material for making emery wheels; and a machine is at
+work on this material in the manufactory of the Standard Emery Wheel
+Company, Greek Street, Soho. The machine is shown in perspective in
+Fig. 1 with the side door of the mixing box let down as it is when the
+box is being emptied; and in Fig. 2 it is shown in transverse section.
+The principle of the machine is the employment of disks fixed at an
+angle of about 45 deg. on shafts revolving in a mixing box, to which a
+slow reciprocating movement of short range is given.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 1 and 2--IMPROVED MORTAR MIXING
+MACHINE.]
+
+In our illustrations, C is a knife-edge rail, upon which run grooved
+wheels supporting the pugging box. To the axle of one grooved wheel a
+connecting rod from crank arm, F is attached to effect the to-and-fro
+motion of the mixing box, B. G is the door of the box, B, hinged at H,
+and secured by hinged pins carrying fly nuts. A cover and hopper and
+also a trap may be supplied to the box, B, for continuously feeding
+and discharging the material operated upon. L, L, are the pugging
+blades or discs on shafts, M. The shafts, M, pass through a slot in
+the box, B, and the packing of these shafts is effected by the face
+plate sliding and bearing against the face on the standard of the
+machine. P is a guide piece on the standard, against which bears and
+slides the piece, Q, bolted on to box, B, to support and guide the
+box, B, in its movement. The forked ends of a yoke engage with the
+collars, S, on the shafts, M, this yoke being set by a screw so that
+the shafts may be easily removed. The machine is driven from the
+pulleys and shaft, T, through gearing, T2 and T3, and by the Ewart's
+chain on the wheel and pinion, V and U.--_The Engineer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 311, page 4960.]
+
+
+
+
+PRACTICAL NOTES ON PLUMBING.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: From the London _Building News_.]
+
+BY P.J. DAVIES, H.M.A.S.P., ETC.
+
+
+TINNING IRON PIPES, COPPER OR BRASS-WORK, BITS, ETC.
+
+Previously, I described the method of tinning the bit, etc., with
+resin; but before this work on joints can be considered complete, I
+find it necessary to speak of tinning the ends of iron pipes, etc.,
+which have within the last fifty years been much used in conjunction
+with leaden pipes. This is done as follows: Take some spirits of salts
+(otherwise known as hydrochloric acid, muriatic acid, hydrogen
+chloride, HCl), in a gallipot, and put as much sheet-zinc in it as the
+spirit will dissolve; you have then obtained chloride of zinc (ZnCl).
+A little care is required when making this, as the acid is decomposed
+and is spread about by the discharged hydrogen, and will rust anything
+made of iron or steel, such as tools, etc. It also readily absorbs
+ammoniacal gas, so that, in fact, sal ammoniac may also be dissolved
+in it, or sal ammoniac dissolved in water will answer the purpose of
+the chloride of zinc.
+
+Having the killed spirits, as it is sometimes called, ready, file the
+end of your iron or bit and plunge this part into the spirits, then
+touch your dipped end with some fine solder, and dip it again and
+again into the spirits until you have a good tinned face upon your
+iron, etc.; next you require a spirit-brush.
+
+
+SPIRIT-BRUSH.
+
+You can make this by cutting a few bristles out of a broom or brush,
+push them into a short piece of compo tube, say 1/4 in., and hammer up
+the end to hold the bristles; next cut the ends of the bristles to
+about 3/8 in. long, and the brush is ready for use.
+
+
+SOLDERING IRON TO LEAD.
+
+Suppose you want to make a joint round a lead and iron pipe. First
+file the end of your iron pipe as far up as you would shave it if it
+were lead, and be sure to file it quite bright and free from grease;
+heat your soldering-iron; then, with your spirit-brush, paint the
+prepared end of your iron, and with your bit, rub over the pipe plenty
+of solder, until the pipe is properly tinned, not forgetting to use
+plenty of spirits; this done, you can put your joint together, and
+wipe in the usual manner. Caution.--Do not put too much heat on your
+iron pipe, either when tinning or making the joint, or the solder will
+not take or stand.
+
+
+DUMMIES FOR PIPE-BENDING.
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 38. and 38B.]
+
+Figs. 38 and 38B. This tool I had better describe before
+proceeding to the method of bending. To make it take a piece of, say,
+1/2 in. iron pipe, 3 ft. long, or the length required, bent a little at
+one end, as shown at A B in Fig. 38 and Fig. 38B. Tin the end
+about 2 in. up, make a hole with a small plumbing-iron in some sand,
+and place the tinned end of the iron pipe, B, into this hole; fill the
+hole up with good hot lead, and the dummy, after it has been rasped up
+a little, is ready for use. It will be found handy to have three or
+four different lengths, and bent to different angles, to suit your
+work. A straight one (Fig. 38B.) made to screw into an iron
+socket or length of gas-pipe, will be found very handy for getting
+dents out of long lengths of soil-pipe.
+
+
+BENDS AND SET-OFFS.
+
+Before you begin bending solid pressed pipes always put the thickest
+part of your pipe _at the back_. Lead, in a good plumber's hands, may
+be twisted into every conceivable shape; but, as in all other trades,
+there is a right and a wrong way of doing everything, and there are
+many different methods, each having a right and wrong way, which I
+shall describe. I shall be pleased if my readers will adopt the style
+most suitable for their particular kind of work; of course I shall say
+which is the best for the class of work required.
+
+For small pipes, such as from 1/2 in. to 1 in. "_stout_ pipe," you may
+pull them round without trouble or danger; but for larger sizes, say,
+from 11/4 in. to 2 in., some little care is necessary, even in stout
+pipes.
+
+Fig. 37 illustrates a badly made bend, and also shows how it comes
+together at the throat, X, and back, E; L is the enlarged section of X
+E, looking at the pipe endways. The cause of this contraction is
+pulling the bend too quickly, and too much at a time, without dressing
+in the sides at B B as follows: After you have pulled the pipe round
+until it just begins to flatten, take a soft dresser, or a piece of
+soft wood, and a hammer, and turn the pipe on its side as at Fig. 37;
+then strike the bulged part of the pipe from X B toward E, until it
+appears round like section K. Now pull your pipe round again as
+before, and keep working it until finished. If you find that it
+becomes smaller at the bend, take a long bolt and work the throat part
+out until you have it as required.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.]
+
+
+BENDING WITH WATER (LIGHT PIPES).
+
+Fig. 39. This style of bending is much in use abroad, but not much
+practiced in London, though a splendid method of work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.]
+
+It is a well known fact that, practically speaking, for such work,
+water is incompressible, but may be turned and twisted about to any
+shape, provided it is inclosed in a solid case--Fig. 39 is that case.
+The end, A, is stopped, and the stopcock, B, soldered into the other
+end. Now fill up this pipe quite full with warm water and shut the
+cock, take the end, A, and pull round the pipe, at the same time
+dressing the molecules of lead from the throat, C, toward D E, which
+will flow if properly worked.
+
+You can hammer away as much as you please, but be quick about it, so
+that the water does not cool down, thereby contracting; in fact, you
+should open the cock now and then, and recharge it to make sure of
+this.
+
+
+SAND BENDING.
+
+This is a very old method of bending lead pipes, and answers every
+purpose for long, easy bends. Proceed in this way: The length of the
+pipe to be 5 ft., fill and well ram this pipe solid with sand 2 ft.
+up, then have ready a metal-pot of very hot sand to fill the pipe one
+foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold sand, ramming it as
+firmly as possible, stop the end and work it round as you did the
+water bend, but do not strike it too hard in one place, or you will
+find it give way and require to be dummied out again, or if you cannot
+get the dent out with the dummy send a ball through (see "Bending with
+Balls").
+
+
+BENDING WITH BALLS OR BOBBINS.
+
+This style of work is much practiced on small pipes, such as 2 in. to
+3 in., especially by London plumbers. Method: Suppose your pipe to be
+2 in., then you require your ball or bobbin about 1/16 in. less than
+the pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull the
+pipe round until it just begins to flatten, as at Fig. 37, put the
+ball into the pipe, and with some short pieces of wood (say, 2 in.
+long by 11/2 in. diameter) force the ball through the dented part of the
+pipe, or you may use several different-sized balls, as at A B C, Fig.
+40, and ram them through the pipe with a short mandrel, as at D M. You
+will require to proceed very carefully about this ramming, or
+otherwise you will most likely drive the bobbins through the back at L
+K J. You must also watch the throat part, G H I, to keep it from
+kinking or buckling-up; dress this part from the throat toward the
+back, in order to get rid of the surplus in the throat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.]
+
+
+THREE-BALL OR LEAD DRIVING BALL AND DOUBLE-BALL BENDING.
+
+Fig. 41 shows a method of bending with three balls, one of lead being
+used as a driver attached to a piece of twine. This is a country
+method, and very good, because the two balls are kept constantly to
+the work. First, put the two balls just where you require the bend,
+then pull the pipe slightly round; take the leaden ball and drop it
+on the ball, B, then turn the pipe the other end up and drop it on A,
+and do so until your bend is the required shape. You must be careful
+not to let your leaden ball touch the back of the pipe. Some use a
+piece of smaller leaden pipe run full of lead for the ball, C, and I
+do not think it at all a bad method, as you can get a much greater
+weight for giving the desired blow to your _boxwood_ balls.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.]
+
+
+BENDING WITH WINDLASS AND BRASS BALL.
+
+This is an excellent method of bending small pipes. Fig. 42 will
+almost describe itself. A is a brass or gun metal ball having a copper
+or wire rope running through it, and pulled through the flattened part
+of the pipe as shown. It will be quite as well to tack the bend down
+to the bench, as at B, when pulling the ball through; well dress the
+lead from front to back to thicken the back. I have seen some plumbers
+put an extra thickness of lead on the back before beginning to bend.
+Notice: nearly all solid pressed pipes are thicker on one side than
+the other (as before remarked), always place the thickest part at the
+back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.]
+
+
+HYDRAULIC OR CUP-LEATHER AND BALL BENDING.
+
+Fig 43. This is my own method of pipe-bending, and is very useful when
+properly handled with plenty of force, but requires great care and
+practice. You must have a union sweated on the end, A, Fig. 43, and
+the ball, B, to fit the pipe. The cup-leather, E, should have a plate
+fixed on the front to press the ball forward. Pull up the pipe as you
+please, and pump the ball through; it will take all the dents out, and
+that too very quickly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.]
+
+
+BENDING BY SPLITTING OR SPLIT-MADE BENDS.
+
+This method of bending is much practiced in the provinces, and, for
+anything I know to the contrary, is one of the best methods in use, as
+by it you are likely to get a good substance of metal on the back of
+the bend whether the plumber be a good or a bad workman. Proceed as
+follows: Cut the pipe down the center to suit the length of your bend,
+as shown at A B, Fig. 44. It will be quite as well if you first set
+out this bend on the bench, then you may measure round the back, as
+from C to L, to obtain the distance of the cut, which should always be
+three or four inches longer than the bend. You may also in this way
+obtain the correct length for the throat, G H I; here you will see
+that you have a quantity of lead to spare, i.e., from A to E, all of
+which has to be got rid of in uncut bends--some plumbers shift from
+front to back, but how many? Not one in twenty. After you have cut the
+pipe, open the throat part, bend out the sides, and pull this part
+round a little at a time, then with a dummy, Fig. 38, work the
+internal part of the throat outward to as nearly the shape as you can.
+Go carefully to work, and do not attempt to work up the sides, A D B,
+until your throat is nearly to the proper shape, after which you may
+do so with a small boxwood dresser or bossing-stick (It is not
+necessary to explain minutely what a bosser or dressing-stick is, as
+they can be bought at almost any lead-merchants--the dresser is shown
+at E, Fig. 1; the bossing-stick is somewhat similar, the only
+difference being that it has a rounded face instead of flat.) Keep the
+dummy up against the sides when truing it. If you have proceeded
+properly with this throat part, you will not require to work up the
+sides or edges, as in working the throat back the sides will come up
+by themselves. Next take the back, pull it round a little at a time,
+the dummy being held inside, with your dresser work the two edges and
+sides slowly round, and the back will follow. Never strike the back
+from the underside with the dummy. After you have made a dozen or two
+you will be able to make them as fast as you please, but do not hurry
+them at first, as the greater part of this work is only to be learned
+by patient application, perseverance, and practice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.]
+
+After you have made the bend it will require to be soldered, but
+before you can do this you must have the joint quite perfect and the
+edges true one with the other. A good bender will not require to touch
+his edges at all, but a novice will have to rasp and trim them up so
+that they come together. Having your edges true, soil them, take a
+gauge-hook, which may be described as a shave-hook with a gauge
+attached, and shave it about 1/8 in. each side; now solder it to look
+like the solder A, Fig. 45, which is done as follows: With some fine
+solder tack the joint at A D B, Fig. 44, put on some resin, and with a
+well-heated copper-bit drop some solder roughly on the point from B to
+A, then draw the bit over it again to float the solder, being
+especially careful not to let the joint open when coming off at A.
