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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/18097-8.txt b/18097-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b0b8814 --- /dev/null +++ b/18097-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8022 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Public School Domestic Science + +Author: Mrs. J. Hoodless + +Release Date: April 1, 2006 [EBook #18097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + +PUBLIC SCHOOL + +DOMESTIC SCIENCE + +BY + +MRS. J. HOODLESS, + +President School Of Domestic Science, Hamilton. + + +This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if +so ordered by a resolution of the Trustees. + + + TORONTO: + THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED, + 1898. + + +Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one +thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, +LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of +Agriculture. + + +[Illustration: A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.] + + +"I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which +embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet, +and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired +vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and +throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from +the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil +to be."--_Sir Henry Thompson._ + + * * * * * + +"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing loss of +health is of primary importance. We do not contend that possession of +such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. But we do +contend that the right knowledge impressed in the right way would +effect much; and we further contend that as the laws of health must be +recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of +such knowledge must precede a more rational living."--_Herbert +Spencer._ + + * * * * * + +"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of Calypso and +Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the +knowledge of all fruits, and herbs, and balms, and spices, and of all +that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, and savory in meats; +it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and +willingness, and readiness of appliance; it means much tasting and no +wasting; it means English thoroughness, and French art, and Arabian +hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfect and always +'ladies'--'loaf-givers.'"--_Ruskin._ + + + + +PREFACE. + + +An eminent authority[1] says: "Up to the age of sixteen even a lucid +statement of principles is received by all but a few pupils as dogma. +They do not and cannot in any adequate sense realize the reasoning +process by which scientific conclusions are reached. They are taught +not only facts but classifications and laws, and causes in relation to +their effect. These are not, in the majority of cases, elaborated by +the pupil. The teaching of them accordingly degenerates into a +statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of memory." + +To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize its effects +somewhat, is one of the principal reasons for introducing Domestic +Science into the Public School curriculum; a science which relates so +closely to the daily life that it cannot be left to an act of memory; +where cause and effect are so palpable that the pupil may readily +arrive at an individual conclusion. + +The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring a +knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to +co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to make a practical use +of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an important part in +the arranging of weights and measures, in the study of the analysis +and relative value of various kinds of food, in estimating the cost of +manufactured products in proportion to their market value, in the +purchase of food material, etc. History and geography are closely +allied to the study of the diet and customs of the different +countries, with their variety of climate and products. Physiology and +temperance principles permeate the whole course of study. In addition +to these are the direct lessons, provided by the practice work, in +neatness, promptness and cleanliness. It will therefore be necessary +to have a wide general knowledge before entering upon a course in +Domestic Science. + +Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the Public +Schools, it will be impossible to teach more than a few of the first +principles governing each department of the work, viz., a knowledge of +the constituent parts of the human body; the classification of food +and the relation of each class to the sustenance and repair of the +body; simple recipes illustrating the most wholesome and economical +methods of preparing the various kinds of food; the science of +nutrition, economy and hygiene; general hints on household management, +laundry work, and care of the sick. + +To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, bacteriology, etc., +would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the average school girl, +and possibly create a distaste for knowledge containing so much +abstract matter. + +This book is not a teacher's manual, nor is it intended to take the +place of the teacher in any way. The normal training prescribed for +teachers will enable them to supplement the information contained +herein, by a much more general and comprehensive treatment of the +various questions, than would be possible or judicious in a primary +text-book. It has been found difficult for pupils to copy the recipes +given with each lesson, or to write out the instructions carefully +without infringing upon the time which should be devoted to practice +work.[2] In order to meet this difficulty, also to enable the pupil to +work at home under the same rules which govern the class work, simple +recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a knowledge of +heat and its effect, going on to those requiring hand dexterity, +before attempting the more difficult subjects. After the pupils have +acquired a knowledge of the "why and wherefore" of the different +processes required in cooking, they will have little difficulty in +following the more elaborate recipes given in the numberless +cook-books provided for household use. Once the art--and it is a fine +art--of cookery is mastered, it becomes not only a pleasant occupation +but provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing the +reaction which frequently follows school life. + +The tables given are to be used for reference, and _not to be +memorized_ by the pupil. + +The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his kindly +interest and assistance in providing much valuable information, which +in some instances is given verbatim; also to Dr. Gilman Thompson for +permission to give extracts from his valuable book, "Practical +Dietetics"; to Prof. Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science +Dept.), for review and suggestions; to Miss Watson, Principal Hamilton +School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule for +school work. The Boston Cook Book (with Normal Instruction), by Mrs. +M.J. Lincoln; and the Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen H. +Richards (Prof. of Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology), +and Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further +information on practical household matters. The publications of the +U.S. Experiment Stations, by Prof. Atwater and other eminent chemists, +contain much valuable information. + +To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, this book is +respectfully dedicated. + +ADELAIDE HOODLESS. + + "EASTCOURT," + Hamilton, June, 1898. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] S.S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and History of +Education, Edinburgh University. + +[2] Where time is allowed, much benefit may be derived from writing +notes, as a study in composition, spelling, etc. + + + + +SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER. + + +Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for the +teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the various +questions; to explain the underlying principles so thoroughly that +"the why and the wherefore" of every action in the preparation of food +will be clearly understood. She should endeavor to impress upon the +pupils the value of thoroughly understanding the relation of food to +the body. In practice lessons frequent _reference_ should be made to +the analysis of the various foods, as given in the tables and charts. + +The first practice lesson should be given on the making and care of a +fire, regulating dampers, cleaning stove, etc. The pupils should then +be taught the name and place of all the utensils. Special attention +should be given to the explanation of weights and measures; the table +of abbreviations should be memorized. Arrange the class work so that +each pupil may in alternation share the duties of both kitchen work +and cooking. + +Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should +be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned +back or confined in some way, and covered by a cap. A large clean +apron and a holder should be worn while at work. Never allow the +pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in place of a holder. +Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-room. Set an example of +perfect order and neatness, and insist upon pupils following that +example. Teach the pupils that cooking may be done without soiling +either hands or clothes. The pupils should do all the work of the +class-room, except scrubbing the floor. Everything must be left in +perfect order at the close of each lesson. + +Frequent _reviews_ are absolutely necessary. Urge the pupils to think +for themselves, and not to rely upon the text-book. Where pupils are +backward, or have not had previous practice in kitchen work, give +special attention to their manner of holding a knife or spoon in +preparing articles for use, and in beating or stirring mixtures. +Encourage deftness and light handling of kitchen ware. Insist upon +promptness and keeping within the time limit, both in preparing the +food and in the cooking. + +Owing to the variety of climate and markets, it would be impossible to +arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A few sample +menus are given at the back of the book, but each teacher must be +governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons for her class. For +instance, recipes without eggs should be given in mid-winter, when +eggs are dear. Fruits and vegetables must be given in season. + +The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work; in +some cases it may be necessary to divide them, as the quantities given +are intended for home practice. The teacher should consider herself at +liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider valuable. The +digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants--especially of tea and +coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be carefully impressed +upon the pupil. + +The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly before +her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arithmetic, +history, geography, physiology and temperance; (2) to develop the +mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the children; (3) to +enable pupils to understand the reason for doing certain things in a +certain way; in other words, to work with an intelligent conception +of the value, both physically and hygienically, of knowing how the +daily duties should be performed. + +In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each class of +food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For instance, +before giving a lesson in the preparation of starches, each pupil +should be given an opportunity to learn how to mix and stir the +mixture over the fire, so as to prevent it from burning or becoming +lumpy; this may be done by using water and common laundry starch, or +flour. The same test applies to sauces, etc. A few cheap apples and +potatoes may be used in learning to pare these articles. The effect of +cold and hot water on albumen and tissues may be illustrated by the +cheaper pieces of meat. + +Although the more scientific studies are grouped together, it does not +follow that they are to be studied in the order given. The teacher +must arrange her lessons--from the beginning--so as to include a +certain amount of the theory with the practice work. Frequent +reference should be made during practice lessons to the various +chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking, so as to +interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food question. + +The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes while +she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not be entirely +dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations must simply +serve as the key-note for further study. + +Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion," page +58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be +studied--especially pages 71-75--in conjunction with "Food +Classifications" (Chap. 2); also in dealing with the digestibility of +starches, etc. + + + + +COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS--(_Atwater_) + +_Nutritive Ingredients, Refuse, and Food Value._ + + Nutrients: + P--Protein. + F--Fats. + C--Carbohydrates. + M--Mineral Matters. + + Non-nutrients: + W--Water. + R--Refuse. + + Fuel Value: + X--Calories. + + _Protein_ Compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) + of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. + + _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, \ + \ serve as fuel to yield + / heat and muscular power. + _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar, / + + + Nutrients, etc., p.c | 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 + ---------------------+-------------------------------------------------| + Fuel value of 1 lb. | 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 + | | | | | | | | | | | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRR| + Beef, round |XXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPPP|FFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Beef, round[A] |XXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRR| + Beef, sirloin |XXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Beef, sirloin[A] |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRR| + Beef, rib |XXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Beef, rib[A] |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPP|FFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRR| + Mutton, leg |XXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR| + Pork, spare rib |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWW|RRR| + Pork, salt |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR| + Ham, smoked |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPP|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRRRR| + Codfish, fresh |XXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPP|MMMMMMM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRR| + Codfish, salt |XXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PP|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Oysters |XXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |P|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Milk |XXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |P|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|M|WWWW| + Butter |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Cheese |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRR| + Eggs |XXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Wheat bread |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW| + Wheat flour |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWW| + Cornmeal |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPP|FFF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WW| + Oatmeal |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|MM|WWWWW| + Beans, dried |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW| + Rice |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |P|CCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR| + Potatoes |XXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| + Sugar |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + + [A] Without bone. + + + + +PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD--(_Atwater_). + +_Amounts of actually Nutritive Ingredients obtained in different Food +Materials for 10 cents._ + + P--Protein. + F--Fats. + C--Carbohydrates. + X--Fuel Value. + + _Protein_ compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) + of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. + + _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter and oil, \ + \ serve as fuel to yield + / heat and muscular power. + _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar, / + + --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------| + | Price | Ten | | + | per | cents| Pounds of Nutrients and Calories of | + | pound.| will | Fuel Value in 10 cents worth. | + | | buy--| | + --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------| + | Cents.| Lbs. | 1 Lb. 2 Lbs. 3 Lbs. 4 Lbs. | + | | | 2000 Cal. 4000 Cal. 6000 Cal. 8000 Cal.| + | | | | | | | | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|F| | + Beef, round | 12 | .83 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|F| | + Beef, sirloin | 18 | .55 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|F| | + Beef, rib | 16 | .63 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|F| | + Mutton, leg | 12 | .83 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Pork, | | |PP|FF| | + spare rib | 12 | .83 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Pork, | | |P|FFFF| | + salt, fat | 14 | .71 |XXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|FFF| | + Ham, smoked | 16 | .63 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Codfish, | | |PP| | + fresh | 8 | 1.25 |XX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Codfish, | | |PPP| | + salt | 6 | 1.67 |XXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Oysters, 40 | | |P| | + cents quart | 20 | .50 |X| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Milk, 6 cents | | |P|F|C| | + quart | 3 | 3.33 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |FFFF| | + Butter | 24 | .42 |XXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|FF| | + Cheese | 16 | .63 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Eggs, 25 | | |P|F| | + cents dozen | 16-3/4| .60 |XXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Wheat bread | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Wheat flour | 2-1/2| 4.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Cornmeal | 2 | 5.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Oatmeal | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Beans, white, | | |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + dried | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Rice | 5 | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Potatoes, 60 | | |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + cents bushel| 1 |10.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Sugar | 5 | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PAGE. + Preface v + Suggestions to Teachers ix + Composition of Food Materials (_Atwater_) xii + Pecuniary Economy of Food (_Atwater_) xiii + + CHAPTER I. + The Relation of Food to the Body 1 + + CHAPTER II. + Food Classification 6 + + CHAPTER III. + Nutrition 10 + + CHAPTER IV. + Food and Economy 12 + + CHAPTER V. + Foods containing Protein or Nitrogenous Matter 22 + + CHAPTER VI. + Fats and Oils 34 + + CHAPTER VII. + Carbohydrate Foods 37 + + CHAPTER VIII. + Fruits 50 + + CHAPTER IX. + Preparing Food 54 + + RECIPES: + Batters, Biscuits and Bread 60 + Bread 65 + Sauces and Milk Soups 66 + Eggs 69 + Fruit 72 + Vegetables 74 + Salads 80 + Macaroni 85 + Cheese 86 + Beverages 87 + Soups 89 + Fish 94 + Meat 96 + Poultry 104 + Hot Puddings 109 + Plain Sauces 115 + Pastry 121 + Miscellaneous 122 + + General Hints 126 + + Suggestions for Young Housekeepers 128 + + Caring for Invalids 142 + + General Hints for School Children 150 + + Suggestions for School Children's Diet 153 + + Infants' Diet 156 + + Planning and Serving Meals 170 + + Consideration of Menus 173 + + Suggestive Questions 188 + + Schedule of Lessons for Public School Classes 191 + + Appendix 193 + + + + +PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +The Relation of Food to the Body. + + +In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and +repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what +the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the +food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The +following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148 +pounds:-- + + Oxygen 92.1 pounds. + Hydrogen 14.6 " + Carbon 31.6 " + Nitrogen 4.6 " + Phosphorus 1.4 " + Calcium 2.8 " + Sulphur 0.24 " + Chlorine 0.12 " + Sodium 0.12 " + Iron 0.02 " + Potassium 0.34 " + Magnesium 0.04 " + Silica ? " + Fluorine 0.02 " + ------ + Total 148.00 pounds. + +As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing +and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary +some knowledge of the relation of food to the body is, in order to +preserve health. + +Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we find from the above +calculation that about three-fifths of the body is composed of water. +Carbon is a solid: diamonds are nearly pure carbon; "lead" of lead +pencils, anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon. Carbon +combined with other elements in the body makes about one-fifth of the +whole weight. Carbon with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon +taken into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen of the +inhaled air, yields heat to keep the body warm, and force--muscular +strength--for work. The carbonic acid (or carbon dioxide) is given out +through the lungs and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous +foods, their relation to the body as fuel will be more clearly +understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element. Phosphorus +is a solid. According to the table, about one pound six ounces would +be found in a body weighing 148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus +forms what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes +phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones and teeth; +it is found also in the brain and nerves, flesh and blood. Hydrogen is +a gas, and like carbon unites with the oxygen of the inhaled air in +the body, thus serving as fuel. The water produced is given off in the +respiration through the lungs and as perspiration through the skin.[3] +Calcium is a metal. The table given allows three pounds of calcium; +united with oxygen, calcium forms lime. This with phosphoric acid +makes phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in which +nearly all the calcium of the body is found. + +The elements which bear no direct relation to the force production of +the body, but which enter into tissue formation, are chlorine, +sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. +Bone tissue contains about 50 per cent. of lime phosphate, hence the +need of this substance in the food of a growing infant, in order that +the bones may become firm and strong. Lack of iron salts in the food +impoverishes the coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles on which +they depend for their power of carrying oxygen to the tissues; anĉmia +and other disorders of deficient oxidation result. The lack of +sufficient potash salts is a factor in producing scurvy, a condition +aggravated by the use of common salt. A diet of salt meat and starches +may cause it, with absence of fresh fruit and vegetables. Such +illustrations show the need of a well-balanced diet. + +In order to understand the value of the various classes of food and +their relation to the body as force producers, tissue builders, etc., +the following table may prove helpful:-- + + | | C.H. + | | Combustibles + | Nitrogen. | Calculated as + | | Carbon. + ---------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------- + Beef, uncooked | 3.00 | 11.00 + Roast beef | 3.53 | 17.76 + Calf's liver | 3.09 | 15.68 + Foie-gras | 2.12 | 65.58 + Sheep's kidneys | 2.66 | 12.13 + Skate | 3.83 | 12.25 + Cod, salted | 5.02 | 16.00 + Herring, salted | 3.11 | 23.00 + Herring, fresh | 1.83 | 21.00 + Whiting | 2.41 | 9.00 + Mackerel | 3.74 | 19.26 + Sole | 1.91 | 12.25 + Salmon | 2.09 | 16.00 + Carp | 3.49 | 12.10 + Oysters | 2.13 | 7.18 + Lobster, uncooked | 2.93 | 10.96 + Eggs | 1.90 | 13.50 + Milk (cows') | 0.66 | 8.00 + Cheese (Brie) | 2.93 | 35.00 + Cheese (Gruyere) | 5.00 | 38.00 + Cheese (Roquefort) | 4.21 | 44.44 + Chocolate | 1.52 | 58.00 + Wheat (hard Southern, variable average) | 3.00 | 41.00 + Wheat (soft Southern, variable average) | 1.81 | 39.00 + Flour, white (Paris) | 1.64 | 38.50 + Rye flour | 1.75 | 41.00 + Winter barley | 1.90 | 40.00 + Maize | 1.70 | 44.00 + Buckwheat | 2.20 | 42.50 + Rice | 1.80 | 41.00 + Oatmeal | 1.95 | 44.00 + Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water) | 1.08 | 29.50 + Bread, brown (soldiers' rations formerly) | 1.07 | 28.00 + Bread, brown (soldiers' rations at present) | 1.20 | 30.00 + Bread, from flour of hard wheat | 2.20 | 31.00 + Potatoes | 0.33 | 11.00 + Beans | 4.50 | 42.00 + Lentils, dry | 3.87 | 43.00 + Peas, dry | 3.66 | 44.00 + Carrots | 0.31 | 5.50 + Mushrooms | 0.60 | 4.52 + Figs, fresh | 0.41 | 15.50 + Figs, dry | 0.92 | 34.00 + Coffee (infusion of 100 grams) | 1.10 | 9.00 + Tea (infusion of 100 grams) | 1.00 | 10.50 + Bacon | 1.29 | 71.14 + Butter | 0.64 | 83.00 + Olive oil | Trace | 98.00 + Beer, strong | 0.05 | 4.50 + Wine | 0.15 | 4.00 + ---------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------- + +"The hydrogen existing in the compound in excess of what is required +to form water with the oxygen present is calculated as carbon. It is +only necessary to multiply the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount +of dry proteids in 100 grams of the fresh food substance." +(Dujardin-Beauretz.) The following simple rules are given by +Parks:--"1st. To obtain the amount of nitrogen in proteid of foods, +divide the quantity of food by 6.30. 2nd. To obtain the carbon in fat +multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To obtain the carbon in carbohydrate food +multiply by 0.444. 4. To obtain the carbon in proteid food multiply by +0.535." + +Finding that our food and our bodies contain essentially the same +elements, we must also bear in mind that the body cannot create +anything for itself, neither material nor energy; all must be supplied +by the food we eat, which is transformed into repair material for the +body. Therefore, the object of a course of study dealing with the +science of this question, as it relates to the daily life, should be +to learn something of how food builds the body, repairs the waste, +yields heat and energy, and to teach the principles of food economy in +its relation to health and income. This, with the development of +executive ability, is all that can be attempted in a primary course. + + +FOOTNOTE: + +[3] An illustration of vapor rising may be given by breathing upon a +mirror. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +Food Classification. + + +The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four +principal classes of nutrients: + + PROTEIN: + + _Proteids._ + + _Albuminoids_, _e.g._, albumen of eggs; myosin, + the basis of muscle (lean meat); the albuminoids + which make up the gluten of wheat, etc. + + _Gelatinoids_, constituents of connective tissue which + yield gelatin and allied substances, _e.g._, collagen + of tendon; ossein of bone. + + "Nitrogenous extractives" of flesh, _i.e._, of meats and fish. + These include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the + chief ingredients of beef tea and most meat extracts. + Amids: this term is frequently applied to the nitrogenous + non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable foods and feeding + stuffs, among which are amido acids, such as aspartic acid + and asparagin. Some of them are more or less allied in + chemical constitution to the nitrogenous extractives of + flesh. + + _Fats._ + + Fat of meat: fat of milk; oil of corn, wheat, etc. The + ingredients of the "ether extract" of animal and vegetable + foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary to group + together roughly as fats, include, with the true fats, + various other substances, as lecithians, and chlorophylls. + + _Carbohydrates_, sugars, starches, celluloses, gums, woody fibre, etc. + + _Mineral matter._ + + Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorids, sulphates + and phosphates. (Atwater). + +The terms (_a_) "nitrogenous" and (_b_) "carbonaceous" are frequently +used to designate the two distinct classes of food, viz.: (_a_) the +tissue builders and flesh formers; (_b_) fuel and force producers. + +Each of these classes contains food material derived from both the +animal and vegetable kingdom, although the majority of the animal +substances belong to the nitrogenous, and the majority of the +vegetable substances to the carbonaceous group. + +Therefore, for practical purposes, we will confine ourselves to the +more general terms used in Atwater's table. + + +Uses of Food. + +First, food is used to form the materials of the body and repair its +waste; second, to yield energy in the form of (1) heat to keep the +body warm, (2) to provide muscular and other power for the work it has +to do. In forming the tissues and fluids of the body the food serves +for building and repair. In yielding energy, it serves as fuel for +heat and power. The principal tissue formers are the albuminoids; +these form the frame-work of the body. They build and repair the +nitrogenous materials, as those of muscle, tendon and bone, and supply +the albuminoids of blood, milk and other fluids. The chief fuel +ingredients of food are the carbohydrates and fats. These are either +consumed in the body or are stored as fat to be used as occasion +demands. + + +Water. + +By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water composes +three-fifths of the entire body. The elasticity of muscles, cartilage, +tendons, and even of bones is due in great part to the water which +these tissues contain. The amount of water required by a healthy man +in twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the average +between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25 ounces taken as an +ingredient of solid food, thus making a total of from 75 to 85 ounces. +One of the most universal dietetic failings is neglect to take enough +water into the system. Dr. Gilman Thompson gives the following uses of +water in the body:-- + +(1) It enters into the chemical composition of the tissues; (2) it +forms the chief ingredient of all the fluids of the body and maintains +their proper degree of dilution; (3) by moistening various surfaces of +the body, such as the mucous and serous membranes, it prevents +friction and the uncomfortable symptoms which might result from +drying; (4) it furnishes in the blood and lymph a fluid medium by +which food may be taken to remote parts of the body and the waste +matter removed, thus promoting rapid tissue changes; (5) it serves as +a distributer of body heat; (6) it regulates the body temperature by +the physical processes of absorption and evaporation. + + +Salts (Mineral Matter).--Use of Salts in Food. + +(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and other fluids of +the body; (2) to preserve the tissues from disorganization and +putrefaction; (3) to enter into the composition of the teeth and +bones. These are only a few of the uses of salts in the body, but are +sufficient for our purpose. Fruits and nuts contain the least quantity +of salts, meat ranks next, then vegetables and pulses, cereals contain +most of all (Chambers). Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most +important and valuable salt. It must not however be used in excess. +Potassium salts rank next in importance.[4] Calcium, phosphorus, +sulphur and iron are included in this class. + +The quantity of salts or mineral matter contained in some important +articles of vegetable and animal food is shown in this table (Church): + +_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 14 Vegetable Products._ + + Lbs. + Apples 4 + Rice 5 + Wheaten flour 7 + Turnips 8 + Potatoes 10 + Barley 11 + Cabbage 12 + Bread 12 + Watercress 13 + Maize 20 + Oatmeal 21 + Peas 30 + Cocoa nibs 36 + Wheaten bran 60 + +_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 8 Animal Products._ + + Lbs. + Fat Pork 5 + Cow's milk 7 + Eggs (without shells) 13 + Lean of mutton 17 + Flesh of common fowl 16 + Bacon 44 + Gloucester cheese 49 + Salted herrings 158 + +"In most seeds and fruits there is much phosphate in the mineral +matter, and in most green vegetables much potash. One important kind +of mineral matter alone is deficient in vegetable food, and that is +common salt." + + +FOOTNOTE: + +[4] See Vegetables, Chap. VII. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +Nutrition. + + +It is not within the scope of this book to deal with the science of +nutrition; but a few general principles may be given which concern the +effect upon the system of the different classes of food. Animal food +requires a considerable quantity of oxygen for its complete +combustion. Meat in general has a more stimulating effect upon the +system and is more strengthening than vegetable food. There is, +however, a tendency to eat too much meat, and when its effects are not +counter-balanced by free outdoor exercise, it causes biliousness and +sometimes gout and other troubles. Albuminous foods can be eaten +longer alone without exciting loathing than can fats, sugars or +starches. A carbonaceous diet taxes the excretory organs less than +animal food. Meat is not necessary to life. Nitrogenous food man must +have, but it need not be in the form of meat. The estimate commonly +given is, that meat should occupy one-fourth and vegetable food +three-fourths of a mixed diet, but in many cases the meat eaten is +much in excess of this allowance. The proper association of different +foods always keeps healthy people in better condition; there are +times, however, when it may be necessary to abstain from certain +articles of diet. It may be well to bear in mind, that the protein +compounds can do the work of the carbohydrates and fats in being +consumed for fuel, but the carbohydrates and fats cannot do the work +of protein in building and repairing the tissues of the body. As +already stated, a mixed diet is the only rational one for man. An +exclusively vegetable diet, while it may maintain a condition of +health for a time, eventually results in a loss of strength and power +to resist disease. Therefore it is necessary to understand the +approximate value of each class of food in arranging the daily +dietary. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Food and Economy. + + +It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of +moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the +same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for +them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes +nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds +of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat +flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for +nourishment, but not in the proportion best adapted for ordinary use. +A man might live on beef alone, but it would be a very one-sided and +imperfect diet. Meat and bread together make the essentials of a +healthful diet. In order to give a general idea of food economy, it +will be necessary to deal briefly with the functions of the various +food principles. As our bodies contain a great deal of muscle, the +waste of which is repaired by protein found in such food as lean meat, +eggs, cheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish, etc., a supply of these +articles must be considered in purchasing the daily supply. Fatty +tissue (not muscle) serves as fuel, therefore the value of such foods +as butter, cream, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates form fat and +serve as fuel and force producers; these come in the form of starches, +sugars,--vegetables and grains being the most important. In being +themselves burned to yield energy, the nutrients protect each other +from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like +those of foods. An important use of the carbohydrates and fats is to +protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. "The most healthful +food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user: the +cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment +at the least cost: the best food is that which is both healthful and +cheap." By referring to the various charts a fair estimate of food +values may be obtained. + +As will be noticed, the animal foods contain the most protein and +fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. A pound of +cheese may have 0.28 pound of protein, as much as a man at ordinary +work needs for a day's sustenance, while a pound of milk would have +only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02 pound of protein. The +materials which have the most fats and carbohydrates have the highest +fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2.995 +calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only .315 +calories. On the other hand, the nutritive material of the codfish +would consist almost entirely of protein, while the pork contains very +little. Among the vegetable foods, peas and beans have a high +proportion of protein. Oatmeal contains a large proportion also. +Potatoes are low in fuel value as well as in protein, because they are +three-fourths water. For the same reason milk, which is seven-eights +water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value, hence the +reason why it is not so valuable as food for an adult as many of the +other food materials. + +These few illustrations will help to show the need of an intelligent +idea of food values before attempting to purchase the supplies for +family use. As one-half a laboring man's income goes towards +providing food, it must follow that such knowledge will help the +housewife very materially in securing the best results from the amount +expended. + +The _average daily diet_ of an adult should contain (Church):-- + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + NUTRIENTS. | IN 100 PARTS. | EACH 24 HOURS. + --------------------------------|-----------------|-------------------- + | | lb. oz. gr. + Water | 81.5 | 5 8 .320 + Albuminoids | 3.9 | 0 4 .178 + Fat | 3.0 | 0 3 .337 + Common salt | 3.7 | 0 0 .325 + Phosphates, potash, salts, etc. | 0.3 | 0 0 0.170 + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +Quantity of Food Required. + +The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous +condition depends upon the following conditions:--(1) Climate and +season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized +countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain +health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of +food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts +one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence +the need for more or less food. Abundant clothing in cold weather +conserves the body heat; less food is therefore required to maintain +life. Exercise and muscular work cause greater oxidation in the +tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must be replaced by +proper food. Outdoor work requires more food than indoor, and physical +labor more than mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten +years requires half as much food as a grown woman, and one of fourteen +an equal amount. The rapidly growing active boy often eats as much as +a man, and the middle-aged man requires more than the aged. A man of +seventy years may preserve health on a quantity which would soon +starve his grandson." + +Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain +and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which have not +yet been solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and +phosphorus, which are found in protein compounds but not in the true +fats, sugars, and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen and +oxygen. We naturally infer that the protein compounds must be +especially concerned in building up brain and nerve, and keeping them +in repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question +which has not yet been decided. In general it appears that a man or a +woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without +vigorous exercise and does but little hard muscular work, needs much +less than the man at hard manual labor, and that the brain worker +needs comparatively little of carbohydrates or fats. Many physicians, +physiologists and students of hygiene have become convinced that +well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too +much; that the diet of people of this class as a whole is one-sided as +well as excessive, and that the principal evil is the use of too much +fat, starch and sugar. It is well to remember that it is the quantity +of food digested which builds the body, and more injury is likely to +result from over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value +of having food cooked so as to aid digestion. The following dietary +standards may be interesting to the more advanced pupils, housewives, +etc.:-- + +STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIET OF LABORING MAN AT MODERATE MUSCULAR +WORK. + + ========================+==========+=======+============================ + | | | Nutrients in Daily Food. + Author. | Protein. | Fats. |---------------+------------ + | | | Carbohydrates.| Fuel Value. + ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------ + | lb. | lb. | lb. | Calories. + Playfair, England | .26 | .11 | 1.17 | 3.140 + Moleschotte, Italy | .29 | .09 | 1.21 | 3.160 + Wolff, Germany | .28 | .08 | 1.19 | 3.030 + Voit, Germany | .26 | .12 | 1.10 | 3.055 + Atwater, United States | .28 | 17.33 | 88.1.21 | 3.500 + ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------ + + +Quality of Food. + +It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard +to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter, +etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. _Poor +cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment._ No doubt a well +broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of +the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in +nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the +cheaper pieces of beef equally palatable. That expensive food is not +necessary to maintain life has been clearly demonstrated by the +traditional diet of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and herring; +the Irish, potatoes and buttermilk; New England, codfish and potatoes, +and pork and beans; the Chinese, rice, etc. Monotony of diet, however, +is not recommended, for reasons given in a previous chapter, and in +the countries where a special diet prevails owing to the climate, +nature of soil and markets, the results have not warranted us in +believing that it is as good as a mixed diet. From this necessarily +brief outline of the food question we have learned (1) that a +knowledge of the requirements of the body are absolutely necessary in +regulating a proper diet; (2) to furnish the food principles in a +cheap rather than a dear form; (3) to understand the art of cookery so +as to secure the full nutritive value and at the same time stimulate +the appetite; (4) the value of economy in regard to food principles. +When the housekeeper has acquired this knowledge she will have covered +the field of food economy. Prof. Atwater says: "When we know what are +the kinds and amount of nutritive substances our bodies need and our +food materials contain, then and not till then shall we be able to +adjust our diet to the demands of health and purse." + + +Cooking of Food. + +It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities +will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the +customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of +civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the +definition of the term as it concerns ourselves. + +Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for +the conversion of food material." + +As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to +render it more palatable, more digestible, and with the greatest +economy of time, fuel and money, is an object deserving the most +careful attention. The art of cooking lies in the power to develop +certain flavors which are agreeable to the palate, or in other words, +which "make the mouth water," without interfering with the nutritive +qualities of the food prepared, to understand by what method certain +foods may be rendered more digestible, and to provide variety. +Monotony of diet and of flavor lessens the appetite and fails to +stimulate the digestive organs. + +The chemical changes, produced by cooking food properly, aid +digestion, beside destroying any germs which may be contained in the +food. Nearly all foods--except fruit--require cooking. The +digestibility of starch depends almost entirely upon the manner in +which it is cooked, especially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are +sure to follow the use of improperly cooked grains or starches. (See +Chap. VII.) + + +Methods. + +The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1) +boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6) +braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming. + +BOILING. + +Water boils at a temperature of 212° F. Simmering should be at a +temperature of from 175° F. to 180° F. When water has reached the +boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted +into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has +already reached the boiling point. + +STEWING. + +Stewing allows the juices of the meat to become dissolved in water +heated to the simmering point. The juices thus dissolved are eaten +with the meat. If not injured by the addition of rich sauces or fats, +this is usually a very digestible method of preparing certain kinds of +meat. + +BROILING. + +Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coals. A coating of +coagulated albumen is formed upon the outer surface. This coating +prevents the evaporation of the juices, which with the extractive +materials are retained and improve the flavor. Meat cooked in this way +has a decided advantage, in both flavor and nutritive value, over that +which has been boiled or stewed. There are, however, only certain +kinds of meat that are suitable for broiling. + +FRYING. + +Frying is cooking in hot fat. The boiling point of fat is far above +that of water. Fat should not be heated above 400° F., as it will then +turn dark and emit a disagreeable odor. Fried food, unless very +carefully prepared, is considered unwholesome. The only proper method +for frying is to immerse the food completely in a bath of hot fat. + +BRAISING. + +Braising is cooking meat in a covered vessel surrounded by a solution +of vegetable and animal juices in a strong but not boiling +temperature. Tough meat may be rendered very palatable and nutritious +by cooking in this way. The cover of the pan or kettle must fit +closely enough to prevent evaporation. It requires long, steady +cooking. The flavor is improved by browning the meat in either hot +fat or in a very hot oven before braising. + +BAKING. + +Baking is cooking in confined heat. Meat properly cooked in an oven is +considered by many authorities as quite equal in delicacy of flavor to +that roasted before a fire, and is equally digestible. + +STEAMING. + +Steaming is cooking food over condensed steam, and is an excellent +method for preparing food which requires long, slow cooking. Puddings, +cereals, and other glutinous mixtures are often cooked in this way. It +is an economical method, and has the advantage of developing flavor +without loss of substance. + + +Food Preservation. + +Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking, +(3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7) +addition of antiseptic and preservative substances. + +DRYING. + +Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by +housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by +drying, the latter with the addition of salt. + +SMOKING. + +Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish, +which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a +long time until they absorb a certain percentage of antiseptic +material, which prevents the fat from becoming rancid, and the albumen +from putrefying. Well smoked bacon cut thin and properly cooked is a +digestible form of fatty food, especially for tubercular patients. +Smoking improves the digestibility of ham. + +SALTING. + +Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. The addition +of a little saltpetre helps to preserve the color of the meat. Brine +is frequently used to temporarily preserve meat and other substances. +Corned beef is a popular form of salt preservation. All salted meats +require long, slow cooking. They should always be placed in cold water +and heated gradually in order to extract the salt. Salt meats are less +digestible and not quite so nutritious as fresh meats. + +FREEZING. + +Food may be kept in a frozen condition almost indefinitely, but will +decompose very quickly when thawed, hence the necessity for cooking +immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of its nutritive value in +cooking. + +REFRIGERATING. + +This process does not involve actual freezing, but implies +preservation in chambers at a temperature maintained a few degrees +above freezing point. This method does not affect the flavor or +nutritive value of food so much as freezing. + +SEALING. + +Sealing is accomplished not only in the process of canning but by +covering with substances which are impermeable. Beef has been +preserved for considerable time by immersing in hot fat in which it +was allowed to remain after cooling. + +CHEMICALS. + +Chemicals are sometimes used in the preservation of food, but the +other methods are safer. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter. + + +Animal foods contain nutritive matter in a concentrated form, and +being chemically similar to the composition of the body is doubtless +the reason why they assimilate more readily than vegetable foods, +although the latter are richer in mineral matter. The most valuable +animal foods in common use are meat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin and +fats. + +MEAT. + +Meat is composed of muscular tissue, connective tissue or gristle, +fatty tissue, blood-vessels, nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as +food is due chiefly to the nitrogenous compound it contains, the most +valuable being the albuminoids: the gelatinoid of meat is easily +changed into gelatin by the action of hot water. Gelatin when combined +with the albuminoids and extractives has considerable nutritive value. +Extractives are meat bases, or rather meat which has been dissolved by +water, such as soup stock and beef tea. The object in cooking meat is +to soften and loosen the tissue, which renders it more easily +digested. Another object is to sterilize or kill any germs which may +exist and to make it more palatable. The digestibility of meat is +influenced by the age of the animal killed and the feeding. The +following table is given as an average of the digestibility of animal +foods:-- + + +TABLE OF COMPARATIVE DIGESTIBILITY. + +_Commencing with the most digestible and ending with the least +digestible of meats and other animal foods._ (Thompson.) + + Oysters. + Soft cooked eggs. + Sweetbread. + Whitefish, etc. + Chicken, boiled or broiled. + Lean roast beef or beefsteak. + Eggs, scrambled, omelette. + Mutton. + Bacon. + Roast fowl, chicken, turkey, etc. + Tripe, brains, liver. + Roast lamb. + Chops, mutton or lamb. + Corn beef. + Veal. + Duck and other game. + Salmon, mackerel, herring. + Roast goose. + Lobster and crabs. + Pork. + Fish, smoked, dried, pickled. + +Cooking affects the digestibility of meat, which is evident from the +figures given in the following table (Church):-- + + +TIME OF DIGESTION. + + --------------------+---------------- + | Hours. + --------------------+---------------- + Beef, raw | 2 + Beef, half boiled | 2-1/2 + Beef, well boiled | 2-3/4 to 3 + Beef, half roasted | 2-3/4 to 3 + Beef, well roasted | 2-1/4 to 4 + Mutton, raw | 2 + Mutton, boiled | 3 + Mutton, roasted | 3-1/4 + Veal, raw | 2-1/2 + Pork, raw | 3 + Pork, roasted | 5-1/4 + Fowl, boiled | 4 + Turkey, boiled | 2-1/2 + Venison, broiled | 1-1/2 + --------------------+---------------- + +It may be well to add here that animal food is more digestible when +cooked between 160° and 180° F. than at a higher temperature. + + +Cooking of Meat. + +_(For more general information, see Recipes.)_ + +In boiling meat two principles must be considered, the softening of +the fibre and preserving of the juices. If the meat alone is to be +used it should be placed in sufficient boiling water to completely +cover, and kept at boiling point (212° F.) for at least ten minutes, +so as to harden the albumen and prevent the escape of the juices. The +temperature should then be allowed to fall to simmering point (175° +F.). If the water is kept boiling it will render the meat tough and +dry. If the juice is to be extracted and the broth used, the meat +should be placed in cold water; if bones are added they should be cut +or broken into small pieces in order that the gelatin may be +dissolved. If the water is heated gradually the soluble materials are +more easily dissolved. The albumen will rise as a scum to the top, but +should not be skimmed off, as it contains the most nutriment and will +settle to the bottom as sediment. + +STEWING. + +If both meat and broth are to be used the process of cooking should be +quite different. In stewing, the meat should be cut into small pieces, +put into cold water in order that the juices, flavoring material and +fibre may be dissolved. The temperature should be gradually raised to +simmering point and remain at that heat for at least three or four +hours, the vessel being kept closely covered. Cooked in this way the +broth will be rich, and the meat tender and juicy. Any suitable +flavoring may be added. This is a good method for cooking meat +containing gristle. + +ROASTING AND BROILING. + +When the meat alone is to be eaten, either roasting, broiling or +frying in deep fat is a more economical method, as the juices are +saved. The shrinkage in a roast of meat during cooking is chiefly due +to a loss of water. A small roast will require a hotter fire than a +larger one, in order to harden the exterior and prevent the juices +from escaping. Meat is a poor conductor of heat, consequently a large +roast exposed to this intense heat would become burned before the +interior could be heated. The large roast should be exposed to intense +heat for a few minutes, but the temperature should then be reduced, +and long steady cooking allowed. + +Broiling (see broiling in previous chapter, p. 19.) + + +Varieties of Meat. + +BEEF TONGUE. + +Beef tongue is a tender form of meat, but contains too much fat to +agree well with people of delicate digestion. + +VEAL. + +Veal, when obtained from animals killed too young, is apt to be tough, +pale and indigestible, but good veal is considered fairly nutritious. +It contains more gelatin than beef, and in broth is considered +valuable, especially for the sick. + +MUTTON. + +Mutton is considered to be more digestible than beef, that is well fed +mutton from sheep at least three years old; but as it is more +difficult to obtain tender mutton than beef, the latter is more +generally preferred. Mutton broth is wholesome and valuable in +sickness. + +LAMB. + +Lamb, when tender and of the right age, is quite as digestible as beef +or mutton, but the flesh contains too large a proportion of fat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of cuts of beef.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of cuts of veal.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of cuts of pork.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of cuts of mutton.] + +VENISON. + +Venison is a tender meat with short fibres, which is very digestible +when obtained from young deer, but is considered to be rather too +stimulating. Its chemical composition is similar to lean beef. + +PORK. + +Pork is a tender-fibred meat, but is very indigestible owing to the +high percentage of fat, which is considerably more than the +nitrogenous material it contains. Pork ribs may have as much as 42 per +cent. of fat. + +HAM AND BACON. + +Ham is more digestible when well boiled and eaten cold. Bacon is more +easily digested than either ham or pork; when cut thin and cooked +quickly--until transparent and crisp--it can often be eaten by +dyspeptics, and forms an excellent food for consumptives. + +FOWL. + +Chicken is one of the most digestible of meats, contains considerable +phosphorus and is particularly valuable as food for invalids. Turkey +is somewhat less digestible than chicken. Ducks and geese are +difficult of digestion, unless quite young, on account of the fat they +contain. + +GAME. + +Game, if well cooked, is fairly digestible. + +SWEETBREAD. + +Sweetbread, which is thymus gland of the calf, is a delicate and +agreeable article of diet, particularly for invalids. Tripe, heart, +liver and kidneys are other forms of animal viscera used as +food--valuable chiefly as affording variety. + +FISH. + +The chief difference in fish is the coarseness of fibre and the +quantity of fat present. Fish which are highly flavored and fat, while +they may be nutritious, are much less easy of digestion than +flounder, sole, whitefish, and the lighter varieties. The following +fish contain the largest percentage of albuminoids:--Red snapper, +whitefish, brook trout, salmon, bluefish, shad, eels, mackerel, +halibut, haddock, lake trout, bass, cod and flounder. The old theory +that fish constituted "brain food," on account of the phosphorus it +contained, has proved to be entirely without foundation, as in reality +many fish contain less of this element than meat. The tribes which +live largely on fish are not noted for intellectuality. Fish having +white meat when broiled or boiled--not fried--are excellent food for +invalids or people of weak digestion. Fish should be well cooked. + +OYSTERS. + +Oysters are a nutritious food, and may be eaten either raw or cooked. +Lobsters, crabs and shrimps are called "sea scavengers," and unless +absolutely fresh are not a desirable food. + +MILK. + +Milk contains all the elements which are necessary to maintain life; +and constitutes a complete diet for infants. It will sustain life in +an adult for several months. Although milk furnishes a useful food, it +is not essential to a diet required for active bodily exercise. It is +seldom given to athletes while in active training. Adults who are able +to eat any kind of food are kept in better health by abstaining from +milk, except as used for cooking purposes. An occasional glass of hot +milk taken as a stimulant for tired brain and nerves is sometimes +beneficial. Milk is composed of water, salts, fat, milk sugar or +lactose, albumen and casein. Average milk has from 8 to 10 per cent. +of cream. Good milk should form a layer of cream about 2-1/2 in. thick +as it stands in a quart bottle. Lactose (milk sugar) is an important +ingredient in milk. It is less liable to ferment in the stomach than +cane sugar. In the presence of fermenting nitrogenous material it is +converted into lactic acid, making the milk sour. Casein is present in +milk chiefly in its alkaline form, and in conjunction with calcium +phosphate. Milk absorbs germs from the air and from unclean vessels +very readily. Good, clean, uncontaminated milk ought to keep fresh, +exposed in a clean room at a temperature of 68° F., for 48 hours +without souring. If the milk is tainted in any way it will sour in a +few hours. Boiled milk will keep fresh half as long again as fresh +milk. Milk absorbs odors very quickly, therefore should never be left +in a refrigerator with stale cheese, ham, vegetables, etc., unless in +an air-tight jar. It should never be left exposed in a sick room or +near waste pipes. Absolute cleanliness is necessary for the +preservation of milk; vessels in which it is to be kept must be +thoroughly scalded with boiling water, not merely washed out with warm +water. + + +_Methods of Preserving Milk._ + +STERILIZED MILK. + +Milk to be thoroughly sterilized and germ free must be heated to the +boiling point (212° F.). This may be done by putting the milk into +perfectly clean bottles and placing in a rack, in a kettle of boiling +water, remaining until it reaches the necessary degree of heat. The +bottle should be closely covered _immediately_ after with absorbent +cotton or cotton batting in order to prevent other germs getting into +the milk. + +PASTEURIZED MILK. + +The difference between pasteurizing and sterilizing is only in the +degree of heat to which the milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the +milk is kept at a temperature of 170° F. from 10 to 20 minutes. This +is considered a better method for treating milk which is to be given +to young children, as it is more easily digested than sterilized milk. +All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in warm weather, +especially for children. + +CHEESE. + +Cheese is one of the most nutritious of foods, and when meat is scarce +makes an excellent substitute, as it contains more protein than meat. +Cheese is the separated casein of milk, which includes some of the +fats and salts. + +EGGS. + +Eggs contain all the ingredients necessary to support life. Out of an +egg the entire structure of the bird--bones, nerves, muscles, viscera, +and feathers--is developed. The inner portion of the shell is +dissolved to furnish phosphate for the bones. The composition of a +hen's egg is about as follows (Church):-- + + ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------ + | White--In || | Yolk--In + | 100 parts. || | 100 parts. + ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------ + Water | 84.8 || Water | 51.5 + Albumen | 12.0 || Casein and albumen | 15.0 + Fat, sugar, | || Oil and fat | 30.0 + extractives, etc. | 2.0 || Pigment | + Mineral matter | 1.2 || extractives, etc. | 2.1 + | || Mineral matter | 1.4 + ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------ + +The albumen--or the "white"--of an egg is greatly altered by cooking. +When heated beyond boiling point it becomes a very indigestible +substance. Eggs cooked at a temperature of about 170° F., leaving the +whites soft, are easily digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in +1-1/2 hour, while a baked egg requires from 2 to 3 hours. Eggs _baked_ +in puddings, or in any other manner, form one of the most insoluble +varieties of albumen. + +GELATIN. + +Gelatin is obtained from bones, ligaments, and other connective +tissues. In combinations with other foods it has considerable +nutritive value. The place given to it by scientists is to save the +albumen of the body; as it does not help to form tissue or repair +waste it cannot replace albumen entirely. Gelatin will not sustain +life, but when used in the form of soup stock, etc., is considered +valuable as a stimulant. + + * * * * * + +LEGUMES--PEAS, BEANS AND LENTILS. + +These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being +inferior in quality to that contained in meat, they can scarcely be +given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an +intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the +standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value, +especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.) + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Fats and Oils. + + +Fats and oils contain three elements--carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. +About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results +from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed. + +USES OF FAT. + +(1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply +force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to +lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the +tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose, +and come before the carbohydrates in fuel and force value; in +combination with proteids, they form valuable foods for those engaged +in severe muscular exercise, such as army marching, mining +expeditions, etc. + +Fats and oils are but little changed during digestion. The fat is +divided into little globules by the action of the pancreatic juice and +other digestive elements, and is absorbed by the system. Fat forms the +chief material in adipose tissue, a fatty layer lying beneath the +skin, which keeps the warmth in the body, and is re-absorbed into the +blood, keeping up heat and activity, and preserving other tissues +during abstinence from food. Fat sometimes aids the digestion of +starchy foods by preventing them from forming lumpy masses in the +mouth and stomach, hence the value of using butter with bread, +potatoes, etc. The animal fats are more nutritive than the vegetable, +butter and cream heading the list. Cooking fats at a very high +temperature, such as frying, causes a reaction or decomposition, which +irritates the mucous membrane and interferes with digestion. + +The principal animal fats are butter, cream, lard, suet, the fat of +mutton, pork, bacon, beef, fish and cod liver oil. The vegetable fats +and oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds, olives, and +nuts. The most important fats and oils for household purposes are: + +BUTTER. + +Butter, which contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of water, 11.7 per cent. +fat, 0.5 per cent. casein, 0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The +addition of salt to butter prevents fermentation. Butter will not +support life when taken alone, but with other foods is highly +nutritious and digestible. + +CREAM. + +Cream is one of the most wholesome and agreeable forms of fat. It is +an excellent substitute for cod liver oil in tuberculosis. Ice cream +when eaten slowly is very nutritious. + +LARD. + +Lard is hog fat, separated by melting. + +SUET. + +Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys. + +COTTOLENE. + +Cottolene is a preparation of cotton-seed oil. + +OLEOMARGARINE. + +Oleomargarine is a preparation of beef fat provided as a substitute +for butter. + +OLIVE OIL. + +Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is considered to be very +wholesome; in some cases being preferred to either cod-liver oil or +cream for consumptives. + +COTTON SEED OIL. + +Cotton seed oil is frequently substituted for olive oil. + +NUTS. + +Nuts contain a good deal of oil. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Carbohydrate Foods. + + +The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as +laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course, +more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many +starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich +in proteids. + +The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):-- + + +PERCENTAGE OF STARCH IN VEGETABLE FOODS. + + -----------------+----------- + | Per Cent. + -----------------+----------- + Wheat bread | 55.5 + Wheat flour | 75.6 + Graham flour | 71.8 + Rye flour | 78.7 + Buckwheat flour | 77.6 + Beans | 57.4 + Oatmeal | 68.1 + Cornmeal | 71.0 + Rice | 79.4 + Potatoes | 21.3 + Sweet Potatoes | 21.1 + Turnips | 6.9 + Carrots | 10.1 + Cabbage | 6.2 + Melons | 2.5 + Apples | 14.3 + Pears | 16.3 + Bananas | 23.3 + -----------------+----------- + +It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat, +oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes. +Vegetable proteids, as already stated, are less easily digested than +those belonging to the animal kingdom, therefore it must be remembered +that a purely vegetable diet, even though it may be so arranged as to +provide the necessary protein, is apt to over-tax the digestive +organs more than a mixed diet from both the animal and vegetable +kingdoms. Much depends upon the cooking of the starchy foods in order +to render them digestible. (Study chapter on Digestion in the Public +School Physiology.) + +STARCH. + +The digestion of starch--which is insoluble in cold water--really +begins with the cooking, which by softening the outer coating or fibre +of the grains, causes them to swell and burst, thereby preparing them +for the chemical change which is caused by the action of the saliva in +converting the starch into a species of sugar before it enters the +stomach. Substances which are insoluble in cold water cannot be +absorbed into the blood, therefore are not of any value as food until +they have become changed, and made soluble, which overtaxes the +digestive organs and causes trouble. The temperature of the saliva is +too low to dissolve the starch fibre unaided. Each of the digestive +juices has its own work to do, and the saliva acts directly upon the +starchy food; hence the importance of thoroughly masticating such food +as bread, potatoes, rice, cereals, etc. The action of heat, in baking, +which causes the vapor to rise, and forms the crust of starchy food, +produces what is called dextrine, or partially digested starch. +Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence the ease with which crust and +toast--when properly made--are digested. It is more important to +thoroughly chew starchy food than meat, as it is mixed with another +digestive juice, which acts upon it in the stomach. + + +Sugars. + +SUGAR. + +There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar, +grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars +have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its +solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in +sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and +nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and +can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular +work. Cane sugar is the clarified and crystallized juice of the sugar +cane. Nearly half the sugar used in the world comes from sugar cane, +the other half from beet roots. The latter is not quite so sweet as +the cane sugar. Sugar is also made from the sap of the maple tree, but +this is considered more of a luxury; consequently, not generally used +for cooking purposes. + +MOLASSES AND TREACLE. + +Molasses and treacle are formed in the process of crystallizing and +refining sugar. Treacle is the waste drained from moulds used in +refining sugar, and usually contains more or less dirt. + +GLUCOSE. + +Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufactured from starch. It is +found in almost all the sweeter varieties of fruit. It is not so +desirable for general use as cane sugar. + +HONEY. + +Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees from the nectar of flowering +plants, and stored by them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13, +fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous matter 1.29, mineral +matter 0.12 per cent. (Konig.) + + +Grains. + +While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more +valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them, +and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They, +however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and +render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place: + +WHEAT. + +A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer +one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the +starch. Some of the mineral matter for which wheat is so valuable is +contained in the bran, hence the value of at least a portion of that +part of the wheat being included in bread flour--not by the addition +of coarse bran (which is indigestible) to the ordinary flour, but by +the refining process employed in producing whole wheat flour. While +wheat is used in other forms, its principal use as food is in the form +of flour. + +The following table, giving the composition of bread from wheat and +maize, will be of interest (Stone):-- + + +COMPOSITION OF BREAD FROM WHEAT AND MAIZE. + + -------------------------+-------------------------------------------- + | In Air-Dry Material. + +------+-----+-----+-------+--------+-------- + | | | | | |Nitrogen + |Water.| Ash.| Fat.| Fibre.|Protein.| free + | | | | | |extract. + -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+-------- + |P.ct. |P.ct.|P.ct.| P.ct. | P.ct. | P.ct. + Bread from whole winter | | | | | | + wheat | 3.07 | 2.33| 1.22| 2.86 | 15.70 | 74.82 + Bread from whole spring | | | | | | + wheat | 7.46 | 1.69| 1.24| 2.80 | 15.26 | 71.55 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | | + winter wheat |10.39 | .59| .32| .44 | 11.94 | 76.32 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | | + spring wheat | 8.00 | .43| .47| .39 | 14.41 | 76.30 + Corn bread from whole | | | | | | + maize | 3.40 | 1.88| 4.14| 2.53 | 12.88 | 75.17 + -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+-------- + + + -------------------------+------------------------------------------ + | In Dry Matter + +------+------+--------+---------+--------- + | | | | | Nitrogen + | Ash. | Fat. | Fibre. | Protein.| free + | | | | | extract. + -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+--------- + |P.ct. |P.ct. | P.ct. | P.ct. | P.ct. + Bread from whole winter | | | | | + wheat | 2.40 | 1.25 | 2.95 | 16.20 | 77.20 + Bread from whole spring | | | | | + wheat | 1.82 | 1.34 | 3.02 | 16.49 | 77.33 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | + winter wheat | .66 | .35 | .49 | 13.33 | 85.17 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | + spring wheat | .47 | .51 | .42 | 15.66 | 82.94 + Corn bread from whole | | | | | + maize | 1.95 | 4.29 | 2.62 | 13.33 | 77.81 + -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+--------- + + +BREAD. + +The most valuable food product manufactured from flour is bread. + +Bread contains so many of the ingredients required to nourish the +body, viz.: fat, proteid, salts, sugar and starch, that it may well be +termed the "staff of life." As it does not contain enough fat for a +perfect food the addition of butter to it renders it more valuable as +an article of diet. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives the following +explanation of what constitutes ideal bread: "(1) It should retain as +much as possible of the nutritive principles of the grain from which +it is made; (2) it should be prepared in such a manner as to secure +the complete assimilation of these nutritive principles; (3) it should +be light and porous, so as to allow the digestive juices to penetrate +it quickly and thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free from +coarse bran, which causes too rapid muscular action to allow of +complete digestion. This effect is also produced when the bread is +sour." Bread is made from a combination of flour, liquid (either milk +or water), and a vegetable ferment called yeast (see yeast recipes). +The yeast acts slowly or rapidly according to the temperature to which +it is exposed. The starch has to be changed by the ferment called +diastase (diastase is a vegetable ferment which converts starchy foods +into a soluble material called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into +alcohol and carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), when it makes itself +known by the bubbles which appear and the gradual swelling of the +whole mass. It is the effect of the carbonic acid gas upon the gluten, +which, when checked at the proper time before the ferment becomes +acetic (sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome bread which is +the pride of all good housekeepers. The kneading of bread is to break +up the gas bubbles into small portions in order that there may be no +large holes and the fermentation be equal throughout. The loaf is +baked in order to kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, to +expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the alcohol, to stiffen the +gluten and to form a crust which shall have a pleasant flavor. Much of +the indigestibility of bread is owing to the imperfect baking; unless +the interior of the loaf has reached the sterilizing point, 212° F., +the bacteria contained in the yeast will not be killed, and some of +the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf. The scientific method +of baking bread is to fix the air cells as quickly as possible at +first. This can be done better by baking the bread in small loaves in +separate pans, thereby securing a uniform heat and more crust, which +is considered to be the most easily digested part of the bread. Some +cooks consider that long, slow baking produces a more desirable flavor +and renders bread more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour will +make an average of one hundred and thirty-five pounds of bread. This +increase of weight is due to the addition of water. + +MACARONI. + +Macaroni is a flour preparation of great food value. It contains about +six per cent. more gluten than bread, and is regarded by Sir Henry +Thompson as equal to meat for flesh-forming purposes. Dieticians say +that macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli are not used so extensively as +their value deserves. + +BUCKWHEAT. + +Buckwheat is the least important of the cereals. + +RYE. + +Rye is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. Its treatment in +regard to bread making is similar to that of wheat. + +CORN. + +Corn contains fat, proteid and starch, and produces heat and energy. +It is very fattening, and when eaten as a vegetable is considered +difficult of digestion. Cornmeal is a wholesome food; it contains more +fat than wheat flour, and less mineral matter. + +RICE. + +Rice constitutes a staple food of a great many of the world's +inhabitants. It contains more starch than any other cereal, but when +properly cooked is very easily digested. It should be combined with +some animal food, as it contains too little nitrogen to satisfy the +demands of the system. It forms a wholesome combination with fruit, +such as apples, peaches, prunes, berries, etc. + +BARLEY. + +Barley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. It contains more +fat, mineral matter and cellulose (cellulose is often called +indigestible fibre, as it resists the solvent action of the digestive +juices, and is of no value as a nutrient), and less proteid and +digestible carbohydrates. + +OATMEAL. + +Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods. Oats contain fat, proteid, +salts and cellulose, in addition to a large percentage of starch. The +nutritive value of oatmeal is great, but much depends upon the manner +of cooking. (See recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should lead a +vigorous outdoor life. The following analysis of oatmeal is given +(Letheby):-- + + Nitrogenous matter 12.6 per cent. + Carbohydrates, starch, etc. 63.8 " + Fatty matter 5.6 " + Mineral matter 3.0 " + Water 15.0 " + ---- + Total 100.0 + + +Vegetables. + +Legumes--peas, beans and lentils--have an exceedingly leathery +envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water--in +order to soften the woody fibre--and are then cooked slowly for some +hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very +nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which +form they are used in soups. + +POTATOES. + +Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet +they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourths water. +They contain some mineral matter, hence the reason why they are better +boiled and baked in their skins, so as to prevent the escape of the +salts into the water. Potatoes are more easily digested when baked +than cooked in any other form. + +BEETS. + +Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of starch and sugar, some +salts, and a little over one per cent. of proteid matter. Young beets, +either in the form of a vegetable or a salad, are considered to be +very wholesome. + +CARROTS, TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, OYSTER PLANT. + +Carrots, turnips, parsnips and oyster plant, although containing a +large percentage of water, are considered valuable as nutrients, the +turnip being the least nutritious. + +GREEN VEGETABLES. + +Green vegetables do not contain much nutriment, and are chiefly +valuable as affording a pleasing variety in diet; also for supplying +mineral matter and some acids. In this class we may include cabbage, +cauliflower, spinach, lettuce and celery. + +TOMATOES. + +Tomatoes are wholesome vegetables; on account of the oxalic acid they +contain they do not always agree with people of delicate digestion. + +CUCUMBERS. + +Cucumbers are neither wholesome nor digestible. + +ASPARAGUS. + +Asparagus is a much prized vegetable. The substance called asparagin +which it contains is supposed to possess some value. + +RHUBARB. + +Rhubarb is a wholesome vegetable. + +ONIONS, GARLIC, SHALLOTS. + +Onions, garlic, and shallots are valuable both as condiments and eaten +separately. They contain more nutrients than the last vegetables +considered. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Fruits. + + +Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable +jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids +in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in +lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in +apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the +least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries +are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid +of all. + + +Uses of Fruit. + +(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and +relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and +acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics; +(5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite, +improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and +oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and +magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is +highly beneficial, and should be used freely in season. Cooked fruit +is more easily digested than raw, and when over-ripe should always be +cooked in order to prevent fruit poisoning. + +NUTS. + +Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and sugar, but are not +considered valuable as nutrients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English +walnuts are the most nutritious. + + +Beverages. + +TEA. + +Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is +also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a +preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The +difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of +preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains +more tannin than black. The following table will show the +difference:-- + + =======================+===================+=================== + | GREEN TEA. | BLACK TEA. + -----------------------+-------------------+------------------- + Crude protein | 37.43 | 38.90 + Fibre | 10.06 | 10.07 + Ash (mineral matter) | 4.92 | 4.93 + Theine | 3.20 | 3.30 + Tannin | 10.64 | 4.89 + Total nitrogen | 5.99 | 6.22 + -----------------------+-------------------+------------------- + +The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color +and flavor, depend upon the season of the year at which the leaves are +gathered, the variety of the plant, the age of the leaves, which +become tough as they grow older, and the care exercised in their +preparation. Much depends upon the manner in which tea is infused. (1) +Use freshly boiled water; (2) allow it to infuse only three or four +minutes, in order to avoid extracting the tannin. When carefully +prepared as above, tea is not considered unwholesome for people in +good health. + +COFFEE. + +Coffee is made from the berries of coffee-arabica, which are dried, +roasted and browned. The following table gives an approximate idea of +the composition of coffee beans (Konig):-- + + Water 1.15 + Fat 14.48 + Crude fibre 19.89 + Ash (mineral matter) 4.75 + Caffeine 1.24 + Albuminoids 13.98 + Other nitrogenous matter 45.09 + Sugar, gum and dextrin 1.66 + +Coffee is frequently adulterated with chicory, which is harmless. +Coffee should not be allowed to boil long or stand in the coffee pot +over a fire, as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more +indigestible. Much controversy has been indulged in over the effect of +coffee upon the system, but like many other similar questions it has +not reached a practical solution. The general opinion seems to be that +when properly made and used in moderation it is a valuable stimulant +and not harmful to adults. + +COCOA. + +Cocoa and chocolate contain more food substances than tea or coffee, +although their use in this respect is not of much value. The following +table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):-- + + Theobromine 1.73 + Total nitrogenous substance 19.28 + Fat 30.51 + Water 3.83 + Ash (mineral matter) 8.30 + Fibre and non-nitrogenous extract 37.48 + +ALCOHOL. + +The use of alcohol is wholly unnecessary for the health of the human +organism. (See Public School Physiology and Temperance.) + + +Condiments. + +Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little +nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very +injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve +monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry, +pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is +the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on +mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more +palatable without being injured is one of the fine arts in cookery. +Some flavors, such as lemon juice, vinegar, etc., increase the solvent +properties of the gastric juice, making certain foods more +digestible. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +Preparing Food. + + +The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of +little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge +of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in +whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first +requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of +fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal, +kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for +kindling and for a quick fire. Hard woods, oak, ash, etc., burn more +slowly, retain the heat longer, and are better adapted for cooking +purposes. + +COAL. + +Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon. It kindles slowly, +gives a steady heat, and burns for a longer time without attention +than wood. Stoves for burning oil and gas have become popular, and are +very convenient and satisfactory for cooking purposes. + +OIL. + +Oil is considered to be the cheapest fuel. + +GAS. + +Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking purposes, but can only be +used in certain localities. + + +Making and Care of a Fire. + +CARE OF A FIRE. + +Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range. +The plainer the range the easier it will be to keep it clean. There +should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to +check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before +beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the +soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate +(saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper, +then kindling arranged crosswise, allowing plenty of air space between +the pieces, a little hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on the +covers, open the direct draft and oven damper, then light the paper. +When the wood is thoroughly kindled and the first layer of coal +heated, fill the fire-box with coal even with the top of the oven. +When the blue flame becomes white, close the oven damper, and when the +coal is burning freely, shut the direct draft. When coal becomes +bright red all through it has lost most of its heat. A great deal of +coal is wasted by filling the fire-box too full and leaving the drafts +open till the coal is red. To keep a steady fire it is better to add a +little coal often rather than to add a large quantity and allow it to +burn out. Never allow dust or cinders to accumulate around a range, +either inside or out. Learn to open and shut the oven door quietly and +quickly. Study the amount of fire required to heat the oven to the +desired temperature. Learn which is the hotter or cooler side of the +oven, and move the article which is being baked as required, being +very careful to move it gently. + +Measurements. + +Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As +there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping +spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level +spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and +the cup is one holding 1/2 pint. + +The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:-- + + 4 cups of flour = 1 pound or 1 quart. + 2 cups of solid butter = 1 " + 1/2 cup butter = 1/4 " + 2 cups granulated sugar = 1 " + 2-1/2 cups powdered sugar = 1 " + 3 cups meal = 1 " + 1 pint of milk or water = 1 " + 1 pint chopped meat, packed solidly = 1 " + 9 large eggs, 10 medium eggs = 1 " + 2 level tablespoonfuls butter = 1 ounce. + 4 " " " = 2 ounces or 1/4 cup. + Butter the size of an egg = 2 " " " + 2 level tablespoonfuls sugar = 1 " + 4 " " flour = 1 " + 4 " " coffee = 1 " + 4 " " powdered sugar = 1 " + + +Table of Abbreviations. + + Saltspoon ssp. + Tablespoon tbsp. + Pint pt. + Gallon gal. + Teaspoon tsp. + Cupful cf. + Quart qt. + Peck pk. + +A speck (spk.) is what you can put on a quarter inch square surface. + + +Time-table for Cooking. + +BAKING BREAD, CAKES AND PUDDINGS. + + Loaf bread 40 to 60 m. + Graham gems 25 to 30 m. + Sponge cake 45 to 60 m. + Cookies 10 to 15 m. + Rice and tapioca 1 hr. + Custards 15 to 20 m. + Pastry (thin puff) 10 to 15 m. + Pie crust 25 to 30 m. + Baked beans 6 to 8 hrs. + Scalloped dishes 15 to 20 m. + Rolls, biscuit 10 to 20 m. + Gingerbread 25 to 30 m. + Fruit cake 2 to 3 hrs. + Bread pudding 1 hr. + Indian pudding 2 to 3 hrs. + Steamed pudding 1 to 3 hrs. + Pastry (thick) 30 to 50 m. + Potatoes 30 to 45 m. + Braised meat 3 to 4 hrs. + + +BAKING MEATS. + + Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb. 8 to 10 m. + Beef, well done, per lb. 12 to 15 m. + Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb. 12 to 15 m. + Beef, fillet, per lb. 20 to 30 m. + Mutton, rare, per lb. 10 m. + Mutton, well done, per lb. 15 m. + Lamb, well done, per lb. 15 m. + Veal, well done, per lb. 20 m. + Pork, well done, per lb. 30 m. + Turkey, 10 lbs. weight 2-1/2 hrs. + Chicken, 3 to 4 lbs. weight 1 to 1-1/2 hr. + Goose, 8 lbs. 2 hrs. + Tame duck 1 to 1-1/2 hr. + Game 40 to 60 m. + Grouse 30 to 40 m. + Small birds 20 to 25 m. + Venison, per lb. 15 m. + Fish, 6 to 8 lbs. 1 hr. + Fish, small 30 to 40 m. + + +VEGETABLES (BOILING). + + Rice, green corn, peas, tomatoes, asparagus + (hard boiled eggs) 20 to 25 m. + Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach 25 to 30 m. + Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips, + cauliflower 30 to 45 m. + Young cabbage, string beans, shell beans, oyster plant 45 to 60 m. + Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy and wheat 1 to 2 hrs. + + +FRYING (DEEP). + + Smelts, croquettes, fish balls 1 to 2 m. + Muffins, fritters, doughnuts 4 to 6 m. + Fish, breaded chops 5 to 7 m. + + +BROILING. + + Steak, 1 inch thick 6 to 8 m. + Steak, 1-1/2 inch thick 8 to 10 m. + Fish, small 6 to 8 m. + Fish, thick 12 to 15 m. + Chops 8 to 10 m. + Chicken 20 m. + + +Table of Proportions. + + 1 qt. of liquid to 3 qts. of flour for bread. + 1 qt. of liquid to 2 qts. of flour for muffins. + 1 qt. of liquid to 1 qt. of flour for batters. + 1 cup of yeast (1 yeast cake) to 1 qt. of liquid. + 1 tsp. of soda (level), 3 of cream tartar to 1 qt. of flour. + 1 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of sour milk. + 1 tsp. of soda to 1 cup of molasses. + 4 tsps. of baking powder to 1 qt. of flour. + 1 tsp. of salt to 1 qt. of soup stock. + 1 ssp. of salt to 1 loaf of cake. + 1 tbsp. of each vegetable, chopped, to 1 qt. of stock. + 1-1/2 tbsp. of flour to 1 qt. of stock for thickening soup. + 1 tbsp. of flour to 1 pt. of stock for sauces. + 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pt. of stock for sauces. + 4 tbsps. (level) cornstarch to 1 pt. of milk (to mould). + 1 tsp. of salt to 2 qts. of flour for biscuits, etc. + + +Methods for Flour Mixtures. + +STIRRING. + +Stirring is simply blending two or more materials by moving the spoon +round and round until smooth and of the proper consistency. + +BEATING. + +Beating is bringing the spoon up through the mixture with a quick +movement so as to entangle as much air as possible. + +CUTTING OR FOLDING. + +Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white of egg to a mixture +without breaking the air bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture +over and over as in folding. Do not stir or beat. + + * * * * * + + +RECIPES. + + * * * * * + + +BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD. + + +POPOVERS. + + 2 cups of flour. + 3 eggs. + 2 cups of milk. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Beat the eggs (without separating) until very light, then add the milk +and salt; pour this mixture on the flour (slowly), beating all the +while. Beat until smooth and light, about five minutes. Grease gem +pans or small cups, and bake in a moderately hot oven about +thirty-five minutes. They should increase to four times their original +size. (This recipe may be divided for class work.) + + +PANCAKES. + + 1 pint of flour. + 1 tbsp. of melted butter. + 1 pint of milk. + 2 eggs. + 2 tsps. baking powder. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately; add the yolks to the +milk, then the melted butter; salt. Sift the baking powder and flour +together, add slowly to the liquid, stir until smooth. Lastly, add the +whites of the eggs. These may be cooked in waffle irons or on a +griddle. + + +PANCAKES WITH BUTTERMILK. + + 1 pint of buttermilk. + Flour to make a medium batter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + +Crush the soda, add it and the salt to the buttermilk, add the flour +gradually, beat until the batter is smooth, and bake on a hot griddle. +An egg may be added. + + +CORNMEAL GRIDDLE CAKES. + + 1 pint of Indian meal. + 1 cup of flour. + 1 tsp. salt. + 3 eggs. + 4 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 1 pint of milk. + +Put the meal into a bowl, and pour over it just enough boiling water +to scald it; do not make it soft; let stand until cool. Then add the +milk; beat the eggs until very light, add them to the batter, add the +flour and salt in which the baking powder has been sifted. Mix well, +beat vigorously for a minute or two, and bake on a hot griddle. + + +BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 1/2 tsp. of salt. + 1/2 tsp. of soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar. + 3 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 1/2 pt. stale bread crumbs. + 2 eggs. + Flour to make a thin batter. + +Soak the bread in the milk for one hour, then beat it smooth. Beat the +eggs separately till very light, add first the yolks, then the flour +and salt and baking powder. Beat again, add the whites, and bake +quickly on a hot griddle. + + +BUCKWHEAT CAKES. + + 1 pt. boiling water. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 cup white flour. + 1 ssp. soda. + 1/2 cup corn or Graham meal. + 1/4 yeast cake. + 1 cup buckwheat flour. + +Pour the boiling water on the corn or Graham meal, add the salt, and +when lukewarm add the flour, beat until smooth, then add the yeast. +Let it rise over night. In the morning add the soda just before baking +(milk may be used instead of water). A tablespoonful of molasses is +sometimes added in order to make the cakes a darker brown. + + +FRITTERS. + +Beat two eggs together until light, add to them 1 cup of milk, 1/2 +tsp. salt and sufficient flour to make a batter that will drop from +the spoon. Beat until smooth. Have ready a deep pan of hot fat; add 3 +(l.) tsps. of baking powder to the batter, mix thoroughly and drop by +spoonfuls into the hot fat. When brown on one side turn and brown on +the other; take out with a skimmer and serve very hot. Do not pierce +with a fork as it allows the steam to escape and makes the fritter +heavy. + + +GEMS--WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM GEMS. + + 2 cups of whole wheat flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 2 eggs, beaten separately. + 1 cup milk. + 1 cup water. + +Mix flour, salt and sugar. Beat the eggs until light, add the milk and +water, stir this into the dry mixture. Bake in hot gem pans for 30 +minutes. + + +CORN MUFFINS. + + 1 cup cornmeal. + 1 cup flour. + 1-1/4 cups milk. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 2-1/2 tsps. baking powder. + 1 egg. + +Mix all the dry ingredients together. Melt the butter in a hot cup. +Beat the egg till light. Add the milk to it and turn this mixture into +the bowl containing the dry ingredients. Add the melted butter and +beat vigorously and quickly. Pour into buttered muffin or gem pans, +and bake for one-half hour in a moderate oven. + + +QUICK MUFFINS OR GEMS. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 1 oz. butter. + 3 cups of flour. + 4 tsps. baking powder. + 1 tsp. salt. + 3 eggs. + +Beat the eggs separately till light, add the yolks to the milk, then +the flour, which must be more or less, according to the quality. The +batter must be thin and pour from the spoon. Now add the melted butter +and salt; give the whole a vigorous beating. Now add the baking powder +and the well beaten whites, stir till thoroughly mixed. Bake in muffin +rings in a quick oven or on the griddle. + + +TEA BISCUIT. + + 1 pt. of flour. + 1 cup milk. + 2-1/2 tsps. baking powder. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. lard or butter. + 1/2 tsp. sugar. + +Mix thoroughly in a sieve the flour, sugar, salt and baking powder, +and rub through the sieve. Rub the butter or lard into this mixture. +Now add the milk, stirring quickly with a strong spoon. Sprinkle the +board with flour, turn out the dough upon it. Roll to the thickness of +about 1/2 inch, cut with a small cutter. Bake in a quick oven. Do not +crowd the biscuit in the pan. They should bake from 10 to 15 minutes. +(All biscuit doughs should be mixed as soft as it is possible to +handle. Sour milk may be used in this recipe by substituting soda for +the baking powder.) + + +HOT CORN BREAD. + + 1 qt. of cornmeal. + 1 tsp. of salt. + 1 pt. sour milk or buttermilk. + 1 oz. of butter. + 2 eggs. + 1 tsp. of soda. + +Put the cornmeal in a large bowl and pour over it just enough boiling +water to scald it through. Let it stand until cold, then add the eggs +well beaten, the milk or buttermilk, salt, and butter (melted); beat +thoroughly. Dissolve the soda in two tbsps. of boiling water, stir +into the mixture, turn quickly into a greased square, shallow pan, +put into a hot oven and bake 40 minutes. + + +SHORTCAKES. + +(_Suitable for strawberries or any sweetened fruit._) + + 1 pint flour. + 1 cup sweet or sour milk. + 1/4 cup butter. + 2-1/2 tsps. baking powder, or 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Mix the salt, soda, cream tartar or baking powder with the flour, +sift; rub in the butter until fine like meal. Add the liquid +gradually, mixing with a knife, and use just enough to make it of a +light spongy consistency. Turn the dough out on a well floured board, +pat lightly into a flat cake and roll gently till half inch thick. +Bake either in a spider or pie plate in the oven; split, butter, and +spread with the fruit. + + +DOUGHNUTS. + + 1 egg + 1 tbsp. melted butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. cream tartar. + Flour enough to make into a soft dough. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 cup milk. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + 1 ssp. cinnamon. + +Mix all the dry ingredients, beat the egg until light, add to this the +milk, sugar and melted butter. Pour into the flour, mixing carefully +into a soft dough. Have the board well floured. Roll only a large +spoonful at a time. Cut into the desired shape and drop into hot fat. +The fat should be hot enough for the dough to rise to the top +instantly. + + * * * * * + + +BREAD. + +As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it +naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject +upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A +knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII) +must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained. +The first element to consider is the _yeast_, and the generating of +carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous. + +Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth produced from grain which has +commenced to bud or sprout, and which forms the substance called +diastase. This substance has the power to convert starch into sugar. +(See Chap. VII for effect of yeast upon flour.) + +The temperature at which fermentation takes place, and when to check +it, are important features of bread-making. + +The liquid (milk or water) should be tepid when mixed, as too great +heat destroys the growth of the yeast. The dough should rise in a +temperature of 75°. After fermentation has become active the +temperature may be gradually lowered--as in setting bread over +night--without injury. + +Avoid a cold draft or sudden change of temperature, as it checks +fermentation and affects the flavor. + +Never allow bread to rise until it "settles," or runs over the side of +the bowl. The usual rule is to let it rise until it is double in bulk, +both in the bowl and after it is put into the pans. If it is not +convenient to bake the bread when ready, it may be kneaded again and +kept in a cool place, to prevent souring. Bread should be mixed in a +stone or granite bowl. + +The only necessary ingredients for bread are water, flour, salt, and +yeast. Sugar may be added to restore the natural sweetness of the +flour which has been lost during fermentation, but it is not +necessary. If milk is used, and the bread well kneaded, no other +shortening is required; but with water, the addition of a little +butter or dripping makes the bread more tender, therefore it is more +easily penetrated by the digestive fluids. Tough, leathery bread is +not easily digested, no matter how light it may be. As already stated, +by the action of heat the ferment is killed, the starch-grains +ruptured, the gas carried off, and the crust formed. In order that +bread may be thoroughly cooked, and plenty of crust formed, each loaf +should be baked in a pan about 4 inches deep, 4 to 6 inches wide, and +from 8 to 12 inches long. Smaller loaves are even more desirable. It +is very difficult to bake a large loaf so as to insure the escape of +all the carbonic acid gas, and to cook the starch sufficiently without +injuring the crust, besides entailing an unnecessary waste of fuel. +The custom of baking several loaves together in one large pan is +contrary to all scientific rules of bread-making. The oven should be +hot enough to brown a spoonful of flour in five minutes, for bread. +The dough should rise during the first fifteen minutes, then begin to +brown; keep the heat steady for the next fifteen or twenty minutes, +then decrease it. If the oven is too hot a hard crust will form and +prevent the dough from rising, which will not only cause the bread to +be heavy, but will prevent the gas from escaping. If, on the other +hand, the oven is not hot enough, the bread will go on rising until +it becomes sour. A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from +fifty-five to sixty minutes to bake, and should give a hollow sound, +if tapped, when removed from the oven. Better take too long than not +long enough, as doughy bread is most objectionable and unwholesome. If +the crust is beginning to burn, cover the loaf with brown paper, and +reduce the heat, but have a brown crust, not a whity-brown, which is +usually hard and without flavor. Upon removing the loaves from the +pans, place them on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never +leave warm bread on a pine table, or where it will absorb odors. + + +BREAD MADE WITH WATER. + + 2 quarts flour. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 1 pint lukewarm water. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. butter, dripping or lard. + 1/2 cake compressed yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup water. + +(This recipe is for Manitoba flour. A little more fine flour would be +necessary.) + +Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a large bowl, pour +on the warm water, stir until they are dissolved. Add the flour +gradually until it forms a thin batter, then add the yeast; beat +vigorously for at least five minutes. Add more flour until the dough +is stiff enough to knead. Turn out on the board and knead for half +hour. Cover and let rise until double its bulk. Form into separate +loaves, put into the pans, cover, and let rise again till double its +bulk. Bake in a hot oven about an hour. (Milk or half milk may be +substituted in this recipe.) + + +BREAD (WITH A SPONGE). + + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 1/2 cup yeast or 1/2 yeast cake. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 pt. water. + About 2 qts. flour. + +Put the butter, sugar and salt in the mixing bowl, add 1/4 cup boiling +water to dissolve them; then add enough lukewarm water to make a pint, +3 cups of flour, then the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in 1/4 +cup tepid water). Give it a vigorous beating, cover, and let it rise +over night. In the morning add flour to make it stiff enough to knead. +Knead for 1/2 hour. Cover closely, let it rise till it doubles its +bulk; shape into loaves; let it rise again in the pans; bake as +directed in previous recipe. + + +WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM BREAD. + + 1 pt. milk, scalded and cooled. + 1 tsp. salt. + 2 cups white flour. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour. + 1/2 yeast cake or 1/2 cup yeast. + +Mix in the same order as given in previous recipes. Whole wheat flour +makes a softer dough, consequently does not require so much kneading, +otherwise it should be treated the same as other bread, allowing it a +little longer time for baking; if too moist, a cupful of white flour +may be added. + + +YEAST. + +Steep 1/2 cup of loose hops in 1 quart of boiling water, in a granite +kettle, 5 minutes. Mix 1 cup of flour, 1/4 of a cup sugar and 1 tbsp. +salt. Strain the hop liquor and pour it boiling into the flour +mixture. Boil 1 minute, or till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast. +Cover and set in a warm place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5 +hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more than half full, +and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled potatoes may be mashed +smoothly and added to this yeast if desired.) + + * * * * * + + +SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS. + + +WHITE SAUCE. + +(_For Vegetables, Eggs, etc._) + + 1 pt. milk. + 4 (l.) tbsps. flour. + 1/2 ssp. white pepper. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Heat the milk over hot water. Put the butter in a granite saucepan and +stir till it melts, being careful not to brown. Add the dry flour, and +stir quickly till well mixed. Add the milk gradually, stirring +carefully (especially from the sides) until perfectly smooth. Let it +boil until it thickens, then add salt and pepper. + +In using this sauce for creamed oysters, add 1/2 tsp. of celery salt, +a few grains of cayenne pepper, and a tsp. of lemon juice. + + +DRAWN BUTTER SAUCE. + + 1 pt. hot water or stock. + 1/2 cup butter. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + 4 (l.) tbsps. flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted add the dry flour, and mix +well. Add the hot water or stock a little at a time, and stir rapidly +till it thickens; when smooth add the salt and pepper. Be careful to +have all sauces free from lumps. (Hard boiled eggs may be added to +this sauce for baked or boiled fish. Two tbsps. of chopped parsley may +be added if parsley sauce is desired.) + + +BROWN SAUCE. + + 1 pt. hot stock. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. lemon juice. + 2 tbsps. minced onions. + 4 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + Caramel enough to color. + +Mince the onion and fry it in the butter 5 minutes. Be careful not to +burn it. When the butter is browned add the dry flour, and stir well. +Add the hot stock a little at a time; stir rapidly until it thickens +and is perfectly smooth. Add the salt and pepper. Simmer 5 minutes, +and strain to remove the onion. + + +CARAMEL FOR COLORING SOUPS AND SAUCES. + +Melt 1 cup of sugar with 1 tbsp. of water in a frying-pan. Stir until +it becomes of a dark brown color. Add 1 cup of boiling water, simmer +10 minutes, and bottle when cool. This coloring is useful for many +purposes, and is more wholesome than browned butter. + + +MOCK BISQUE SOUP. + + 1 pt. stewed tomatoes. + 2 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 pt. milk. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1/4 tsp. pepper. + +Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, put the remainder on to cook in a +stew-pan. Mix the flour with the cold milk, and stir into the boiling +milk. Cook for 10 minutes, then add the salt, pepper and butter. Stir +the soda into the hot tomatoes and stir 1/2 minute, then rub through a +strainer. Add the strained tomatoes to the thickened milk, and serve +at once. + + +POTATO SOUP. + + 4 potatoes, medium size. + 2 tbsps. minced celery. + 2 tbsps. of flour. + 1/4 tsp. of pepper. + 1/2 tsp. minced parsley. + 1-1/2 pints of milk. + 4 tbsps. minced onions. + 1 tsp. of salt. + 1 tbsp. of butter. + +Pare the potatoes, place on the fire in enough boiling water to cover, +and cook for 30 minutes. Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder in +the double boiler with the onion and celery and place on the fire. Mix +the cold milk with the flour and stir into the boiling milk. When the +potatoes are cooked pour off the water, mash them until fine and +light. Gradually beat into them the milk; now add salt, pepper and +butter, and rub the soup through a sieve. Return to the fire and add +the minced parsley; simmer for 5 minutes and serve immediately. (The +parsley may be omitted and celery salt substituted for the minced +celery.) + + +CELERY SOUP. + + 1 head celery. + 1 pint milk. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 pint water. + 1 tbsp. chopped onion. + 2 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + +Wash and scrape the celery, cut into 1/2 inch pieces, put it into the +pint of boiling salted water and cook until very soft. Mash in the +water in which it was boiled. Cook the onion with the milk in a double +boiler 10 minutes and add it to the celery. Rub all through a strainer +and put on to boil again. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the +flour and cook until smooth, but not brown, then stir it into the +boiling soup. Add the salt and pepper; simmer 5 minutes and strain +into the tureen. Serve very hot. + + * * * * * + + +EGGS. + +While eggs are nutritious and valuable as food they should not be used +too freely, as they are a highly concentrated form of food. The +albumen (white) of egg is one of the most valuable tissue builders. +Much depends upon the manner in which they are cooked. Eggs fried in +fat or hard boiled are very indigestible. Do not use an egg until it +has been laid some hours, as the white does not become thick till then +and cannot be beaten stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place, +and handled carefully in order to avoid mixing the white and yolk, +which causes the egg to spoil quickly. + + +BOILED EGGS. + +Have the water boiling in a saucepan. Put in the eggs and move to the +back of the stove where the water will keep hot, about 175 or 180 F., +for from 8 to 10 minutes. If the back of the stove is too hot, move to +the hearth. The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, the +yolks soft but not liquid. An egg to be cooked soft should never be +cooked in boiling water. + + +HARD BOILED EGGS. + +Cook eggs for 20 minutes in water just below the boiling point. The +yolk of an egg cooked 10 minutes is tough and indigestible; 20 minutes +will make it dry and mealy, when it is more easily penetrated by the +gastric fluid. + + +POACHED EGGS. + +Have a clean, shallow pan nearly full of salted and boiling water. +Remove the scum and let the water just simmer. Break each egg +carefully into a saucer and slip it gently into the water. Dip the +water over it with the end of the spoon, and when a film has formed +over the yolk and the white is like a soft jelly, take up with a +skimmer and place on a piece of neatly trimmed toast. This is the most +wholesome way of cooking eggs for serving with ham or bacon. + + +OMELET. + +Beat the yolks of two eggs, add two tbsps. of milk, 1 ssp. of salt and +1/4 of a ssp. of pepper. Beat the whites till stiff and dry. Cut and +fold them into the yolks till just covered. Have a clean, smooth +omelet pan (or spider). When hot, rub well with a teaspoonful of +butter; see that the butter is all over the pan, turn in the omelet +and spread evenly on the pan. Cook until slightly browned underneath, +being careful not to let it burn; set in a hot oven until dry on top. +When dry throughout, run a knife round the edge, tip the pan to one +side, fold the omelet and turn out on a hot platter. This may be made +by beating the whites and yolks together for a plain omelet. A little +chopped parsley, a little fine grated onion, a tbsp. or two of chopped +ham, veal or chicken may be spread on the omelet before folding. + + +CUP CUSTARDS. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 1/4 cup of sugar. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg. + +Beat the eggs until light, then add the sugar; beat again, add the +milk and nutmeg, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into custard +cups, stand the cups in a pan of boiling water and then put the pan in +the oven. Bake until the custards are set, or until a knife may be +slipped into the centre without anything adhering to it. When done, +take them out of the water and stand away to cool. (This custard may +be poured into a baking dish and baked in a quick oven until firm in +the centre.) + + +BOILED CUSTARD. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + +Put the milk on in the double boiler, beat the sugar and yolks of eggs +together until light, then stir them into the boiling milk; stir until +it begins to thicken, then take it from the fire; add the vanilla and +stand aside to cool. When cool, pour into a glass dish. Beat the +whites until stiff, add three tbsps. of powdered sugar gradually. Heap +them on a dinner plate and stand in the oven a moment until slightly +brown, then loosen from the plate, slip off gently on top of the +custard; serve very cold. + + * * * * * + + +FRUIT. + +If people would only realize the value of fruit in its natural state, +much of the time devoted to the preparation of pies, puddings, etc., +would be saved. All uncooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and +served fresh and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when +the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when in its natural +state, therefore a few simple recipes for cooking fruit are given. + + +APPLESAUCE. + +Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. Make a syrup with 1/2 cup +of sugar, 1/2 cup of water, and a little grated lemon peel. When +boiling, add the apples and cook carefully till they are just tender, +but not broken. Remove them carefully, boil the syrup down a little +and pour it over the apples. (For serving with roast goose, etc., cook +the apples in a little water, mash until smooth, add sugar to taste.) + + +CODDLED APPLES. + +Pare tart apples of uniform size; remove the cores without breaking +the apples. Stand them in the bottom of a granite kettle, sprinkle +thickly with sugar, cover the bottom of the kettle with boiling water, +cover closely and allow the apples to steam on the back part of the +stove till tender. Lift carefully without breaking, pour the syrup +over them and stand away to cool (delicious served with whipped +cream). + + +STEWED PRUNES. + +Wash carefully and soak in water an hour before cooking, put them into +a porcelain or granite kettle, cover with boiling water and let them +simmer until tender. Add a tbsp. of sugar for each pint of prunes, and +boil a few moments longer. + + +CRANBERRIES. + +Put 1 pint of cranberries in a granite saucepan, 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup +of water. After they begin to boil cook 10 minutes, closely covered. +(This may be pressed through a sieve while hot, removing the skins, if +desired for a mould.) + + +STEWED RHUBARB. + +Wash the rhubarb (if young and tender it will not be necessary to +remove the skin), cut into pieces about 1 inch long. To every lb. of +rhubarb allow 1 lb. of sugar. Put the rhubarb into a porcelain or +granite kettle, cover with the sugar, and stand on the back part of +the fire until the sugar melts. Move forward, let simmer for a few +minutes without stirring, turn it out carefully to cool. + + +BAKED PEARS. + +Take large, sweet pears, wipe them but do not remove the stems. Stand +them in an earthen baking dish, pour around them a cup of boiling +water, add 2 tbsps. sugar, cover with another dish and bake slowly +until the pears are tender, basting occasionally with the liquor. When +done, stand away to cool in the dish in which they were baked. When +cold put them into a glass dish, pour the liquor over them and serve. + + +BAKED APPLES. + +Pare and core, without breaking, tart apples. Put them into a shallow +earthen dish, fill the cavities with sugar, add water to cover the +bottom of the dish. Bake in a quick oven till soft, basting often with +the syrup. (Quinces may be baked in the same way.) + + * * * * * + + +VEGETABLES. + +Vegetables should be used very freely, as they contain saline +substances which counteract the effect of too much meat, and are the +chief source of mineral supply for the body. In cooking vegetables, a +common rule is to add salt, while cooking, to all classes growing +above ground (including onions), and to omit salt in the cooking of +vegetables growing underground. In cooking vegetables care must be +taken to preserve the flavor, and to prevent the waste of mineral +matter. + + +CABBAGE. + +Cut a small head of cabbage in quarters, soak in cold water 1 hour, +drain and shake dry. Remove the stalk, or hard part, and chop the +remainder rather fine. Put it into a stew-pan with enough boiling +water to cover, and boil 20 minutes. Drain in a colander. Turn into a +hot dish, and pour over it cream sauce or a little melted butter, +pepper and salt. + + +CAULIFLOWER. + +Pick off the outside leaves, soak in cold salted water, top downwards, +for 1 hour. Tie it round with a piece of twine to prevent breaking. +Cook in boiling salted water until tender, remove the string, turn +into a hot dish with the top up, cover with cream sauce or drawn +butter sauce. (When cold, it may be picked to pieces and served in a +salad.) + + +CELERY. + +Scrape clean and cut the stalks into 2-inch pieces: cook in salted +water until tender, drain and cover with a white sauce. The sauce +should be made with the water in which the celery has been stewed. + + +BOILED BEETS. + +Wash, but do not cut them, as that injures the color. Cook in boiling +water until tender. When cooked put them into a pan of cold water and +rub off the skins. They may be cut in slices and served hot with +pepper, butter and salt, or sliced, covered with vinegar, and served +cold. They may be cut into dice and served as a salad, either alone or +mixed with potatoes and other vegetables. + + +BEANS (DRIED). + +Lima beans should be soaked in warm water over night. In the morning +drain off this water and cover with fresh warm water. Two hours before +needed drain, cover with boiling water and boil 30 minutes; drain +again, cover with fresh boiling water, and boil until tender. Add a +teaspoonful of salt while they are boiling. When cooked drain them, +add a little butter, pepper and salt, or a cream sauce. + + +ASPARAGUS. + +Wash the asparagus well in cold water, reject the tough parts, tie in +a bunch or cut into pieces 1 inch long. Put it in a kettle, cover with +boiling water, and boil until tender. Put it in a colander to drain. +Serve with melted butter, pepper and salt, or with a cream or drawn +butter sauce. + + +ONIONS. + +Scald in boiling water, then remove the skins. Put them in boiling +salted water; when they have boiled 10 minutes, change the water. Boil +until tender but not until broken. Drain and serve with either cream +sauce or butter, pepper and salt. + + +POTATOES. + +Wash and scrub with a brush. If old, soak in cold water after paring. +Put them in boiling water, when about half cooked add a tbsp. of salt. +Cook until soft but not broken. Drain carefully. Expose the potatoes +for a minute to a current of air, then cover and place on the back of +the stove to keep hot, allowing the steam to escape. + + +RICE POTATOES. + +Press the cooked potatoes through a coarse strainer into the dish in +which they are to be served. + + +MASHED POTATOES. + +To 1 pint of hot boiled potatoes, add 1 tbsp. butter, 1/2 tsp. of +salt, 1/2 ssp. of white pepper and hot milk or cream to moisten. Mash +in the kettle in which they were boiled, beat with a fork until they +are light and creamy. Turn lightly into a dish. + + +POTATO PUFFS. + +Prepare as for mashed potatoes, adding a little chopped parsley or +celery salt if the flavor is liked. Beat 2 eggs, yolks and whites +separately. Stir the beaten whites in carefully, shape into smooth +balls or cones, brush lightly with the beaten yolks, and bake in a +moderately hot oven until brown. + + +CREAMED POTATOES. + +Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in a shallow pan, +cover with milk and cook until the potatoes have absorbed nearly all +the milk. To 1 pint of potatoes, add 1 tbsp. of butter, 1/2 tsp. of +salt, 1/2 ssp. of pepper and a little chopped parsley or onion. + + +BAKED POTATOES. + +Select smooth potatoes of uniform size, wash and scrub well. Bake in a +hot oven about 45 minutes or until soft. Break the skin or puncture +with a fork to let the steam escape and serve at once. This is the +most wholesome method of cooking potatoes, as the mineral matter is +retained. + + +FRIED POTATOES. + +Pare, wash and cut into slices or quarters. Soak in cold salted water, +drain and dry between towels. Have sufficient fat in a kettle to more +than cover the potatoes. When it is very hot drop the potatoes in, a +few at a time, so as not to reduce the heat of the fat too quickly. +When brown, which should be in about 4 or 5 minutes for quarters and +about 2 minutes if sliced, drain and sprinkle with salt. + + +TOMATOES (RAW). + +Scald and peel sometime before using, place on ice, and serve with +salt, sugar and vinegar, or with a salad dressing. + + +SCALLOPED TOMATOES. + +Scald and peel as many tomatoes as required. Butter a deep dish and +sprinkle with fine bread or cracker crumbs, then a layer of sliced +tomato, over this sprinkle a little salt, pepper and sugar; then add a +layer of bread crumbs, another of tomatoes, sprinkle again with salt, +pepper and sugar: put bread crumbs on the top, moisten with a little +melted butter, and bake until brown. + + +STEWED TOMATOES. + +Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, remove the skins and the hard +green stem, cut into quarters or slices and stew in a granite kettle +until the pulp is soft, add salt, pepper, butter and a little sugar if +desired. If too thin the tomato may be thickened with crumbs or +cornstarch wet in a little cold water. + + +SPINACH. + +Pick over carefully, discarding all decayed leaves. Wash thoroughly, +then place in a pan of cold water, let stand for a few minutes. Drain +and put in a large kettle with just enough water to keep it from +burning. Cook very slowly until tender. Drain and chop fine, add 1 +tbsp. of butter, a tsp. of salt, a ssp. of pepper. It may be served on +toast (hot) or garnished with hard boiled eggs. + + +CARROTS AND TURNIPS. + +Carrots as a vegetable for the table are more palatable when young and +tender. They should be washed and scraped, boiled until tender, and +served with butter, pepper and salt or a white sauce. Turnips contain +little nutriment; having no starch, they are very suitable for eating +with potatoes. They require more salt than any other vegetable, and +should be served with fat meat, corned beef, roast pork or mutton. +Turnips should be washed, pared, cut into slices or strips, boiled +until tender. Drain, mash and season with pepper and salt. + + +PEAS (GREEN). + +Wash the pods, which should be green, crisp and plump, before +shelling, then the peas will not require washing. Put the peas into a +strainer or colander and shake out all the fine particles. Boil until +tender. When nearly done add the salt. Use little water in cooking, +when they may be served without draining; season with a little butter, +pepper and salt. If drained, serve either dry with butter, pepper and +salt, or with a white sauce. + + +GREEN SWEET CORN. + +Remove the husk and silky fibre, cover with boiling water (the flavor +is improved by adding a few of the clean inner husks) and cook, if +young and tender, from 10 to 15 minutes. Try a kernel and take up the +corn as soon as the milk has thickened and the raw taste is +destroyed. + + * * * * * + + +SALADS. + + +FRENCH DRESSING. + + 3 tbsps. of olive oil. + 1/4 tsp. of salt. + 1 tbsp. vinegar. + 1/2 ssp. of pepper or speck of cayenne. + +Mix these ingredients together and serve. This makes a particularly +good dressing for lettuce or vegetable salads. + + +SALAD DRESSING. + + 1/2 cup vinegar. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 cup cream. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. mustard. + A speck of cayenne pepper. + +Beat the eggs well, mix the sugar, salt, mustard and pepper together, +add to the beaten eggs, then add the vinegar. Place the saucepan on +the range in a pan of boiling water. Stir constantly until the +dressing becomes thick and light. Take from the fire and turn into a +cold bowl at once to prevent curdling. Beat the cream to a thick froth +and stir it into the cold dressing. (When cream is not available use +the same quantity of milk, previously thickened to the consistency of +cream with a little cornstarch, add a tsp. of butter; when cold, add +to the dressing.) + + +MAYONNAISE DRESSING. + + 1/2 pt. of olive oil. + 1 tsp. mustard. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + Yolks of 2 uncooked eggs. + 1 tbsp. lemon juice. + 1 tbsp. vinegar. + 1/2 tsp. sugar. + A speck of cayenne. + +Put the yolks of the eggs into a cold bowl, stir in the dry +ingredients, beat well, using a silver or small wooden spoon. Then add +the oil, drop by drop. When the mixture gets so thick that it is +difficult to stir, add a few drops of the vinegar to thin it. Continue +stirring in the oil and vinegar alternately until all are used, when +it should be very thick; add the lemon juice last and beat for a few +minutes longer; a cupful of whipped cream may be stirred into this +dressing before using. (The following rules must be observed in order +to insure success: (1) to beat the yolks and dry ingredients until +thick; (2) to add the oil only in drops at first; (3) always beat or +stir in one direction, reversing the motion is apt to curdle the +dressing.) + + +LETTUCE SALAD. + +Choose crisp, fresh lettuce, wash clean, let it remain for a little +time in cold or ice water, drain thoroughly, break or tear the leaves +into convenient pieces, dress with a French or cooked dressing; serve +at once, cold. + + +POTATO SALAD. + + 1 pt. cold boiled potatoes. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 cup cooked dressing. Or the French dressing, as given. + 1 tsp. finely chopped onion. + 1 sp. pepper. + +Cut the potatoes into pieces about the size of dice, mix the +seasonings with the potatoes, turn into a dish in alternate layers of +potatoes and dressing, having a little dressing on top. Garnish with +parsley, and allow to stand at least an hour in a cold place before +serving, so that the potatoes may absorb the seasoning. (Cold boiled +beets cut into cubes may be added in alternate layers with the +potatoes in this recipe, using a little more dressing.) + + +TOMATO SALAD. + +Peel the tomatoes (without scalding) and put them on ice until very +cold, have crisp leaves of lettuce which have been washed and dried. +When ready to serve, cut the tomatoes in halves, place one-half on a +leaf of lettuce (the curly leaves being the best), on this put a tbsp. +of mayonnaise or cooked dressing, and serve immediately. + + +CABBAGE SALAD. + +Cabbage or celery may be used as a salad by cutting rather fine, +allowing it to get cold and crisp, and serving with a cooked or French +dressing. Indeed almost any vegetable may be used for a salad. String +beans, asparagus, cauliflower, which have been cooked, are suitable +for salad, either alone or in combination with nasturtium, cress, hard +boiled eggs, etc. + + +CHICKEN SALAD. + +One pint each of cold boiled or roasted chicken and celery. Cut the +chicken into 1/4-inch dice, scrape, wash and cut the celery into dice, +put the celery in a napkin and lay on the ice for 10 or 12 minutes; +season the chicken with vinegar, salt, pepper and oil (or the French +dressing-oil may be omitted if the flavor is not agreeable, +substituting cream or melted butter). Add the celery to the seasoned +chicken, add half the dressing (using either a cooked or mayonnaise), +heap in a dish, add the remainder of the dressing, garnish with the +tiny bleached celery leaves or small curly lettuce leaves. (A few +capers and a hard boiled egg may be used as a garnish if desired.) + +In summer the chicken may be served on a tender lettuce leaf, adding a +spoonful of dressing, and serving very cold. + + +FRUIT SALAD. + + 4 oranges. + 1 cup water. + 1/4 package gelatine. + 4 bananas. + Juice of 2 lemons. + 1-1/2 cup sugar. + +Dissolve the gelatine in the water, add the sugar and lemon juice, +strain and pour over the oranges and bananas, which have been peeled +and sliced and placed in alternate layers in a mould. Set away to +cool. When needed, turn out and serve. Garnish with Malaga grapes, +cherries, currants, or any suitable fruit. + + * * * * * + + +CEREALS. + +All cereals require thorough cooking, because of the starch in them, +also to soften the woody fibre. No matter what the cereal product may +be, it should be cooked not less than three-quarters of an hour, and +better if cooked longer. + + +OATMEAL PORRIDGE. + + 1 pt. of boiling water. + 1/2 cup of oatmeal. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Be sure to have the water boiling. Sprinkle in the oatmeal slowly, +stirring all the time. Add the salt, and move back or set in a vessel +of boiling water where it will cook gently for 1 hour. Do not stir the +porridge after the first 5 minutes. + +All porridge (or mush) is made on the same principle. + + +CRACKED WHEAT + +Should be cooked at least 4 or 5 hours. + + +CORNMEAL + +Should be cooked an hour or more. + + +RICE. + +Wash 1 cup of rice. Have 2 quarts of water, with 1 tbsp. salt, boiling +rapidly. Sprinkle in the rice gradually, when you have it all in cover +the kettle and boil 20 minutes. If too thick add a little boiling +water. Test the grains, and the moment they are soft, and before the +starch begins to cloud the water, pour into a colander to drain. Stand +it in the oven a few minutes to dry, leaving the door open. Turn +carefully into a heated dish and serve without a cover. (Do not stir +the rice while cooking.) + + +RICE CROQUETTES. + + 1 pint of milk. + 4 (l.) tbsps. of sugar. + 1/2 cup raisins. + 1/2 cup of rice. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + Yolks of two eggs. + +Wash the rice and put it into the boiling milk in a double boiler. +Cook until very thick; add the yolks of the eggs and the sugar, beat +thoroughly. Take from the fire, add the vanilla and the fruit, which +has been well floured. Turn out on a dish to cool, when cold form in +pyramids or cylinders; dip first in beaten egg, then in fine bread +crumbs and fry in deep, boiling fat. Put a little jelly on the top of +each croquette, dust the whole with powdered sugar, and serve with +vanilla sauce or cream and sugar. + + +BAKED RICE. + +Wash 1/2 cup of rice, turn into a buttered pudding dish, add 2 tbsps. +sugar, grate 1/4 of a small nutmeg, add 1 qt. of milk, bake slowly for +at least 1-1/2 hour. + + +FARINA. + + 1 pint of milk. + 3 level tbsps. of farina. + +Put the milk in the double boiler, when the milk boils add the salt, +then sprinkle in the farina, stirring all the while; beat the mixture +well and cook for 30 minutes. Serve with cream and sugar. (This may be +made into a pudding by adding an egg, 2 tbsps. sugar, 1/2 tsp. +vanilla, baking in the oven until brown.) + + * * * * * + + +MACARONI. + +Macaroni is quite as valuable as bread for food, and should be used +very freely. + + +BOILED MACARONI. + +Break the macaroni in pieces about 2 inches long. Have boiling water, +add a tsp. of salt; throw in the macaroni and boil rapidly 30 minutes, +put it into a colander to drain, return to the kettle, rub a tbsp. of +butter and flour together until smooth, add either milk or water until +the sauce is as thick as rich cream. Cook it a few minutes before +pouring over the macaroni, and serve (add salt to taste). + + +MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE. + + 1/4 lb. macaroni. + 1 tbsp. butter. + Salt and pepper to taste. + 1 tbsp. flour. + 1 cup stewed tomatoes. + +Hold the long sticks of macaroni in the hand; put the end into boiling +salted water, as it softens bend and coil in the water without +breaking. Boil rapidly 20 minutes. When done put it in a colander to +drain. Put the butter in a saucepan to melt, add to it the flour, mix +until smooth, then add the tomatoes (which have been strained), stir +carefully until it boils. Pour over the hot macaroni and serve at +once. + + +MACARONI AND CHEESE. + + 1/4 lb. of macaroni. + 1/4 lb. grated cheese. + Salt and white pepper to taste. + 1/2 pt. milk. + 1 tsp. butter. + +Break the macaroni in pieces about 3 inches long. Put it into plenty +of boiling water. Add 1 tsp. salt and boil rapidly 25 minutes; drain, +throw into cold water to blanch for 10 minutes. Put the milk into the +double boiler, add to it the butter, then the macaroni which has been +drained, and cheese; stir until heated, add the salt and pepper, and +serve. (The macaroni may be placed in a baking dish in alternate +layers with the cheese, sprinkling each layer with pepper and salt, +pouring the milk over the top, cutting the butter in small bits +distributed over the top, and bake until brown in a moderately quick +oven.) + + * * * * * + + +CHEESE. + + +CHEESE SOUFFLE. + + 1/4 lb. of cheese. + 1 ssp. of soda. + A speck of cayenne. + 2 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 cup of milk. + 1 tsp. mustard. + 2 eggs. + 2 tbsps. butter. + +Put the butter in a saucepan, when melted stir in the flour, add the +milk slowly, then the salt, mustard and cayenne, which have been mixed +together. Add the yolks of the eggs which have been well beaten, then +the grated cheese; stir all together, lift from the fire and set away +to cool. When cold, add the stiff beaten whites, turn into a buttered +dish and bake 25 or 30 minutes. Serve immediately. + + +WELSH RAREBIT. + + 1/4 lb. cheese. + 1 tsp. mustard. + A speck of cayenne. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1/4 cup cream or milk. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 egg. + +Grate the cheese, put it with the milk in the double boiler. While +this is heating, make some toast. Mix the mustard, salt and pepper, +add the egg and beat well. When the cheese has melted, stir in the egg +and butter, and cook about two minutes, or until it thickens a little, +but do not let it curdle. Pour it over the hot toast and serve at +once. + + * * * * * + + +BEVERAGES. + + +TEA. + +In making tea, the following rules should be observed. The water +should be freshly boiled. The teapot, which should be of earthen or +china (never of tin), should be scalded and heated before putting in +the tea. Pour on the boiling water and cover closely, and let stand +for 3 or 4 minutes before using. Never, under any circumstances, +allow tea to boil. The usual proportion is a small teaspoonful of tea +to 1 cup of boiling water, but this is too strong for general use. + + +COFFEE. + +Coffee may be made in various ways; by filtering, clarifying with an +egg, or made with cold water. A common rule for making coffee is as +follows: 1 heaping tbsp. ground coffee to 2 cups of freshly boiling +water, 1 egg shell. Scald the coffee-pot, put in the coffee and the +egg shell, add the boiling water, cover and boil just 3 minutes. +Before serving, add a tbsp. of cold water; let stand for a few minutes +before using. + + +COFFEE MADE WITH AN EGG. + +1 egg is sufficient to clear 1 cup of ground coffee; if a smaller +quantity be desired, half the egg may be used. Add 1/2 cup cold water +to the portion of egg to be used, and 1/2 cup of ground coffee. Beat +well, put it in the coffee-pot, add 1 qt. of boiling water, and boil 3 +minutes. Move back where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 10 +minutes. Pour out a little and pour it back again to clear the spout +before serving. + + +COCOA. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 3 tbsps. of water. + 2 (l.) tsps. of cocoa. + +Put the milk in the double boiler and set on the fire, mix the cocoa +to a smooth paste with the cold water. When the milk boils, add the +cocoa and boil for 1 minute. Serve very hot. If more water and less +milk be used, allow a little more cocoa. + + * * * * * + + +SOUPS. + +Soups may be divided into two classes, soup made with stock, and with +milk. As soup should form part of the regular daily diet, and may be +made from the cheaper materials, it is absolutely necessary that every +housekeeper should understand the art of making it properly. + +In the first place it is well to know what may be used in the process +of soup making. The first and most important step is to prepare the +stock. For this purpose have a large earthen bowl or "catch all," as +some teachers call it. Into this put all the bones, trimmings, bits of +steak or chop and gravy which has been left over. Keep in a cold +place. When needed, cover with cold water and simmer 4 or 5 hours; +strain and set away to cool. When cold, remove the fat which will have +formed a solid coating on the top. The stock is now ready for use. By +saving the remains of vegetables cooked for the table, the outer +stocks of celery, a hard boiled egg, etc., a very palatable and +nutritious soup may be made at a trifling cost. In families where +large quantities of meat are used, there should be sufficient material +without buying meat for soup. It is not necessary to have all the +ingredients mentioned in some recipes in order to secure satisfactory +results. It will, however, be necessary to understand soup flavorings, +so as to know which ones may be left out. Stock made from the shin of +beef, or from the cheaper pieces which contain the coarser fibre and +gristle, require long, slow cooking (see Methods). + +Never soak meat in water before cooking in any form. Wipe carefully +with a damp cloth before cutting or preparing for use. For soup break +or saw the bones into small pieces, and for each pound of meat and +bone allow 1 qt. of cold water. Cover the kettle closely and let it +heat slowly until it reaches the simmering point, when it should be +moved back and kept at that degree for several hours. Soup should +never be allowed to boil hard. The scum which rises to the surface is +the albumen and juices of the meat, and should not be skimmed off. If +the kettle is clean, and all impurities removed from the meat, there +will not be anything objectionable in the scum. Stock must always be +allowed to remain until cold, so that the fat may be removed before +using. A strong, greasy soup is rarely relished, and is one of the +principal reasons why so many people dislike this valuable article of +diet. Do not add salt to the meat which is being prepared for stock +until a few minutes before removing from the fire. Salt hardens the +water if added at first and makes the tissues more difficult to +dissolve. Stock may be kept for several days by occasionally bringing +it to the boiling point. This is not necessary in winter if it is kept +in a cold place. + + +VEGETABLE SOUP. + + 1 qt. stock. + 1/2 cup each chopped turnip and cabbage. + 1 tsp. sugar. + 1 ssp. pepper. + 1/2 cup each of onion, carrot, celery (chopped). + 1-1/2 tsp. salt. + +If all these vegetables are not available, a little macaroni, rice or +barley may be added. Chop all the vegetables very fine, cabbage or +onions should be parboiled 5 minutes, drain carefully. Put all the +vegetables together, cover with 1 qt. of water and simmer until +tender, then add the stock, the seasoning, and allow it to simmer +about 10 minutes. Serve without straining. + + +TOMATO SOUP. + + 1 pt. of canned or stewed tomatoes. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. sugar. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 2 whole cloves or 1/2 bay leaf. + 1 pt. of stock. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + 1 tbsp. minced onion. + 1 tbsp. flour or cornstarch. + A speck of cayenne may be added if desired. + +Put the tomato and stock in a saucepan and set on the fire. Cook the +vegetables in the butter for 15 minutes; then press out the butter and +put the vegetables in the soup. Into the butter remaining in the pan +put the flour and stir until smooth, then add to the soup. Allow all +to simmer for 20 minutes; strain and serve. + + +SPLIT PEA SOUP. + + 1 pt. of split peas. + 1-1/2 qt. of boiling water. + 1 qt. of stock. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Wash the peas in cold water (rejecting those which float) and soak +them over night. In the morning drain the water off and cover them +again with 1 qt. of the boiling water. Boil until tender, about 1-1/2 +hour. Now add the stock and 1 pt. of the boiling water. Press the +whole through a sieve; wash the soup kettle, return the soup, boil up +once, add salt and pepper and serve with croutons. Dried pea soup may +be made in exactly the same manner, using 1 pt. of dried peas instead +of the split ones. + + +ONION SOUP. + + 1 large Spanish onion. + 1 qt. stock. + 1 tbsp. flour. + 2 tbsps. butter. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Peel and chop the onion. Put the butter in a frying-pan, add the +onion, and stir until a nice brown. Put the stock on to boil. Skim the +onions out of the butter and add them to the stock. Stir 1 tbsp. of +flour into the remaining butter, thin with a little of the stock, put +all together, and simmer for 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and it +is ready to serve. + + +MACARONI SOUP. + + 1 qt. clear soup. + 1 tsp. salt. + 5 sticks macaroni. + +Break the macaroni into small pieces and throw it into 1 quart of +boiling water containing the tsp. of salt. Let it boil uncovered 25 +minutes. Drain off the water and add the macaroni to the hot stock, +cover and cook slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. A little more seasoning +may be added if desired. + + +OYSTER SOUP. + + 1 pt. oysters. + 1/2 pt. cold water. + 1/4 tsp. pepper. + Salt to taste. + 1 pt. milk. + 2 (l.) tbsps. flour. + 2 tbsps. butter. + +Put a strainer over a bowl and turn the oysters into it. Pour the +water over the oysters and stir with a spoon until all the liquid has +passed through the strainer. Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, pouring the +remainder into the double boiler, set it on the fire. Put the oyster +liquor in a stew-pan, and heat slowly. Mix the cold milk with the +flour, and stirring into the boiling milk; cook for 10 minutes. When +the oyster liquor boils, skim it. When the flour and milk have cooked +for 10 minutes, add the oysters, butter, salt, pepper and oyster +liquor. Cook until the oysters curl on the edge and are plump. Serve +at once. + + +BEAN SOUP (WITHOUT STOCK). + + 1 qt. dried white beans. + 1 large tbsp. butter. + 2 qts. water. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Wash the beans, cover them with water, and soak over night. Next +morning drain, put them on to boil with 2 quarts of fresh cold water. +As soon as they come to a boil drain this water off and throw it away. +Cover again with 2 quarts of fresh boiling water, add 1 ssp. of soda, +and boil until soft. Press the beans through a sieve, return to the +kettle, and if too thick add enough boiling water to make the soup +about the consistency of cream. Add the salt, pepper and butter, and +serve. (Minced onion, carrot, or celery fried in a little butter or +dripping, and added to this soup before straining, improves the +flavor.) + + +BOUILLON. + + 2 lbs. lean beef. + 1 small onion. + A sprig of parsley. + 1 qt. cold water. + 1 stalk celery, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed. + 1 bay leaf. + +Remove all the fat and chop the meat very fine. Put it into the soup +kettle with the water, bay leaf, parsley, onion and celery. Cover the +kettle closely and place it in the back part of the range for 2 hours. +Then move it over and let it come to a boil; skim at the first boil. +Move back and simmer gently for 4 hours. Strain, return to the kettle, +add salt and pepper. Beat the white of one egg with 1/2 cup of cold +water until thoroughly mixed. Wash the egg shell, mash it and add to +the white. Now add the white, shell and water to the boiling bouillon; +let it boil hard for 10 minutes, then throw in 1/2 cup of cold water +and boil 5 minutes longer. Take the kettle off the fire, strain +through a flannel bag, add salt to taste, and color with caramel. (See +recipe for caramel.) This is an excellent preparation for invalids. + + * * * * * + + +FISH. + +Fish is an invaluable article of food. It provides variety in diet, +and while less stimulating than meat, is usually more easily digested. +Fish should be perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked. The most +wholesome as well as the most palatable methods for cooking fish are +broiling and baking. The flesh of fresh fish is firm and will not +retain the impress of the finger if pressed into it. The eyes should +be bright and glassy, the gills red and full of blood. Fish should be +cleaned as soon as possible and thoroughly wiped with a cloth wet in +salt water, and should be kept in a cool place. Do not put it near +other food such as milk, butter, etc., as they will absorb the odor. + + +BROILED FISH. + +Rub a double broiler well with a piece of suet before putting in the +fish. Lay the fish flat so that the flesh side will be exposed on one +side of the broiler and the skin on the other. Broil carefully, as the +skin side burns very quickly. A fish weighing 3 lbs. will take about +25 or 30 minutes to broil. When cooked sprinkle with salt and pepper, +and serve very hot. + + +BAKED FISH. + + 1 cup cracker or bread crumbs. + 1 ssp. salt. + 1 tsp. chopped onion. + 1 tsp. chopped parsley. + 1 ssp. pepper. + 1/4 cup melted butter or dripping. + +Clean, wipe and dry the fish, rub with salt; fill with stuffing and +sew or tie carefully. Rub all over with butter (or dripping), salt and +pepper, dredge with flour, put it into a hot oven; baste when the +flour is brown, and often afterwards. Remove carefully from the pan +and place upon a hot platter. + + +SCALLOPED FISH. + +Pick over carefully any remnants of cold boiled or baked fish, put +into a shallow dish in alternate layers with bread crumbs and cream +sauce. Cover with crumbs and bake till brown. + + +SALT FISH BALLS. + + 1 cup salt fish. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1/4 ssp. pepper. + 1 pint potatoes. + 1 egg, well beaten. + More salt if needed. + +Wash the fish, pick in pieces and free from bones. Pare the potatoes +and cut in quarters. Put the potatoes and fish in a stew-pan and cover +with boiling water. Boil until the potatoes are tender. Drain off all +the water; mash and beat the fish and potatoes till very light. Add +the butter and pepper, and when slightly cooled add the egg. Lift in a +tbsp. and drop into smoking hot fat 1 minute, drain on brown paper; +they may be formed into balls and browned in a very hot oven. + + * * * * * + + +MEAT. + +(_See Analysis, Chap. V._) + +As meat is composed of several substances, fibrine, albumen, gelatin, +fat and the juices, it is necessary to understand the various methods +of cooking in order to secure the best results. Meat has its season as +well as many other foods. Pork is better in autumn and winter; veal in +the spring and summer; fowl in autumn and winter; lamb in the summer +and autumn; mutton and beef may be used any time. Meat should not be +allowed to remain in the paper in which it comes from market, as it +absorbs the juices and injures the flavor. Wipe all over with a clean +wet cloth. Examine carefully, remove any tainted or unclean portions +and keep in a clean, cool place until required. Good beef should be a +bright red color, well mixed with fat, and a layer of fat on the +outside; the suet should be dry and crumble easily. (See meat diagrams +for different cuts.) Mutton should have an abundance of clear, white +fat, the flesh fine grained and a bright red color. The fat of veal +should be clear and white, the lean pink, and should always be +thoroughly cooked. Pork is more indigestible when fresh than when +cured, as in bacon and ham. Fresh pork should be firm, the fat white, +the lean a pale red. + + +ROAST OF BEEF. + +Wipe, trim, and tie or skewer into shape the cut for roasting. If +there be a large piece of the flank, cut it off and use for soups or +stews. If you wish to roast it, turn it underneath and fasten with a +skewer. Lay the meat on a rack in a pan, and dredge all over with +flour. Put on the top of a roast 2 or 3 tbsps. of dripping or pieces +of the fat; put it in a very hot oven at first. After the outside has +become seared, check off the heat and allow to cook slowly, basting +frequently. (See time table for baking.) + + +BROILED STEAK. + +Trim the steak free from all suet (save all trimmings for stews or the +stock pot). Put the meat plate to warm, grease the broiler with a +little of the fat. See that the fire is clear. Put the steak on the +hot broiler and place it over the fire, turning every 10 seconds. It +will take about 8 minutes if the steak is 1 inch thick. When done, +place it on the hot plate, dredge it with salt and pepper; turn over +and season the other side. Serve immediately. + + +PAN-BROILED STEAK. + +When the fire is not suitable for broiling, heat the frying pan until +smoking hot; trim the steak as for broiling, place firmly on the hot +pan, turn frequently as in broiling, with a broad knife or pancake +turner; never insert a fork, as it allows the juice to escape. It will +cook in 10 minutes. Season, and serve the same as broiled steak. If a +gravy is desired, fry a little of the suet and trimmings in the +pan--after the steak has been removed--until brown, lift out the meat +or suet, add 1 tbsp. of flour, stir until brown, add pepper and salt +to taste, then add 1 teacup of boiling water. Cook for 2 or 3 minutes +and strain over the steak. + + +HAMBURG STEAK. + +1 lb. of steak from the upper side of the round, or any piece of lean +beef free from gristle; chop very fine, add 1 tbsp. of onion juice +(or finely minced onion), 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. black pepper, mix +well together; dip the hands in cold water, take 2 tbsps. of the +mixture and form with the hands into small round cakes. Have the +frying pan very hot, put in 2 tbsps. of dripping; when hot, put in the +steaks, brown on both sides--or they may be pan-broiled. Place them on +a hot dish, add a tbsp. of flour to the fat remaining in the pan, mix +until smooth and brown; add a cupful of boiling water, stir until it +boils, add pepper and salt to taste, and pour over the steak. + + +BEEF STEW WITH DUMPLINGS. + +2 lbs. of lean beef (cheaper cuts). Cut into pieces about 1 inch +square, dredge with flour. Put 2 tbsps. of dripping into a frying pan; +as soon as it is very hot put in the meat and shake or stir until +nicely browned. Skim out the meat and put it in a saucepan. Add 1 +tbsp. of flour to the dripping remaining in the pan, mix and add 1 +quart of boiling water; stir over the fire until it boils, then strain +it over the meat; add one small onion, pepper and salt to taste. Cover +the saucepan closely and let it simmer for 2 hours. Make the dumplings +by sifting 1 pint of flour, to which has been added 2 tsps. baking +powder. Add 1/4 tsp. salt and enough milk to make a soft dough. Lift +the dough in spoonfuls, placing them over the meat, cover quickly and +let boil 10 minutes. Do not uncover the saucepan while the dumplings +are cooking or they will fall immediately. Be careful not to allow the +stew to burn while the dumplings are cooking. + + +POT ROAST. + +Trim off the rough parts of a brisket of beef or any of the cheaper +cuts. Place it in a kettle over a good fire; brown on one side, then +turn and brown on the other; add 1 pint of boiling water, cover +closely and simmer, allowing 20 minutes to every pound. Add pepper and +salt when the meat is nearly done. + + +BRAISED BEEF. + +From 4 to 6 lbs. of beef from the lower part of the round or rump. +Trim and rub well with salt, pepper and flour. Chop 2 small onions and +fry until light brown in pork fat or dripping; skim them out and put +them into the pan in which the meat is to be braised, then brown the +meat all over, adding more fat if needed (this may be done in a very +hot oven). Put the meat into the pan, on skewers to keep it from +sticking, with the onions around it. Add 1 qt. of boiling water, cover +closely, putting a brick or heavy weight on the cover to keep it down, +and cook in a moderate oven 4 hours, basting occasionally. Turn once +and add more water as it evaporates, so as to have 1 pt. left for +gravy. When tender take up the meat, remove the fat, add more salt and +pepper, and if liked, a little lemon juice or tomato may be added. +Thicken with 2 tbsps. of flour wet in a little cold water. Cook 10 +minutes and pour the gravy over the meat. Any tough meat may be cooked +in this way. + + +HASH. + +Take any pieces left of a cold roast, steaks or stews, chop very fine; +take 1 tbsp. butter or dripping, 1 tbsp. of flour, stir together in a +hot frying pan, when brown add 1 cup boiling water; add 1 tbsp. +chopped onion, pepper and salt to taste, let simmer for 10 minutes, +then add the meat, stir until heated thoroughly and serve on toast. + + +CORNED BEEF OR SAUSAGE HASH. + + 1 pt. hashed corn beef or sausage. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. butter or dripping. + 1 pt. of hashed potatoes. + 1/4 tsp. pepper. + 1/2 cup of milk. + (Omit the milk if sausage is used). + +Mix the potato and meat, season with the pepper and salt, add the milk +and stir lightly. Put the butter or dripping into a hot frying pan, +when melted put in the hash, spread it lightly and evenly, but do not +stir it. Cover the pan and set where the hash will cook slowly for 10 +or 15 minutes. Move over to a hotter part of the stove and let it +remain until a rich, brown crust has formed on the bottom. Fold over +and serve on a hot dish. + + +MUTTON--BOILED LEG OF MUTTON. + +Wipe the leg with a damp towel. Dust a cloth with flour and wrap the +leg up with it. Put it into a kettle of boiling water and simmer +gently 20 minutes to every pound; add salt when the leg is nearly +done. When cooked remove the cloth carefully, garnish with parsley and +serve with caper sauce. Save the liquor in which it was boiled for +broth, stews, etc. + + +IRISH STEW. + + 3 lbs. of the neck of mutton. + 4 good sized onions. + 4 potatoes cut into dice. + 2 qts. of water. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Cut the meat into small pieces, cover with the water, which should be +boiling, add the onions sliced, and simmer gently for 3 hours. About +1/2 hour before the meat is done add the potatoes, season with pepper +and salt, and serve. + + +TO BAKE OR ROAST A QUARTER OF LAMB. + +Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, place in a baking pan, dredge with +pepper, put 1 tsp. of salt in the pan, add just enough water to keep +the pan from burning until enough of its own fat has fried out to use +for basting. Baste at least every 10 minutes; allow 15 minutes to +every pound in a very hot oven. Serve with mint sauce. + + +LAMB CHOPS + +Are broiled or pan-broiled the same as beefsteak. + + +VEAL--VEAL CUTLETS. + +Have the cutlets about 1/4 of an inch thick, dredge with salt, pepper +and flour. Put a tbsp. of dripping in a frying pan, and when very hot +put in the cutlets; when brown on one side turn and brown on the +other, take out and place on a hot dish. Add a tbsp. of flour to the +fat remaining in the pan, mix and stir until brown; add a cupful of +boiling water, pepper and salt to taste, stir until it boils, pour +over the cutlets, and serve. + + +STEWED KNUCKLE OF VEAL. + +Wipe the knuckle well with a damp cloth. Cut it into pieces. Put into +a kettle with 2 quarts of boiling water, add 1 onion chopped, 1/4 lb. +of chopped ham, and 1 bay leaf, pepper and salt to taste. Cover and +stew slowly for 2-1/2 hours (a half cup of rice may be added to this +stew). + + +JELLIED VEAL. + + 1 knuckle of veal. + 1 blade of mace. + 12 whole cloves. + 1/2 cup of vinegar. + 1 onion. + 1 bay leaf. + 6 pepper corns. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Wipe the knuckle and cut it into pieces. Put into a kettle with 2 +quarts of cold water; bring slowly to simmering point; skim and simmer +gently for 2 hours; then add the onion, mace, bay leaf, cloves, pepper +corns, and simmer 1 hour longer. Take out the knuckle, carefully +remove the bones and put the meat into a mould or square pan. Boil the +liquor until reduced to 1 quart, add the vinegar, pepper and salt to +taste, strain and pour over the meat. Stand away until cold, when it +may be turned out and garnished with parsley and lemon. + + +FILLET OF VEAL (STUFFED). + + 1 cup of bread crumbs. + 1 tsp. of summer savory. + 1 ssp. of pepper. + 1/2 cup of chopped salt pork or ham. + 1 tsp. of salt. + +Have the bone removed from the shoulder, fill the space from which the +bone was taken with the stuffing, fasten the meat together with a +skewer to prevent the stuffing from coming out, put into the pan with +3 or 4 tbsps. of dripping, allowing 20 minutes to each pound, basting +frequently in a moderately hot oven. + + +PORK AND BEANS. + +Soak the beans over night in cold water. In the morning wash them well +in a colander, put them on to boil in cold water, at the first boil +drain this water off and cover with fresh boiling water. Score the +rind of the pork and put it in with the beans. Simmer gently until you +can blow off the skin of the beans. To do this, take 3 or 4 beans in +your hand, blow hard on them, and if the skin cracks they are done. +Take out the pork and drain. Put the beans into an earthen pot or +granite kettle with a cover; almost bury the pork in the centre of the +beans. Add 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pint of the water in which the beans +were boiled, pour this into the pot, sprinkle with pepper, pour over +the beans 1 large spoonful of molasses, put on the lid, bake in a +moderate oven for 6 or 8 hours. If baked in an ordinary iron baking +pan they must be covered with another on which has been placed a +weight, carefully watched, and baked only 3 hours. + + +ROAST SPARE RIBS. + +Put the spare ribs in a baking pan, sprinkle lightly with pepper, add +1/2 tsp. of salt to 1/2 cup of boiling water, and pour in the bottom +of the pan. Roast 20 minutes to every lb., basting often. When done, +make a gravy and serve as for any other roast. (Spare ribs may be +stuffed, the ribs cracked crosswise, the stuffing placed in the +centre, the two ends folded over, roast as above.) + + +BROILED HAM. + +Have the ham cut into slices about 1/4 inch thick, trim off the rind +and rusty edge. Broil the same as steak or chops. (This is a very nice +way to serve ham with poached eggs.) + +Ham may be pan-broiled as directed in former recipes. + + +FRIED BACON. + +Cut into very thin slices, put into a very hot frying pan, and cook +until clear and crisp. + + +SAUSAGE. + +Prick the skins with a sharp fork so as to prevent bursting; place +them in a frying pan over a moderate fire and fry in their own fat +until a nice brown. After taking the sausage from the pan, add 1 tbsp. +of flour to the fat in the pan, add 1 cup of boiling water, stir until +it boils, pour over the sausage and serve. + + +LIVER AND BACON. + +Have the bacon cut in thin slices and keep it cold until the time to +cook it. Have the liver cut into slices about 1/3 of an inch thick. If +it be calf or sheep's liver, wash it in cold water and let it drain; +but if it be beef liver, after washing it, cover with boiling water +and let it stand for 5 minutes, then drain it. Cook the bacon as +directed, then take it up. Lay the slices of liver in the hot fat, +cook them for 8 or 10 minutes, turning often; season with pepper and +salt. Arrange the liver on a warm platter, make a gravy as directed in +other recipes, pour over the liver, placing the bacon round the +outside. (Always cook bacon quickly and liver slowly.) + + * * * * * + + +POULTRY. + +The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, smooth, +moist skin and plump breast; the cartilage on the end of the breast +bone is soft and pliable. Pin feathers always indicate a young bird +and long hairs an older one. All poultry should be dressed as soon as +killed. Cut off the head, and if the fowl is to be roasted, slip the +skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close to the body, +leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. Remove the windpipe, +pull the crop away from the skin on the neck and breast, and cut off +close to the opening in the body. Cut through the skin about 2 inches +below the leg joint, bend the leg at the cut by pressing it on the +edge of the table and break off the bone. Then pull out the tendon. If +care be taken to cut only through the skin, these cords may be pulled +out easily, one at a time, with the fingers; or by putting the foot of +the fowl against the casing of a door, then shut the door tightly and +pull on the leg. The drum stick of a roast chicken or turkey is +greatly improved by removing the tendons. Cut out the oil bag in the +tail, make an incision near the vent, insert two fingers, keeping the +fingers up close to the breast bone until you can reach in beyond the +liver and heart, and loosen on either side down toward the back. Draw +everything out carefully. See that the kidneys and lungs are not left +in, and be very careful not to break any of the intestines. When the +fowl has been cleaned carefully it will not require much washing. +Rinse out the inside quickly and wipe dry. In stuffing and trussing a +fowl, place the fowl in a bowl and put the stuffing in at the neck, +fill out the breast until plump. Then draw the neck skin together at +the ends and sew it over on the back. Put the remainder of the +stuffing into the body at the other opening and sew with coarse thread +or fine twine. Draw the thighs up close to the body and tie the legs +over the tail firmly with twine. Put a long skewer through the thigh +into the body and out through the opposite thigh, turn the tips of +the wings under the back of the fowl, put a long skewer through from +one wing to the other. Wind a string from the tail to the skewer in +the thigh, then up to the one in the wing across the back to the other +wing, then down to the opposite side and tie firmly round the tail. If +you have no skewers, the fowl may be kept in shape by tying carefully +with twine. Clean all the giblets, cut away all that looks green near +the gall bladder, open the gizzard and remove the inner lining without +breaking. Put the gizzard, heart, liver, and the piece of neck which +has been cut off, into cold water, wash carefully, put in a saucepan, +cover with cold water, place on the back of the stove and simmer till +tender. Use the liquid for making the gravy; the meat may be chopped +and used for giblet soup. + + +ROAST CHICKEN (OR TURKEY). + +Singe carefully, remove the pin feathers, draw as directed above. +Wipe, stuff, sew and tie or skewer into shape, dredge with flour, +cover with plenty of dripping; roast in a hot oven. When the flour is +brown check the heat, baste frequently with the fat, and when nearly +cooked dredge with pepper and salt and again with flour. Bake a 4 lb. +chicken 1-1/2 hour, or until the joints separate easily. If browning +too fast, cover with paper. (Roast chicken is considered to be more +wholesome and to have a better flavor when cooked without stuffing.) + + +FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN. + +The first attempt of an inexperienced cook in the preparation of a +chicken should be a fricassee, as it will provide an opportunity for +her to study the anatomy of a chicken while cutting it in pieces, and +also show her the position of the intestines, so that when she +attempts to draw a fowl she will know just where to place her hand so +as to remove them without breaking. + +To prepare a chicken for a fricassee, clean and singe. Cut the chicken +at the joints in pieces for serving. Place in a kettle, cover with +boiling water, add 2 level tsps. of salt, a ssp. of pepper (some like +a small piece of salt pork). Simmer until tender, reducing the water +to a pint or less, lift the chicken, melt 1 tbsp. of butter in a +saucepan, add 2 tbsps. of flour, and when well mixed pour on slowly +the chicken liquor. Add more salt if needed, pepper, 1/2 tsp. of +celery salt, 1 tsp. of lemon juice (an egg may be used by beating and +pouring the sauce slowly on the egg, stirring well before adding it to +the chicken). Pour this gravy over the chicken and serve; dumplings +may be added if desired, or it may be placed in a deep dish, covered +with pastry and baked for chicken pie. + +(The chicken may be browned in a little hot fat as in braising meat, +and cooked in the same way.) + + +BROILED CHICKEN. + +Singe and split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, clean +and wipe with a wet cloth, sprinkle with pepper and salt, rub well +with butter or dripping, place in a double grid-iron and broil 20 +minutes over a clear fire. The chicken may be covered with fine bread +crumbs or dredged with flour, allowing a plentiful supply of butter or +dripping, and baked in a hot oven 1/2 hour. + + +MEAT SOUFFLE. + +Make 1 cup of white sauce and season with chopped parsley and onion +juice. Stir 1 cup of chopped meat (chicken, tongue, veal or lamb) into +the sauce. When hot, add the beaten yolks of two eggs; cook 1 minute +and set away to cool. When cool, stir in the whites, beat very stiff. +Bake in a buttered dish about twenty minutes and serve immediately. + + +CROQUETTES. + +These may be made with any kind of cooked meat, fish, rice, potatoes, +etc., or from a mixture of several ingredients, when mixed with a +thick white sauce, as follows: 1 pint hot milk, 2 tbsps. butter or +beef dripping, 6 (l.) tbsps. flour, or 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch, 1/2 +tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. white pepper, 1/2 tsp. celery salt, a speck of +cayenne. Melt the butter or dripping in a saucepan, when hot add the +dry cornstarch or flour. Stir till well mixed. Add 1/3 of the hot milk +and stir as it boils and thickens, add the remainder of the hot milk +gradually. The sauce should be very thick. Add the seasoning, and mix +it while hot with the meat or fish. It is improved by adding a beaten +egg just before the sauce is taken from the fire. When cold, shape +into rolls or like a pear, roll lightly in beaten egg, then in bread +crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat. Drain on coarse brown paper. If the +mixture be too soft to handle easily stir in enough fine cracker or +soft bread crumbs to stiffen it, but never flour. + + * * * * * + + +HOT PUDDINGS. + + +APPLE PUDDING (BAKED). + + 1 pint flour. + 1/4 cup butter or dripping. + 1 cup milk. + 1 tsp. cream of tartar. + 3 tbsps. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 egg. + 1/2 tsp. soda sifted into the flour. + 6 tart apples. + +Mix the dry ingredients, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, stir +this into the dry mixture. Core, pare and cut the apples into quarters +(if large into eighths). Place in the bottom of a pudding dish, +sprinkle over them the sugar, a little nutmeg or cinnamon may be added +if desired. Put the mixture over this, lifting the apples with a fork +or spoon so as to let the mixture penetrate to the bottom of the pan. +Bake in a moderately hot oven about 30 minutes. Serve with lemon sauce +or thin custard. + + +COTTAGE PUDDING. + + 1/2 pint sifted flour. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1/4 tsp. salt. + 1 egg. + 1/2 cup milk. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 2 tsps. baking powder (level). + +Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, add the unbeaten egg, beat +vigorously for 3 or 4 minutes, add the salt, then the flour, with +which the baking powder should be mixed. Beat for a few seconds, then +turn the batter into a small, buttered pudding dish, bake about 25 +minutes in a moderate oven; serve with lemon sauce. + + +LEMON PUDDING. + + 4 level tbsps. granulated sugar. + 1 ssp. of salt. + 2 tbsps. milk. + The juice and grated rind of a small lemon. + 6 (l.) tsps. cornstarch. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/2 cup water. + 1 egg. + +Mix the cornstarch with 3 tbsps. cold water; put the remainder of the +water in the saucepan and set on to boil. Stir into this the mixed +cornstarch and cook until clear. Take from the fire, add the salt and +lemon, reserving 1/2 tsp. of the lemon. Beat the butter to a cream, +gradually beat into it the sugar, the yolk of the egg, lastly the +milk. Stir this mixture into the cooked ingredients, and bake in a +moderate oven for 20 minutes. Beat the white of the egg to a stiff +froth, beat into it 1 tbsp. of powdered sugar and the 1/2 tsp. of +lemon juice. Spread this over the hot pudding and leave in the oven +until slightly browned. (This pudding is better served very cold.) + + +BREAD PUDDING. + + 1 pint stale bread crumbs. + 1 quart of sugar. + 1 ssp. of nutmeg or cinnamon. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Soak the bread crumbs for 1 hour in 1 quart of milk. Beat the eggs, +add the sugar and seasoning, stir all into the bread crumbs, bake 1 +hour in a buttered pudding dish. (Raisins or currants may be added if +desired.) + +Another method for making bread pudding is to butter thin slices of +stale bread, spread with a little jam or sprinkle a few currants (well +washed) over each layer, lay them in a pudding dish, pour over a quart +of milk, to which has been added 3 well beaten eggs, 1/2 cup sugar. +Bake until the custard thickens. This pudding may be served either hot +or cold. + + +STEAMED APPLE PUDDING. + + 3 pints pared and quartered apples. + 1/2 pint flour. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/4 of a grated nutmeg. + 1/2 cup milk. + 1/2 pint water. + 1/4 tsp. salt. + 2 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + +Put the apples, water, sugar, and nutmeg into a porcelain or granite +saucepan and set on the fire. When the apples begin to boil, set back +where they will cook gently. Mix the flour, salt and baking powder +together. Rub the butter into this dry mixture, wet with the milk, +stir quickly into a soft dough. Press or roll the dough lightly into a +round piece about the size of the top of the saucepan. Lay this on the +apples; put on a close cover and continue cooking gently for 30 +minutes. The crust may be lifted to a plate for a moment, the apples +turned into a pudding dish, then placing the crust over the top. To be +served with lemon or nutmeg sauce. + + +BOILED RICE PUDDING. + + 1/2 cup rice. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 pint milk. + 1/2 cup raisins. + +Wash the rice well. Put it on the fire in 1 pint of cold water and let +it cook for 10 minutes. Drain off the water, add the salt and milk; +then cook in the double boiler for 2 hours, add the raisins when about +half cooked. Do not stir the rice while it is cooking. + + +BROWN BETTY. + +Pare, core and slice 6 or 7 tart apples. Put a layer of stale bread +crumbs in the bottom of the baking dish, then a layer of the apples, +another layer of bread crumbs and apples, and so on until all are +used, having the last layer crumbs. Add 1/2 cup of water to 1/2 cup +molasses, stir in 2 tbsps. of brown sugar; pour it over the crumbs and +bake in a moderate oven for 1 hour. + + +APPLE SNOW. + + 6 apples. + Juice of 1 lemon. + 1 cup white sugar. + Whites of 6 eggs. + +Pare, core and steam the apples until tender, then press them through +a sieve and put aside to cool; when cold add the sugar and lemon +juice. Beat the whites of the eggs to a very stiff froth, add the +apples to them by spoonfuls, beating all the while. Heap in a glass +dish and serve immediately. (This is a very delicate and wholesome +pudding for an invalid.) + + +SCALLOPED APPLES. + +Made the same as Brown Betty, omitting the molasses, adding water and +a little lemon juice instead. + + +SUET PUDDING. + + 1 cup suet. + 1 cup molasses. + 3 cups flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 cup raisins. + 1 cup milk. + 1 tsp. cinnamon. + 2 tsps. baking powder. + +Chop the suet very fine. Stone the raisins. Add the molasses to the +suet, then the milk: mix well and add the salt, flour and cinnamon. +Beat vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes, then add the raisins. Rub in the +flour, to which has been added the baking powder; mix thoroughly, turn +into a buttered mould, steam for 3 hours. + + +TAPIOCA PUDDING. + + 1 cup tapioca. + 4 eggs. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 quart milk. + 1/4 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. vanilla. + +Wash the tapioca carefully, then add it to the milk and soak 2 hours. +Beat the eggs and sugar together, add the salt, stir into the tapioca +and milk, and bake in a moderate oven at least 3/4 of an hour. Serve +hot or cold. + + +CHOCOLATE PUDDING. + + 1 egg. + 2 tbsps. cornstarch. + 3 tbsps. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + 1 pint milk. + 1 tbsp. boiling water. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 oz. shaved chocolate. + +Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder on the fire in a double +boiler. Mix the cold milk with the cornstarch and salt. Beat the egg +well and add to the cornstarch mixture. Stir this into the boiling +milk and stir well. Put the chocolate, sugar and boiling water into a +small frying pan or saucepan, and set over a hot fire. Stir until the +mixture is smooth and glossy; beat this into the pudding and cook for +2 minutes longer. Take from the fire and add the vanilla. Dip a mould +into cold water and turn the pudding into it. Set away to cool. When +cold and stiff, turn out on a flat dish and surround with whipped +cream; or serve with cream and sugar or a soft custard. + + +SNOW PUDDING. + + 1/4 box gelatine. + 1 cup boiling water. + 1 cup sugar. + 2 tbsps. cold water. + Juice of one lemon. + Whites of 2 eggs. + +Soak the gelatine in cold water for 2 hours. Pour upon this the +boiling water and stir until the gelatine is dissolved; then add the +sugar and lemon juice, stirring until the sugar is dissolved. Set the +bowl in a pan of cold water, or broken ice. Stir frequently; when it +begins to thicken, stir in the beaten whites of the eggs, pour into a +mould and set away until firm. Serve with boiled custard. + + +CREAM PIE. + +Make a plain cup cake, and bake it in a shallow cake pan. When cooked +and cold, split it carefully. Put 1 pint of milk on to boil in a +farina boiler. Beat the yolks of 3 eggs and 1/2 cup of sugar together +until light, then add the well-beaten whites, and stir them into the +boiling milk; stir over the fire for about 1 minute, then take from +the fire, add 1 tsp. of vanilla, and stand away to cool. When cold, +and ready to serve, put a thick layer of this sauce between the layers +of cake, pour the remaining sauce around the pie, and serve +immediately. + + +BLANC MANGE. + + 1 pint milk. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch. + 1/2 ssp. salt. + +Put the milk on to boil. Moisten the cornstarch with a little cold +milk, then add it to the boiling milk, and stir until it thickens; let +it cook slowly for 5 minutes; add the sugar and salt, take from the +fire, pour into a mould and set away to harden. + + +STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE. + + 1 pint flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 3 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 1 oz. butter. + 1 cup milk. + +Mix the salt, flour and butter together. Sift, then add the baking +powder and sift again. Add the liquid gradually, mixing and cutting +with a knife until the dough is light and spongy; turn it out on a +well floured board, pat into a flat cake and roll gently till 1/2 an +inch thick. Bake in a spider or pie plate in a rather hot oven. Split +and spread with sweetened berries and serve either hot or cold. + + * * * * * + + +PUDDING SAUCES. + + +PLAIN SAUCE. + + 1 cup water. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg. + 3 tbsps. sugar. + 2 tsps. flour or cornstarch. + +Melt the butter and flour together, stir in the hot water, add the +sugar and flavoring, cook until smooth and clear. + + +MOLASSES SAUCE. + + 1/2 cup molasses. + 1/2 cup water or 1/2 tbsp. vinegar. + 2 (l.) tsps. flour. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 tbsp. lemon juice. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/2 ssp. salt. + +Mix the flour and sugar together. Pour the boiling water upon it. Add +the molasses and place on the range. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the +other ingredients; boil up once and serve. (Omit lemon if vinegar is +used.) + + +CREAM SAUCE. + + 1 egg. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1 tsp. cornstarch. + 1/2 cup powdered sugar. + 1 tsp. vanilla. + 1 cup boiling milk. + +Beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth; then gradually beat into +it the powdered sugar and cornstarch. Next add the yolk of the egg and +beat well. Pour upon this the cupful of boiling milk and place on the +fire. Stir until it boils, then add the butter and vanilla. + + +LEMON SAUCE. + + 1 tbsp. cornstarch. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 pint boiling water. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1 egg. + 1 lemon. + +Beat the egg, add the cornstarch and sugar, stir them well together; +add the boiling water gradually and stir over the fire until thick; +add the butter, juice and grated rind of one lemon. Serve hot. + + +VANILLA SAUCE. + + 1 cup milk. + 2 (l.) tbsps. sugar. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + +Put the milk on to boil, beat the yolks and sugar till very light; add +them to the boiling milk; stir over the fire until creamy. Have the +whites beaten, pour over them the boiling mixture; beat thoroughly and +serve at once. + + * * * * * + + +CAKE. + +There are practically two kinds of cake, that made with butter, and +cake made without butter. When these two methods are understood, cake +making becomes easy. A few simple rules must govern all cake making. + +1st. Regulate the heat. Cakes without butter require a quick oven; +with butter, a moderate oven. 2nd. Beat whites and yolks separately. +3rd. Beat butter and sugar to a cream. 4th. Add the whites last. 5th. +Currants should be cleaned, washed and dried and floured (to which +flour some of the baking powder should be added). 6th. Add the milk or +water gradually. 7th. Sift the flour before measuring. 8th. 2 level +tsps. of baking powder are equal to 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of +tartar. 9th. When looking at a cake while baking, do it quickly and +without jarring the stove. 10th. To find out if it is baked, run a +broom straw through the centre, if no dough adheres the cake is done. +11th. If browning too quickly, cover with brown paper and reduce the +heat gradually. This is usually necessary in baking fruit cake. 12th. +Mix cake in an earthen bowl, never in tin. 13th. Soda, cream of +tartar, and baking powder should be crushed and sifted with the flour. +Always attend to the fire before beginning to make cake. Coarse +granulated sugar makes a coarse, heavy cake. If cake browns before +rising the oven is too hot. When it rises in the centre and cracks +open it is too stiff with flour. It should rise first round the edge, +then in the middle and remain level. + + +GINGERBREAD. + + 1 cup molasses. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1 tsp. ginger. + 1 pint flour. + 1/2 cup sour milk. + 1 tsp. soda. + 1 egg. + +Put the molasses and butter in a pan and set on the stove. When the +mixture boils up add the soda and ginger, and take from the fire +immediately. Add the milk, the well-beaten egg and the flour, beat +well. Bake in a shallow cake pan in a rather quick oven for 20 +minutes. + + +SPICE CAKE. + + 1/4 cup butter. + 1/2 cup molasses. + 1/2 cup sour milk. + 1/2 ssp. salt. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + The juice and rind of 1/2 lemon. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 2-1/2 cups flour. + 1/2 tsp. ginger. + 1 tsp. cinnamon. + 1/4 nutmeg, grated. + 1 egg. + +Beat the butter to a cream. Gradually beat into it the sugar, then the +spice and lemon, next the molasses. Now dissolve the soda in one tbsp. +cold water and stir it into the sour milk; add this, and the egg well +beaten, to the other ingredients. Lastly add the flour, and beat +briskly for 1/2 minute. Pour into a well buttered pan and bake in a +moderate oven for about 50 minutes. + + +SPONGE CAKE. + + 3 eggs. + 2/3 cup flour. + 2/3 cup pulverized sugar. + The grated rind and juice of 1/2 lemon. + +Beat the yolks of the eggs and sugar until very light, now add the +juice and rind of the lemon and half the flour; beat the whites to a +very stiff froth, add the remainder of the flour and the whites +alternately, stirring lightly, pour into a greased cake pan. Bake in a +quick oven from 25 to 30 minutes. + + +ROLL JELLY CAKE. + + 2 eggs. + 1 cup sugar. + 1-1/2 cup flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 cup sweet milk. + 3 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + +Beat the eggs separately till very light, then beat them together, add +the sugar, then the milk gradually, then the flour in which the salt +and baking powder have been mixed. Spread very thin on long shallow +pans. Spread with jelly while warm and roll up. + + +SEED CAKE. + + 1 cup butter. + 1 cup milk. + 2 tsps. caraway seeds. + 3 tsps. baking powder. + 1-1/2 cup sugar. + 3 eggs. + 3 cups flour. + +Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of the eggs, +then the seeds; sift the baking powder with the flour; add the flour +and milk alternately a little at a time, lastly the whites which have +been beaten stiff and dry; bake from 40 to 50 minutes. + + +COOKIES (PLAIN). + + 1/2 cup butter. + 1/4 cup milk. + 2 even tsps. baking powder. + 1 cup sugar. + 1 egg. + Flour to roll out thin. + +Cream the butter, add the sugar, milk, egg beaten lightly, and the +baking powder mixed with two cups of flour, then enough more flour to +roll out. Roll a little at a time. Cut out. Bake about 10 minutes. + + +LAYER CAKE. + + 1/2 cup butter. + 1 cup sugar. + 2-1/2 cups flour. + 3 eggs. + 2/3 cup milk. + 4 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + +Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, then add the yolks of the eggs +gradually; then the flour and milk alternately (sifting the baking +powder with the flour), add the well-beaten whites last. Bake in 3 +tins in a moderate oven about 15 minutes. (Flavoring has been omitted +in this recipe as the cake is more delicate by allowing the filling to +provide the flavor.) + + +PLAIN FRUIT CAKE. + + 3 eggs. + 1 cup milk. + 1 oz. candied lemon. + 4 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 2/3 cup butter. + 3 (l.) cups flour. + 1 cup raisins. + +Mix as directed in preceding recipe, only mixing the fruit with the +flour and baking powder. + + +ICING. + + Whites of 2 eggs. + 1/2 lb. powdered sugar. + 1 tsp. of lemon juice. + +Have the material very cold. Break the eggs carefully, beat the whites +until frothy (not stiff); sift the sugar in gradually, beating all the +while; add the lemon juice and continue beating until fine and white, +and stiff enough to stand alone. Keep in a cool place, when using, +spread with a knife dipped in cold water. If used for ornamenting +press through a tube. It may be divided and different colorings added. + + +BOILED ICING. + + 1 cup granulated sugar. + 1/3 cup boiling water. + 1/4 tsp. cream of tartar. + White of 1 egg. + +Boil the sugar and water together until it hangs from the spoon. Beat +the egg to a stiff froth, add the cream of tartar, then pour on the +syrup, beating all the while. Beat until cold and thick. + + * * * * * + + +PASTRY. + +Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it +should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many +food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost +of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary +place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a +popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is +more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light +crust. In order to secure satisfactory results in pastry +making--especially puff pastry--three things should be observed: (1) +have all the materials cold; (2) use as little liquid as possible; (3) +handle lightly and quickly. Pastry should be very cold when it is put +into the oven. Have the oven very hot. + + +PUFF PASTE. + + 1 lb. flour. + 1 lb. butter. + Enough ice water to make into a very stiff dough. + +If the butter is salty, wash it as follows: Scald a large bowl, then +fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse +them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to +the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice +water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and +elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard. +Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife +or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water +until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or +marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until about 1/4 inch +thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over +this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times. +If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold +plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so +as to keep it in layers--even when cutting off the roll keep the +layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For +patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided +it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin +as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a +cover for chicken pie. + + +PLAIN PASTRY. + + 2 cups flour. + 1 cup butter or lard. + +Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water +to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place +for at least 1/2 hour before baking. + + +PASTE FOR MEAT PIES, ETC. + + 1 pint flour. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + 1 tsp. cream tartar + Or 2 level tsps. baking powder. + 1 egg. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. cream tartar. + 1/4 cup butter or dripping. + 1 cup milk. + +Mix as for biscuit or shortcake. + + * * * * * + + +MISCELLANEOUS. + + +SHEPHERD'S PIE. + +Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1 +cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock +thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut the meat in small pieces and put +in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over +the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and +milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and +bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown. + + +BEEF STEW. + +Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove +all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about +1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry. +When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2 +small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the +fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add +the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and +pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water +and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer +until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil +more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for +dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely +and cook just 10 minutes. + + +STUFFED TOMATOES. + +Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2 +tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread +crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from +the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the +pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp +and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes with this +mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the +tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley, +and serve. + + +STEWED KIDNEYS. + +Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and +let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a +saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion +juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the +frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and +smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer +1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and +pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be +prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is +prepared. + + +CREAMED EGGS. + +Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of +toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then +part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the +yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat +this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for +about 3 minutes, then serve. + + +BUTTERED TOAST. + +Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to +draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a +plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving. + + +CROUTONS (FOR SOUP). + +Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into +1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to +brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt. + + +FRENCH TOAST. + + 1 egg. + 1 cup milk. + 1 ssp. salt. + 4 to 6 slices of stale bread. + +Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and +milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well +buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a +little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the +other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar. + + +SANDWICHES. + +Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the +fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon +juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter +creamed. Cut bread--at least 1 day old--in very thin slices, spread +with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices +together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches +may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little +of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.) + + * * * * * + + +A FEW GENERAL HINTS. + + +HOW TO BLANCH ALMONDS. + +Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in +the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub +between the hands. + + +TO CLEAN CURRANTS. + +Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the +flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer +and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well +in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and +dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover +closely, and they are ready for use at any time. + + +SERVING FOOD. + +Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be +served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced +lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the +attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons +should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets, +carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with +a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast +cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes. + +Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light +puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to +vary the decoration. + + +CANNING AND PRESERVING. + +Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any +fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general +rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good +fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars--test by filling with +water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and +are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so +that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into +them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer +for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit +slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up +with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to +cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of +water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking. +Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency, +screw on the top loosely--so as to allow the gas to escape--and place +in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the +jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10 +minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils. +Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at +once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by +cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made +by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order +to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water +on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit, +or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the +syrup, fruit or jelly. Always see that the tops are screwed on +tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not +be done until the fruit has become cold. + + +PRESERVING. + +Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise +the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights +of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes. + + +JELLIES. + +Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar. +Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for +jelly. Cook the fruit--currants may be mashed and drained without +cooking--until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the +morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar +in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent +burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and +boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a +spoon. + + * * * * * + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS. + +Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion +of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the +proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats. +Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and +money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh +fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious, +economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of +food--different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry--cooked in various +ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially +pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to +use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled) +is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over +exertion of any kind. + +See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn +before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for +porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before +using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the +water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have +it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish +cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish +cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to +dry--if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for +glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for +kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid +burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of +boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day. + +All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept +scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special +attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept +thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the +end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not +have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots +and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be +filled with cold water if not washed immediately after using. Never +put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the +handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all +refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse +pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of +carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put +pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it +only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more +difficult to clean. + + +DISH WASHING. + +Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of +the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of +china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of +housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to +know how everything pertaining to household management should be done, +and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others. + +One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules +may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives, +forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and +arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never +pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires +separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with +soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the +glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways +so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once, which +will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much +brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut, +use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry +such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing, +and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and +the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have +contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver +and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in +the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often, +especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the +water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the +kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on +the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with +bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold +in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any +circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash +the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish +towels, dish cloth and dish pan. + +Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and +scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place +them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor +of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become +rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours, +then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub +the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits +of turpentine. + + +VENTILATION AND SANITATION. + +As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that +one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family +supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few +housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the +general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book +prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of +the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the +rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1. +See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either +natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry. +Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air, +and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly +cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if +possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4. +Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause +unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a +special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper +temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the +housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation +of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be +neglected. + +One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of +ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an +abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts, +either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and +odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of +the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the +cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be +thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few +inches at the bottom, or--as in some double or outside windows--by a +little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air +in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling, +which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for +foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air. + +If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open +a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window +will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a +draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room +quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more +desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the +sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two +chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of +fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in +a bedroom more than twenty-four hours. + +When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during +the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the +bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as +to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of +the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been +occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and +bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which +has been occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should +be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to +prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the +night. + +Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to +prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the +house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near +the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a +draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the +purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen +chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are +placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very +cold weather. + + +LAUNDRY WORK. + +As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water, +a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure +water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great +absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found. +The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air; +among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and +creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain +water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water +absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking +into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other +compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these +substances, forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such +water is known as "hard." + +Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according +to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to +hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the +fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface +of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why +"hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much +better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or +sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely +upon soap for cleansing. + +Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing +soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have +a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything +stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly +than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised. +Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and +added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too +frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual +cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia +or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in +removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing +silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot +water. + +_Removing Stains._--All spots and stains should be taken out before +the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap. +Fruit stains are the most frequent and the most indelible, when +neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by +boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour +boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are +allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a +bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains +should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk +may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains +usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform. + +Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will +resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin, +besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water. +Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains, +although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in +cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is +Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is +composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2 +quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as +they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and +bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions +to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted +woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white +tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with +a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the +nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear +water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid +water; hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less +soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used. +Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood +is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to +soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water--2 +tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If +applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out. + +The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where +colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of +soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some +hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green +color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water. +Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered. +Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of +chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth +be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches +the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but +success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils +may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha, +chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot +alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the +point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene +before water and soap touch them. + +Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored +fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated +with oxalic, muriatic or hot tartaric acid, applied in the same +manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for +some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some +will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with +acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch +the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in +one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will +furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a +little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower +the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears. +Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia +water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric +protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight +stain. + +Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron +rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the +result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been +imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes +thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt, +and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is +unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in +the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year +is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of +blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of +the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching, +for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer. +When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available, use a bleaching +powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can +in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the +acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot +water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot +water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled +portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll +the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover +the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed, +and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are +unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long +soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric. + +Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the +materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional +disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to +be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes. +This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the +deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of +the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed. +The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little +or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and +remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot +than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete +removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful +of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a +bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling water over the +clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because +the temperature is so quickly lowered. + +The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of +all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of +alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while +the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali +may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and +disinfectant. + + +WASHING OF WOOLLENS. + +All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different +waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be +borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form +of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good +white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make +each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at +the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the +original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference +to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on +account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be +used to make the water very soft. + +Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly +brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen +fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool +should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through a +wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become +twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the +article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the +whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly +before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze, +for the teeth become knotted and hard. + + +COLORED COTTONS. + +Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt +will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each +washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time +renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after +the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a +matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware. +The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth +of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried +thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly +wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water +and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the +disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place. +Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just +enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap. + +Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if +kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the +bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer +may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and a +few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the +kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease, +lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial +action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire +house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health. + +All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed +generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The +kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning +with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly +flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for +cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator. + + * * * * * + + +CARING FOR INVALIDS. + +One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the +ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not +vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut +flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to +avoid a draft--especially when airing the room. If the room is too +small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to +raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this +put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain +until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn +the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of +either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but +injurious. + +One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect +cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient. +Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom +with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and +prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire +by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire. +Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is +whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not +consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome +varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders +concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or +cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and +a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most +objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow +fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick +room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a +sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as +the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion. + +One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough +knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best +methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them +to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has +been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is +necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the +hunger--neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come +under the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the +other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued +illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to +supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated +form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes +it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate +digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not +only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either +lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing. +Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly, +albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together), +and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry +toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence, +any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich +puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided. + +People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily +digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon +and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals, +and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or +milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of +gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for +invalids. + + +BEVERAGES. + +_Barley Water._--Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold +water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of +water, and allow it to boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain +and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be +added while boiling if desired. + +_Apple Water._--Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a +bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to +taste; serve when cold. + +_Flax Seed Tea._--One-half cupful of flax seed--which has been +carefully washed in cold water--to 1 quart of boiling water; boil +slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to +remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon +juice and sugar. + +_Lemonade._--Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the +lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or +cold as required. + +_Orange Water._--Made the same as lemonade. + + +MEAT EXTRACTIVES. + +_Beef Juice_ is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through, +then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice +is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little +salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry +toast. + +_Beef Tea._--Cut juicy pieces of steak--the round steak is the +best--into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to +160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press, +strain, and flavor with salt and pepper. + +_Beef Tea_ (_No. 2_).--Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass +fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour, +stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of +water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point. +Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the +jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer; +allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with +the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef +stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.) + +_Beef Essence._--(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of +finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of +soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60 +grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool +place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat +slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces +of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It +should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred +warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel +placed in hot water. + +_Chicken Broth._--Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the +chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a +fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or +crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the +skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the +meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer +till the meat is tender. A few minutes before removing from the fire +add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain, +and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary +quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg. +Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine +cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may +be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient +can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and +moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared +with the egg. + +_Mutton Broth._--Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour +over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very +red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain, +season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may +be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with +cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is +not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed +by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by +passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken +off with a spoon. + +_Oatmeal Gruel._--To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of +oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without +milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir +well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan. +Then boil the water. + +_Egg Soup._--Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double +boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain through a sieve and add 1/2 pint +of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir +gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste, +and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used. + +_Albumen and Milk._--Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk. +Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well +for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A +pinch of salt may be added if desired. + +_Egg-Nog._--Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, +and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2 +teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk +of the egg makes it more palatable. + +_Orange Soup._--Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind, +and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the +liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two +level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold +water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the +boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and +stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used +for this soup.) + +_Arrowroot Gruel._--Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a +little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds; +take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of +lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until +very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint +of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.) + +_Rice Water or Jelly._--Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls +of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and +sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into +a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink, +add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little +stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot +or cold. + +_Stewed Figs._--Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold +water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point, +and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until +the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down +the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve +cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them. + +_Jellied Chicken._--Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint +it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4 +inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then +put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being +careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the +chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the +meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin +and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or +mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the +meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the +chicken when cooking.) + +_Raw Meat Sandwiches._--Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped +very fine and rubbed through a hair sieve or scraped from a slice of +steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of +sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of +brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be +added if the flavor is liked.) + +_Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc._ (See +recipes in preceding chapters.) + + * * * * * + + +A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN. + +"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school +children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in +boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is +from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are +undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the +body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands, +therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food +must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to +yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food +should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of +formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of +dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later +life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in +circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the +accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits, +which are often a serious obstacle to normal development. + +"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by +the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anĉmia and chlorosis, +which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a +faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to +consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical +constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember +that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the +period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the +individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage +success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than +success in mental attainments." (Thompson.) + +An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which +becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from +carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of +habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals +should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before +each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably +without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be +required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to +hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or +game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after +meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at +food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite, +increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion. + +The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for +the reason given in the preceding sentence and for its effect upon +the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the +public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more +often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate +children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as +for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the +following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece +of whole wheat bread and butter should be given--if they +awaken--during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor, +and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be +given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and +butter, between meals. + +These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two +years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes +two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth +must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of +vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made +tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable +appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and +vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill +attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating +indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking +for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain +them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome +foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it. + + * * * * * + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET. + +If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any +task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not +expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the +child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a +roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the +first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of +wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and +butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the +day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some +form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted, +should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as +pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a +porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice, +tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of +preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good +bowl of nutritious broth--or soup--with bread or crackers, may be +substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found +best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this +case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass +of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five. + +Some of the more important articles of school diet require special +mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical +Dietetics may prove helpful:-- + +_Bread._--"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must +not be too coarse. The advantage of this bread for children consists +in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than +is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served +with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children +need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are +very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however, +when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them." + +_Milk._--"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of +puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children +should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass +of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking. +Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a +dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of +milk.'" + +_Meat._--"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may +sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are +supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly +growing children." + +_Sweets._--"The greater number of children have a natural craving for +sweets." + +The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption +of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The +craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true +indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be +admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most +children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main +difficulty with such forms of sugar, however, is that children are +not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and +the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming +very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy, +which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much, +with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing +the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely +excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to +develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years. +(Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.) + +_Exercise._--As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children +disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when +taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the +romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often, +though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of +exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic +attack. + +Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is +the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated +appetites. + + * * * * * + + +INFANTS' DIET. + +One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science +course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject +requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies +the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the +foundation upon which the future physical structure is built. + +It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and +attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids, +have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more +than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the +following suggestions may prove helpful. + +The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and +quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as +well as the comfort of the household. + +Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least, +seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to +assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the +child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's +supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's +milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than +human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline, +this must be corrected by the use of lime water. + +There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk, +therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following +proportions have been submitted as a digestible form of preparing +cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):-- + + Cream, 2 tbsps. + Milk, 1 tbsp. + Lime water, 2 tbsps. + Milk-sugar water, 3 tbsps. + +One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day, +and once or twice at night. + +After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to +one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be +given at once. + +The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water +and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should +be:-- + + 3 tbsps. milk. + 1 tbsp. cream. + 1 tbsp. lime water. + 3 tbsps. sugar water. + +When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be +increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding. + + +BARLEY WATER. + + 2 tbsps. pearl barley. + 1 pt. boiling water. + +Wash the barley carefully. Pour over it the boiling water. Let it +simmer for two hours. Strain and sweeten with a pinch of sugar of +milk. + + +MILK-SUGAR WATER. + + 1/2 oz. sugar of milk. + 1/2 pt. boiling water. + +Dissolve, and keep closely covered. It will not keep long, so should +be made when required to use. + + +LIME WATER. + +Take a lump of lime weighing about one ounce. Put in a bottle with a +quart of cold water (which has been boiled). Shake the bottle well +until the lime is dissolved, and let it stand for 12 hours. Pour the +clear liquid into another bottle, being careful not to disturb the +sediment. Keep carefully corked. Water will only absorb a certain +quantity of lime, so there is no danger of its being too strong. + +As cow's milk is more difficult to digest than mother's milk, it is +sometimes necessary to substitute barley water in place of the lime +water and milk, using the same amount of cream as given in recipe. + + +MALTED FOOD. + + 2 oz. wheat flour or barley meal. + 1-3/4 qts. water. + 1 tsp. extract of malt. + +Mix the flour to a paste with a little water, gradually add a quart of +the water; put it in a double boiler and boil 10 minutes. Dissolve the +malt extract in 4 tbsps. of the water (cold). Lift out the inner +vessel and add the malt and remainder of the cold water. Let it stand +15 minutes, replace, and boil again for 15 minutes. Strain through a +wire gauze strainer. (Half this quantity may be made.) + +This preparation is used when both barley water and lime-water +disagree. It must always be given with milk. It prevents the large +tough curds forming, which is such an objectionable feature in using +cow's milk. + + +PEPTONIZED MILK. + +In cases of especially weak digestion it may be necessary to peptonize +the milk, which may be done as follows: Add 5 grains of extract of +pancreas and 15 grains of baking soda to 1 pint of milk. (Tablets of +pancreatin and soda may be used.) + +After adding the peptonizing material put the milk in a double boiler +or in a vessel which may be set in a larger one, holding water, as hot +as the hand can bear being dipped into quickly, or about 115° Fah. +Leave the milk in the hot water about 20 minutes, then place on the +ice. If heated too long the milk will taste bitter. + +The preparation given in recipe No. 1, or with the barley water added, +may be peptonized. + + +STERILIZED OR PASTEURIZED MILK. + +(_See Milk, Chapter V._) + +Put the amount of milk required for a meal into pint or half pint +bottles, allowing for the number of times the child is to be fed in 24 +hours. Use cotton batting as a stopper. Place a wire frame, or invert +a perforated tin pie plate, in the bottom of a saucepan; stand the +bottles on this, pour around them enough water to come well above the +milk, cover the saucepan or kettle, and when the water boils lift the +saucepan from the fire and allow the bottles to remain in the hot +water for 1 hour. Keep in the ice box or stand them in cold water +until needed. If milk is to be used during a long journey it will be +necessary to repeat the above operation three times, letting the milk +cool between each time. + +Unless the milk is perfectly fresh, and has been handled with great +care, it is safer to sterilize or pasteurize it. The former, if any +doubt is entertained as to the quality of the milk, the latter in +every case. + + +TEMPERATURE OF FOOD. + +Food should be "milk warm," or about 99° Fah., when given to a baby. +Hot food is very injurious. + + +NURSING BOTTLES AND FEEDING. + +Have two plain bottles with rubber tops, _without tubes_. Bottles with +ounces and tablespoonfuls marked on them can be purchased, and are a +great convenience in measuring the amount of food required. + +After using the bottle, empty the remaining milk; rinse in cold water, +then in _scalding water_. + +If particles of milk adhere to the bottle use coarse salt or raw +potato cut in small pieces. If the glass looks cloudy, add a little +ammonia to the water. Turn the rubber tops inside out and scrub with a +stiff brush; boil them every alternate day for 10 minutes. + +_Absolute cleanliness is a necessity_ in the care of a baby's food, +bottles and rubber tops. + +The bottle should be held, while the baby is feeding, in such a +position that the top is full of milk. If air is sucked in with the +milk stomach-ache will likely result. + +Starchy food should not be given to a child until it is able to +masticate. (See digestion of starch, Chap. VIII.) + +Arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, etc., _must not be given to infants_. + + +FLOUR BALL. + +Put a bowlful of flour into a strong cloth, tie it up like a pudding, +and place it in a kettle of boiling water. Boil for 10 or 12 hours. +When boiled turn it out of the cloth and cut away the soft outside +coating. When cool, grate the hard inside portion and use a +teaspoonful at each feeding, for a baby 8 months old, increasing the +amount for an older child. This may be prepared in the same manner as +cornstarch or flour. The long boiling converts the starch into +dextrine, which is more easily digested than starch. This is +especially valuable in cases of diarrhoea, and may be used instead +of barley gruel as a food. + + +OATMEAL GRUEL. + +Pound a cupful of oatmeal in a pestle or on a bread board. Put in a +bowl and pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Stir it up, then let the +mixture settle for a few minutes. Pour off the milky fluid, repeat +this process. Boil this water for an hour, adding a pinch of salt, and +use it to dilute the milk instead of water. + +A thicker gruel may be made from oatmeal by allowing 1 tablespoonful +to a cup of boiling water. Let it boil 1 hour, then strain through a +wire strainer. + + +FARINA GRUEL. + + 1 tbsp. farina. + 2 cups boiling water. + A spk. of salt. + +Cook for 20 minutes; use as directed for oatmeal. + + +BEEF JUICE. + +(_See page 145._) + +_Beef juice_ is sometimes ordered for delicate babies. For a child 9 +months old, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls may be given once a day. + + +ALBUMINIZED FOOD. + +When milk cannot be taken, albuminized food proves an excellent +substitute. + +Shake the white of 1 egg with 1/2 a pint of water (filtered or boiled +and cooled) in a glass jar until they are thoroughly mixed. Add a few +grains of salt. + +Children do not require a great variety in their food. Give one +article of diet at a time and see how it agrees before trying another. + +After a child is a year old the various cereals may be given as +porridge instead of gruel, with the addition of a little sugar. + +Remember, all cereals should be thoroughly cooked (see page 83). + + +BISCUITS. + +Gluten, soda, oatmeal or Graham biscuits may be soaked in milk or +given alone. Do not give the fancy or sweet biscuits to young +children. + + +EGGS. + +A properly boiled egg (see page 69) may be given every alternate day +to a child 1 year old. + + +JUNKET. + +Junket is much better for young children than custards or puddings, +and sometimes agrees well with babies. + +Take 1 pint of milk, heat it to 98° Fah., or milk warm. Add 1 +teaspoonful of rennet and 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Stir all together +and let it stand in a warm place until it becomes as thick as jelly. +Remove at once to a cool place or whey will appear. + + +BAKED POTATOES. + +Potatoes should not be given to a child under 2 years old in any other +form than baked. The potash salts are the most valuable constituent, +and are lost when they are peeled and boiled. They should be dry and +mealy. A little salt, butter or cream should be added. + + +MACARONI. + +(_See page 85._) + +Macaroni is an excellent food for young children. + + +FRUIT. + +Baked apples and the juice of an orange are the only fruits which +should be given to children under two years of age. + + +RICE. + +Rice is an excellent food for young children, but not for infants. + + +VENTILATION. + +Foul air is injurious to grown persons, but it is infinitely more +dangerous to the sensitive organization of a child. Therefore special +attention should be given to the ventilation of rooms occupied by a +baby (see page 132). + +Fresh air, wholesome food, regular bathing, and plenty of sleep will +insure the normal growth of the average baby, and are within reach of +every one who has the care of young children. + +The writer is indebted to Miss Scovil, Superintendent of Newport +Hospital, and one of the associate editors of the _Ladies' Home +Journal_, for many of the above hints concerning the diet of infants. + + +EMERGENCIES. + +As frequent accidents occur during the performance of household +duties, a few suggestions as to how slight injuries should be treated +may prove useful to the young housekeeper. + +_Cuts._--A cut should be washed with cold water, covered with a small +pad of cotton, bound up, and left alone. Should matter form, the +bandage must be taken off, the wound bathed with carbolized water, +1-80, and a little carbolized vaseline spread on a bit of linen and +laid over it. The washing and dressing should be repeated two or three +times a day if there is much discharge. + +_Bruises._--A flannel wrung out of very hot water, and laid on a +bruise, relieves the soreness. + +For bruises on the face, apply ice. Brown paper wet in vinegar is an +old-fashioned remedy. If the skin is broken, treat as a wound, with +carbolized water and carbolized vaseline. + +_Sprains._--Both hot and cold treatment is recommended. Immerse the +joint in water as hot as can be borne. Keep up the temperature by +gradually adding more hot water. Let it soak for an hour or more. Then +wrap in warm flannel, and surround with hot water bags or bottles. + +_Stings._--Bathe the part in ammonia, or baking soda and water; wet a +cloth in the same, and bind over it. + +_Burns._--The best household remedies for burns are baking soda and +carbolized vaseline. For slight burns mix the soda to a paste with +water, and spread thickly over the part; cover with linen or old +cotton. This may be kept wet by squeezing water over it. If shreds of +clothing adhere to a burn, they should be soaked with oil, and not +pulled off until softened. If the skin is gone, spread carbolized +vaseline on linen, and bind on the part until the doctor arrives. + +In burns caused by acids, water should not be applied to the parts. +Cover with dry baking soda. + +If caused by an alkali, such as lye, ammonia, or quick-lime, use an +acid, as vinegar or lemon juice, diluted. + +_Poisoning._--For poison ivy, saturate a cloth in a solution of baking +soda, or ammonia and water, and lay over the part. + +When poison has been swallowed, the first thing to do is to get it out +of the stomach. Secondly, to prevent what remains from doing more +mischief. Give an emetic at once. One tbsp. of salt in a glass of +_tepid_ water; 1 tsp. of mustard, or 1 tsp. of powdered alum in a +glass of tepid water. A tsp. of wine of ipecac, followed by warm +water. Repeat any of these three or four times if necessary. The +quantities given are for children; larger doses may be given to +adults. It is well to give a dose of castor oil after the danger is +over, to carry off any remnants of the poison that may have lodged in +the intestines. + +After a poison has burned the mouth and throat, plenty of milk may be +given, also flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch gruel. + +For drowning and other serious accidents, see Public School +Physiology. + + +FURNISHING A CLASS-ROOM. + +The furnishing of a class-room should be so complete that each pupil +should be able to attend to the appointed task without delay. The +furniture should consist of a stove, or range, gas stove if more +convenient, a hot water tank or boiler, sink, table (side), towel +rack, 2 dozen chairs, or seats with tablet arms, a cupboard or kitchen +"dresser" for table ware, a large cupboard or arrangement for lockers, +in which caps, aprons, etc., should be kept, a large table--horseshoe +shape is the most satisfactory--with drawers, and space for rolling +pin, bread board, etc., underneath. The table should be large enough +to allow at least 2 ft. 6 in. for each pupil. Twenty pupils is the +limit of a practice class. On the table should be placed at regular +intervals, 10 gas burners with frame. The teacher's table should stand +in the opening at the end of the table so that she may see each pupil +while at work, and when demonstrating may be seen by each pupil. + +The following list of utensils will be found sufficient for practice +work for a class of 20 pupils. + + +EARTHEN, CHINA AND GLASS WARE. + + 1 dinner set. + 2 quart pitchers. + 2 pint pitchers. + 2 small oval baking dishes. + 2 small round baking dishes. + 4 4-quart bowls, with lips. + 6 2-quart bowls, with lips. + 4 1-quart bowls. + 12 baking cups. + 6 kitchen cups. + 2 small platters. + 2 medium size platters. + 2 deep pie plates. + 6 shallow pie plates. + 2 jelly moulds. + 1 teapot. + 1 dozen quart gem jars. + 1 dozen pint gem jars. + 6 4-quart stone jars or crocks. + 1 dozen fancy plates, and glass dishes for serving. + +WOODENWARE. + + 1 wash-board. + 12 small bread boards. + 12 rolling pins. + 2 chopping trays. + 2 potato mashers. + 1 potato ricer. + 1 water pail. + 1 scrubbing pail. + 1 pail or bucket for refuse. + 1 flour bucket, with cover. + 6 wooden spoons--small. + 1 2-gallon ice cream freezer. + 1 broom. + 1 whisk-broom. + 1 crumb pan and brush. + 1 floor scrubbing brush. + 6 small scrubbing brushes. + 1 stove brush. + 1 pastry brush. + 1 small refrigerator. + Spice boxes. + Dish mops. + Lemon squeezers, etc. + +AGATE WARE. + + 4 double boilers. + 2 4-quart kettles. + 2 2-quart saucepans. + 4 1-quart saucepans. + 4 pt. saucepans. + 2 oval pudding dishes. + 1 4-quart preserving kettle. + 1 hand basin. + 1 tea kettle. + +IRON WARE. + + 1 spider. + 1 griddle. + 1 pan for meat. + 1 pan for fish. + 1 meat fork. + 1 can opener. + 1 meat cleaver. + 2 wooden-handled spoons. + 1 braising pan (cover). + Scales, etc. + +TIN AND WIRE WARE. + + 2 large graters. + 1 nutmeg grater. + 12 flour dredges. + 12 measuring cups. + 1 funnel. + 1 basting spoon. + 1 wire broiler, for toast. + 2 wire broilers, for steak. + 1 wire soap dish. + 3 Dover egg beaters. + 3 small wire strainers. + 1 large wire strainer. + 1 flour scoop. + 2 flour sifters. + 1 gravy strainer. + 1 colander. + 2 dish pans. + 2 2-qt. milk cans. + 1 quart measure. + 1 pint measure. + 1 steamer. + 6 small bread pans. + 6 small jelly moulds. + 1 set gem pans. + 1 doz. muffin rings. + 2 dustpans. + 2 plain cake cutters. + 1 doughnut cutter. + 1 small biscuit cutter. + 1 frying basket. + 1 dipper. + 2 long, shallow cake tins. + 2 egg whisks. + 1 round cake tin. + 1 wire frame. + 1 vegetable cutter. + +MISCELLANEOUS. + + 1 doz. dish towels. + 2 floor cloths. + 12 holders. + Cheese cloth. + Pudding cloth. + Needles. + Twine. + Scissors. + Skewers. + Screw driver. + Corkscrew. + 1 doz. knives and forks. + Hammer. + Tacks and Nails. + Ironing sheet and holder. + Coal scuttle. + Fire shovel. + Coal sieve. + Ash hod. + Flat irons. + Paper for cake tins. + Wrapping paper. + Small tub for laundry work. + 6 tablespoons. + 2 doz. teaspoons. + +While this may seem a formidable list, it will not be found expensive. +Some of the above articles may be omitted and others substituted. It +must be remembered that the utensils will be well cared for, +consequently will last for many years. In country schools, or where +gas is not available, oil stoves may be used. In some schools, where +space is limited, one small table is used, two or more pupils +demonstrating the lesson under the supervision of the teacher, the +pupils taking this duty in alternation. The remainder of the class +observe and take notes. + +The cost of material is trifling. It should not average more than +fifty cents per pupil per annum, and for a large number should average +less than this amount. + +The Boston school kitchens are, many of them, furnished at a cost of +from $200 to $300. A fair average cost for Ontario should be about +$175. + + * * * * * + + +PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS. + +During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a +typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain +number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the +choice of food for each meal. + +State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost. +Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how +the meal should be served. _System_, neatness and promptness should be +especially emphasized. Clean table linen--no matter how coarse--is +possible for every one. A dish of fruit or flowers, if only a bunch of +green