+Some plumbers think fit to begin here, but that is a matter of no
+importance. Do not forget that if your joint is not properly prepared,
+that is to say, true and even, it is sure to be a failure, and will
+have a "higgledy-piggledy" appearance. Some difference of opinion
+exists as to the best method of making these joints: one workman will
+make a good joint by drawing it while, on the other hand, another one
+will do it equally well by wiping it. Drawing will be fully explained
+in a part on pipe making. It may, however, be here mentioned that it
+is a method of making the joint by floating the solder along the joint
+with the ladle and plumbing-iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.]
+
+It is not uncommon for plumbers to make their bends with only one
+joint on the back.
+
+
+PULLING UP BENDS.
+
+In London, it is the favorite plan to make bends without cutting them.
+Fig. 46. It is done by taking a length of pipe, and, just where you
+require the bend, lay it (_with the seam at the side_) upon a pillow,
+made by tightly filling a sack with sand, wood shavings, or sawdust;
+have some shavings ready to hand and a good lath, also a short length
+of mandrel about 3 ft. long and about 1/2 in. smaller than the pipe, and
+a dummy as shown at A B, Fig. 56. Now, all being ready, put a few
+burning shavings into the throat of the bend, just to get heat enough
+to make it fizz, which you can judge by spitting on it. When this heat
+is acquired withdraw the fire, and let the laborer quickly place the
+end of the mandrel into the pipe, and pull the pipe up while you place
+a sack or anything else convenient across the throat of the bend, then
+pull the pipe up a little, just sufficient to dent it across the
+throat. Now, with a _hot_ dummy, dummy out the dent, until it is round
+like the other part of the pipe. Keep at this until your bend is made,
+occasionally turning the pipe or its side and giving it a sharp blow
+on the side with the soft or hornbeam dresser; this is when the sides
+run out as in Fig. 37. Never strike the back part of the bend from
+inside with the dummy, but work the lead from the throat to the back
+with a view to thickening the back.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.]
+
+
+SET-OFFS.
+
+A set-off is nothing more than a double bend, as shown at Fig. 47, and
+made in much the same manner. D is the long end of the pipe. Always
+make this bend first and pull it up quite square, as it will be found
+to go a little back when pulling up the other bend; if you can make
+the two together so much the better, as you can then work the stuff
+from the throat of one bend into the back of the other. The different
+shaped dummies are also here shown: F a round-nosed dummy, G a double
+bent dummy, H a single bent, I straight, J hand-dummy, ABN a long bent
+dummy shown at Fig. 38.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.]
+
+
+BAD BENDS.
+
+These can always be detected by examining them in their backs, as at
+Fig. 48; take a small dresser and tap the pipe a few times round ABD
+to test for the thickness. Strike it hard enough to just dent it; next
+strike the back part of the pipe, E, _with the same force_, and if it
+dents much more it is not an equally-made bend. I have seen some of
+these much-praised London-made bends that could be easily squeezed
+together by the pressure of the thumb and finger. N.B.--Care must be
+taken not to reduce or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.]
+
+
+BAD FALLS IN BENDS.
+
+The fall given in bending lead pipes should be considered of quite as
+much importance as making the bends of equal thickness especially for
+pipes, as shown in Fig. 49. In this Fig. you have a drawing of a bad
+bend. From A to B there is no fall whatever, as also from B to C; such
+bending is frequently done and fixed in and about London, which is
+not only more work for the plumber, but next to useless for
+soil-pipes. Fig. 50 shows how this bend should be made with a good
+fall from A to J, also from M to N; the method of making these bends
+requires no further explanation. R, P, and K are the turnpins for
+opening the ends, the method of which will be explained in a future
+paragraph on "Preparing for Fixing."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.]
+
+
+BENDS MADE INTO TRAPS OR RETARDERS.
+
+It will sometimes be found requisite to retard the flow of water when
+running through soil or other pipes, or to direct it to another
+course, or even to form a trap in the length of pipe. This has been
+done in many ways, but Figs. 51 and 52 represent the method that I,
+after mature consideration, think most preferable. There is nothing
+new about this style of bending, as it has been long in vogue with
+provincial plumbers, but more especially in Kent. For many years it
+has had a run as a sink and slop closet-trap. Mr. Baldwin Latham, in
+his "Sanitary Engineering," says it was introduced and has been used
+for the Surrey and Kent sewers from about 1848.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.]
+
+I have also noticed many of these traps in the Sanitary Exhibition at
+South Kensington, made by Graham and Fleming, plumbers, who deserve a
+medal for their perseverance and skill, not only for the excellence of
+their bends, but also for some other branches of the trade, such as
+joint-wiping, etc., which is unquestionably the best work sent into
+this Exhibition--in fact, quite equal to that which was shown at the
+Exhibition of 1862. I shall treat further of these bends in an article
+on Fixing, in a future part.
+
+
+BENDS MADE WITH THE "SNARLING DUMMY."
+
+This is an American method of making lead bends. Fig. 53 shows a dummy
+made upon a bent steel rod, fixed into the bench. The method of
+working it is by first pulling up the bend, and to get out the dents,
+strike the rod of the snarling dummy, as shown at A, and the reaction
+gives a blow within the bend, throwing out the bend to any shape
+required. This method of working the dummy is also taken advantage of
+in working up embossed vases, etc.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.]
+
+_(To be continued)_
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.
+
+
+The manufacture of fabrics having woofs of different colors requires
+the use of several shuttles and boxes containing the different colors
+at the extremity of the driver's travel, in which these boxes are
+adjusted alternately either by a rectilinear motion, or by a rotary
+one when the boxes are arranged upon a cylinder. The controlling
+mechanism of the shuttles by means of draught and tie machines
+constitutes, at present, the most perfect apparatus of this nature,
+because they allow of a choice of any shuttles whatever.
+
+[Illustration: THE GROSSENHAIN SHUTTLE-DRIVER.]
+
+The apparatus constructed by the Grossenhainer Webstuhl und Maschinen
+Fabrik, of Grossenhain, and represented in the accompanying cut, is
+new as regards its general arrangement, although in its details it
+more or less resembles the analogous machines of Schoenherr, Crompton,
+and Hartmann. The lifting of the shuttles is effected by two sectors,
+a1, a2, arranged on the two sides of the loom, and the rotary
+motion of which acts upon the box, c, by means of the lever, b,
+the box being caused to descend again by the spring, d. Parallel
+with the breast beam there is mounted an axle, e, and upon one of
+the extremities of this is fixed the sector, a1, while the other
+extremity carries two fixed disks, f1, f2, two loose disks,
+f3, f4, and the sector, a2, which is connected with the
+latter. The disks are kept in position by a brake, g. The pawls,
+h1 and h2, are supported on a lever, i, on a level with the
+disks, and are connected with the cam, l, by the spring, k. This
+cam revolves with the axle of the loom and thrusts the pawls against
+the disk. A draught and tie machine controls the action of the pawls
+on the disks in such a way that, by the revolution of the sectors,
+a1 and a2, the shuttle-boxes, I., II., III., are brought at the
+desired moment in the way of the driver. The pawls, h, are connected
+by wires with the bent levers, m, of the draught machine, which
+carry also the pawls, n. The upper position of the pawls, h, is
+limited by the direct resting of the levers, m, on the tappet, o,
+and the lower position by the resting of the pawls, n. The plates,
+p, held by the pattern, M, are set in motion horizontally by means
+of the eccentric, q, the crank, r, and the bent lever, s. The
+raised plates abut against the corresponding levers, m, and thus
+bring about the descent of the pawls, h, which are suspended from
+these levers. This position is maintained by the resting of the
+pawls, n, upon the tappet, o, until the lowering of the
+corresponding plate has set the pawl, n, free. The lever, m, then
+gives way to the action of the spring, t, and the pawl, h, rises
+again. The rotation of the cylinder which supports the design, M, is
+effected by the motion of the bent lever, s.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDUSTRIAL ART FOR WOMEN--CARPET DESIGNING.
+
+
+A meeting of ladies was held in this city recently to consider the
+possibilities of industrial art in furnishing occupation for women.
+
+Mrs. Florence E. Cory, Principal of the Woman's Institute of Technical
+Design, which was recently established in this city, advanced the
+proposition that whatever could be done by man in decorative art could
+be done as well by women, and she made an earnest plea to her own sex
+to fit themselves by proper training to engage in remunerative
+industrial work. Mrs. Cory enjoys the distinction of being the first
+woman who ever attempted to make designs for carpets in this country.
+She said that four years ago, when she came to this city, there was no
+school at which was taught any kind of design as applied to industrial
+purposes, except at Cooper Union, where design was taught
+theoretically but not practically. During the past year or two,
+however, in many branches of industrial design women have been
+pressing to the front, and last year eighteen ladies were graduated
+from the Boston Institute of Technology. Most of these ladies are now
+working as designers for various manufacturers, eight are in print
+factories, designing for chintz and calico, two have become designers
+for oil-cloths, one is designing for a carpet company, and one for a
+china factory. Carpet designing, said Mrs. Cory, is especially fitted
+for women's work. It opens a wide field to them that is light,
+pleasant, and remunerative. The demand for good carpet designs far
+exceeds the supply, and American manufactures are sending to Europe,
+particularly England and France, for hundreds of thousands of dollars'
+worth of designs yearly. If the same quality of designs could be made
+in this country the manufacturers would gladly patronize home talent.
+One carpet firm alone pays $100,000 a year for its designing
+department, and of this sum several thousands of dollars go to foreign
+markets. More technical knowledge is required for carpet designing
+than for any other industrial design. It is necessary to have a fair
+knowledge of the looms, runnings of color, and manner of weaving.
+Hitherto this knowledge has been very difficult, if not impossible,
+for women to obtain. But now there are a few places where competent
+instruction in this branch of industrial art is given.
+
+There are several kinds of work connected with this business that may
+be done at home by those who wish, and at very fair prices. The price
+of copying an ingrain design is from $3 to $6 per sheet. The price for
+an original design of the same size is from $10 to $20. For Brussels
+or tapestry sketches, which may be made at home, provided they are as
+good as the average sketch, the artists receive from $15 to $30. For
+moquettes, Axminsters, and the higher grades of carpets some artists
+are paid as high as $200. The average price, however, is from $25 to
+$100. These designs may all be made at home, carried to the
+manufacturer, submitted to his judgment, and if approved, will be
+purchased. After the purchase, if the manufacturer desires the artist
+to put the design upon the lines and the artist chooses to do so, the
+work may still be done at home, and the pay will range from $20 to $75
+extra for each design so finished. The average length of time for
+making a design is, for ingrains, two per week; Brussels sketch, three
+per week; Brussels on the lines, one in two weeks; moquettes and
+Axminsters, one in two or three weeks, depending of course upon the
+elaborateness and size of the pattern. When the work is done at the
+designing-rooms, and the artist is required to give his or her time
+from 9 o'clock in the morning until 5 in the afternoon, the salaries
+run about as follows: For a good original ingrain designer, from
+$2,000 to $3,000 per year. A good Brussels and tapestry designer from
+$1,500 to $6,000 per year. Copyists and shaders, from $3 to $10 per
+week.
+
+Mrs. R.A. Morse advocated the establishment of schools of industrial
+art, in which there would be special departments so that young girls
+might be trained to follow some practical calling. Mrs. Dr. French
+said that unskilled labor and incompetent workmen were the bane and
+disgrace of this country, and she thought that the field of industrial
+art was very inviting to women. She disparaged the custom of
+decorating chinaware and little fancy articles, and said that if the
+time thus wasted by women was applied to the study of practical
+designing those who persevered in the latter branch of industrial art
+might earn liberal wages. Miss Requa, of the Public School Department,
+explained that elementary lessons in drawing were taught in the public
+schools. Mme. Roch, who is thoroughly familiar with industrial and
+high art in both this country and in Europe, said that if the American
+people would apply themselves more carefully to the study of designing
+they could easily produce as good work as came from abroad. The
+beauties to be seen in American nature alone surpassed anything that
+she had ever witnessed in the old countries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PHOTOGRAPHY UPON CANVAS.
+
+
+One of the most extensive establishments for the purpose is that of
+Messrs. Winter, in Vienna. They say to photographers in general: If
+you will send us a portrait, either negative or positive, we will
+produce you an enlargement on canvas worked up in monochrome. The
+success of their undertaking lies in the circumstance that they do not
+produce colored work--or, at any rate, it is exceptional on their part
+to do so--but devote their efforts to the production of an artistic
+portrait in brown or sepia. In this way they can make full use of the
+dark brown photograph itself; there is less necessity for tampering
+with the enlarged image, and natural blemishes in the model itself
+maybe softened and modified, without interfering much with the true
+lines of face and features. The monotone enlargements of Messrs.
+Winter, again, exquisitely as most of them are finished, do not appear
+to provoke the opposition of the painter; they do not cross his path,
+and hence he is more willing to do them justice. Many a would-be
+purchaser has been frightened out of his intention to buy an
+enlargement by the scornful utterance of an artist friend about
+"painted photographs," and in these days of cheap club portraits there
+is certainly much risk of good work falling into disrepute. But a
+well-finished portrait in monotone disarms the painter, and he is
+willing to concede that the picture has merit.
+
+"We cannot use English canvas, or 'shirting,' as you call it," said
+one of our hosts; "it seems to contain so much fatty matter." The
+German material, on the other hand, would appear to be fit for
+photography as soon as it had been thoroughly worked in hot water and
+rinsed. Here, in this apartment, paved with red brick, we see several
+pieces of canvas drying. It is a large room, very clean, here and
+there a washing trough, and in one corner two or three large
+horizontal baths. The appearance is that of a wash-house, except that
+all the assistants are men, and not washerwomen; there is plenty of
+water everywhere, and the floor is well drained to allow of its
+running off. We are to be favored with a sight of the whole process,
+and this is the first operation.
+
+Into one of the horizontal baths, measuring about 5 by 4 feet, is put
+the salting solution. It is a bath that can be rocked, or inclined in
+any direction, for its center rests upon a ball-and-socket joint. It
+is of _papier mache_, the inside covered with white enamel. Formerly,
+only bromine salts were employed, but now the following formula is
+adopted:
+
+Bromide of potassium................... 3 parts.
+Iodide of potassium.................... 1 part.
+Bromide of cadmium..................... 1  "
+Water................................ 240 parts.
+
+Four assistants are required in the operation, and the same number
+when it comes to sensitizing and developing, all of which processes
+are commenced in the same way. The bath is tilted so that the liquid
+collects at one end, and near this end two assistants hold across the
+bath a stout glass rod; then the canvas is dipped into the liquid, and
+drawn out by two other assistants over the glass rod. In this way the
+canvas is thoroughly saturated, and, at the same time, drained of
+superfluous liquid.
+
+The canvas is hung up to dry; but as sometime must elapse before this
+particular piece will be ready for sensitizing, we proceed with
+another canvas which is fit and proper for that process. The room, we
+should have mentioned, is provided with windows of yellow glass; but
+as there is plenty of light nevertheless, the fact hardly strikes one
+on entering. The sensitizing, with a solution of nitrate of silver, is
+conducted with a glass rod in the same way as before, the solution
+being thus compounded:
+
+Nitrate of silver........................ 4 parts.
+Citric acid.............................. 1 part.
+Water.................................. 140 parts.
+
+Again the canvas is dried, and then comes its exposure.
+
+This is done in a room adjoining. We lift a curtain and enter a space
+that reminds one of the underground regions of a theater. There are
+curtained partitions and wooden structures on every hand; dark murky
+corners combined with brilliant illumination. Messrs. Winter use the
+electric light for enlarging, a lamp of Siemens' driven by a six-horse
+power engine. The lamp is outside the enlarging room, and three large
+lenses, or condensers, on three sides of the light, permit the making
+of three enlargements at one end at the same time. (See Fig.)
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The condenser collects the rays, and these shine into a camera
+arrangement in which the small negative is contained. The enlarged
+image is then projected, magic lantern fashion, upon the screen, to
+which is fastened the sensitized canvas. The screen in question is
+upon a tramway--there are three tramways and three screens in all, as
+shown in our sketch--and for this reason it is easy to advance and
+retire the canvas, for the purpose of properly focusing it.
+
+Even with the electric light now employed, it is necessary to expose a
+considerable time to secure a vigorous impression. From ten minutes to
+half an hour is the usual period, determined by the assistant, whose
+experienced eye is the only guide. We should estimate the distance of
+the cameras from the enlarging apparatus to be about fourteen or
+fifteen feet in the instance we saw, and when the canvas was taken
+down, a distinct outline of the image was visible on its surface.
+
+By the way, we ought to mention that the canvas is in a decidedly limp
+state during these operations. It has just sufficient stiffness to
+keep smooth on the screen, and that is all; the treatment it has
+received appears to have imparted no increase of substance to it.
+Again it is brought into the red-brick washing apartment, and again
+treated in one of the white enameled baths as before. This time it is
+the developer that is contained in the bath, and the small limp
+tablecloth--for that is what it looks like--after being drawn over the
+glass rod, is put back into the bath, and the developing solution
+rocked to and fro over it. The whiteness of the bath lining assists
+one in forming a judgment of the image as it now gradually develops
+and grows stronger. Here is the formula of the developer:
+
+Pyrogallic acid......................... 10 parts.
+Citric acid............................. 45 "
+Water...................................410 "
+
+The developer--which, it will be noted, is very acid--is warmed before
+it is used, say to a temperature of 30 deg. to 40 deg. C.; nevertheless, the
+development does not proceed very quickly. As we watched, exactly
+eight minutes elapsed before Mr. Winter cried out sharply, "That will
+do." Immediately one of the assistants seizes the wet canvas, crumples
+it up without more ado, as if it were dirty linen, and takes it off to
+a wooden washing trough, where it is kneaded and washed in true
+washerwoman fashion. Water in plenty is sluiced over it, and after
+more vigorous manipulation still, it is passed from trough to trough
+until deemed sufficiently free from soluble salts to tone. The
+toning--done in the ordinary way with gold--removes any unpleasant
+redness the picture possesses, and then follows the fixing operation
+in hyposulphite. As canvas is more permeable than paper, these two
+last processes are quickly got through.
+
+The final washing of the canvas is very thorough. Again it is treated
+with all the vigor with which a good laundry-maid attacks dirty linen,
+the canvas, in the end, being consigned to a regular washing-machine,
+in which it is systematically worked for some time.
+
+When the canvas picture at last is finished, it presents a very rough
+appearance, by reason of the tiny fibers that stand erect all over the
+surface. To lay these, and also to improve the surface generally, the
+canvas is waxed, the fabric is stretched, and a semi-fluid mass rubbed
+into it, heat being used in the process, which not only gives
+brilliancy, but seems also to impart transparency to the shadows of
+the picture. The result is a pleasant finish, without vulgar glare or
+glaze, the high lights remaining beautifully pure and white.
+
+Of course, the price of these canvas enlargements varies with the
+amount of artistic work subsequently put upon them; but the usual
+charge made by Messrs. Winter for a well-finished life-size portrait,
+three quarter length, is sixty florins, or about L5 sterling as the
+exchange now stands. Besides working for photographers, Messrs. Winter
+are reproducing a large number of classic paintings and cartoons by
+photography on canvas in this way (some of them almost absolutely
+untouched), and these, as may be supposed, are finding a very large
+sale among dealers. Such copies must necessarily be of considerable
+value to artists and collectors, and altogether it would seem that
+Messrs. Winter have hit upon a novel undertaking, which bids fair to
+make them a handsome return for the outlay (large as it undoubtedly
+has been) made upon their Vienna establishment.--_Photo. News._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+DETECTION OF STARCH SUGAR SIRUP MIXED WITH SUGAR-HOUSE
+MOLASSES.[1]
+
+   [Footnote 1: A Paper read before the American Chemical Society,
+    September 2, 1881.]
+
+BY P. CASAMAJOR.
+
+
+In previous communications I have given processes for detecting the
+adulteration of cane-sugar by starch-sugar. The adulteration of
+sugar-house sirups by starch glucose is still more extensively
+practiced than that of sugar, and a great portion of sirups sold by
+retailers in this market is adulterated with starch glucose. This form
+of adulteration may be very easily detected by the use of strong
+methylic alcohol, in which the alcoholometer of Tralles or of Gay
+Lussac will indicate about 931/2 deg..
+
+A straight sugar-house sirup when mixed with three times its volume of
+this strong methylic alcohol will dissolve by stirring, giving a very
+slight turbidity, which remains suspended; while sirups containing the
+usual admixture of starch sugar give a very turbid liquid, which
+separates, when left at rest, into two layers, the lower being a thick
+viscous deposit containing the glucose sirup.
+
+Considerable quantities are sold of a thin sirup, of about 32 deg. Baume,
+in which the proportion of sugar to the impurities is greater than in
+common sugar-house molasses. When a sirup of this kind is stirred with
+three times its volume of methylic alcohol, a marked turbidity and
+deposition will take place, which consists of pure sugar. The crystals
+are hard and gritty. They adhere to the sides of the glass, and are
+deposited on the bottom. There is no resemblance between this
+precipitate and that due to starch sugar sirup.
+
+It may not be useless to mention that if a straight sugar-house sirup
+of about 40 deg. B. density is stirred with three times its volume of
+_ethylic_ alcohol of about 931/2 deg. the sirup will not dissolve. Hence
+ethylic alcohol of this strength is not suitable for distinguishing a
+sirup mixed with starch glucose from a _straight_ sugar-house sirup.
+
+The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may be easily
+detected by the optical saccharometer when the sirup has the usual
+density of about 40 deg. B., and when starch sugar has been added in the
+usual quantities.
+
+For making the test the usual weight should be taken (16.35 grammes
+for Duboscq's saccharometer, and 26.048 grammes for Ventzke's
+instrument). The direct test should show a percentage of sugar not
+higher than the number of Baume degrees indicating the density, and it
+may be from 2 to 3 per cent. lower. To understand this, we must refer
+to the composition of cane-sugar molasses of 40 deg. B.:
+
+Sugar.......................................37.5
+Insoluble impurities........................37.5
+Water.......................................25
+
+If the direct test should indicate 55 per cent. of sugar, and if the
+molasses were straight, the composition would be--
+
+Sugar...........................................55
+Soluble impurities..............................20
+Water...........................................25
+
+Now, a product of this composition would not be a clear sirup at 40 deg.
+B., but a mixture of sirup and crystals. Therefore, if the product is
+a clear sirup at 40 deg. B., and it tests 55 per cent., it cannot be
+_straight_.
+
+The presence of starch glucose in sugar-house molasses may also be
+detected by the copper test. The possibility of applying this test, as
+well as those already indicated, rests on the fact that starch glucose
+is always added in very large quantities for the purposes of
+adulteration. A very small addition could not be satisfactorily
+detected.
+
+The detection by the copper test rests on the observation that very
+nearly one-half of the soluble impurities in sugar-house molasses
+consists of glucose in the shape of inverted sugar. We have seen above
+that for a molasses of 40 deg. B. the soluble impurities amount to about
+371/2 per cent. We may, then, lay down the rule: that the percentage of
+glucose shown by the copper test cannot, in a straight sugar-house
+molasses, be much greater than one-half of the number expressing the
+density in Baume degrees. The reason is obvious from what has been
+said of the test by the optical saccharometer.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FALSE VERMILION.--A curious case has been noticed in Germany,
+where a small cargo of vermilion was purchased, and, upon being
+analyzed, turned out to be red oxide of lead colored by eosine. This
+is an entirely novel sophistication. The eosine was separated from the
+oxide of lead by digesting the product for twenty-four hours in very
+strong alcohol. A much shorter time is sufficient to color the spirit
+enough to enable an expert chemist to detect the presence of this
+splendid organic coloring matter. Another kind of "vermilion" consists
+entirely of peroxide of iron, prepared especially to imitate the
+brilliant and costly sulphide of mercury, which it does very well, and
+is largely used in England, France, and America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE POSITION OF MANGANESE IN MODERN INDUSTRY.
+
+BY M.V. DESHAYES.
+
+
+No body among the metals and the metalloids (silicium, titanium,
+tungsten, chromium, phosphorus, etc.) has occupied a more prominent
+position in modern metallurgy than _manganese_, and it is chiefly due
+to its great affinity for oxygen. When this substance was discovered,
+more than a century ago (1774), by the celebrated Swedish chemist and
+mineralogist, Gahn, by treating the black oxide of manganese in the
+crucible, no one would have thought that the new element, so delicate
+by itself, without any direct industrial use, would become, in the
+middle of the nineteenth century, one of the most powerful and
+necessary instruments for the success of the Bessemer process, as well
+for its deoxidizing properties as for the qualities which it imparts
+to steel, increasing its resistance, its durability, and its
+elasticity, as has been shown elsewhere.
+
+Without entering into a complete history (for it is beyond the task
+which we have here assumed),[1] it will not be without interest to
+recall how, when manganese was first obtained in a pure state, that it
+was supposed that it would remain simply an object of curiosity in the
+laboratory; but when its presence was proved in spiegeleisen and when
+it came to be considered an essential ingredient in the best German
+and English works for cutlery steel (where it is thrown into the
+crucible as the peroxide), then we find that its qualities become
+better and better appreciated; and it is surprising that no
+technologist ever devoted his attention to the production of manganese
+alloys.
+
+   [Footnote 1: See _Engineering_, May 27, 1881]
+
+It was not till after the investigations of Dr. Percy, Tamm, Prieger,
+and Bessemer, who employed crucibles for the production of these
+alloys, that Hendersen received the idea of utilizing it in the
+Siemens furnace. So important a compound could not remain unemployed.
+The works at Terre Noire produced, by the Martin furnace, for a number
+of years, ferro-manganese of 70 to 80 per cent. Shortly afterward,
+when competition in the market was established, the works at Carniola
+and at Carinthia, some English factories, and more especially the
+works at Saint-Louis, near Marseilles, of Terre Noire, of Montlucon,
+etc., successfully adopted the manufacture of _ferro-manganese with
+the blast furnace_, which is without doubt the method best adapted for
+the reduction of metallic oxides, as well in consideration of the
+reactions as from an economical point of view. Before very long it was
+possible to produce, by the blast furnace, alloys of 40, 60, 80, and
+even 86 per cent., in using the hot air apparatus of Siemens, Cowper,
+and Witwell, with the employment of good coke, and principally by
+calculating the charges for the fusion in such a manner as to obtain
+an extra basic and refractory slag.