foliage, improves the appearance of the table. + +During the school course a special lesson should be devoted to setting +the table and serving meals, with and without a waitress, so as to +give a knowledge of how a meal should be served, no matter what the +pupil's position in life may be or what part she may have to perform. + + +A FEW GENERAL HINTS ON SETTING THE TABLE. + +Although every housekeeper has her own method for serving meals, a few +general principles govern all properly regulated service. When setting +the table, cover first with a canton-flannel or felt cloth, in order +to prevent noise and protect the table. Place each article in its +proper place and not in a confused "jumble." See that the tablecloth +is spread smoothly, that the corners are of equal length, that the +crease--if the cloth has been folded instead of rolled--is exactly in +the centre. Place the fruit or flowers in the centre of the table. + +For each person place knife, spoon and glass on the right, fork and +napkin on the left. Place the glass at the point of the knife. Turn +the edge of the knife towards the plate and the fork tines up, the +spoon with the bowl up. If soup is to be served, place a square of +bread or a roll on top of the napkin or between the folds. Place the +pepper and salt at the corners of the table, unless individual salts +are used, when they should be placed at the head of the plates, where +the dessert spoon may be placed--the handle towards the right--for +convenience. + +The general rule in serving simple family meals, with or without a +waitress, is for the hostess to serve the porridge and coffee at +breakfast; the soup, salad and dessert at dinner, and pour the tea at +the evening meal. When luncheon is served in the middle of the day the +hostess usually does the greater part of the serving, as luncheon is +considered to be the most informal meal of the day. + + +A FEW HINTS FOR WAITRESSES. + +Learn to move quickly and quietly. Be scrupulously clean and neat in +every detail of dress and habit. Before serving a meal see that hands +and finger nails are clean. Always have a fresh white apron ready to +put on before the meal is announced. Look over the table and see that +everything is in its place before announcing a meal. Fill the glasses +with water either before the family enter the dining room or +immediately after they are seated. Lift the covers from hot dishes and +turn them over at once in order to prevent the steam from dropping on +the cloth. Take the plate from the host or hostess, and place before +each person from the right side--keep the thumb well under the plate. +When passing anything from which the persons seated at table help +themselves, such as vegetables, sauces, etc., always go to the left, +so as to leave the right hand of the one to be served free. Keep a +watchful eye over the table and pass anything apparently required. + +Learn to receive instructions from the hostess in an undertone. Do not +get excited and try to do too many things at once. It is an +accomplishment to be a good waitress, as it requires special +refinement and deftness, which are scarcely compatible with an untidy +nature. + +When serving meals without a waitress, the daughters of the house +should consider it their special privilege to save the mother any +annoyance or discomfort during the meal time. Never allow dishes, +which have been used, to accumulate on the table or allow the table to +become disordered. As much of the food as possible should be placed on +the table before the family are seated, and the plates or dishes +removed at once after using. No matter how simple the meal may be, +every housekeeper should see that it is served neatly and on time. +Teachers may exercise a far-reaching influence in the refining of home +life by impressing upon the pupils the importance of these--too often +considered--minor matters, and by giving minute instructions in the +setting of table and serving the meal. One carefully planned +_practice_ lesson will convey more knowledge of such matters than any +number of lectures or pages of theory. + + * * * * * + + +CONSIDERATION OF MENUS. + +The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74, +prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so +as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods +in combination. _It must be remembered that the prices given are in +excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less +than is given in these illustrations._ The more expensive menus have +been omitted. The writer of the article says:-- + +"In planning a well balanced diet the following points must be +considered:-- + +(1) The use of any considerable amount of fat meat or starchy food +should be offset by the use of some material rich in protein. Thus, if +roast pork is to be eaten for dinner, veal, fish, or lean beef might +well be eaten for breakfast or supper, or both. Bean soup furnishes a +considerable amount of protein, while bouillon, consommé, and tomato +soup are practically useless as a source of nutriment. Skim milk also +furnishes protein, with but very little accompanying fats and +carbohydrates to increase the fuel value. + +(2) The use of lean meats or fish for all three meals would require +the use of such foods as rice, tapioca, or cornstarch pudding, +considerable quantities of sugar and butter, and more vegetables, in +order to furnish sufficient fuel value. + +(3) Since flour, sugar, and butter or lard enter very largely into +pastries and desserts, the larger the quantities of these dishes that +are consumed the larger does the fuel value tend to become as compared +with the protein." + +The principal classes of food materials may be roughly grouped as +follows as regards the proportion of protein to fuel value, beginning +with those which have the largest proportion of protein and ending +with those which contain little or no protein:-- + + Foods containing a large amount of protein as + compared with the fuel value. + + Fish; + veal; + lean beef, such as shank, shoulder, canned corned, + round, neck, and chuck; + skim milk. + + + Foods containing a medium amount of protein. + + Fowl; + eggs; + mutton leg and shoulder; + beef, fatter cuts, such as rib, loin, rump, flank, and brisket; + whole milk; + beans and peas; + mutton chuck and loin; + cheese; + lean pork; + oatmeal and other breakfast foods; + flour; + bread, etc. + + + Foods containing little or no protein. + + Vegetables and fruit; + fat pork; + rice; + tapioca; + starch; + butter and other fats and oils; + sugar, syrups. + + +THE MENUS. + +To illustrate the ways in which milk may be combined with other food +materials, to form daily dietaries with about the amount of protein +and the fuel value called for by the standard for men at moderate +muscular work, a few menus are given in the following pages. These +menus are intended to show how approximately the same nutritive value +may be obtained by food combinations differing widely as regards the +number, kind, and price of the food materials used to make up three +daily meals. They also illustrate how the cost of the daily menu may +vary greatly with the kind and variety of materials purchased, though +the nutritive value remains the same. These sample menus should not, +however, be regarded as in any sense "models" to be followed in actual +practice. The daily menus for any family will necessarily vary with +the market supply, the season, and the relative expensiveness of +different food materials, as well as with the tastes and purse of the +consumers. The point to which we wish here to draw especial attention +is that the prudent buyer of foods for family consumption can not +afford to wholly neglect their nutritive value in making such +purchases. + +With reference to the following daily menus, several points must be +definitely borne in mind. (1) The amounts given represent about what +would be called for in a family equivalent to four full-grown men at +ordinary manual labor, such as machinists, carpenters, mill-workers, +farmers, truckmen, etc., according to the usually accepted standards. +Sedentary people would require somewhat less than the amounts here +given. (2) Children as a rule may be considered as having "moderate +muscular exercise," and it may easily be understood that the +14-year-old boy eats as much as his father who is engaged in business +or professional occupation, both requiring, according to the tentative +standard, 0.8 of the food needed by a man with moderate muscular work. +(3) It is not assumed that any housewife will find it convenient to +follow exactly the proportions suggested in the menus. The purpose is +to show her about what amounts and proportions of food materials would +give the required nutrients. + +A family equivalent to four men having little muscular +exercise--_i.e._, men with sedentary occupation--would require but +about 0.8 the quantities indicated in the following menus. It would be +very doubtful, however, if they would eat proportionally less of every +food material. It would, in fact, be more probable that the amounts of +meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, and bread eaten would be reduced in a much +greater proportion than fruit, pastry, coffee, etc. + + +PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF MILK AND OTHER FOODS. + +_Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials for +10 cts._ + + _Food Material._ _Lbs. Oz._ + + Whole Milk, 10 cts. per qt. 2 0 + " " 8 " 2 8 + " " 7 " 2 14 + " " 6 " 3 5 + " " 5 " 4 0 + " " 4 " 5 0 + Skim " 3 " 6 11 + Skim " 2 " 10 0 + Butter, 24 cts. per lb. 0 7 + Cheese, 16 " 0 10 + Beef, round, 12 cts. per lb. 0 13 + " sirloin, 18 " 0 9 + Mutton, loin, 16 " 0 10 + Pork, salt 12 " 0 13 + Cod, salt 6 " 1 9 + Eggs, 22 cts. per doz. 0 11 + Oysters, 30 cts. per qt. 0 11 + Potatoes, 60 cts. per bushel 10 0 + Beans, dried, 8 cts. per qt. 2 8 + Wheat flour, 3 cts. per lb. 3 5 + + +MENU I.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Bananas, 4 (or grapes, | | | | + 1 pound) | 1 4 | 6-1/2 | .009 | 362 + Breakfast cereal | 4 |\ | / .031 | 421 + Milk | 8 | > 3 |< .016 | 162 + Sugar | 1-1/ 2|/ | \ ... | 175 + Veal cutlets | 1 0 | 20 | .200 | 775 + Potatoes | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .018 | 325 + Butter | 3 | 6 | ... | 653 + Rolls | 12 | 4 | .077 | 1,148 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+--------- + Total | | 44-1/2 | .361 | 4,431 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Pea soup: | | | | + Split peas | 8 |\ | / .121 | 820 + Butter | 1 | > 5 |< ... | 217 + Flour | 1 |/ | \ .007 | 103 + Roast beef, chuck rib | 1 12 | 21 | .275 | 1,260 + Potatoes | 1 4 | 1-1/3 | .022 | 406 + Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67 + Cottage pudding with | | | | + lemon sauce: | | | | + 1 cup flour | 4 |\ | / .028 | 410 + Sugar | 3 | \ |/ ... | 350 + Butter | 1-1/2 | / 6-1/2 |\ ... | 325 + 1 cup milk | 8 |/ | \ .016 | 162 + Sugar | 4 |\ | / ... | 465 + Cornstarch | 1-1/2 | > 2-1/2 |< ... | 172 + Butter | 1/2 |/ | \ ... | 108 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 41 | .484 | 5,275 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Milk toast: | | | | + Milk | 2 0 |\ | / .066 | 650 + Bread | 1 2 | \ 18 |/ .107 | 1,356 + Butter | 4 | / |\ ... | 869 + Cornstarch | 2 |/ | \ ... | 228 + Canned salmon | 8 | 8 | .098 | 340 + Fried potatoes: | | | | + Potatoes | 8 |\ 1 |/ .009 | 162 + Lard | 1/2 |/ |\ ... | 132 + Cake | 6 | 4 | .026 | 619 + Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 34-1/2 | .316 | 4,766 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 120 | 1.161 | 14,472 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one Man | | 30 | .290 | 3,618 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU II.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Oatmeal | 0 2 |\ | / .019 | 232 + Milk | 6-1/2 | > 2 |< .012 | 122 + Sugar | 1 |/ | \ ... | 175 + Fresh pork sausage | 1 8 | 18 | .192 | 3,255 + Potatoes | 12 | 1 | .013 | 244 + Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904 + Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 434 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 31-1/2 | .317 | 5,776 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef, for stew | 2 8 | 15 | .347 | 1,900 + Potatoes | 1 8 | 2 | .027 | 487 + Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67 + Bread | 8 | 2 | .048 | 603 + Butter | 1 | 2 | ... | 217 + Indian pudding: | | | | + Cornmeal | 4 |\ | / .022 | 414 + Molasses | 4 | \ 6 |/ .007 | 329 + Butter | 1/2 | / |\ ... | 108 + Skim milk | 2 0 |/ | \ .068 | 340 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 31-1/2 | .534 | 4,875 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Corned beef hash: | | | | + Corned beef, canned | 8 | 6 | .142 | 560 + Potatoes | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162 + Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904 + Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 434 + Apples | 12 | 1 | .003 | 191 + Milk | 2 0 | 6 | .066 | 725 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 21 | .291 | 2,976 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total per day | | 84 | 1.142 | 13,627 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 21 | .285 | 3,407 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + +In these menus the amount of milk has, as a rule, been taken as +representing somewhere near the average consumption. The amount of +milk can be increased in any of the menus given above either by +substituting it to some extent for coffee or tea, or by using more +milk and smaller quantities of meats, butter or eggs. Roughly +speaking, 1 quart of whole milk could be substituted for half a pound +of meat or eggs and the amount of nutrients would be the same, while a +pint of milk would give as large a fuel value as 1-1/2 ounces of +butter, and in addition considerable protein not furnished by the +latter. + +This replacement of meats by milk is illustrated in the following +menu, in which a diet with a rather small quantity of milk is so +changed as to include a much larger amount. Thus for breakfast in the +modified ration a pint and a half of milk is made to take the place of +half a pound of broiled steak. For dinner a quart of skim milk (or +buttermilk) is called for, or a glass for each person unless some of +it is used in the cooking. At the same time, 4 ounces less roast pork +is required. In the same way a glass of whole milk is allowed each +person for supper, or the bread can be made into milk toast and the +most of the extra milk used in this way. This allows the canned salmon +to be reduced 6 ounces. + + +MENU III.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate exercise._ + + --------------------------+---------------------------------- + | Weight of food. + |-----------------+---------------- + Food materials. | With | With + | small | large + | amount | amount + | of milk. | of milk. + --------------------------+-----------------+---------------- + | | + _Breakfast._ | Lbs. Oz. | Lbs. Oz. + | | + Bananas, apples, or pears | 0 12 | 0 12 + Wheat preparation | 4 | 4 + Milk | 8 | 8 + Sugar | 2 | 2 + Broiled sirloin steak | 1 4 | 12 + Baked potatoes | 1 8 | 1 8 + Hot rolls | 1 0 | 1 0 + Butter | 2-1/2 | 2-1/2 + Extra milk | | 1 8 + | | + _Dinner._ | | + | | + Tomato soup | 1 12 | 1 12 + Roast pork | 1 12 | 1 8 + Mashed potatoes | 1 4 | 1 4 + Turnips | 8 | 8 + Apple fritters: | | + Apples | 8 | 8 + Flour | 2 | 2 + 1 egg | 2 | 2 + Lard | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 + Bread | 8 | 8 + Butter | 2 | 2 + Extra skim milk | | 2 0 + | | + _Supper._ | | + | | + Canned salmon | 1 6 | 1 0 + Potatoes | 12 | 12 + Bread | 8 | 8 + Butter | 2 | 2 + Berries, canned or fresh | 8 | 8 + Extra milk | | 2 0 + --------------------------+-----------------+----------------- + + _Cost, protein, and fuel value of the above._ + + -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------ + | Cost. | Protein. | Fuel + | | | Value. + -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------ + | | | + _With small amount of milk._ | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | + | | | + Breakfast | 48 | .39 | 5,300 + Dinner | 51 | .39 | 5,800 + Supper or lunch | 33-1/2 | .34 | 3,200 + |-------------+--------------+------------ + Total per day | 132-1/2 | 1.12 | 14,300 + |=============|==============|============ + Total for one man | 33 | .28 | 3,575 + |=============|==============|============ + | | | + _With large amount of milk._ | | | + | | | + Breakfast | 43 | .36 | 5,270 + Dinner | 47-1/2 | .41 | 5,400 + Supper or lunch | 34-1/2 | .34 | 3,600 + |-------------|--------------|------------ + Total per day | 125 | 1.11 | 14,270 + |=============|==============|============ + Total for one man | 31 | .28 | 3,567 + -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------ + +Menus VI and VII, following, are intended to illustrate how nourishing +food can be procured in sufficient quantities and moderate variety at +a cost of not over 16 cents per day. The cost to the farmer would be +much less, since these menus call for considerable amounts of milk, +which is hardly worth more than one-half or one-third as much on the +farm as it costs in the towns and cities. Coffee has not always been +indicated, but can be introduced for any meal at a cost of from 1/2 to +1-1/2 cents per cup, according to how much coffee is used in making +the infusion, and how much sugar, milk, and cream are added. + +It is, of course, not important that each meal, or the total food of +each individual day, should have just the right amount of nutrients, +or that the proportions of protein and fuel ingredients should be +exactly correct so as to make the meal or day's diet well balanced. +The body is continually storing nutritive materials and using them. It +is not dependent any day upon the food eaten that particular day. +Hence an excess one day may be made up by a deficiency the next or +_vice versa_. Healthful nourishment requires simply that the nutrients +as a whole, during longer or shorter periods, should be fitted to the +actual needs of the body for use. + + +MENU IV.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Bananas, 4 (or grapes, | | | | + 1 pound) | 1 4 | 6-1/2 | .009 | 362 + Breakfast cereal | 4 |\ | / .031 | 421 + Milk | 6 | > 3 |< .012 | 122 + Sugar | 2 |/ | \ ... | 232 + Mutton chops | 1 4 | 20 | .165 | 1,812 + Potatoes | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .018 | 325 + Butter | 3 | 6 | ... | 653 + Rolls | 12 | 4 | .077 | 1,148 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+--------- + Total | | 44-1/2 | .322 | 5,485 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Tomato Soup | 2 0 | 12 | .036 | 370 + Roast pork | 2 8 | 32 | .353 | 3,350 + Potatoes | 1 4 | 1-1/2 | .022 | 406 + Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67 + | | | | + Tapioca pudding: | | | | + Tapioca | 3 |\ | / .001 | 310 + Apples | 1 0 | \ |/ .004 | 255 + Sugar | 2 | / 7 |\ ... | 232 + Cream | 4 |/ | \ .006 | 228 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 57 | .437 | 5,628 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Milk toast: | | | | + Milk | 2 0 |\ | / .066 | 650 + Bread | 1 2 | \ 18 |/ .107 | 1,356 + Butter | 4 | / |\ ... | 869 + Cornstarch | 2 |/ | \ ... | 238 + Sliced cold pork | 8 | 6 | .071 | 670 + Fried potatoes: | | | | + Potatoes | 8 |\ 1 |/ .009 | 162 + Lard | 1/2 |/ |\ ... | 132 + Cake | 6 | 4 | .026 | 619 + Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 32-1/2 | .289 | 5,096 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 134 | 1.048 | 16,209 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 33-1/2 | .262 | 4,052 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU V.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Baked apples | 2 0 | 2 | .008 | 510 + Boiled hominy | 8 |\ | / .041 | 823 + Milk | 10 | > 4-1/2 |< .020 | 202 + Sugar | 3 |/ | \ ... | 350 + Broiled sirloin | 10 | 11 | .099 | 650 + Potatoes | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162 + Muffins: | | | | + 1 egg | 4 |\ 5 |/ .032 | 162 + 2 cups flour | 8 |/ |\ .057 | 820 + Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 435 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 31 | .276 | 4,524 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Tomato soup | 2 0 | 6 | .036 | 370 + Veal stew, shoulder | 2 0 | 20 | .332 | 1,350 + Potatoes | 3 0 | 4-1/2 | .054 | 975 + Apple dumpling: | | | | + 1 egg | 2 |\ | / .016 | 81 + 4 apples | 1 8 | \ 8 |/ .006 | 382 + 1/2 cup lard | 4 | / |\ ... | 1,055 + 1 cup flour | 4 |/ | \ .028 | 410 + | | | | + Sauce for dumpling: | | | | + Butter | 1 |\ 3 |/ ... | 217 + Sugar | 4 |/ |\ ... | 465 + Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904 + Butter | 1 | 2 | ... | 217 + Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+--------- + Total | | 50 | .553 | 6,836 + | | | | + | | | | + _Supper or lunch._ | | | | + | | | | + Dried canned corned beef | 8 | 6 | .142 | 560 + Potato croquette | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162 + Biscuit | 12 | 4 | .070 | 1,297 + Butter | 1-1/2 | 3 | ... | 325 + Oranges, 4 | 1 4 | 7 | .007 | 400 + Skim milk | 1 6 | 2 | .046 | 234 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 23 | .274 | 2,978 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 104 | 1.103 | 14,338 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 26 | .275 | 3,585 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU VI.--_For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate +muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Cornmeal, in mush or cake | 0 5 | 1 | .022 | 414 + Milk | 6 | 1 | .012 | 64 + Sugar | 2 | 1/2 | ... | 232 + Toast | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753 + Butter (24 cents per pound) | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 8 | .093 | 1,897 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef roll (for roasting) | 3 0 | 15 | .417 | 2,280 + Potatoes | 1 8 | 2 | .026 | 488 + Beets | 8 | 1 | .007 | 85 + Bread | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753 + Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 23-1/2 | .509 | 4,040 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Beans, baked | 2 0 | 6 | .446 | 3,180 + Pork | 12 | 6 | .012 | 2,556 + Potatoes, fried | 1 8 | 2 | .026 | 488 + Lard | 2 | 1 | ... | 537 + Bread | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753 + Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 20-1/2 | .543 | 7,948 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 20-1/2 | 1.145 | 13,885 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 13 | .285 | 3,471 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU VII.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Oatmeal | 0 6 | 2 | .059 | 697 + Skim milk, 1 pint | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .034 | 170 + Sugar | 2 | 1/2 | ... | 232 + Bread (homemade) | 1 0 | 3 | .095 | 1,205 + Sausage | 10 | 6 | .080 | 1,358 + Butter (24 cents per pound) | 1 | 1-1/2 | ... | 217 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 14-1/2 | .268 | 3,879 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef flank, stew | 2 8 | 15 | .430 | 2,988 + Potatoes (60 cents per | | | | + bushel) | 3 0 | 3 | .054 | 975 + Cabbage | 12 | 1 | .013 | 105 + Cornmeal pudding: | | | | + Cornmeal | 4 | 1/2 | .022 | 414 + Skim milk, 1 quart | 2 0 | 3 | .068 | 340 + Molasses | 12 | 1 | .020 | 987 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 22-1/2 | .604 | 5,889 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef, warmed in gravy | 1 8 | 3 | .086 | 598 + Hot biscuit | 2 0 | 6 | .340 | 2,600 + Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + Milk, 1 quart | 2 0 | 6 | .033 | 325 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 18 | .259 | 3,957 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total per day | | 55 | 1.134 | 3,645 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 14 | .285 | 3,411 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +DISCUSSION OF THE MENUS. + +These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of +food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in +the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied +and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the +use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided. +The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is +believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course +they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials, +oatmeal and other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these +substances as purchased. + +The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the +different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of +these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used +simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of +protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest. + +The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or +less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the +character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the +more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as +follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14 +cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents; +bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart); +skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese, +16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2 +to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other +vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents +(20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per +dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel). + +It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the +average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of +the country than in the central and western portions, where meats, +cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to +be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can +be purchased much cheaper than here indicated, while on the other +hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The +choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their +abundance and cost. + +Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and +consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is +to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course, +different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These +figures express only general averages and are based upon the best +information accessible. + + +A FEW POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLANNING MEALS. + +Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular +work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day, +leaving such articles of food as soup--which is a valuable stimulant +after a day of hard work--fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal, +when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated +foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the +day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the +necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish +sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and +beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk or +_strained_ tea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc. + +Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building +requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words, +food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work. +Supper in such cases should consist of a good broth or well made +soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more +substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for +the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less +expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings, +fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day. + +On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such +as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the +day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much +slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room, +and where little exercise is taken.[5] Care should be taken in +planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much +oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry, +griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man +should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and +butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable +for luncheon. + +Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See +p. 153.) + +Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a +rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece +of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient. + +Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently +hurry away to their work in the morning without taking a substantial +breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be +followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten +and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute +for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active +exercise for any length of time. + +Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel. +The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long, +slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done +by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick +fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in +both food and fuel may be exercised. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[5] The teacher may make this clear by comparing the digestion of the +two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a range with the +drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, effect of oxygen, +etc. + + * * * * * + + +SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. + +In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful +to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be +likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility, +etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as +fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to +keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent +illustrations and comparisons should be made. + +Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as +every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few +suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful. + + +Why do we eat food? + +What is nitrogenous food? + +What is its chief office? + +Where is it to be found? + +In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant? + +What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs? + +Of what is it composed? + +Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous? + +Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh? + +Which are the most important heat-giving compounds? + +What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming +compounds? + +What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food? + +Give their use? + +Where are they to be found? + +What is common salt? + +Where is it found? + +Why do we use it? + +Give the three digestive juices. + +What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables? + +Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in +the dust bin or garbage pail? + +What should be done with them? + +Which are the most important warmth-giving foods? + +Give another name for these foods? + +Why are they so called? + +What is combustion? + +How do these foods produce force, etc.? + +What other elements do these foods contain? + +Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or +sugar? + +What elements unite and form water? + +What is the proportion of water in the body? + +Give its use? + +Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat? + +Why does starch need cooking? + +To what kingdom does it belong? + +Which section is of most value? + +How is starch changed into sugar? + +What changes food into blood? + +What gives the red color to blood? + +What mineral helps digestion most? + +What is sugar? + +What causes sugar to ferment? + +What is the result? + +Where is it to be found? + +What are food adjuncts? + +Of what value are they? + +Give the names of combustible nutrients. + +Give the names of incombustible nutrients. + +For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain? + +What supports combustion? + +What is chemically pure water? + +What causes the hardness of water? + +What is gluten? + +What is dextrine? + +Where is it found? + +In what way does dextrine differ from starch? + +What is decomposition? + + * * * * * + + +SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES. + +LESSON. + +I. Information regarding the conduct of classes. Practice in +measuring. Practice in lighting gas-burners and oven. Practice in +lighting and regulating a range. + +II. Fruit--Applesauce. Coddled apples. Stewed prunes. + +III. Starch--Boiled rice. Potatoes, boiled and mashed. + +IV. Starch--Thickening liquids with flour. + +V. Starch--Practice in No. 4. + +VI. Vegetables--Onions, cabbage, parsnips, etc. + +VII. Eggs--Boiled eggs. Poached eggs. Toast. + +VIII. Eggs and milk--Boiled and baked custard. + +IX. Flour mixtures--Popovers, griddle cake. + +X. Flour mixtures--Milk biscuits. Corn bread. Apple pudding. + +XI. Bread--Making sponge, kneading, and setting to rise. + +XII. Bread--Moulding and baking. + +XIII. Fish--Boiled and baked fish. Creamed fish and sauce. + +XIV. Review of theory and recipes. + +XV. Meat--Roasting meat. Soup stock. + +XVI. Meat--Stewed meat. + +XVII. Meat--Cold meat and broiling. + +XVIII. Salads. + +XIX. Beans. + +XX. Plain puddings. + +NOTE.--After this each teacher must arrange lessons according +to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with +lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary +matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving. + + * * * * * + + +APPENDIX. + +Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof. +Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City. + + +OUTLINE I. + +The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an +average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school. +The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and +interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate +a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season +of the year. + +It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are +four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking +of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and +introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this +arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food +principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so +that there is a constant review of principles already established; and +to give practical work of increasing difficulty. + +The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in +house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken +for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food +values, the cost of food, marketing, etc. + +1. Simple experiments in combustion--to illustrate the structure of +stoves and the care of such stoves. Study of the fuel and apparatus +to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus; +comparison with other apparatus. + +2. Utensils--what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to +have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing. + +Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in +tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double +boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough +for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter, +croutons may be made. + +3. Measuring--experiment with the cooking of starch in water; +cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the +effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting +of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking. + +4. A cereal and a fruit,--say, baked apples. In the cereal, in +addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in +both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being +a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process. + +5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and +cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and +vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of +peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar +with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances. + +If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this +may be given in the next lesson. + +6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review +lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions, +several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to +how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of +soup. + +7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and +yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain +omelet. + +8. Eggs and milk. + +9. Oysters. + +10. Fish. + +11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially +proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters +is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder +biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given +for sake of variety. + +14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling. + +15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy. + +18. Tough meat. Soups and stews. + +19. Tough meat. Soups and stews. + +Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also. + +20. Beverages. + +21. Salads. + +22. Desserts. + +23. A breakfast. + +24. A luncheon. + +25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper. + +Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them; +bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving; +dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes. + + +OUTLINE II. + +This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was +advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals. +The plan can be followed in a longer course. + +_Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc._ + +1. A cereal and fruit. + +2. Eggs. + +3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat. + +4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee. + +5. A breakfast. + +6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup. + +7. A made dish of meat or fish. + +8. Salad and dressing. + +9. Muffins or biscuit. + +10. A luncheon or supper. + +11. Vegetables. Macaroni. + +12. Meat. + +13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert. + +14. Bread or rolls. + +15. A dinner. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. 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Hoodless + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 15%; + margin-right: 15%; + line-height: 1.5em; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 90%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + .narrow {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%;} + .sidenote {width: 20%; padding-left: 0.5em; margin-right: 1em; + float: left; clear: left; margin-top: 0.5em; + font-size: smaller; color: black; background: #eeeeee;} + + + .center {text-align: center;} + .right {text-align: right;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 80%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: top; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + + ul { list-style: none; margin-left: 10em; } + + ol { list-style-type: upper-roman;margin-left: 5em;} + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Public School Domestic Science + +Author: Mrs. J. Hoodless + +Release Date: April 1, 2006 [EBook #18097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<h2>PUBLIC SCHOOL</h2> + +<h1>DOMESTIC SCIENCE</h1> + +<h4>BY</h4> + +<h2>MRS. J. HOODLESS,</h2> + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">President School of Domestic Science, Hamilton.</span></div> + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> + +<div class="center">This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if +so ordered by<br /> +a resolution of the Trustees. +<br /> +</div> + +<hr style='width: 25%;' /> + +<div class="center"> +TORONTO:<br /> +THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED,<br /> +1898.<br /> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year +one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by <span class="smcap">The Copp, +Clark Company, Limited</span>, Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of +the Minister of Agriculture.</p></div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"> +<img src="images/illus001.jpg" width="650" height="436" alt="A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER." title="" /> +<span class="caption">A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.</span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p> +<p>"I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which +embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet, +and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired +vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and +throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from +the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil +to be."—<i>Sir Henry Thompson.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing loss of +health is of primary importance. We do not contend that possession of +such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. But we do +contend that the right knowledge impressed in the right way would +effect much; and we further contend that as the laws of health must be +recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of +such knowledge must precede a more rational living."—<i>Herbert +Spencer.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of Calypso and +Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the +knowledge of all fruits, and herbs, and balms, and spices, and of all +that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, and savory in meats; +it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and +willingness, and readiness of appliance; it means much tasting and no +wasting; it means English thoroughness, and French art, and Arabian +hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfect and always +'ladies'—'loaf-givers.'"—<i>Ruskin.</i></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>An eminent authority<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> says: "Up to the age of sixteen even a lucid +statement of principles is received by all but a few pupils as dogma. +They do not and cannot in any adequate sense realize the reasoning +process by which scientific conclusions are reached. They are taught +not only facts but classifications and laws, and causes in relation to +their effect. These are not, in the majority of cases, elaborated by +the pupil. The teaching of them accordingly degenerates into a +statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of memory."</p> + +<p>To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize its effects +somewhat, is one of the principal reasons for introducing Domestic +Science into the Public School curriculum; a science which relates so +closely to the daily life that it cannot be left to an act of memory; +where cause and effect are so palpable that the pupil may readily +arrive at an individual conclusion.</p> + +<p>The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring a +knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to +co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to make a practical use +of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> important part in +the arranging of weights and measures, in the study of the analysis +and relative value of various kinds of food, in estimating the cost of +manufactured products in proportion to their market value, in the +purchase of food material, etc. History and geography are closely +allied to the study of the diet and customs of the different +countries, with their variety of climate and products. Physiology and +temperance principles permeate the whole course of study. In addition +to these are the direct lessons, provided by the practice work, in +neatness, promptness and cleanliness. It will therefore be necessary +to have a wide general knowledge before entering upon a course in +Domestic Science.</p> + +<p>Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the Public +Schools, it will be impossible to teach more than a few of the first +principles governing each department of the work, viz., a knowledge of +the constituent parts of the human body; the classification of food +and the relation of each class to the sustenance and repair of the +body; simple recipes illustrating the most wholesome and economical +methods of preparing the various kinds of food; the science of +nutrition, economy and hygiene; general hints on household management, +laundry work, and care of the sick.</p> + +<p>To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, bacteriology, etc., +would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the average school girl, +and possibly create a distaste for knowledge containing so much +abstract matter.</p> + +<p>This book is not a teacher's manual, nor is it intended to take the +place of the teacher in any way. The normal training prescribed for +teachers will enable them to supplement the information contained +herein, by a much more general and comprehensive treatment of the +various questions, than would be possible or judicious in a primary +text-book. It has been found difficult for pupils to copy the recipes +given with each lesson,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> or to write out the instructions carefully +without infringing upon the time which should be devoted to practice +work.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> In order to meet this difficulty, also to enable the pupil to +work at home under the same rules which govern the class work, simple +recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a knowledge of +heat and its effect, going on to those requiring hand dexterity, +before attempting the more difficult subjects. After the pupils have +acquired a knowledge of the "why and wherefore" of the different +processes required in cooking, they will have little difficulty in +following the more elaborate recipes given in the numberless +cook-books provided for household use. Once the art—and it is a fine +art—of cookery is mastered, it becomes not only a pleasant occupation +but provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing the +reaction which frequently follows school life.</p> + +<p>The tables given are to be used for reference, and <i>not to be +memorized</i> by the pupil.</p> + +<p>The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his kindly +interest and assistance in providing much valuable information, which +in some instances is given verbatim; also to Dr. Gilman Thompson for +permission to give extracts from his valuable book, "Practical +Dietetics"; to Prof. Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science +Dept.), for review and suggestions; to Miss Watson, Principal Hamilton +School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule for +school work. The Boston Cook Book (with Normal Instruction), by Mrs. +M.J. Lincoln; and the Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen H. +Richards (Prof. of Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology), +and Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>information on practical household matters. The publications of the +U.S. Experiment Stations, by Prof. Atwater and other eminent chemists, +contain much valuable information.</p> + +<p>To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, this book is +respectfully dedicated.</p> + +<div class="right">ADELAIDE HOODLESS.</div> + + +<div style="margin-left: 2em;">"<span class="smcap">Eastcourt</span>,"</div> +<div style="margin-left: 4em;">Hamilton, June, 1898.<br /><br /></div> + + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a> S.S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and +History of Education, Edinburgh University.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a> Where time is allowed, much benefit may be derived from +writing notes, as a study in composition, spelling, etc.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="SUGGESTIONS_TO_TEACHER" id="SUGGESTIONS_TO_TEACHER"></a>SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER.</h2> + + +<p>Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for the +teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the various +questions; to explain the underlying principles so thoroughly that +"the why and the wherefore" of every action in the preparation of food +will be clearly understood. She should endeavor to impress upon the +pupils the value of thoroughly understanding the relation of food to +the body. In practice lessons frequent <i>reference</i> should be made to +the analysis of the various foods, as given in the tables and charts.</p> + +<p>The first practice lesson should be given on the making and care of a +fire, regulating dampers, cleaning stove, etc. The pupils should then +be taught the name and place of all the utensils. Special attention +should be given to the explanation of weights and measures; the table +of abbreviations should be memorized. Arrange the class work so that +each pupil may in alternation share the duties of both kitchen work +and cooking.</p> + +<p>Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should +be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned +back or confined in some way, and covered by a cap. A large clean +apron and a holder should be worn while at work. Never allow the +pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in place of a holder. +Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-room. Set an example of +perfect order and neatness, and insist upon pupils following that +example. Teach the pupils that cooking may be done without soiling +either hands or clothes. The pupils should do all the work of the +class-room, except scrubbing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> floor. Everything must be left in +perfect order at the close of each lesson.</p> + +<p>Frequent <i>reviews</i> are absolutely necessary. Urge the pupils to think +for themselves, and not to rely upon the text-book. Where pupils are +backward, or have not had previous practice in kitchen work, give +special attention to their manner of holding a knife or spoon in +preparing articles for use, and in beating or stirring mixtures. +Encourage deftness and light handling of kitchen ware. Insist upon +promptness and keeping within the time limit, both in preparing the +food and in the cooking.</p> + +<p>Owing to the variety of climate and markets, it would be impossible to +arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A few sample +menus are given at the back of the book, but each teacher must be +governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons for her class. For +instance, recipes without eggs should be given in mid-winter, when +eggs are dear. Fruits and vegetables must be given in season.