+
+Following in the same path, the Phoenix Co., of Ruhrort, sent, in
+1880, to the Metallurgical Exposition of Dusseldorf, samples of
+ferro-manganese obtained in a blast furnace, with an extra basic slag
+in which the silica was almost entirely replaced by alumina. The works
+of L'Esperance, at Oberhausen, exhibited similar products, quite pure
+as to sulphur and phosphorus, and they had a double interest at the
+exhibition, in consideration of the agitation over the Thomas and
+Gilchrist process (see the discussions which were raised at the
+meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute). This process unfortunately
+requires for its prompt success the use of a very large quantity of
+spiegel or of ferro-manganese, in order to sufficiently carburize and
+deoxidize the burnt iron, which is the final product of the blowing.
+
+The production of ferro-manganese by the blast furnace depends upon
+the following conditions.
+
+    1. A high temperature.
+
+    2. On a proper mixture of the iron ores and the manganese.
+
+    3. On the production of slag rich in bases.
+
+These different conditions may be obtained with but slight variations
+at the different works, but the condition of a high temperature is one
+of the most important considerations, not only for the alloys of
+manganese, but equally as well for the alloys of iron, manganese,
+silicium, those of chromium, of tungsten, etc. It is also necessary to
+study the effects produced either in the crucible or in the blast
+furnace, and to examine the ores which for a long while have been
+regarded as not reducible.
+
+The works of Terre Noire especially made at the same time, in the
+blast furnace, ferro-silicon with manganese, alloys which are daily
+becoming more important for the manufacture of steels tempered soft
+and half soft without blowing.
+
+These alloys, rich in silicon, present the peculiarity of being poor
+in carbon, the amount of this latter element varying with the
+proportions of manganese. In addition to the alloys used in the iron
+and steel industry, we shall proceed to relate the recent progress
+obtained in the metallurgy of other materials (especially copper) by
+the use of _cupro-manganese_:
+
++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------
+|   |   Mn.   |   C.  |    Si.  |    S.   |  P.  |
+|   |per cent.|       |         |         |      |
++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+
+| A | 18 to 20| 2 to 3| 10 to 12| Traces  |      |Extra Quality for soft metals.
+| B | 15 to 18| 3.00  | 10 to 8 | scarcely|About |} Medium Quality
+| C | 15 to 10| 3.25  |  8 to 6 | percep- |0.100.|}
+| D |  5 to 10| 3.50  |  4 to 6 | tible.  |      |Ordinary for hard metals.
++---+---------+-------+---------+---------+------+------------------------------
+
+The first alloys of manganese and copper were made in 1848, by Von
+Gersdorff; soon after Prof. Schroetter of Vienna made compounds
+containing 18 or 20 per cent. of manganese by reducing in a crucible
+the oxides of copper and manganese mixed with wood charcoal and
+exposing to a high heat.
+
+These alloys were quite ductile, very hard, very tenacious, and
+capable of receiving a beautiful polish; their color varies from white
+to rose color, according to the respective proportions of the two
+bodies; they are particularly interesting on account of the results
+which were obtained by adding them to certain metallic fusions.
+
+It is well known that in the fining of copper by oxidation there is
+left in the fined metal the suboxide of copper, which must then be
+removed by the refining process, using carbon to reduce the copper to
+its metallic state. M. Manhes, taking advantage of the greater
+affinity of manganese for oxygen, found that if this last element was
+introduced into the bath of copper during the operation of refining,
+the copper suboxide would be reduced and the copper obtained in its
+metallic condition. For this purpose during these last years real
+cupro-manganese has been prepared, occupying the same position to
+copper as the spiegel or the ferro-manganese does toward the
+manufacture of steel. M. Manhes used these same alloys for the fusion
+of bronze and brass, and recommended the following proportions:
+
+      3 to 4 kilog. of cupro-manganese for 100 kilog. of bronze.
+  0.250 to 1         do.           do.       do.         brass.
+  0.150 to 1.2       do.           do.       do.         copper.
+
+In every case the alloy is introduced at the moment of pouring, as is
+the case in the Bessemer or Martin process, taking care to cover the
+fusion with charcoal in order to prevent the contact with air,
+together with the use of some kind of a flux to aid in the
+scorification of the manganese.
+
+According to M. Manhes a slight proportion of manganese added to
+bronze appears to increase its resistance and its ductility, as is
+shown in the following table, provided, however, that these different
+alloys have been subjected to the same operations from a physical
+point of view; that is, pouring, rolling, etc.
+
+--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+
+                          |     |     |      |  Weight  |            |
+                          | Cu. | Sn. |  Mn. |   of     | Elongation |
+                          |     |     |      | fracture |            |
+--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+
+Ordinary Bronze           | 90  | 10  |      | 20 kil.  |    4.00    |
+Bronze with Manganese, A, | 90  | 10  |  0.5 | 24  "    |   15.00    |
+    Do.    do.         B, | 90  | 10  |  1.0 | 26  "    |   20.00    |
+--------------------------+-----+-----+------+----------+------------+
+
+The White Brass Co., of London, exhibited at Paris, in 1878, manganese
+bronzes of four grades of durability, destined for different uses and
+corresponding to about 20 to 25 kilos of the limit of elasticity, and
+36 to 37 kilos of resistance to fracture; the number 0 is equivalent
+after rolling to a resistance to fracture of 46.5 kilos, and 20 to 25
+per cent. of elongation.
+
+Such results show beyond contradiction the great interest there is in
+economically producing alloys of copper, manganese, tin, zinc, etc. In
+addition, they may be added to metallic fusions, for deoxidizing and
+also to communicate to the commercial alloys (such as bronze, brass,
+etc.) the greatest degree of resistance and tenacity.
+
+While many investigators have tried to form alloys of copper and
+manganese by combining them in the metallic state (that is to say, by
+the simultaneous reduction of their oxides), the Hensler Bros., of
+Dillenburg, have found it best to first prepare the _metallic
+manganese_ and then to alloy it in proper proportions with other
+metals. Their method consisted of reducing the pure pyrolusite in
+large plumbago crucibles, in the presence of carbon and an extra basic
+flux; the operation was carried on in a strong coke fire, and at the
+end of about six hours the _crude manganese_ is poured out, having the
+following composition:
+
+  Manganese          90   to 92
+  Carbon              6   to  6.5
+  Iron                0.5 to  1.5
+  Silicon             0.5 to  1.2
+
+By refining, the manganese can be brought up to 94 to 95 per cent. of
+purity. It is from this casting of pure manganese that is obtained the
+substance used as a base for the alloys. This metal is white,
+crystalline, when exposed to the damp air slowly oxidizes, and readily
+combines with copper to form the _cupro-manganese_ of the variety
+having the composition--
+
+  Copper             70
+  Manganese          30
+
+Cast in ingots or in pigs it becomes an article of commerce which may
+be introduced in previously determined proportions into bronze, gun
+metal, bell metal, brass, etc. It may also be used, as we have already
+mentioned, for the refining of copper according to Manhes's process.
+
+Tests made from this standpoint at the works of Mansfield have shown
+that the addition of 0.45 per cent. of cupro-manganese is sufficient
+to give tenacity to the copper, which, thus treated, will not contain
+more than 0.005 to 0.022 of oxygen, the excess passing off with the
+manganese into the scorias.
+
+On the other hand, the addition of cupro-manganese is recommended,
+when it is desirable to cast thin pieces of the metal, such as tubes,
+caldrons, kitchen utensils, which formerly could only be obtained by
+beating and stamping.
+
+The tenacity obtained for tubes of only three centimeters in diameter
+and 1.75 millimeters in thickness is such that they are able to
+withstand a pressure of 1,100 pounds to the square inch.
+
+The _manganese bronze_, which we have previously referred to, and
+which is used by the White Brass Company of London, is an alloy of
+copper, with from one to ten per cent. of manganese; the highest
+qualities of resistance, ductility, tenacity, and durability are
+obtained with one to four per cent. of manganese, while with twelve
+per cent. the metal becomes too weak for industrial uses.
+
+  +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+
+  | Manganese |         |           | Weight of   |            |
+  | bronze.   |  Copper.| Manganese.| fracture in | Elongation.|
+  |           |         |           | kilos per   |            |
+  |           |         |           | square mm.  |            |
+  +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+
+  | A         |  96.00  |    4.00   |    19.00    |   14.60    |
+  | B         |  95.00  |    5.00   |    20.62    |   10.00    |
+  | C         |  94.00  |    6.00   |    20.80    |   14.60    |
+  | D         |  90.00  |   10.00   |    16.56    |    5.00    |
+  +-----------+---------+-----------+-------------+------------+
+
+The preceding table gives some of the experimental results obtained
+with the testing machine at Friedrich-Wilhelmshuette on the crude cast
+ingots; the resistance is increased, as with copper, by rolling or
+hammering.
+
+The _manganese German silver_ consists of
+
+  Copper................ 70.00
+  Manganese............. 15.00
+  Zinc.................. 15.00
+
+But as this alloy often breaks in rolling, the preference is given to
+the following proportions:
+
+  Copper................ 80.00
+  Manganese............. 15.00
+  Zinc..................  5.00
+
+This results in a white, ductile metal, which is easily worked and
+susceptible of receiving a beautiful polish, like the alloys of
+nickel, which it may in time completely replace.
+
+The _bronzes of manganese, tin, and zinc_ were perhaps the first upon
+which important investigations were made; they were obtained by adding
+to an alloy of copper, zinc, and tin (ordinary bronze) a definite
+quantity of the cupro-manganese of the type indicated above (Cu 70, Mn
+30). By this means the resistance is increased fully nine per cent.,
+probably in the same way as the copper, that is, by the deoxidizing
+effect of the manganese, as both the copper and the tin are always
+more or less oxidized in ordinary bronzes.
+
+Manganese combines with tin just the same as it does with copper, and
+the proportion which is recommended as giving the highest resistances
+is three to six per cent. of cupro-manganese.
+
+However, notwithstanding the use of cupro-manganese, the tin, as in
+ordinary bronzes, has a tendency to liquate in those portions of the
+mould which are the hottest, and which become solid the last,
+especially in the case of moulds having a great width.
+
+From a series of experiments made at Isabelle Huette, it has been found
+that the metal which has the greatest resisting qualities was obtained
+from
+
+  Copper......................85.00
+  Manganese................... 6.00
+  Zinc........................ 5.00
+
+5 per cent. of cupro-manganese = manganese 1.00 remaining in the
+metal.
+
+The best method of procedure is first to melt the copper in a
+crucible, and then to add the tin and the zinc; finally the
+cupro-manganese is added just at the moment of pouring, as in the
+Manhes process; then the reaction on the oxides is very effective,
+there is a boiling with scintillation similar to the action produced
+in the Bessemer and Martin process when ferro-manganese is added to
+the bath of steel.
+
+The following are some of the results obtained from thirteen alloys
+obtained in this manner. These samples were taken direct from the
+casting and were tested with the machine at Friedrich-Wilhelms-huette,
+and with the one at the shops of the Rhine Railroad. Their resistance
+was considerably increased, as with the other alloys, by rolling or
+hammering.
+
+-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+
+       |      |      |     |         |         |          | Weight |       |
+       |      |      |     |         |         |Limit of  |  of    | Elong-|
+       |Nature|      |     |         |         |elasticity|fracture| ation,|
+       |  of  |      |     |         |  Cupro- |in kilos  |in kilos|  per- |
+Numbers|mould.|Copper| Tin.|  Zinc.  |manganese|per mm.   | per mm.|centage|
+-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+
+   1   | Sand | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |         |   11.30  |  16.00 |   --  |
+   2   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |   4.00  |   13.00  |  16.10 |  2.00 |
+   3   | Cast.| 87.00| 8.70|   4.30  |   4.00  |     --   |  19.40 |   --  |
+   4   |  --  | 85.00| 6.90|   5.00  |   6.00  |     --   |  18.80 |  6.00 |
+   5   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |   6.00  |     --   |  19.75 |  7.00 |
+   6   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |  10.00  |     --   |  17.15 |  4.00 |
+   7   | Sand | 87.00| 5.20|   4.33  |   3.47  |     --   |  19.70 |  8.70 |
+   8   |  --  | 87.00| 5.20|   4.33  |   3.47  |     --   |  19.70 |  8.90 |
+   9   |  --  | 85.00| 6.00|   5.00  |   3.00  |   16.80  |  22.00 |   --  |
+  10   |  --  | 74.00|10.00|   5.00  |   3.30  |   13.80  |  18.70 |   --  |
+       |      |      |     |(7.66 Pb)|         |          |        |       |
+  11   |  --  | 78.70| 8.00| ( 8 Pb) |   3.30  |   13.80  |  20.70 |   --  |
+  12   |  --  | 82.00| 9.80|   4.90  |   3.30  |   14.75  |  19.75 |   --  |
+  13   |  --  | 86.20|16.50|    --   |   3.30  |   14.30  |  24.70 |   --  |
+-------+------+------+-----+---------+---------+----------+--------+-------+
+
+The results of the tests of ductility which are here given, with
+reference to the _cupro-manganese_, _manganese bronze_, the _alloys_
+with _zinc_ and _tin_, are taken from M.C. Hensler's very valuable
+communication to the Berlin Society for the Advancement of the
+Industrial Arts.
+
+These various alloys, as well as the _phosphorus bronze_, of which we
+make no mention here, are at present very largely used in the
+manufacture of technical machines, as well as for supports, valves,
+stuffing-boxes, screws, bolts, etc., which require the properties of
+resistance and durability. They vastly surpass in these qualities the
+brass and like compounds which have been used hitherto for these
+purposes.--_Bull. Soc. Chim., Paris_, xxxvi. p. 184.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE ECONOMICAL WASHING OF COAL GAS AND SMOKE.
+
+
+In a recent number of the _Journal des Usines a Gaz_ appears a note by
+M. Chevalet, on the chemical and physical purification of gas, which
+was one of the papers submitted to the Societe Technique de
+l'Industrie du Gaz en France at the last ordinary meeting. This
+communication is noticeable, apart from the author's conclusions, for
+the fact that the processes described were not designed originally for
+use in gas manufacture, but were first used to purify, or rather to
+remove the ammonia which is to be found in all factory chimneys, and
+especially in certain manufactories of bone-black, and in spirit
+distilleries. It is because of the success which attended M.
+Chevalet's treatment of factory smoke that he turned his attention to
+coal gas. The communication in which M. Chevalet's method is described
+deals first with chimney gases, in order to show the difficulties of
+the first class of work done by the author's process. Like coal gas,
+chimney gases contain in suspension solid particles, such as soot and
+ashes. Before washing these gases in a bath of sulphuric acid, in
+order to retain the ammonia, there were two problems to be solved. It
+was first of all necessary to cool the gases down to a point which
+should not exceed the boiling-point of the acid employed in washing;
+and then to remove the solid particles which would otherwise foul the
+acid. In carrying out this mechanical purification it was impossible,
+for two reasons, to make use of apparatus of the kind used in gas
+works; the first obstacle was the presence of solid particles carried
+forward by the gaseous currents, and the other difficulty was the
+volume of gas to be dealt with. In the example to which the author's
+attention was directed he had to purify 600 cubic meters of chimney
+gas per minute, or 36,000 cubic meters per hour, while the gas
+escaped from the flues at a temperature of from 400 deg. to 500 deg. C. (752 deg.
+to 932 deg. Fahr.), and a large quantity of cinders had frequently to be
+removed from the main chimney flues. After many trials a simple
+appliance was constructed which successfully cooled the gases and
+freed them from ashes. This consisted of a vertical screen, with bars
+three mm. apart, set in water. This screen divided the gases into thin
+sheets before traversing the water, and by thus washing and
+evaporating the water the gases were cooled, and threw down the soot
+and ashes, and these impurities fell to the bottom of the water bath.
+The gases after this process are divested of the greater part of any
+tarry impurities which they may have possessed, and are ready for the
+final purification, in which ammonia is extracted. This is effected by
+means of a series of shallow trays, covered with water or weak acid,
+and pierced with a number of fine holes, through which the gas is made
+to bubble. The washing apparatus is therefore strangely similar in
+principle to that designed by Mr G. Livesey. M. Chevalet states that
+this double process is applicable to gas works as well as to the
+purification of smoke, with the difference that for the latter purpose
+the washing trays are filled with acid for the retention of ammonia,
+while in the former application gas liquor or water is used. The
+arrangement is said to be a practical success.--_Journal of Gas
+Lighting._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN IN HAIR, WOOL, DRIED BLOOD, FLESH MEAL,
+AND LEATHER SCRAPS.
+
+BY DR. C. KRAUCH.
+
+
+Differences obtained in the estimation of nitrogen in the above
+substances are frequently the source of much annoyance. The cause of
+these discrepancies is chiefly due to the lack of uniformity in the
+material, and from its not being in a sufficiently fine state during
+the combustion. The hair which is found in commerce for the
+manufacture of fertilizers, is generally mixed with sand and dust.
+Wool dust often contains old buttons, pieces of wood, shoe pegs, and
+all sorts of things. The flesh fertilizers are composed of light
+particles of flesh mixed with the heavier bone dust.
+
+Even after taking all possible precautions to finely comminute these
+substances by mechanical means, still only imperfect results are
+obtained, for the impurities, that is to say, the sand, can never be
+so intimately mixed with the lighter particles that a sample of 0.5 to
+0.8 gramme, such as is used in the determination of nitrogen, will
+correspond to the correct average contents. In substances such as
+dried blood, pulverization is very tedious. A very good method of
+overcoming these difficulties, and of obtaining from the most mixed
+substances a perfectly homogeneous mass, is that recommended by
+Grandeau[1] of decomposing with sulphuric acid--a method which as yet
+does not seem to be generally known. From a large quantity of the
+substance to be examined, the coarse stones, etc., are removed by
+picking or sifting, and the prepared substance, or in cases where the
+impurities cannot be separated, the original substance, is treated
+with sulphuric acid; after it is decomposed, the acid is neutralized
+with calcium carbonate, and the nitrogen is determined in this mass.
+
+   [Footnote 1: _Handbook d. Agrict. Chem. Analyst._, p. 18.]
+
+In order to operate rapidly, it is best to use as little sulphuric
+acid as possible. If too much sulphuric acid is used, necessarily a
+large amount of calcium carbonate is essential to get it into proper
+condition for pulverizing. Under such circumstances the percentage of
+nitrogen becomes very low, and a slight error will become
+correspondingly high.
+
+20 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 10 c.c. are sufficient for
+30 to 40 grammes of material. After the substance and liquid have been
+thoroughly stirred in a porcelain dish, they are warmed on a water
+bath and continually stirred until the mass forms a homogeneous
+liquid. The sirupy liquid thus obtained is then mixed with 80 to 100
+grammes of pulverized calcium carbonate (calcspar), dried for fifteen
+minutes at 40 to 60 deg. C., and after standing for one to two hours the
+dish and its contents are weighed. From the total weight the weight of
+the dish is subtracted, which gives the weight of the calcium sulphate
+and the calcium carbonate, and the known weight of the wool dust, etc.
+This material is then intimately ground, and 2 to 3 grammes of it are
+taken for the determination of the nitrogen, which is then calculated
+for the original substance.
+
+Although the given quantities of water and sulphuric acid hardly
+appear sufficient for such a large quantity of hair or wool, still in
+the course of a few minutes to a quarter of an hour, after continual
+stirring, there is obtained a liquid which, after the addition of the
+calcium carbonate, is readily converted into a pulverized mass.
+Frequently a smaller quantity of sulphuric acid will suffice,
+especially if the material is moist. The chief merit of this process
+is that in a short time a large quantity of material, having a uniform
+character, is obtained. Its use is, therefore, recommended for general
+employment.
+
+When the coarser stones, etc., are weighed, and the purified portion
+decomposed, absolutely correct results are obtained, and in this way
+the awkward discrepancies from different analysts may be
+avoided.--_Chemiker Zeitung_, v. 7, p. 703.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TESTING WHITE BEESWAX FOR CERESINE AND PARAFFINS.
+
+BY A. PELTZ.
+
+
+The method which is here recommended originated with Dr. M. Buchner,
+and consists in preparing a concentrated solution of alcoholic caustic
+potash--one part caustic potash to three of 90 per cent. alcohol--and
+then boiling one to two grammes of the suspected wax in a small flask
+with the above solution. The liquid is poured into a glass cylinder to
+prevent solidification of the contents, and it is then placed for
+about one half hour in boiling water. With pure wax the solution
+remains clear white; when ceresine and paraffine are present, they
+will float on the surface of the alkali solution as an oily layer, and
+on cooling they will appear lighter in color than the saponified mass,
+and thus they may be quantitatively estimated. The author likewise
+gives a superficial method for the determination of the purity of
+beeswax. It depends on the formation of wax crystals when the fused
+wax solidifies. These crystals form on the surface on cooling, and are
+still visible after solidification when examining the surface from the
+side. The test succeeds best when the liquid wax is poured into a
+shallow tin mould After cooling another peculiar property of the wax
+becomes apparent. While the beeswax fills a smaller volume, that is,
+separates from the sides of the mould, the Japanese wax, without
+separating from the sides, becomes covered with cracks on cooling
+which have a depth corresponding to the thickness of the wax.--_Neuste
+Erfindungen und Erfahrungen_, viii., p. 430.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE PREVENTION OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION BY FUNGI.
+
+BY PROF. E. REICHARD.
+
+
+The manager of a well directed brewery, which was built according to
+the latest improvements and provided with ice-cooling arrangements,
+found that the alcoholic fermentation of lager beer did not advance
+with proper regularity. The beer did not clarify well, it remained
+turbid and had a tendency to assume a disagreeable odor and taste.
+Microscopic examination of the yeast, however, showed the same to be
+bottom yeast. After some time its action apparently diminished, or
+rather, the fermentation, which began well, ceased, and at the same
+time a white foam formed in the center of the vat. The manager
+observing this, again submitted it to microscopic examination. The
+instrument revealed a number of much smaller forms of fungi, similar
+to those of young yeast, and some which were excessively large, a
+variety never found in bottom yeast. Fully appreciating the
+microscopic examination, and aware of the danger which the spread of
+the fungi could cause, the manager resorted to all known means to
+retard its pernicious influence. Fresh yeast was employed, and the
+fermenting vats throughly cleaned, both inside and out, but the
+phenomena reappeared, showing that the transmission took place through
+the air. A microscopic examination of a gelatinous coating on the wall
+of the fermenting room further explained the matter. Beginning at the
+door of the ice cellar, the walls were covered with a gelatinous mass,
+which, even when placed beneath the microscope, showed no definite
+organic structure; however it contained numerous threads of fungi.
+Notwithstanding the precautions which were taken for cleanliness,
+these germs traveled from the ceiling through the air into the
+fermenting liquid and there produced a change, which would ultimately
+have caused the destruction of all the beer.
+
+For a third time and by altogether different means, it was
+demonstrated that the air was the bearer of these germs. The whole
+atmosphere was infected, and a simple change of air was by no manner
+of means sufficient, as has already been shown. In addition, these
+observations throw considerable light on the means by which contagious
+diseases are spread, for often a room, a house, or the entire
+neighborhood appears to be infected. It must also be remembered how,
+in times of plague, large fires were resorted as to a method of
+purifying the air.
+
+With the infinite distribution of germs, and as they are always
+present in all places where any organic portions of vegetable or
+animal matter are undergoing decomposition, it becomes, under certain
+circumstances, exceedingly difficult, and at times even impossible, to
+trace the direct effect of these minute germs. The organism is exposed
+to the destructive action of the most minute creation; several changes
+in this case give to them the direct effect of the acting germs. The
+investigation of the chemist does not extend beyond the chemical
+changes; nevertheless these phenomena are directly explained by the
+microscope, without which, in the present case, the discovery of the
+cause would have remained unknown.--_Arch. der Pharm._, 214, 158.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+NEW REACTION OF GLYCERINE.
+
+
+If two drops of phenic acid are diluted with three thousand to five
+thousand parts of water, a distinct blue color is produced by one drop
+of solution of perchloride of iron.
+
+The addition of six or eight drops of glycerine entirely removes the
+color, and if any glycerine was present in the liquid the reaction
+does not take place at all. By this test the presence of 1 per cent.
+of glycerine can be detected. It may be applied to the analysis of
+wines, beers, etc., but when there is much sugar, extractive or
+coloring matter, the test can only be applied after evaporating,
+dissolving the residue in alcohol and ether, evaporating again, and
+then redissolving in water. Alkaline solutions must be first
+acidulated.--_Pharm. Zeit. fuer Russ._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LYCOPODINE.
+
+
+While the phanerogams or flowering plants annually contribute to the
+list of newly discovered alkaloids, with the exception of muscarine
+and amanitine, no alkaloid has as yet been definitely recognized among
+the cryptogams.
+
+Karl Boedeker, of Goettingen, has opened the road in this direction, and
+gives in a paper sent to Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 15,
+1881, the following account of an alkaloid, which, from the name of
+the plant in which it occurs, he calls lycopodine.
+
+The plant yielding the alkaloid, _Lycopodium complanatum_, belongs to
+the group of angiospermous cryptogams. It is distributed throughout
+the whole of north and middle Europe, and contains the largest
+proportion of aluminum of any known plant. Its bitter taste led the
+author to suspect an alkaloid in it.
+
+To prepare the alkaloid the dried plant is chopped up and twice
+exhausted with boiling alcohol of 90 per cent. The residue is squeezed
+out while hot, and the extract, after being allowed to settle awhile,
+is decanted off, and evaporated to a viscid consistency over a water
+bath. This is then repeatedly kneaded up with fresh quantities of
+lukewarm water until the washings cease to taste bitter, and to give a
+reddish brown coloration when treated with a strong aqueous solution
+of iodine. The several washings are collected and precipitated with
+basic lead acetate, the precipitate filtered off, and the lead in the
+filtrate removed by sulphureted hydrogen. The filtrate from the lead
+sulphide is evaporated down over a water bath, then made strongly
+alkaline with a solution of caustic soda, and repeatedly shaken up
+with fresh quantities of ether so long as the washings taste bitter
+and give a precipitate with iodine water. After distilling off the
+ether, the residue is treated with strong hydrochloric acid, the
+neutral or slightly acid solution filtered off from resinous
+particles, slowly evaporated to crystallization, and the crystals
+purified by repeated recrystallization. To prepare the pure base a
+very concentrated solution of this pure hydrochlorate is treated with
+an excess of a very concentrated solution of caustic soda, and pieces
+of caustic potash are added, whereupon the free alkaloid separates out
+at first as a colorless resinous stringy mass, which, however, upon
+standing, turns crystalline, forming monoclinic crystals similar to
+tartaric acid or glycocol. The crystals are rapidly washed with water,
+and dried between soft blotting paper.