</p> + +<p>The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work; in +some cases it may be necessary to divide them, as the quantities given +are intended for home practice. The teacher should consider herself at +liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider valuable. The +digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants—especially of tea and +coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be carefully impressed +upon the pupil.</p> + +<p>The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly before +her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arithmetic, +history, geography, physiology and temperance; (2) to develop the +mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the children; (3) to +enable pupils to understand the reason for doing certain things in a +certain way; in other words, to work with an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span> intelligent conception +of the value, both physically and hygienically, of knowing how the +daily duties should be performed.</p> + +<p>In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each class of +food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For instance, +before giving a lesson in the preparation of starches, each pupil +should be given an opportunity to learn how to mix and stir the +mixture over the fire, so as to prevent it from burning or becoming +lumpy; this may be done by using water and common laundry starch, or +flour. The same test applies to sauces, etc. A few cheap apples and +potatoes may be used in learning to pare these articles. The effect of +cold and hot water on albumen and tissues may be illustrated by the +cheaper pieces of meat.</p> + +<p>Although the more scientific studies are grouped together, it does not +follow that they are to be studied in the order given. The teacher +must arrange her lessons—from the beginning—so as to include a +certain amount of the theory with the practice work. Frequent +reference should be made during practice lessons to the various +chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking, so as to +interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food question.</p> + +<p>The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes while +she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not be entirely +dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations must simply +serve as the key-note for further study.</p> + +<p>Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion," page +58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be +studied—especially pages 71-75—in conjunction with "Food +Classifications" (Chap. 2); also in dealing with the digestibility of +starches, etc.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="COMPOSITION_OF_FOOD_MATERIALS" id="COMPOSITION_OF_FOOD_MATERIALS"></a>COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS—(<i>Atwater</i>)</h3> +<div class="center"><i>Nutritive Ingredients, Refuse, and Food Value.</i><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table width="85%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Description of items on bar graph"> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" align='left'><i>Protein</i> Compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) + of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.<br /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>Fats</i>, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil,<br /> + <i>Carbohydrates</i>, e.g., starch and sugar, + </td> + <td>\<br /> + / + </td> + <td align="left">serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power. + </td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /></div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/table1.jpg" width="600" height="875" alt="Bar Graph: Composition of Food Materials" title="Composition of Food Materials" /> +</div> +<div class="center">* Without bone.</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="PECUNIARY_ECONOMY_OF_FOOD" id="PECUNIARY_ECONOMY_OF_FOOD"></a>PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD—(<i>Atwater</i>).</h3> +<div class="center"><i>Amounts of actually Nutritive Ingredients obtained in different +Food Materials for 10 cents.</i><br /></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table width="85%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Description of items on bar graph"> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" align='left'><i>Protein</i> compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) +of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.<br /></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'><i>Fats</i>, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil,<br /> + <i>Carbohydrates</i>, e.g., starch and sugar, + </td> + <td>\<br /> + / + </td> + <td align="left">serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power. + </td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<img src="images/table2.jpg" width="600" height="837" alt="" title="Table of food values" /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="right">PAGE.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></td><td align="right">v</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIONS_TO_TEACHER">Suggestions to Teachers</a></td><td align="right">ix</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#COMPOSITION_OF_FOOD_MATERIALS">Composition of Food Materials (<i>Atwater</i>)</a></td><td align="right">xii</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#PECUNIARY_ECONOMY_OF_FOOD">Pecuniary Economy of Food (<i>Atwater</i>)</a></td><td align="right">xiii</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">The Relation of Food to the Body</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Food Classification</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Nutrition</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Food and Economy</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Foods containing Protein or Nitrogenous Matter</td><td align="right"> 22</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Fats and Oils</td><td align="right">34</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Carbohydrate Foods</td><td align="right">37</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Fruits</td><td align="right">50</td></tr> +<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Preparing Food</td><td align="right">54</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#RECIPES"><span class="smcap">Recipes</span>:</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#BATTERS_BISCUITS_AND_BREAD">Batters, Biscuits and Bread</a></td><td align="right">60</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#BREAD">Bread</a></td><td align="right">65</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#SAUCES_AND_MILK_SOUPS">Sauces and Milk Soups</a></td><td align="right">66</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#EGGS">Eggs</a></td><td align="right">69</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#FRUIT">Fruit</a></td><td align="right">72</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#VEGETABLES">Vegetables</a></td><td align="right"> 74</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#SALADS">Salads</a></td><td align="right"> 80</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#MACARONI">Macaroni</a></td><td align="right"> 85<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#CHEESE">Cheese</a></td><td align="right">86</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#BEVERAGES">Beverages</a></td><td align="right">87</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#SOUPS">Soups</a></td><td align="right">89</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#FISH">Fish</a></td><td align="right"> 94</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#MEAT">Meat</a></td><td align="right"> 96</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#POULTRY">Poultry</a></td><td align="right"> 104</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#HOT_PUDDINGS">Hot Puddings</a></td><td align="right">109</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#PUDDING_SAUCES">Plain Sauces </a></td><td align="right">115</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#PASTRY">Pastry </a></td><td align="right">121</td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td align="left"><a href="#MISCELLANEOUS">Miscellaneous</a></td><td align="right"> 122</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS">General Hints</a></td><td align="right"> 126</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIONS_FOR_YOUNG_HOUSEKEEPERS">Suggestions for Young Housekeepers</a></td><td align="right">128</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#CARING_FOR_INVALIDS">Caring for Invalids</a></td><td align="right"> 142</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDREN">General Hints for School Children</a></td><td align="right"> 150</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIONS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDRENS_DIET">Suggestions for School Children's Diet</a></td><td align="right">153</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#INFANTS_DIET">Infants' Diet</a></td><td align="right"> 156</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#PLANNING_AND_SERVING_MEALS">Planning and Serving Meals </a></td><td align="right">170</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#CONSIDERATION_OF_MENUS">Consideration of Menus </a></td><td align="right">173</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIVE_QUESTIONS">Suggestive Questions</a></td><td align="right">188</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SCHEDULE_OF_LESSONS_FOR_PUBLIC_SCHOOL_CLASSES">Schedule of Lessons for Public School Classes</a></td><td align="right">191</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX">Appendix</a></td><td align="right">193</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PUBLIC_SCHOOL_DOMESTIC_SCIENCE" id="PUBLIC_SCHOOL_DOMESTIC_SCIENCE"></a>PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE</h2> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2> + +<h3>The Relation of Food to the Body.</h3> + + +<p>In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and +repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what +the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the +food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The +following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148 +pounds:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Analysis of man weighing 148 pounds"> +<tr><td align="left">Oxygen</td><td align="right">92.1</td><td>pounds.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hydrogen</td><td align="right">14.6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Carbon</td><td align="right">31.6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Nitrogen</td><td align="right"> 4.6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Phosphorus</td><td align="right">1.4</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Calcium</td><td align="right">2.8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sulphur</td><td align="right">0.24</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Chlorine</td><td align="right"> 0.12</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Sodium</td><td align="right"> 0.12</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Iron</td><td align="right">0.02</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Potassium</td><td align="right">0.34</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Magnesium</td><td align="right">0.04</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Silica </td><td align="right">? </td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Fluorine</td><td align="right">0.02</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="right">———</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">148.00</td><td>pounds.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing +and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary +some knowledge of the relation of food to the body is, in order to +preserve health.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p><p>Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we find from the above +calculation that about three-fifths of the body is composed of water. +Carbon is a solid: diamonds are nearly pure carbon; "lead" of lead +pencils, anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon. Carbon +combined with other elements in the body makes about one-fifth of the +whole weight. Carbon with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon +taken into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen of the +inhaled air, yields heat to keep the body warm, and force—muscular +strength—for work. The carbonic acid (or carbon dioxide) is given out +through the lungs and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous +foods, their relation to the body as fuel will be more clearly +understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element. Phosphorus +is a solid. According to the table, about one pound six ounces would +be found in a body weighing 148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus +forms what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes +phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones and teeth; +it is found also in the brain and nerves, flesh and blood. Hydrogen is +a gas, and like carbon unites with the oxygen of the inhaled air in +the body, thus serving as fuel. The water produced is given off in the +respiration through the lungs and as perspiration through the skin.<a name="FNanchor_3_4" id="FNanchor_3_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_4" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> +Calcium is a metal. The table given allows three pounds of calcium; +united with oxygen, calcium forms lime. This with phosphoric acid +makes phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in which +nearly all the calcium of the body is found.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p><p>The elements which bear no direct relation to the force production of +the body, but which enter into tissue formation, are chlorine, +sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. +Bone tissue contains about 50 per cent. of lime phosphate, hence the +need of this substance in the food of a growing infant, in order that +the bones may become firm and strong. Lack of iron salts in the food +impoverishes the coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles on which +they depend for their power of carrying oxygen to the tissues; anæmia +and other disorders of deficient oxidation result. The lack of +sufficient potash salts is a factor in producing scurvy, a condition +aggravated by the use of common salt. A diet of salt meat and starches +may cause it, with absence of fresh fruit and vegetables. Such +illustrations show the need of a well-balanced diet.</p> + +<p>In order to understand the value of the various classes of food and +their relation to the body as force producers, tissue builders, etc., +the following table may prove helpful:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Value of various classes of food"> +<tr> + <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;" align="center">Nitrogen.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;">C.H.<br /> Combustibles<br />Calculated as <br />Carbon</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Beef, uncooked</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">3.00</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">11.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Roast beef</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.53</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">17.76</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Calf's liver</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.09</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 15.68</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Foie-gras</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 65.58</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Sheep's kidneys</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.66</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Skate</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.83</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cod, salted</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 5.02</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 16.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Herring, salted</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.11</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 23.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Herring, fresh</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.83</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 21.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Whiting</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.41</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 9.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Mackerel</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.74</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 19.26</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Sole</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.91</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.25</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>Salmon</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.09</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 16.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Carp</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.49</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Oysters</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.13</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 7.18</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Lobster, uncooked</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.93</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 10.96</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Eggs </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.90</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 13.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Milk (cows')</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.66</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 8.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cheese (Brie)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.93</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 35.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cheese (Gruyere)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 5.00</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 38.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cheese (Roquefort)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 4.21</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.44</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Chocolate</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.52</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 58.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Wheat (hard Southern, variable average)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.00</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 41.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Wheat (soft Southern, variable average)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.81</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 39.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Flour, white (Paris)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.64</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 38.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Rye flour</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.75</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 41.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Winter barley </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.90</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 40.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Maize </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.70</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Buckwheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.20</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 42.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Rice </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.80</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 41.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.95</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.08</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 29.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, brown (soldiers' rations formerly)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.07</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 28.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, brown (soldiers' rations at present)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.20</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 30.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, from flour of hard wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.20</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 31.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.33</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 11.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Beans </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 4.50</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 42.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Lentils, dry </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.87</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 43.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Peas, dry</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.66</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Carrots</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.31</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 5.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Mushrooms</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.60</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 4.52</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Figs, fresh</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.41</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 15.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Figs, dry</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.92</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 34.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Coffee (infusion of 100 grams)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.10</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 9.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Tea (infusion of 100 grams)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.00</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 10.50</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bacon </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.29</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 71.14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.64</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 83.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Olive oil</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> Trace</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 98.00</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Beer, strong </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.05</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 4.50</td> + </tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Wine </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.15</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 4.00</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>"The hydrogen existing in the compound in excess of what is required +to form water with the oxygen present is calculated as carbon. It is +only necessary to multiply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount +of dry proteids in 100 grams of the fresh food substance." +(Dujardin-Beauretz.) The following simple rules are given by +Parks:—"1st. To obtain the amount of nitrogen in proteid of foods, +divide the quantity of food by 6.30. 2nd. To obtain the carbon in fat +multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To obtain the carbon in carbohydrate food +multiply by 0.444. 4. To obtain the carbon in proteid food multiply by +0.535."</p> + +<p>Finding that our food and our bodies contain essentially the same +elements, we must also bear in mind that the body cannot create +anything for itself, neither material nor energy; all must be supplied +by the food we eat, which is transformed into repair material for the +body. Therefore, the object of a course of study dealing with the +science of this question, as it relates to the daily life, should be +to learn something of how food builds the body, repairs the waste, +yields heat and energy, and to teach the principles of food economy in +its relation to health and income. This, with the development of +executive ability, is all that can be attempted in a primary course.</p> + +<p>FOOTNOTE:</p> + +<div class="footnote"> +<p><a name="Footnote_3_4" id="Footnote_3_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_4">[3]</a> An illustration of vapor rising may be given by breathing +upon a mirror.</p></div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2> + +<h3>Food Classification.</h3> + + +<p>The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four +principal classes of nutrients:</p> + +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Protein</span>:<br /></div> + +<div class="blockquot"><i>Proteids.</i><br /></div> + +<div class="narrow"> +<i>Albuminoids</i>, <i>e.g.</i>, albumen of eggs; myosin, +the basis of muscle (lean meat); the albuminoids +which make up the gluten of wheat, etc. +<br /></div> + +<div class="narrow"><i>Gelatinoids</i>, constituents of connective tissue which +yield gelatin and allied substances, <i>e.g.</i>, collagen +of tendon; ossein of bone. +<br /></div> + +<div class="blockquot">"Nitrogenous extractives" of flesh, <i>i.e.</i>, of meats and fish. +These include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the +chief ingredients of beef tea and most meat extracts. +Amids: this term is frequently applied to the nitrogenous +non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable foods and feeding +stuffs, among which are amido acids, such as aspartic acid +and asparagin. Some of them are more or less allied in +chemical constitution to the nitrogenous extractives of +flesh. +<br /></div> + +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Fats.</i><br /></div> + +<div class="blockquot">Fat of meat: fat of milk; oil of corn, wheat, etc. The +ingredients of the "ether extract" of animal and vegetable +foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary to group +together roughly as fats, include, with the true fats, +various other substances, as lecithians, and chlorophylls. +<br /></div> + +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Carbohydrates</i>, sugars, starches, celluloses, gums, woody fibre, etc. +<br /><br /></div> +<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Mineral matter.</i> +<br /><br /></div> +<div class="blockquot">Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorids, sulphates +and phosphates. (Atwater). +<br /></div> + +<p>The terms (<i>a</i>) "nitrogenous" and (<i>b</i>) "carbonaceous" are frequently +used to designate the two distinct classes of food, viz.: (<i>a</i>) the +tissue builders and flesh formers; (<i>b</i>) fuel and force producers.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p><p>Each of these classes contains food material derived from both the +animal and vegetable kingdom, although the majority of the animal +substances belong to the nitrogenous, and the majority of the +vegetable substances to the carbonaceous group.</p> + +<p>Therefore, for practical purposes, we will confine ourselves to the +more general terms used in Atwater's table.</p> + + +<h3>Uses of Food.</h3> + +<p>First, food is used to form the materials of the body and repair its +waste; second, to yield energy in the form of (1) heat to keep the +body warm, (2) to provide muscular and other power for the work it has +to do. In forming the tissues and fluids of the body the food serves +for building and repair. In yielding energy, it serves as fuel for +heat and power. The principal tissue formers are the albuminoids; +these form the frame-work of the body. They build and repair the +nitrogenous materials, as those of muscle, tendon and bone, and supply +the albuminoids of blood, milk and other fluids. The chief fuel +ingredients of food are the carbohydrates and fats. These are either +consumed in the body or are stored as fat to be used as occasion +demands.</p> + + +<h3>Water.</h3> + +<p>By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water composes +three-fifths of the entire body. The elasticity of muscles, cartilage, +tendons, and even of bones is due in great part to the water which +these tissues contain. The amount of water required by a healthy man +in twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> average +between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25 ounces taken as an +ingredient of solid food, thus making a total of from 75 to 85 ounces. +One of the most universal dietetic failings is neglect to take enough +water into the system. Dr. Gilman Thompson gives the following uses of +water in the body:—</p> + +<p>(1) It enters into the chemical composition of the tissues; (2) it +forms the chief ingredient of all the fluids of the body and maintains +their proper degree of dilution; (3) by moistening various surfaces of +the body, such as the mucous and serous membranes, it prevents +friction and the uncomfortable symptoms which might result from +drying; (4) it furnishes in the blood and lymph a fluid medium by +which food may be taken to remote parts of the body and the waste +matter removed, thus promoting rapid tissue changes; (5) it serves as +a distributer of body heat; (6) it regulates the body temperature by +the physical processes of absorption and evaporation.</p> + + +<h3>Salts (Mineral Matter).—Use of Salts in Food.</h3> + +<p>(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and other fluids of +the body; (2) to preserve the tissues from disorganization and +putrefaction; (3) to enter into the composition of the teeth and +bones. These are only a few of the uses of salts in the body, but are +sufficient for our purpose. Fruits and nuts contain the least quantity +of salts, meat ranks next, then vegetables and pulses, cereals contain +most of all (Chambers). Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most +important and valuable salt. It must not however be used in excess. +Potassium salts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> rank next in importance.<a name="FNanchor_4_5" id="FNanchor_4_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_5" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Calcium, phosphorus, +sulphur and iron are included in this class.</p> + +<p>The quantity of salts or mineral matter contained in some important +articles of vegetable and animal food is shown in this table (Church):</p> + +<div class="center"><i>Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 14 Vegetable Products.</i></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table width="40%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Mineral Matter in Vegetable Products"> +<tr><td colspan="2" align='right'>Lbs.</td></tr> +<tr><td width="60%" align='left'>Apples</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rice</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheaten flour</td><td align='right'>7</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Turnips</td><td align='right'>8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Barley</td><td align='right'>11</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cabbage</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Watercress</td><td align='right'>13</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Maize</td><td align="right">20</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align="right">21</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peas</td><td align='right'>30</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa nibs</td><td align='right'>36</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Wheaten bran</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + +<div class="center"><i>Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 8 Animal Products.</i></div> +<div class='center'> +<table width="40%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Mineral Matter in Animal Products"> +<tr><td colspan="2" align='right'>Lbs.</td></tr> +<tr><td width="60%" align='left'>Fat Pork</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cow's milk</td><td align="right">7</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Eggs (without shells)</td><td align="right"> 13</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lean of mutton</td><td align="right">17</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Flesh of common fowl</td><td align="right">16</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bacon</td><td align="right"> 44</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gloucester cheese</td><td align="right"> 49</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Salted herrings</td><td align="right">158</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>"In most seeds and fruits there is much phosphate in the mineral +matter, and in most green vegetables much potash. One important kind +of mineral matter alone is deficient in vegetable food, and that is +common salt."</p> + +<p>FOOTNOTE:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_5" id="Footnote_4_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_5">[4]</a> See Vegetables, Chap. VII.</p></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2> + +<h3>Nutrition.</h3> + + +<p>It is not within the scope of this book to deal with the science of +nutrition; but a few general principles may be given which concern the +effect upon the system of the different classes of food. Animal food +requires a considerable quantity of oxygen for its complete +combustion. Meat in general has a more stimulating effect upon the +system and is more strengthening than vegetable food. There is, +however, a tendency to eat too much meat, and when its effects are not +counter-balanced by free outdoor exercise, it causes biliousness and +sometimes gout and other troubles. Albuminous foods can be eaten +longer alone without exciting loathing than can fats, sugars or +starches. A carbonaceous diet taxes the excretory organs less than +animal food. Meat is not necessary to life. Nitrogenous food man must +have, but it need not be in the form of meat. The estimate commonly +given is, that meat should occupy one-fourth and vegetable food +three-fourths of a mixed diet, but in many cases the meat eaten is +much in excess of this allowance. The proper association of different +foods always keeps healthy people in better condition; there are +times, however, when it may be necessary to abstain from certain +articles of diet. It may be well to bear in mind, that the protein +compounds can do the work of the carbohydrates and fats in being +consumed for fuel, but the carbohydrates and fats cannot do the work +of protein in building and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> repairing the tissues of the body. As +already stated, a mixed diet is the only rational one for man. An +exclusively vegetable diet, while it may maintain a condition of +health for a time, eventually results in a loss of strength and power +to resist disease. Therefore it is necessary to understand the +approximate value of each class of food in arranging the daily +dietary.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2> + +<h3>Food and Economy.</h3> + + +<p>It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of +moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the +same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for +them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes +nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds +of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat +flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for +nourishment, but not in the proportion best adapted for ordinary use. +A man might live on beef alone, but it would be a very one-sided and +imperfect diet. Meat and bread together make the essentials of a +healthful diet. In order to give a general idea of food economy, it +will be necessary to deal briefly with the functions of the various +food principles. As our bodies contain a great deal of muscle, the +waste of which is repaired by protein found in such food as lean meat, +eggs, cheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish, etc., a supply of these +articles must be considered in purchasing the daily supply. Fatty +tissue (not muscle) serves as fuel, therefore the value of such foods +as butter, cream, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates form fat and +serve as fuel and force producers; these come in the form of starches, +sugars,—vegetables and grains being the most important. In being +themselves burned to yield energy, the nutrients protect each other +from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like +those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> of foods. An important use of the carbohydrates and fats is to +protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. "The most healthful +food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user: the +cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment +at the least cost: the best food is that which is both healthful and +cheap." By referring to the various charts a fair estimate of food +values may be obtained.</p> + +<p>As will be noticed, the animal foods contain the most protein and +fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. A pound of +cheese may have 0.28 pound of protein, as much as a man at ordinary +work needs for a day's sustenance, while a pound of milk would have +only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02 pound of protein. The +materials which have the most fats and carbohydrates have the highest +fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2.995 +calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only .315 +calories. On the other hand, the nutritive material of the codfish +would consist almost entirely of protein, while the pork contains very +little. Among the vegetable foods, peas and beans have a high +proportion of protein. Oatmeal contains a large proportion also. +Potatoes are low in fuel value as well as in protein, because they are +three-fourths water. For the same reason milk, which is seven-eights +water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value, hence the +reason why it is not so valuable as food for an adult as many of the +other food materials.</p> + +<p>These few illustrations will help to show the need of an intelligent +idea of food values before attempting to purchase the supplies for +family use. As one-half a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> laboring man's income goes towards +providing food, it must follow that such knowledge will help the +housewife very materially in securing the best results from the amount +expended.</p> + +<p>The <i>average daily diet</i> of an adult should contain (Church):—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Average daily diet of an adult"> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">Nutrients.</span></td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">In 100 Parts.</span></td> + <td colspan="3" align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">Each 24 Hours.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">lb.</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">oz.</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">gr. </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Water</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">81.5</td> + <td align='right'>5</td> + <td align='right'>8</td> + <td align='right'>.320</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Albuminoids</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> 3.9</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>4</td> + <td align='right'>.178</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Fat</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> 3.0</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>3</td> + <td align='right'>.337</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Common salt</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> 3.7</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>.325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-bottom:solid 2px;">Phosphates, potash, salts, etc.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-bottom:solid 2px;"> 0.3</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom:solid 2px;">0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom:solid 2px;">0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom:solid 2px;">0.170</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<h3>Quantity of Food Required.</h3> + +<p>The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous +condition depends upon the following conditions:—(1) Climate and +season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized +countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain +health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of +food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts +one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence +the need for more or less food. Abundant clothing in cold weather +conserves the body heat; less food is therefore required to maintain +life. Exercise and muscular work cause greater oxidation in the +tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must be replaced by +proper food. Outdoor work requires more food than indoor, and physical +labor more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten +years requires half as much food as a grown woman, and one of fourteen +an equal amount. The rapidly growing active boy often eats as much as +a man, and the middle-aged man requires more than the aged. A man of +seventy years may preserve health on a quantity which would soon +starve his grandson."</p> + +<p>Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain +and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which have not +yet been solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and +phosphorus, which are found in protein compounds but not in the true +fats, sugars, and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen and +oxygen. We naturally infer that the protein compounds must be +especially concerned in building up brain and nerve, and keeping them +in repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question +which has not yet been decided. In general it appears that a man or a +woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without +vigorous exercise and does but little hard muscular work, needs much +less than the man at hard manual labor, and that the brain worker +needs comparatively little of carbohydrates or fats. Many physicians, +physiologists and students of hygiene have become convinced that +well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too +much; that the diet of people of this class as a whole is one-sided as +well as excessive, and that the principal evil is the use of too much +fat, starch and sugar. It is well to remember that it is the quantity +of food digested which builds the body, and more injury is likely to +result from over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>of having food cooked so as to aid digestion. The following dietary +standards may be interesting to the more advanced pupils, housewives, +etc.:—</p> + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Standards for Daily Diet of Laboring Man at Moderate Muscular +Work.</span> +<br /><br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Standards for Daily Diet of Laboring Man at Moderate Muscular +Work."> +<tr> + <td style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 2px;;">Nutrients in Daily Food.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Author.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> Fats.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;"> Carbohydrates.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> Fuel Value.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">lb.</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">lb.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">lb.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;">Calories.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Playfair, England</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.26</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.11</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.17 </td> + <td align='center'>3.140</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Moleschotte, Italy</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.29</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.09</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.21 </td> + <td align='center'>3.160</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Wolff, Germany</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.28</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.08</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.19 </td> + <td align='center'>3.030</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Voit, Germany</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.26</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.10 </td> + <td align='center'>3.055</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Atwater, United States</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.28</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> 17.33</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">88.1.21 </td> + <td align='center'>3.500</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<h3>Quality of Food.</h3> + +<p>It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard +to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter, +etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. <i>Poor +cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment.</i> No doubt a well +broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of +the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in +nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the +cheaper pieces of beef equally palatable. That expensive food is not +necessary to maintain life has been clearly demonstrated by the +traditional diet of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and herring; +the Irish, potatoes and buttermilk; New England, codfish and potatoes, +and pork and beans; the Chinese, rice, etc. Monotony of diet, however, +is not recommended, for reasons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> given in a previous chapter, and in +the countries where a special diet prevails owing to the climate, +nature of soil and markets, the results have not warranted us in +believing that it is as good as a mixed diet. From this necessarily +brief outline of the food question we have learned (1) that a +knowledge of the requirements of the body are absolutely necessary in +regulating a proper diet; (2) to furnish the food principles in a +cheap rather than a dear form; (3) to understand the art of cookery so +as to secure the full nutritive value and at the same time stimulate +the appetite; (4) the value of economy in regard to food principles. +When the housekeeper has acquired this knowledge she will have covered +the field of food economy. Prof. Atwater says: "When we know what are +the kinds and amount of nutritive substances our bodies need and our +food materials contain, then and not till then shall we be able to +adjust our diet to the demands of health and purse."</p> + + +<h3>Cooking of Food.</h3> + +<p>It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities +will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the +customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of +civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the +definition of the term as it concerns ourselves.</p> + +<p>Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for +the conversion of food material."</p> + +<p>As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to +render it more palatable, more digestible, and with the greatest +economy of time, fuel and money,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> is an object deserving the most +careful attention. The art of cooking lies in the power to develop +certain flavors which are agreeable to the palate, or in other words, +which "make the mouth water," without interfering with the nutritive +qualities of the food prepared, to understand by what method certain +foods may be rendered more digestible, and to provide variety. +Monotony of diet and of flavor lessens the appetite and fails to +stimulate the digestive organs.</p> + +<p>The chemical changes, produced by cooking food properly, aid +digestion, beside destroying any germs which may be contained in the +food. Nearly all foods—except fruit—require cooking. The +digestibility of starch depends almost entirely upon the manner in +which it is cooked, especially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are +sure to follow the use of improperly cooked grains or starches. (See +Chap. VII.)</p> + + +<h3>Methods.</h3> + +<p>The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1) +boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6) +braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BOILING.</div> + +<p>Water boils at a temperature of 212° F. Simmering should be at a +temperature of from 175° F. to 180° F. When water has reached the +boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted +into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has +already reached the boiling point.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">STEWING.</div> + +<p>Stewing allows the juices of the meat to become dissolved in water +heated to the simmering <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>point. The juices thus dissolved are eaten +with the meat. If not injured by the addition of rich sauces or fats, +this is usually a very digestible method of preparing certain kinds of +meat.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BROILING.</div> + +<p>Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coals. A coating of +coagulated albumen is formed upon the outer surface. This coating +prevents the evaporation of the juices, which with the extractive +materials are retained and improve the flavor. Meat cooked in this way +has a decided advantage, in both flavor and nutritive value, over that +which has been boiled or stewed. There are, however, only certain +kinds of meat that are suitable for broiling.