+
+Thus prepared, lycopodine has a composition which may be represented
+by the formula C_{32}H_{52}N_{2}O_{3}. It melts at 114 deg. to 115 deg. C.
+without loss of weight. It is tolerable soluble in water and in ether,
+and very soluble indeed in alcohol, chloroform, benzol, or amyl
+alcohol. Lycopodine has a very pure bitter taste.
+
+The author has formed several salts of the base, all of a crystalline
+nature, and containing water of crystallization.
+
+The hydrochlorate gives up a part of its water of crystallization at
+the ordinary temperature under a desiccator over sulphuric acid, and
+the whole of it upon heating.--_Chemist and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CONCHINAMINE.
+
+
+Some years ago, O. Hesse, when preparing chinamine from the renewed
+bark of _Cinchona succirubra_, found in the mother liquid a new
+alkaloid, which he then briefly designated as conchinamine. He has
+lately given his attention to the separation and preparation of this
+alkaloid, and gives in Liebig's _Annalen der Chemie_, August 31, 1881,
+the following description of it:
+
+_Preparation._--The alcoholic mother lye from chinamine is evaporated
+down and protractedly exhausted with boiling ligroine, whereby
+conchinamine and a small quantity of certain amorphous bases are
+dissolved out. Upon cooling the greater part of the amorphous bases
+precipitates out. The ligroine solution is then first treated with
+dilute acetic acid, and then with a dilute solution of caustic soda,
+whereupon a large quantity of a resinous precipitate is formed. This
+is kneaded up with lukewarm water to remove adherent soda, and then
+dissolved in hot alcohol. The alcoholic solution is saturated with
+nitric acid, which has been previously diluted with half its volume of
+water, and the whole set aside for a few days to crystallize. The
+crystals of conchinamine nitrate are purified by recrystallization
+from boiling water. On dissolving these pure crystals of the nitrate
+in hot alcohol of 60 per cent., and adding ammonia, absolute pure
+conchinamine separates out on cooling.
+
+_Composition._--Conchinamine may be represented by the formula
+C_{19}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, without water of crystallization.
+
+_Properties._--Conchinamine is easily soluble in hot alcohol of 60 per
+cent., and in ether and ligroine, from which solutions it crystallizes
+in quadrilateral shining prisms. It is extremely soluble in
+chloroform, but almost insoluble in water. It melts at 121 deg. C.,
+forming crystalline stars on cooling.
+
+_Salts._--The salts of conchinamine, like the base itself, have much
+in common with chinamine, but are, as a rule, more easily
+crystallizable. They are prepared by neutralizing an alcoholic
+solution of the base with the acid in question.--_Chemist and
+Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+CHINOLINE.
+
+
+The valuable properties of which chinoline has been found to be
+possessed have led to its admission as a therapeutic agent, and the
+discoverer of these properties, Jul. Donath, of Baja, in Hungary, in a
+paper sent to the _Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft_,
+September 12, 1881, gives the following further details as to this
+interesting substance.
+
+_Antiseptic Properties._--Chinoline appears to be an excellent
+antiseptic. The author found that 100 grammes of a Bucholze's solution
+for the propagation of bacteria, charged with 0.20 g. of chinoline
+hydrochlorate, had remained perfectly clear and free from bacteria
+after standing forty-six days exposed to the air, while a similar
+solution, placed under the same conditions, without chinoline, had
+turned muddy and contained bacteria after only twelve days' standing.
+
+_Antizymotic Properties._--Chinoline, even in the proportion of 5 per
+cent., does not prevent alcoholic fermentation, while in as small a
+quantity as 0.20 per cent. it does not prevent lactic acid
+fermentation.
+
+_Physiological Effects._--The author gave a healthy man during several
+days various doses of chinoline tartrate, which in no way affected the
+individual operated on, nor was any trace of chinoline found in his
+urine. The author, therefore, considers that the base is oxidized by
+the blood to carbopyridinic acid, which is a still more powerful
+antiseptic than chinoline itself. Chinoline taken internally would,
+therefore, be a useful and safe agent in cases of internal putrid
+fungoid or other growth.
+
+_Chemical Reactions._--Chinoline yields very characteristic reactions
+with a number of chemical reagents, for a description of which we
+refer to the original paper.--_Chemist and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PREPARATION OF CONIINE.
+
+
+Dr. J. Schorm, of Vienna, the author of this paper, after remarking
+that in spite of the increase of the consumption of coniine, the
+methods hitherto in vogue for preparing it yielded an article which
+darkened on exposure to the air, and the salts of which crystallized
+but badly, gives the following method for preparing pure coniine and
+its salts:
+
+
+_PREPARATION OF CRUDE CONIINE._
+
+A.--100 kilogrammes of hemlock seed are moistened with hot water, and
+after swelling up are treated with 4 kilogrammes of sodium carbonate
+previously dissolved in the requisite quantity of water (caustic
+alkalies cannot be used). The swollen seed is worked up uniformly with
+shovels, and then placed in an apparatus of 400 kilogrammes capacity,
+similar to that used in the distillation of ethereal oils, and charged
+with steam under a pressure of three atmospheres. Coniine distills
+over with the steam, the greater part separating out in the receiver
+as an oily stratum, while a part remains dissolved in the water. The
+riper the seeds, the greater is the percentage yield of oily coniine,
+and the sooner is the distillation ended. The distillate is
+neutralized with hydrochloric acid, and the whole evaporated to a weak
+sirupy consistence. When cool, this sirup yields successive crops of
+sal-ammoniac crystals, which latter are removed by shaking up the mass
+with twice its volume of strong alcohol, and filtering. This filtrate
+is freed from alcohol by evaporation over a water bath, the
+approximate quantity of a solution of caustic soda then added, and the
+whole shaken up with ether. The ethereal solution is then cooled down
+to a low temperature, whereby it is separated from conhydrine, which,
+being somewhat difficultly soluble in ether, crystallizes out.
+
+B.--The bruised hemlock seed is treated in a vacuum extractor with
+water acidulated with acetic acid, and the extract evaporated in vacuo
+to a sirupy consistence. The sirup is treated with magnesia, and the
+coniine dissolved out by shaking up with ether.
+
+The B method yields a less percentage of coniine than A, but of a
+better quality.
+
+
+_RECTIFICATION OF THE CRUDE CONIINE._
+
+The solution of crude coniine in ether obtained by either of the above
+processes is evaporated over a water bath to remove the ether, mixed
+with dry potassium carbonate, and then submitted to fractional
+distillation from an air bath. The portion distilling over at 168 deg. C.
+to 169 deg. C. is pure coniine, and represents 60 per cent. of the crude
+coniine.
+
+Coniine thus prepared is a colorless oily liquid, volatile at the
+ordinary temperature, and has a specific gravity of 0.886. At a
+temperature of 25 deg.C it absorbs water, which it gives up again upon
+heating. It is soluble in 90 parts of water. It is not altered by
+light.
+
+The author has formed a number of salts from coniine thus prepared,
+and finds them all crystallizable and unaffected by light.--_Berichte
+der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft._--_Chem. and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+STRONTIANITE.
+
+
+Since it has been shown by Professor Scheibler, of Berlin, that
+strontium is the most powerful medium of extraction in sugar refining,
+owing to its capacity of combining with three parts of saccharate, the
+idea suggests itself that the same medium might be successfully
+employed in the arts, and form a most interesting subject of
+experiment for the chemist.
+
+Hitherto native strontianite, that is, the 90 to 95 per cent. pure
+carbonate of strontium (not the celestine which frequently is mistaken
+by the term strontianite), has not been worked systematically in
+mines, but what used to be brought to the market was an inferior stone
+collected in various parts of Germany, chiefly in Westphalia, where it
+is found on the surface of the fields. Little also has been collected
+in this manner, and necessarily the quality was subject to the
+greatest fluctuations.
+
+By Dr. Scheibler's important discovery, a new era has begun in the
+matter of strontianite. Deposits of considerable importance have been
+opened in the Westphalian districts at a very great depth, and the
+supply of several 10,000 tons per annum seems to be secured, whereas
+only a short time ago it was not thought possible that more than a few
+hundred tons could in all be provided.--_Chemist and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+PARANGI--A NEWLY DESCRIBED DISEASE.
+
+
+A peculiar contagious disease, called framboesia, or the yaws, has
+long been known to exist in Africa, the West Indies, and the northern
+parts of the British Islands. It is chronic in character, and is
+distinguished by the development of raspberry-like tumors of
+granulation tissue on different parts of the body.
+
+A disease of a somewhat similar, but severer type, has for many years
+prevailed in Ceylon. Even less was known of this affection than of its
+supposed congener, until a recent careful report upon the subject by
+Mr. W.R. Kinsey, principal civil medical officer of Ceylon.
+
+The disease in question is called "parangi," and is defined by Mr.
+Kinsey (_British Medical Journal_) as a specific disease, produced by
+such causes as lead to debilitation of the system; propagated by
+contagion, generally through an abrasion or sore, but sometimes by
+simple contact with a sound surface; marked by an ill-defined period
+of incubation, followed by certain premonitory symptoms referable to
+the general system, then by the evolution of successive crops of a
+characteristic eruption, which pass on in weakly subjects into
+unhealthy and spreading ulcers whose cicatrices are very prone to
+contraction; running a definite course; attacking all ages, and
+amenable to appropriate treatment.
+
+The disease seems to develop especially in places where the water
+supply, which in Ceylon is kept in tanks, is insufficient or poor. The
+bad food, dirty habits, and generally unhygienic mode of life of the
+people, help on the action of the disease.
+
+Parangi, when once developed, spreads generally by contagion from the
+discharges of the eruptions and ulcers. The natural secretions do not
+convey the poison. The disease may be inherited also.
+
+In the clinical history of the disease there are, according to Mr.
+Kinsey, four stages. The first is that of incubation. It lasts from
+two weeks to two months. A sore will be found somewhere upon the body
+at this time, generally over some bony prominence. The second is the
+stage of invasion, and is characterized by the development of slight
+fever, malaise, dull pains in the joints. As this stage comes on the
+initial sore heals. This second stage lasts only from two to seven
+days, and ends with an eruption which ushers in the third stage. The
+eruption appears in successive crops, the first often showing itself
+on the face, the next on the body, and the last on the extremities.
+This eruptive stage of the disease continues for several weeks or
+months, and it ends either in convalescence or the onset of a train of
+sequelae, which may prolong the disease for years.
+
+Parangi may attack any one, though the poorly fed and housed are more
+susceptible. One attack seems to confer immunity from another.
+
+Although some of the sequelae of the disease are most painful, yet
+death does not often directly result from them, nor is parangi itself
+a fatal disease. Persons who have had parangi and passed safely
+through it, are not left in impaired health at all, but often live to
+an old age.
+
+The similarity of the disease, in its clinical history, to syphilis,
+is striking. Mr. Kinsey, however, considers it, as we have stated,
+allied to, if not identical with framboesia.--_Medical Record._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+A CASTOR OIL SUBSTITUTE.
+
+
+So far back as 1849, Mr. Alexander Ure investigated the purgative
+properties of the oil of anda. The specimen with which the experiments
+were tried had not been freshly prepared, and had indeed been long
+regarded as a curiosity. Twelve ounces were alone available, and it
+was a yellowish oil, quite bright, about the consistence of oleum
+olivae, devoid of smell, and free from the viscid qualities of castor
+oil. There was a small supply of anda fruits differing a good deal in
+appearance one from the other, but we are not aware whether these were
+utilized and the oil expressed; as far as our recollection serves, the
+subject was abandoned. It was known that the natives of Brazil used
+the seeds as an efficient purgative in doses of from one to three, and
+it was in contemplation to introduce this remedy into England, though
+it was by no means certain that under distinctly different climatic
+influences equally beneficial results might be expected. Mr. Ure
+determined, by actual experiment, to ascertain the value of the oil in
+his own hospital practice. He found that small doses were better than
+larger ones, and in several reported cases it appeared that twenty
+drops administered on sugar proved successful. Oil of anda-acu, or
+assu, therefore, would stand mid-way between ol. ricini and ol.
+crotonis. These researches seem to have been limited to the original
+sample, although the results obtained would appear to justify a more
+extended trial. M. Mello-Oliveira. of Rio Janeiro, has endeavored to
+bring the remedy into notice under the name of "Huile d'Anda-Assu,"
+and possibly may not have been acquainted with the attempt to
+introduce it into English practice. He describes the anda as a fine
+tree (_Johanesia princeps_, Euphorbiaceae), with numerous branches and
+persistent leaves, growing in different parts of Brazil, and known
+under the name of "coco purgatif." The fruit is quadrangular,
+bilocular, with two kernels, which on analysis yield an active
+principle for which the name "Johaneseine" is proposed. This is a
+substance sparingly soluble in water and alcohol, and insoluble in
+chloroform, benzine, ether, and bisulphide of carbon. Evidence derived
+from experiments with the sulphate of this principle did not give
+uniform results: one opinion being that, contrary to the view of many
+Brazilian physicians, this salt had no toxic effect on either men or
+animals. Local medical testimony, however, was entirely in favor of
+the oil. Dr. Torres, professor at Rio Janeiro, using a dose of two
+teaspoonfuls, had been successful. Dr. Tazenda had obtained excellent
+results, and Dr. Castro, with a somewhat larger dose (3 ijss.), was
+even enthusiastic in its praise. It might, therefore, be desirable at
+a time when new remedies are so much in vogue, not to abandon
+altogether a Brazilian medicament the value of which is confirmed both
+by popular native use and by professional treatment. M. Mello-Oliveira
+comes to the conclusion that oleum anda assu (or acu) may be employed
+wherever castor oil is indicated, and with these distinct advantages:
+first, that its dose is considerably less; secondly, that it is free
+from disagreeable odor and pungent taste; and thirdly, being
+sufficiently fluid, it is not adherent to the mouth so as to render it
+nauseous to the patient. In this short abstract the spelling of the
+French original has been retained. As this therapeutic agent claimed
+attention thirty years ago, and has again been deemed worthy of notice
+in scientific journals, some of our enterprising pharmacists might be
+inclined to add it to the list of their commercial ventures.--_Chemist
+and Druggist._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HOUSEHOLD AND OTHER RECIPES.
+
+
+Mr. Jas. W. Parkinson gives in a recent number of the _Confectioner's
+Journal_ the following useful recipes:
+
+
+CHRISTMAS PLUM PUDDING.
+
+Stone a pound of bloom raisins; wash and clean a pound of Zante
+currants; mince finely a pound of beef suet; mix with this, in a large
+pan, a pound of stale bread crumbs and half a pound of sifted flour.
+Beat together in another pan six eggs, and mix with them half a pint
+of milk. Pour this over the suet and flour, and stir and beat the
+whole well together; then add the raisins, currants, and a seasoning
+of ground cinnamon, grated nutmeg, powdered ginger, and a little
+ground cloves, a teaspoonful of salt, one pound of sugar, and a glass
+of Jamaica rum. This pudding may now be boiled in a floured cloth or
+in an ornamental mould tied up in a cloth. In either way it requires
+long and constant boiling, six hours at least for one such as the
+above. Every pudding in a cloth should be boiled briskly, till
+finished, in plenty of water, in a large pot, so as to allow it to
+move about freely.
+
+To take the boiled pudding out of the cloth without breaking it, dip
+it into cold water for a minute or two, then place it in a round
+bottomed basin that will just hold it, untie the cloth and lay bare
+the pudding down to the edge of the basin; then place upon it, upside
+down, the dish on which it is to be served, and invert the whole so
+that the pudding may rest on the dish; lastly, lift off the basin and
+remove the cloth. The use of the cold water is to chill and solidify
+the surface, so that it may part from the cloth smoothly.
+
+Plum pudding may also be baked in a mould or pan, which must be well
+buttered inside before pouring the pudding into it. Two hours' boiling
+suffices.
+
+
+PLUM-PUDDING SAUCE.
+
+Put into a saucepan two ounces of best butter and a tablespoonful of
+flour; mix these well together with a wooden spoon, and stir in half a
+pint of cold water and a little salt and pepper. Set this on the fire
+and stir constantly till nearly boiling; then add half a tumbler of
+Madeira wine, brandy, or Jamaica rum, fine sugar to the taste, and a
+little ground cinnamon or grated nutmeg. Make the sauce very hot, and
+serve over each portion of the pudding.
+
+
+NATIONAL PLUM PUDDING.
+
+An excellent plum pudding is made as follows: Half a pound of flour,
+half a pound of grated bread crumbs, a pound of Zante currants, washed
+and picked; a pound of raisins, stoned; an ounce of mixed spices, such
+as cinnamon, mace, cloves, and nutmeg; an ounce of butter, two ounces
+of blanched almonds, cut small; six ounces of preserved citron and
+preserved orange peel, cut into small pieces; four eggs, a little
+salt, four ounces of fine sugar, and half a pint of brandy. Mix all
+these well together, adding sufficient milk to bring the mixture to a
+proper consistency. Boil in a floured cloth or mould for eight hours.
+
+
+THE SAUCE FOR THE ABOVE.
+
+Into a gill of melted butter put an ounce of powdered sugar, a little
+grated nutmeg, two wine glasses of Madeira wine and one of Curacoa.
+Stir all well together, make very hot, and pour it over the pudding.
+
+
+EGG-NOG, OR AULD MAN'S MILK.
+
+Separate the whites and yolks of a dozen fresh eggs. Put the yolks
+into a basin and beat them to a smooth cream with half a pound of
+finely pulverized sugar. Into this stir half a pint of brandy, and the
+same quantity of Jamaica rum; mix all well together and add three
+quarts of milk or cream, half a nutmeg (grated), and stir together.
+Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff froth; stir lightly into them
+two or three ounces of the finest sugar powder, add this to the
+mixture, and dust powdered cinnamon over the top.
+
+
+EGG FLIP.
+
+Beat up in a bowl half a dozen fresh eggs; add half a pound of
+pulverized sugar; stir well together, and pour in one quart or more of
+boiling water, about half a pint at a time, mixing well as you pour it
+in; when all is in, add two tumblers of best brandy and one of Jamaica
+rum.
+
+
+ROAST TURKEY.
+
+The turkey is without doubt the most savory and finest flavored of all
+our domestic fowls, and is justly held in the highest estimation by
+the good livers in all countries where it is known. Singe, draw, and
+truss the turkey in the same manner as other fowls; then fill with a
+stuffing made of bread crumbs, butter, sweet herbs rubbed fine,
+moistened with eggs and seasoned with pepper, salt, and grated nutmeg.
+Sausage meat or a forced meat, made of boiled chicken meat, boiled ham
+grated fine, chopped oysters, roasted or boiled chestnuts rubbed fine,
+stewed mushrooms, or last but not the least in estimation, a dozen
+fine truffles cut into pieces and sauted in the best of butter, and
+added part to the stuffing and part to the sauce which is made from
+the drippings (made into a good brown gravy by the addition of a
+capful of cold water thickened with a little flour, with the giblets
+boiled and chopped fine in it). A turkey of ten pounds will require
+two and a half hours' roasting and frequent basting. Currant jelly,
+cranberry jelly, or cranberry sauce should always be on the table with
+roast turkey.
+
+
+WOODCOCKS AND SNIPE.
+
+Some epicures say that the woodcock should never be drawn, but that
+they should be fastened to a small bird spit, and should be put to
+roast before a clear fire; a slice of toast, put in a pan below each
+bird, in order to catch the trail; baste them with melted butter; lay
+the toast on a hot dish, and the birds on the toast. They require from
+fifteen to twenty minutes to roast. Snipe are dressed in the same
+manner, but require less time to cook. My pet plan to cook woodcock is
+to draw the bird and split it down the back, and then to broil it,
+basting it with butter; chop up the intestines, season them with
+pepper and salt, and saute them on a frying pan with butter; lay the
+birds on toast upon a hot dish and pour the saute over them.
+
+
+CANVAS-BACK DUCKS.
+
+Select young fat ducks; pick them nicely, singe, and draw them
+carefully without washing them so as to preserve the blood and
+consequently the full flavor of the bird; then truss it and place it
+on the spit before a brisk fire, or in a pan in a hot oven for at
+least fifteen or twenty minutes; then serve it hot with its own gravy,
+which is formed by its own blood and juices, on a hot dish. It may
+also be a little less cooked, and then carved and placed on a chafing
+dish with red currant jelly, port wine, and a little butter.
+
+
+
+PHEASANTS.
+
+A pheasant should have a clear, steady fire, but not a fierce one. The
+pheasant, being a rather dry bird, requires to be larded, or put a
+piece of beef or a rump steak into the inside of it before roasting.
+
+
+
+WILD DUCKS.
+
+In order to serve these birds in their most succulent state and finest
+flavor, let them hang in their feathers for a few days after being
+shot; then pluck, clean, and draw, and roast them in a quick oven or
+before a brisk fire; dredge and baste them well, and allow them twenty
+minutes to roast; serve them with gravy sauce and red currant jelly,
+or with a gravy sauce to which a chopped shallot and the juice of an
+orange has been added.
+
+
+WILD FOWL SAUCE.
+
+The following exquisite sauce is applicable to all wild fowl: Take one
+saltspoon of salt, half to two-thirds salt spoon of Cayenne, one
+dessert spoon lemon juice, one dessert spoon powdered sugar, two
+dessert spoons Harvey sauce, three dessert spoons port wine, well
+mixed and heated; score the bird and pour the sauce over it.
+
+
+BROWN FRICASSEE OF RABBITS.
+
+Cut a couple of rabbits into joints, fry these in a little fresh
+butter till they are of a light brown color; then put them into a
+stewpan, with a pint of water, two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, the
+same of mushroom catchup, one of Worcester sauce, and a couple of
+burnt onions, a little Cayenne and salt; stew over a slow fire till
+perfectly done; then take out the meat, strain the gravy, and thicken
+it with a little flour if necessary; make it quite hot, and pour it
+over the rabbits.
+
+
+ORANGE PUDDING.
+
+Beat up the yolks of eight eggs, grate the yellow rinds from two
+oranges, add these to a quarter of a pound of finely powdered sugar,
+the same weight of fresh butter, three teaspoonfuls of orange-flower
+water, two glasses of sherry wine, two or three stale Naples biscuits
+or lady fingers, and a teacupful of cream. Line a dish with puff
+paste, pour in the ingredients, and bake for half an hour in a good
+oven.
+
+
+VENISON PASTRY.
+
+A neck or breast of venison is rendered very savory by treating it as
+follows: Take off the skin and cut the meat off the bones into pieces
+of about an inch square; put these, with the bones, into a stewpan,
+cover them with veal or mutton broth, add two thirds of a teaspoon of
+powdered mace, half a dozen allspice, three shallots chopped fine, a
+teaspoonful of salt, a saltspoon of Cayenne, and a tumbler of port
+wine; stew over a slow fire until the meat is half done, then take it
+out and let the gravy remain on the fire ten or fifteen minutes
+longer. Line a good sized dish with pastry, arrange your meat on it,
+pour the gravy upon it through a sieve, adding the juice of a lemon;
+put on the top crust, and bake for a couple of hours in a slow oven.
+
+
+CHRISTMAS RED ROUND.
+
+Rub well into a round of beef a half pound of saltpeter, finely
+powdered. Next day mix half an ounce of cloves, half an ounce of black
+pepper, the same quantity of ground allspice, with half a pound of
+salt; wash and rub the beef in the brine for a fortnight, adding every
+other day a tablespoonful of salt. At the expiration of the fortnight,
+wipe the beef quite free from the brine, and stuff every interstice
+that you can find with equal portions of chopped parsley, and mixed
+sweet herbs in powder, seasoned with ground allspice, mace, salt, and
+Cayenne. Do not be sparing of this mixture. Put the round into a deep
+earthen pan, fill it with strong ale, and bake it in a very slow oven
+for eight hours, turning it in the liquor every two hours, and adding
+more ale if necessary. This is an excellent preparation to assist in
+the "keeping of the Christmas season."
+
+
+PLUM PORRIDGE FOR CHRISTMAS FESTIVITIES.
+
+Make a good strong broth from four pounds of veal and an equal
+quantity of shin of beef. Strain and skim off the fat when cold. Wash
+and stone three pounds and a half of raisins; wash and well dry the
+same weight of best Zante currants; take out the stones from two and a
+half pounds of French prunes; grate up the crumbs of two small loaves
+of wheat bread; squeeze the juice of eight oranges and four lemons;
+put these, with a teaspoonful of powdered cinnamon, a grated nutmeg,
+half a dozen cloves, and five pounds of sugar into your broth; stir
+well together, and then pour in three quarts of sherry. Set the vessel
+containing the mixture on a slow fire. When the ingredients are soft
+add six bottles of hock; stir the porridge well, and as soon as it
+boils it is fit for use.
+
+
+SUGARED PEARS.
+
+Half a dozen of those fine pears called the "Bartlett" will make a
+small dish worthy the attention of any good Christian who has a sweet
+tooth in his head. Pare the fruit, cut out the cores, squeeze lemon
+juice over them, which will prevent their discoloration. Boil them
+gently in enough sirup to cover them till they become tender. Serve
+them cold, with Naples biscuit round the dish.
+
+
+TABLE BEER.
+
+Table beer of a superior quality may be brewed in the following
+manner, a process well worth the attention of the gentleman, the
+mechanic, and the farmer, whereby the beer is altogether prevented
+from working out of the cask, and the fermentation conducted without
+any apparent admission of the external air. I have made the scale for
+one barrel, in order to make it more generally useful to the community
+at large; however the same proportions will answer for a greater or
+less quantity, only proportioning the materials and utensils. Take one
+peck of good malt, ground, one pound of hops, put them in twenty
+gallons of water, and boil them for half an hour; then run them into a
+hair-cloth bag or sieve, so as to keep back the hops and malt from the
+wort, which when cooled down to sixty-five degrees by Fahrenheit's
+thermometer, add to it two gallons of molasses, with one pint, or a
+little less, of good yeast. Mix these with your wort, and put the
+whole into a clean barrel, and fill it up with cold water to within
+six inches of the bung hole (this space is requisite to leave room for
+fermentation), bung down tight. If brewed for family use, would
+recommend putting in the cock at the same time, as it will prevent the
+necessity of disturbing the cask afterward. In one fortnight this beer
+may be drawn and will be found to improve to the last.
+
+
+MINCE MEAT.
+
+This inevitable Christmas luxury is vastly improved by being mixed
+some days before it is required for use; this gives the various
+ingredients time to amalgamate and blend.
+
+Peel, core, and chop fine a pound of pippin apples, wash and clean a
+pound of Zante currants, stone one pound of bloom raisins, cut into
+small pieces a pound of citron, remove the skin and gristle from a
+pound and a half of cold roast or boiled beef, and carefully pick a
+pound of beef suet; chop these well together. Cut into small bits
+three-quarters of a pound of mixed candied orange and lemon peel; mix
+all these ingredients well together in a large earthen pan. Grate one
+nutmeg, half an ounce of powdered ginger, quarter of an ounce of
+ground cloves, quarter of an ounce of ground allspice and coriander
+seed mixed, and half an ounce of salt. Grate the yellow rind of three
+lemons, and squeeze the juice over two pounds of fine sugar. Put the
+grated yellow rind and all the other ingredients in a pan; mix well
+together, and over all pour one pint of brandy, one pint of sherry,
+and one pint of hard cider; stir well together, cover the pan closely,
+and when about to use the mince meat, take it from the bottom of the
+pan.
+
+
+PUMPKIN PIE.
+
+  "What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye?
+   What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin pie?"
+
+Stew about two pounds of pumpkins, then add to it three-quarters of a
+pound of sugar, and the same quantity of butter, well worked together;
+stir these into the pumpkin and add a teaspoonful of powdered mace and
+grated nutmeg, and a little ground cinnamon; then add a gill of
+brandy, beat them well together, and stir in the yolks of eight
+well-beaten eggs. Line the pie plates with puff paste, fill them with
+the pumpkin mixture, grate a little nutmeg over the top, and bake.
+
+
+BRANDY PUNCH.
+
+Take three dozen lemons, chip off the yellow rinds, taking care that
+none of the white underlying pith is taken, as that would make the
+punch bitter, whereas the yellow portion of the rinds is that in which
+the flavor resides and in which the cells are placed containing the
+essential oil. Put this yellow rind into a punch bowl, add to it two
+pounds of lump sugar; stir the sugar and peel together with a wooden
+spoon or spatula for nearly half an hour, thereby extracting a greater
+quantity of the essential oil. Now add boiling water, and stir until
+the sugar is completely dissolved. Squeeze and strain the juice from
+the lemons and add it to the mixture; stir together and taste it; add
+more acid or more sugar, as required, and take care not to render it
+too watery. "Rich of the fruit and plenty of sweetness," is the maxim.
+Now measure the sherbet, and to every three quarts add a pint of
+cognac brandy and a pint of old Jamaica rum, the spirit being well
+stirred as poured in. This punch may be bottled and kept in a cool
+cellar; it will be found to improve with age.
+
+
+BOEUF A LA MODE (FAMILY STYLE).
+
+The rump is the most applicable for this savory dish. Take six or
+eight pounds of it, and cut it into bits of a quarter of a pound each;
+chop a couple of onions very fine; grate one or two carrots; put these
+into a large stewpan with a quarter of a pound of fresh butter, or
+fresh and well clarified beef drippings; while this is warming, cover
+the pieces of beef with flour; put them into the pan and stir them for
+ten minutes, adding a little more flour by slow degrees, and taking
+great care that the meat does not burn. Pour in, a little at a time, a
+gallon of boiling water; then add a couple of drachms of ground
+allspice, one of black pepper, a couple of bay leaves, a pinch each of
+ground cloves and mace. Let all this stew on a slow fire, and very
+gently, for three hours and a quarter; ascertain with a fork if the
+meat be tender; if so, you may serve it in a tureen or deep dish. A
+well-dressed salad is the proper accompaniment of boeuf a la mode.
+
+
+PUNCH JELLY.
+
+Make a bowl of punch according to the directions for brandy punch,
+only a _little_ stronger. To every pint of punch add an ounce of
+gelatine dissolved in half a pint of water; pour this into the punch
+while quite hot, and then fill your moulds, taking care not to disturb
+it until the jelly is completely set. This preparation is a very
+agreeable refreshment, but should be used in moderation. The strength
+of the punch is so artfully concealed by its admixture with the
+gelatine that many persons, particularly of the softer sex, have been
+tempted to partake so plentifully of it as to render them somewhat
+unfit for waltzing or quadrilling after supper.
+
+
+ORANGE SALAD.
+
+This somewhat inappropriately-named dish is made by removing the rind
+and cutting the fruit in slices crosswise and adding equal quantities
+of brandy and Madeira, in proportion to the quantity of fruit thus
+dressed, strewing a liberal allowance of finely-powdered sugar over
+all.
+
+
+CRANBERRY JELLY.
+
+Put two quarts of cranberries into a large earthen pipkin, and cover
+them with water; place them on a moderate fire, and boil them until
+they are reduced to a soft pulp; then strain and press them through a
+hair sieve into an earthen or stone ware pan, and for each pint of
+liquid pulp allow one pound of pulverized sugar; mix the pulp and
+sugar together in a bright copper basin and boil, stirring constantly
+for ten or fifteen minutes, or until the mixture begins to coagulate
+upon the spatula; then remove it from the fire and fill your moulds;
+let them stand in a cool place to set. When wanted for use, turn it
+out of the mould in the same manner as other jellies.
+
+
+JOVE'S NECTAR.
+
+For three gallons, peel the yellow rind from one and a half dozen
+fresh lemons, very thin, and steep the peelings for forty-eight hours
+in a gallon of brandy; then add the juice of the lemons, with five
+quarts of water, three pounds of loaf sugar, and two nutmegs grated;
+stir it till the sugar is completely dissolved, then pour in three
+quarts of new milk, _boiling hot_, and let it stand two hours, after
+which run it through a jelly bag till it is fine. This is fit for
+immediate use, but may be kept for years in bottles, and will be
+improved by age.
+
+
+PLUM, OR BLACK CAKE.
+
+For this Christmas luxury take one pound of butter and one pound of
+pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream, stir in one dozen
+eggs beaten to a froth, beat well together, and add one pound of
+sifted flour; continue the beating for ten minutes, then add and stir
+in three pounds of stoned raisins, three pounds of Zante currants,
+washed, cleaned, and dried, a pound and a half of citron sliced and
+cut into small pieces, three grated nutmegs, quarter of an ounce of
+powdered mace, half an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and half a
+teaspoonful of ground cloves; mix all well together; bake in a
+well-buttered pan in a slow oven for four hours and a half.
+
+
+BLACK CAKE (PARKINSON'S OWN).
+
+  "If you have lips, prepare to smack them now."
+                     --_Shakspeare, slightly altered._
+
+Take one and a half pounds of the best butter, and the same weight of
+pulverized sugar; beat them together to a cream; stir into this two
+dozen eggs, beaten to a froth; add one gill of old Jamaica rum; then
+add one and a half pounds of sifted flour. Stir and beat all well
+together, and add two pounds of finest bloom raisins, stoned; two
+pounds of Zante currants, washed, cleaned, and dried; one pound of
+preserved citron, sliced thinly and cut into small pieces; one pound
+of preserved French cherries, in halves; one pound of green gages, and
+one pound of preserved apricots, stoned and cut into small pieces;
+half a pound of preserved orange and lemon peel, mixed, and cut into
+small pieces; three grated nutmegs, half an ounce of ground mace, half
+an ounce of powdered cinnamon, and a quarter ounce of ground cloves.
+Mix all the ingredients well together, and bake in a well-buttered
+mould or pan, in a _slow oven_, for five and a half hours.
+
+This cake is vastly improved by age. Those intended for the Christmas
+festivities should be made at or about the first of October; then put
+the cake into a round tin box, half an inch larger in diameter than
+the cake; then pour over it a bottle of the best brandy mixed with
+half a pint of pure lemon, raspberry, strawberry, or simple sirup, and
+one or more bottles of champagne. Now put on the lid of the box, and
+have it carefully soldered on, so as to make all perfectly air-tight.
+Put it away in your store-room, and let stand till Christmas, only
+reversing the box occasionally, in order that the liquors may permeate
+the cake thoroughly.
+
+This heroic treatment causes the ingredients to amalgamate, and the
+flavors to harmonize and blend more freely; and when, on Christmas
+day, you bring out this hermit, after doing a three months' penance in
+a dark cell, it will come out rich, succulent, and unctuous; you will
+not only have a luxury, "fit to set before a king," or before the
+Empress of India, but fit to crown a feast of the very gods
+themselves, on high Olympus' top.
+
+
+POTATOES (PARKINSON STYLE).
+
+Take two or three fine white potatoes, raw; peel and chop them up
+_very, very fine_. Then chop up just as fine the breast of a
+good-sized boiled fowl; they should be chopped as fine as unboiled
+rice; mix the meat and the potatoes together, and dust a _very little_
+flour over them and a pinch or two of salt. Now put an ounce or so of
+the best butter into a frying pan, and when it is hot, put in the
+mixture, and stir constantly with a wooden spatula until they are
+fried to a nice golden color, then immediately serve on a hot plate.
+
+Cold boiled ham grated fine, or boiled beef tongue chopped very fine,
+may be used instead of chicken, omitting the salt. A dozen or two of
+prime oysters, parboiled, drained, and chopped fine, mixed with the
+potatoes prepared as above, and fried, makes a most delicious lunch or
+supper dish. Try any of the above styles, and say no, if you can.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY COMET.
+
+
+Professor Hind, of the British Nautical Almanac Office, recently sent
+an interesting letter to the London _Times_ on the comet depicted in
+that famous piece of embroidery known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Probably
+no one of the great comets recorded in history has occasioned a more
+profound impression upon mankind in the superstitious ages than the
+celebrated body which appeared in the spring of the year 1066, and was
+regarded as the precursor of the invasion of England by William the
+Norman. As Pingre, the eminent cometographer, remarks, it forms the
+subject of an infinite number of relations in the European chronicles.
+The comet was first seen in China on April 2, 1066. It appeared in
+England about Easter Sunday, April 16, and disappeared about June 8.
+Professor Hind finds in ancient British and Chinese records abundant
+grounds for believing that this visitant was only an earlier
+appearance of Halley's great comet, and he traces back the appearances
+of this comet at its several perihelion passages to B.C. 12. The last
+appearance of Halley's comet was in 1835, and according to
+Pontecoulant's calculations, its next perihelion passage will take
+place May 24, 1910.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+LACK OF SUN LIGHT.
+
+
+Some interesting information as to the way in which the human system
+is affected under the peculiar conditions of work in mines has been
+furnished by M. Fabre, from experiences connected with the coal mines
+of France. He finds that the deprivation of solar light causes a
+diminution in the pigment of the skin, and absence of sunburning, but
+there is no globular anaemia--that is, diminution in the number of
+globules in the blood. Internal maladies seem to be more rare. While
+there is no essential anaemia in the miners, the blood globules are
+often found smaller and paler than in normal conditions of life, this
+being due to respiration of noxious gases, especially where
+ventilation is difficult. The men who breathe too much the gases
+liberated on explosion of powder or dynamite suffer more than other
+miners from affections of the larynx, the bronchia, and the stomach.
+Ventilation sometimes works injury by its cooling effect.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+SYNTHETIC EXPERIMENTS ON THE ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF
+METEORITES.
+
+
+By means of igneous fusion the authors have succeeded in reproducing
+two types of crystalline associations, which, in their mineralogical
+composition and the principal features of their structure, are
+analogous, if not identical with certain oligosideric meteorites. The
+only notable difference results from the habitual brecchoid state of
+the meteorites, which contrasts with state of quiet solidification of
+the artificial compounds.--_F. Fouque and Michel Levy._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific
+papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had
+gratis at this office.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.
+
+PUBLISHED WEEKLY.
+
+Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.
+
+Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the
+United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any
+foreign country.
+
+All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the
+commencement, January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.
+
+All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be
+supplied. Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50,
+stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.
+
+COMBINED RATES.--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and
+one copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year,
+postpaid, $7.00.
+
+A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers.
+
+  MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS,
+  37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PATENTS.
+
+In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & CO. are
+Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 35 years'
+experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world.
+Patents are obtained on the best terms.
+
+A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all Inventions
+patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the
+Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is
+directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction
+often easily effected.
+
+Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain,
+free of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing
+to MUNN & CO.
+
+We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents,
+Caveats, Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for
+procuring advances on inventions. Address
+
+  MUNN & CO., 37 PARK ROW, NEW YORK.
+Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D.C.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No.
+315,  January 14, 1882, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN ***
+
+***** This file should be named 18345.txt or 18345.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/3/4/18345/
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at www.pgdp.net
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/18345.zip b/18345.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e9b7244
--- /dev/null
+++ b/18345.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8d3f80
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #18345 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/18345)