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">FRYING.</div> + +<p>Frying is cooking in hot fat. The boiling point of fat is far above +that of water. Fat should not be heated above 400° F., as it will then +turn dark and emit a disagreeable odor. Fried food, unless very +carefully prepared, is considered unwholesome. The only proper method +for frying is to immerse the food completely in a bath of hot fat.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BRAISING.</div> + +<p>Braising is cooking meat in a covered vessel surrounded by a solution +of vegetable and animal juices in a strong but not boiling +temperature. Tough meat may be rendered very palatable and nutritious +by cooking in this way. The cover of the pan or kettle must fit +closely enough to prevent evaporation. It requires long, steady +cooking. The flavor is improved by browning the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> meat in either hot +fat or in a very hot oven before braising.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BAKING.</div> + +<p>Baking is cooking in confined heat. Meat properly cooked in an oven is +considered by many authorities as quite equal in delicacy of flavor to +that roasted before a fire, and is equally digestible.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">STEAMING.</div> + +<p>Steaming is cooking food over condensed steam, and is an excellent +method for preparing food which requires long, slow cooking. Puddings, +cereals, and other glutinous mixtures are often cooked in this way. It +is an economical method, and has the advantage of developing flavor +without loss of substance.</p> + + +<h3>Food Preservation.</h3> + +<p>Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking, +(3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7) +addition of antiseptic and preservative substances.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">DRYING.</div> + +<p>Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by +housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by +drying, the latter with the addition of salt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">SMOKING.</div> + +<p>Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish, +which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a +long time until they absorb a certain percentage of antiseptic +material, which prevents the fat from becoming rancid, and the albumen +from putrefying. Well smoked bacon cut thin and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> properly cooked is a +digestible form of fatty food, especially for tubercular patients. +Smoking improves the digestibility of ham.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">SALTING.</div> + +<p>Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. The addition +of a little saltpetre helps to preserve the color of the meat. Brine +is frequently used to temporarily preserve meat and other substances. +Corned beef is a popular form of salt preservation. All salted meats +require long, slow cooking. They should always be placed in cold water +and heated gradually in order to extract the salt. Salt meats are less +digestible and not quite so nutritious as fresh meats.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">FREEZING.</div> + +<p>Food may be kept in a frozen condition almost indefinitely, but will +decompose very quickly when thawed, hence the necessity for cooking +immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of its nutritive value in +cooking.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">REFRIGERATING.</div> + +<p>This process does not involve actual freezing, but implies +preservation in chambers at a temperature maintained a few degrees +above freezing point. This method does not affect the flavor or +nutritive value of food so much as freezing.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">SEALING.</div> + +<p>Sealing is accomplished not only in the process of canning but by +covering with substances which are impermeable. Beef has been +preserved for considerable time by immersing in hot fat in which it +was allowed to remain after cooling.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">CHEMICALS.</div> + +<p>Chemicals are sometimes used in the preservation of food, but the +other methods are safer.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2> + +<h3>Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter.</h3> + + +<p>Animal foods contain nutritive matter in a concentrated form, and +being chemically similar to the composition of the body is doubtless +the reason why they assimilate more readily than vegetable foods, +although the latter are richer in mineral matter. The most valuable +animal foods in common use are meat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin and +fats.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">MEAT.</div> + +<p>Meat is composed of muscular tissue, connective tissue or gristle, +fatty tissue, blood-vessels, nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as +food is due chiefly to the nitrogenous compound it contains, the most +valuable being the albuminoids: the gelatinoid of meat is easily +changed into gelatin by the action of hot water. Gelatin when combined +with the albuminoids and extractives has considerable nutritive value. +Extractives are meat bases, or rather meat which has been dissolved by +water, such as soup stock and beef tea. The object in cooking meat is +to soften and loosen the tissue, which renders it more easily +digested. Another object is to sterilize or kill any germs which may +exist and to make it more palatable. The digestibility of meat is +influenced by the age of the animal killed and the feeding. The +following table is given as an average of the digestibility of animal +foods:—</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Table of Comparative Digestibility</span>. +<br /> +<i>Commencing with the most digestible and ending with the least<br /> +digestible of meats and other animal foods.</i> (Thompson.) +</div> + +<ul> +<li>Oysters.</li> +<li>Soft cooked eggs.</li> +<li>Sweetbread.</li> +<li>Whitefish, etc.</li> +<li>Chicken, boiled or broiled.</li> +<li>Lean roast beef or beefsteak.</li> +<li>Eggs, scrambled, omelette.</li> +<li>Mutton.</li> +<li>Bacon.</li> +<li>Roast fowl, chicken, turkey, etc.</li> +<li>Tripe, brains, liver.</li> +<li>Roast lamb.</li> +<li>Chops, mutton or lamb.</li> +<li>Corn beef.</li> +<li>Veal.</li> +<li>Duck and other game.</li> +<li>Salmon, mackerel, herring.</li> +<li>Roast goose.</li> +<li>Lobster and crabs.</li> +<li>Pork.</li> +<li>Fish, smoked, dried, pickled.</li> +</ul> + + +<div class="center">Cooking affects the digestibility of meat, which is evident from the +figures given in the following table (Church):— +<br /><br /> +<span class="smcap">Time of Digestion</span>. +<br /> +<br /> +</div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Digestion"> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Hours.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, raw</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">2 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, half boiled</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">21/2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, well boiled</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> 23/4 to 3 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, half roasted</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> 23/4 to 3 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, well roasted </td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> 21/4 to 4 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton, raw</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">2 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton, boiled</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">3 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton, roasted</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">31/4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Veal, raw</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">21/2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Pork, raw</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">3 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Pork, roasted</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">51/4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fowl, boiled</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">4 </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Turkey, boiled</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">21/2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Venison, broiled</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">11/2</td> +</tr> + +</table></div> + +<p>It may be well to add here that animal food is more digestible when +cooked between 160° and 180° F. than at a higher temperature.</p> + + +<h3>Cooking of Meat.</h3> + +<div class="center"><i>(For more general information, see Recipes.)</i><br /></div> + +<p>In boiling meat two principles must be considered, the softening of +the fibre and preserving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> of the juices. If the meat alone is to be +used it should be placed in sufficient boiling water to completely +cover, and kept at boiling point (212° F.) for at least ten minutes, +so as to harden the albumen and prevent the escape of the juices. The +temperature should then be allowed to fall to simmering point (175° +F.). If the water is kept boiling it will render the meat tough and +dry. If the juice is to be extracted and the broth used, the meat +should be placed in cold water; if bones are added they should be cut +or broken into small pieces in order that the gelatin may be +dissolved. If the water is heated gradually the soluble materials are +more easily dissolved. The albumen will rise as a scum to the top, but +should not be skimmed off, as it contains the most nutriment and will +settle to the bottom as sediment.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">STEWING.</div> + +<p>If both meat and broth are to be used the process of cooking should be +quite different. In stewing, the meat should be cut into small pieces, +put into cold water in order that the juices, flavoring material and +fibre may be dissolved. The temperature should be gradually raised to +simmering point and remain at that heat for at least three or four +hours, the vessel being kept closely covered. Cooked in this way the +broth will be rich, and the meat tender and juicy. Any suitable +flavoring may be added. This is a good method for cooking meat +containing gristle.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">ROASTING <span class="smcap">and</span> BROILING.</div> + +<p>When the meat alone is to be eaten, either roasting, broiling or +frying in deep fat is a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> economical method, as the juices are +saved. The shrinkage in a roast of meat during cooking is chiefly due +to a loss of water. A small roast will require a hotter fire than a +larger one, in order to harden the exterior and prevent the juices +from escaping. Meat is a poor conductor of heat, consequently a large +roast exposed to this intense heat would become burned before the +interior could be heated. The large roast should be exposed to intense +heat for a few minutes, but the temperature should then be reduced, +and long steady cooking allowed.</p> + +<p>Broiling (see broiling in previous chapter, p. 19.)</p> + + +<h3>Varieties of Meat.</h3> + +<div class="sidenote">BEEF TONGUE.</div> + +<p>Beef tongue is a tender form of meat, but contains too much fat to +agree well with people of delicate digestion.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">VEAL.</div> + +<p>Veal, when obtained from animals killed too young, is apt to be tough, +pale and indigestible, but good veal is considered fairly nutritious. +It contains more gelatin than beef, and in broth is considered +valuable, especially for the sick.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">MUTTON.</div> + +<p>Mutton is considered to be more digestible than beef, that is well fed +mutton from sheep at least three years old; but as it is more +difficult to obtain tender mutton than beef, the latter is more +generally preferred. Mutton broth is wholesome and valuable in +sickness.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">LAMB.</div> + +<p>Lamb, when tender and of the right age, is quite as digestible as beef +or mutton, but the flesh contains too large a proportion of fat.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 557px;"> +<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="557" height="363" alt="Fig. 1.—Diagram of cuts of beef." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1.—Diagram of cuts of beef.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;"> +<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="504" height="363" alt="Fig. 2.—Diagram of cuts of veal." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2.—Diagram of cuts of veal.</span> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 521px;"> +<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="521" height="329" alt="Fig. 3.—Diagram of cuts of pork." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 3.—Diagram of cuts of pork.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 543px;"> +<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="543" height="379" alt="Fig. 4.—Diagram of cuts of mutton." title="" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4.—Diagram of cuts of mutton.</span> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> +<div class="sidenote">VENISON.</div> + +<p>Venison is a tender meat with short fibres, which is very digestible +when obtained from young deer, but is considered to be rather too +stimulating. Its chemical composition is similar to lean beef.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">PORK.</div> + +<p>Pork is a tender-fibred meat, but is very indigestible owing to the +high percentage of fat, which is considerably more than the +nitrogenous material it contains. Pork ribs may have as much as 42 per +cent. of fat.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">HAM AND BACON.</div> + +<p>Ham is more digestible when well boiled and eaten cold. Bacon is more +easily digested than either ham or pork; when cut thin and cooked +quickly—until transparent and crisp—it can often be eaten by +dyspeptics, and forms an excellent food for consumptives.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">FOWL.</div> + +<p>Chicken is one of the most digestible of meats, contains considerable +phosphorus and is particularly valuable as food for invalids. Turkey +is somewhat less digestible than chicken. Ducks and geese are +difficult of digestion, unless quite young, on account of the fat they +contain.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">GAME.</div> + +<p>Game, if well cooked, is fairly digestible.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">SWEETBREAD.</div> + +<p>Sweetbread, which is thymus gland of the calf, is a delicate and +agreeable article of diet, particularly for invalids. Tripe, heart, +liver and kidneys are other forms of animal viscera used as +food—valuable chiefly as affording variety.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">FISH.</div> + +<p>The chief difference in fish is the coarseness of fibre and the +quantity of fat present. Fish which are highly flavored and fat, while +they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> may be nutritious, are much less easy of digestion than +flounder, sole, whitefish, and the lighter varieties. The following +fish contain the largest percentage of albuminoids:—Red snapper, +whitefish, brook trout, salmon, bluefish, shad, eels, mackerel, +halibut, haddock, lake trout, bass, cod and flounder. The old theory +that fish constituted "brain food," on account of the phosphorus it +contained, has proved to be entirely without foundation, as in reality +many fish contain less of this element than meat. The tribes which +live largely on fish are not noted for intellectuality. Fish having +white meat when broiled or boiled—not fried—are excellent food for +invalids or people of weak digestion. Fish should be well cooked.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">OYSTERS.</div> + +<p>Oysters are a nutritious food, and may be eaten either raw or cooked. +Lobsters, crabs and shrimps are called "sea scavengers," and unless +absolutely fresh are not a desirable food.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">MILK.</div> + +<p>Milk contains all the elements which are necessary to maintain life; +and constitutes a complete diet for infants. It will sustain life in +an adult for several months. Although milk furnishes a useful food, it +is not essential to a diet required for active bodily exercise. It is +seldom given to athletes while in active training. Adults who are able +to eat any kind of food are kept in better health by abstaining from +milk, except as used for cooking purposes. An occasional glass of hot +milk taken as a stimulant for tired brain and nerves is sometimes +beneficial.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> Milk is composed of water, salts, fat, milk sugar or +lactose, albumen and casein. Average milk has from 8 to 10 per cent. +of cream. Good milk should form a layer of cream about 2-1/2 in. thick +as it stands in a quart bottle. Lactose (milk sugar) is an important +ingredient in milk. It is less liable to ferment in the stomach than +cane sugar. In the presence of fermenting nitrogenous material it is +converted into lactic acid, making the milk sour. Casein is present in +milk chiefly in its alkaline form, and in conjunction with calcium +phosphate. Milk absorbs germs from the air and from unclean vessels +very readily. Good, clean, uncontaminated milk ought to keep fresh, +exposed in a clean room at a temperature of 68° F., for 48 hours +without souring. If the milk is tainted in any way it will sour in a +few hours. Boiled milk will keep fresh half as long again as fresh +milk. Milk absorbs odors very quickly, therefore should never be left +in a refrigerator with stale cheese, ham, vegetables, etc., unless in +an air-tight jar. It should never be left exposed in a sick room or +near waste pipes. Absolute cleanliness is necessary for the +preservation of milk; vessels in which it is to be kept must be +thoroughly scalded with boiling water, not merely washed out with warm +water.</p> + + +<p><i>Methods of Preserving Milk.</i></p> + +<div class="sidenote">STERILIZED MILK.</div> + +<p>Milk to be thoroughly sterilized and germ free must be heated to the +boiling point (212° F.).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> This may be done by putting the milk into +perfectly clean bottles and placing in a rack, in a kettle of boiling +water, remaining until it reaches the necessary degree of heat. The +bottle should be closely covered <i>immediately</i> after with absorbent +cotton or cotton batting in order to prevent other germs getting into +the milk.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">PASTEURIZED MILK.</div> + +<p>The difference between pasteurizing and sterilizing is only in the +degree of heat to which the milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the +milk is kept at a temperature of 170° F. from 10 to 20 minutes. This +is considered a better method for treating milk which is to be given +to young children, as it is more easily digested than sterilized milk. +All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in warm weather, +especially for children.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">CHEESE.</div> + +<p>Cheese is one of the most nutritious of foods, and when meat is scarce +makes an excellent substitute, as it contains more protein than meat. +Cheese is the separated casein of milk, which includes some of the +fats and salts.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">EGGS.</div> + +<p>Eggs contain all the ingredients necessary to support life. Out of an +egg the entire structure of the bird—bones, nerves, muscles, viscera, +and feathers—is developed. The inner portion of the shell is +dissolved to furnish phosphate for the bones. The composition of a +hen's egg is about as follows (Church):—</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of a hen's egg"> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">White—In <br />100 parts.</td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Yolk—In <br />100 parts.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Water</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">84.8</td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Water</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">51.5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Albumen</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12.0</td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Casein and albumen</td> + <td align='right'>15.0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Fat, sugar, extractives, etc.</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2.0</td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oil and fat</td> + <td align='right'>30.0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Mineral matter</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.2</td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pigment extractives, etc.</td> + <td align='right'>2.1</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Mineral matter</td> + <td align='right'>1.4</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The albumen—or the "white"—of an egg is greatly altered by cooking. +When heated beyond boiling point it becomes a very indigestible +substance. Eggs cooked at a temperature of about 170° F., leaving the +whites soft, are easily digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in +1-1/2 hour, while a baked egg requires from 2 to 3 hours. Eggs <i>baked</i> +in puddings, or in any other manner, form one of the most insoluble +varieties of albumen.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">GELATIN.</div> + +<p>Gelatin is obtained from bones, ligaments, and other connective +tissues. In combinations with other foods it has considerable +nutritive value. The place given to it by scientists is to save the +albumen of the body; as it does not help to form tissue or repair +waste it cannot replace albumen entirely. Gelatin will not sustain +life, but when used in the form of soup stock, etc., is considered +valuable as a stimulant.</p> + +<hr style="width: 45%;" /> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Legumes—Peas, Beans and Lentils.</span></h3> + +<p>These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being +inferior in quality to that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> contained in meat, they can scarcely be +given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an +intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the +standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value, +especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.)</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2> + +<h3>Fats and Oils.</h3> + + +<p>Fats and oils contain three elements—carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. +About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results +from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">USES OF FAT.</div> + +<p>(1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply +force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to +lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the +tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose, +and come before the carbohydrates in fuel and force value; in +combination with proteids, they form valuable foods for those engaged +in severe muscular exercise, such as army marching, mining +expeditions, etc.</p> + +<p>Fats and oils are but little changed during digestion. The fat is +divided into little globules by the action of the pancreatic juice and +other digestive elements, and is absorbed by the system. Fat forms the +chief material in adipose tissue, a fatty layer lying beneath the +skin, which keeps the warmth in the body, and is re-absorbed into the +blood, keeping up heat and activity, and preserving other tissues +during abstinence from food. Fat sometimes aids the digestion of +starchy foods by preventing them from forming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> lumpy masses in the +mouth and stomach, hence the value of using butter with bread, +potatoes, etc. The animal fats are more nutritive than the vegetable, +butter and cream heading the list. Cooking fats at a very high +temperature, such as frying, causes a reaction or decomposition, which +irritates the mucous membrane and interferes with digestion.</p> + +<p>The principal animal fats are butter, cream, lard, suet, the fat of +mutton, pork, bacon, beef, fish and cod liver oil. The vegetable fats +and oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds, olives, and +nuts. The most important fats and oils for household purposes are:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BUTTER.</div> + +<p>Butter, which contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of water, 11.7 per cent. +fat, 0.5 per cent. casein, 0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The +addition of salt to butter prevents fermentation. Butter will not +support life when taken alone, but with other foods is highly +nutritious and digestible.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">CREAM.</div> + +<p>Cream is one of the most wholesome and agreeable forms of fat. It is +an excellent substitute for cod liver oil in tuberculosis. Ice cream +when eaten slowly is very nutritious.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">LARD.</div> + +<p>Lard is hog fat, separated by melting.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">SUET.</div> + +<p>Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">COTTOLENE.</div> + +<p>Cottolene is a preparation of cotton-seed oil.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">OLEOMARGARINE.</div> + +<p>Oleomargarine is a preparation of beef fat provided as a substitute +for butter.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> +<div class="sidenote">OLIVE OIL.</div> + +<p>Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is considered to be very +wholesome; in some cases being preferred to either cod-liver oil or +cream for consumptives.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">COTTON SEED OIL.</div> + +<p>Cotton seed oil is frequently substituted for olive oil.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">NUTS.</div> + +<p>Nuts contain a good deal of oil.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2> + +<h3>Carbohydrate Foods.</h3> + + +<p>The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as +laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course, +more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many +starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich +in proteids.</p> + +<p>The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):—</p> + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Percentage of Starch in Vegetable Foods</span>.<br /><br /></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Percentage of Starch in Vegetable Foods"> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px; border-top: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Per Cent.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px; border-top: solid 2px;">Wheat bread</td> + <td align="right" style="border-top: solid 2px;">55.5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Wheat flour</td> + <td align="right">75.6</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Graham flour</td> + <td align="right">71.8</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rye flour</td> +<td align="right">78.7</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Buckwheat flour </td> + <td align="right">77.6</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beans</td> + <td align="right">57.4</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td> + <td align="right">68.1</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cornmeal</td> + <td align="right">71.0</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rice </td> + <td align="right">79.4</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align="right">21.3</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sweet Potatoes </td> + <td align="right">21.1</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td> + <td align="right">6.9</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Carrots</td> + <td align="right">10.1</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cabbage</td> + <td align="right">6.2</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Melons</td> + <td align="right">2.5</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apples</td> + <td align="right">14.3</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pears</td> + <td align="right">16.3</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Bananas</td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">23.3</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat, +oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes. +Vegetable proteids, as already stated, are less easily digested than +those belonging to the animal kingdom, therefore it must be remembered +that a purely vegetable diet, even though it may be so arranged as to +provide the necessary protein, is apt to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> over-tax the digestive +organs more than a mixed diet from both the animal and vegetable +kingdoms. Much depends upon the cooking of the starchy foods in order +to render them digestible. (Study chapter on Digestion in the Public +School Physiology.)</p> + +<div class="sidenote">STARCH.</div> + +<p>The digestion of starch—which is insoluble in cold water—really +begins with the cooking, which by softening the outer coating or fibre +of the grains, causes them to swell and burst, thereby preparing them +for the chemical change which is caused by the action of the saliva in +converting the starch into a species of sugar before it enters the +stomach. Substances which are insoluble in cold water cannot be +absorbed into the blood, therefore are not of any value as food until +they have become changed, and made soluble, which overtaxes the +digestive organs and causes trouble. The temperature of the saliva is +too low to dissolve the starch fibre unaided. Each of the digestive +juices has its own work to do, and the saliva acts directly upon the +starchy food; hence the importance of thoroughly masticating such food +as bread, potatoes, rice, cereals, etc. The action of heat, in baking, +which causes the vapor to rise, and forms the crust of starchy food, +produces what is called dextrine, or partially digested starch. +Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence the ease with which crust and +toast—when properly made—are digested. It is more important to +thoroughly chew starchy food than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> meat, as it is mixed with another +digestive juice, which acts upon it in the stomach.</p> + + +<h3>Sugars.</h3> + +<div class="sidenote">SUGAR.</div> + +<p>There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar, +grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars +have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its +solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in +sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and +nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and +can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular +work. Cane sugar is the clarified and crystallized juice of the sugar +cane. Nearly half the sugar used in the world comes from sugar cane, +the other half from beet roots. The latter is not quite so sweet as +the cane sugar. Sugar is also made from the sap of the maple tree, but +this is considered more of a luxury; consequently, not generally used +for cooking purposes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">MOLASSES <span class="smcap">and</span> TREACLE.</div> + +<p>Molasses and treacle are formed in the process of crystallizing and +refining sugar. Treacle is the waste drained from moulds used in +refining sugar, and usually contains more or less dirt.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">GLUCOSE.</div> + +<p>Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufactured from starch. It is +found in almost all the sweeter varieties of fruit. It is not so +desirable for general use as cane sugar.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">HONEY.</div> + +<p>Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees from the nectar of flowering +plants, and stored<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> by them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13, +fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous matter 1.29, mineral +matter 0.12 per cent. (Konig.)</p> + + +<h3>Grains.</h3> + +<p>While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more +valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them, +and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They, +however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and +render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place:</p> + +<div class="sidenote">WHEAT.</div> + +<p>A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer +one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the +starch. Some of the mineral matter for which wheat is so valuable is +contained in the bran, hence the value of at least a portion of that +part of the wheat being included in bread flour—not by the addition +of coarse bran (which is indigestible) to the ordinary flour, but by +the refining process employed in producing whole wheat flour. While +wheat is used in other forms, its principal use as food is in the form +of flour.</p> + +<p>The following table, giving the composition of bread from wheat and +maize, will be of interest (Stone):—</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Composition of Bread from Wheat and Maize</span>.<br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Bread from Wheat and Maize"> +<tr> + <td style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="6" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">In Air-Dry Material.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Water.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Ash.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fat.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fibre.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Nitrogen<br />free<br />extract.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole winter wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3.07</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.33</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.22</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.86</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 15.70</td> + <td align='right'>74.82</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole spring wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 7.46</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.69</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.24</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.80</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15.26</td> + <td align='right'> 71.55</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, winter wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10.39</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .59</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .32</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .44</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">11.94</td> + <td align='right'> 76.32</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, spring wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8.00</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .43</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .47</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .39</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">14.41</td> + <td align='right'> 76.30</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Corn bread from whole maize</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 3.40</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 1.88</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 4.14</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 2.53</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">12.88</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 75.17</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="5" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">In Dry Matter.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Ash.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fat.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fibre.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Nitrogen<br />free<br />extract.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole winter wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.40</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.25</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.95</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 16.20</td> + <td align='right'> 77.20</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole spring wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.82</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.34</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3.02</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 16.49</td> + <td align='right'> 77.33</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, winter wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.66</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.35</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.49</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 13.33</td> + <td align='right'> 85.17</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, spring wheat</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.47</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.51</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.42</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 15.66</td> + <td align='right'> 82.94</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Corn bread from whole maize</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 1.95</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 4.29</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 2.62</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 13.33</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 77.81 </td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">BREAD.</div> + +<p>The most valuable food product manufactured from flour is bread.</p> + +<p>Bread contains so many of the ingredients required to nourish the +body, viz.: fat, proteid, salts, sugar and starch, that it may well be +termed the "staff of life." As it does not contain enough fat for a +perfect food the addition of butter to it renders it more valuable as +an article of diet. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives the following +explanation of what constitutes ideal bread: "(1) It should retain as +much as possible of the nutritive principles of the grain from which +it is made; (2) it should be prepared in such a manner as to secure +the complete assimilation of these nutritive principles; (3) it should +be light and porous, so as to allow the digestive juices to penetrate +it quickly and thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free from +coarse bran, which causes too rapid muscular action to allow of +complete digestion. This effect is also produced when the bread is +sour." Bread is made from a combination of flour, liquid (either milk +or water), and a vegetable ferment called yeast (see yeast recipes). +The yeast acts slowly or rapidly according to the temperature to which +it is exposed. The starch has to be changed by the ferment called +diastase (diastase is a vegetable ferment which converts starchy foods +into a soluble material called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into +alcohol and carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), when it makes itself +known by the bubbles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> which appear and the gradual swelling of the +whole mass. It is the effect of the carbonic acid gas upon the gluten, +which, when checked at the proper time before the ferment becomes +acetic (sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome bread which is +the pride of all good housekeepers. The kneading of bread is to break +up the gas bubbles into small portions in order that there may be no +large holes and the fermentation be equal throughout. The loaf is +baked in order to kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, to +expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the alcohol, to stiffen the +gluten and to form a crust which shall have a pleasant flavor. Much of +the indigestibility of bread is owing to the imperfect baking; unless +the interior of the loaf has reached the sterilizing point, 212° F., +the bacteria contained in the yeast will not be killed, and some of +the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf. The scientific method +of baking bread is to fix the air cells as quickly as possible at +first. This can be done better by baking the bread in small loaves in +separate pans, thereby securing a uniform heat and more crust, which +is considered to be the most easily digested part of the bread. Some +cooks consider that long, slow baking produces a more desirable flavor +and renders bread more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour will +make an average of one hundred and thirty-five pounds of bread. This +increase of weight is due to the addition of water.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">MACARONI.</div> + +<p>Macaroni is a flour preparation of great food value. It contains about +six per cent. more gluten than bread, and is regarded by Sir Henry +Thompson as equal to meat for flesh-forming purposes. Dieticians say +that macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli are not used so extensively as +their value deserves.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BUCKWHEAT.</div> + +<p>Buckwheat is the least important of the cereals.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">RYE.</div> + +<p>Rye is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. Its treatment in +regard to bread making is similar to that of wheat.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">CORN.</div> + +<p>Corn contains fat, proteid and starch, and produces heat and energy. +It is very fattening, and when eaten as a vegetable is considered +difficult of digestion. Cornmeal is a wholesome food; it contains more +fat than wheat flour, and less mineral matter.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">RICE.</div> + +<p>Rice constitutes a staple food of a great many of the world's +inhabitants. It contains more starch than any other cereal, but when +properly cooked is very easily digested. It should be combined with +some animal food, as it contains too little nitrogen to satisfy the +demands of the system. It forms a wholesome combination with fruit, +such as apples, peaches, prunes, berries, etc.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BARLEY.</div> + +<p>Barley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. It contains more +fat, mineral matter and cellulose (cellulose is often called +indigestible fibre, as it resists the solvent action of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> digestive +juices, and is of no value as a nutrient), and less proteid and +digestible carbohydrates.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">OATMEAL.</div> + +<p>Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods. Oats contain fat, proteid, +salts and cellulose, in addition to a large percentage of starch. The +nutritive value of oatmeal is great, but much depends upon the manner +of cooking. (See recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should lead a +vigorous outdoor life. The following analysis of oatmeal is given +(Letheby):—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Analysis of oatmeal"> +<tr><td align='left'>Nitrogenous matter</td><td align="right">12.6</td><td align="center"> per cent.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates, starch, etc.</td><td align="right">63.8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fatty matter</td><td align="right">5.6</td><td align="center"> "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mineral matter</td><td align="right">3.0</td><td align="center"> "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align="right">15.0</td><td align="center"> "</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align='right'>——</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Total</td><td align="right">100.0</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<h3>Vegetables.</h3> + +<p>Legumes—peas, beans and lentils—have an exceedingly leathery +envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water—in +order to soften the woody fibre—and are then cooked slowly for some +hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very +nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which +form they are used in soups.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">POTATOES.</div> + +<p>Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet +they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourths water. +They contain some mineral matter, hence the reason why they are better +boiled and baked in their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> skins, so as to prevent the escape of the +salts into the water. Potatoes are more easily digested when baked +than cooked in any other form.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BEETS.</div> + +<p>Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of starch and sugar, some +salts, and a little over one per cent. of proteid matter. Young beets, +either in the form of a vegetable or a salad, are considered to be +very wholesome.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">CARROTS, TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, OYSTER PLANT.</div> + +<p>Carrots, turnips, parsnips and oyster plant, although containing a +large percentage of water, are considered valuable as nutrients, the +turnip being the least nutritious.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">GREEN VEGETABLES.</div> + +<p>Green vegetables do not contain much nutriment, and are chiefly +valuable as affording a pleasing variety in diet; also for supplying +mineral matter and some acids. In this class we may include cabbage, +cauliflower, spinach, lettuce and celery.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">TOMATOES.</div> + +<p>Tomatoes are wholesome vegetables; on account of the oxalic acid they +contain they do not always agree with people of delicate digestion.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">CUCUMBERS.</div> + +<p>Cucumbers are neither wholesome nor digestible.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">ASPARAGUS.</div> + +<p>Asparagus is a much prized vegetable. The substance called asparagin +which it contains is supposed to possess some value.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">RHUBARB.</div> + +<p>Rhubarb is a wholesome vegetable.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">ONIONS, GARLIC, SHALLOTS.</div> + +<p>Onions, garlic, and shallots are valuable both as condiments and eaten +separately. They contain more nutrients than the last vegetables +considered.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2> + +<h3>Fruits.</h3> + + +<p>Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable +jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids +in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in +lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in +apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the +least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries +are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid +of all.</p> + + +<h3>Uses of Fruit.</h3> + +<p>(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and +relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and +acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics; +(5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite, +improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and +oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and +magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is +highly beneficial, and should be used freely in season. Cooked fruit +is more easily digested than raw, and when over-ripe should always be +cooked in order to prevent fruit poisoning.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">NUTS.</div> + +<p>Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and sugar, but are not +considered valuable as nutrients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English +walnuts are the most nutritious.</p> + + +<h3>Beverages.</h3> + +<div class="sidenote">TEA.</div> + +<p>Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is +also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a +preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The +difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of +preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains +more tannin than black. The following table will show the +difference:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Black and green tea"> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">Green Tea.</span></td> + <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Black Tea.</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Crude protein</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">37.43</td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">38.90</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fibre</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10.06</td> + <td align='right'>10.07</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Ash (mineral matter)</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4.92</td> + <td align="right">4.93</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Theine</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3.20</td> + <td align="right">3.30</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tannin</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10.64</td> + <td align="right">4.89</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total nitrogen</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">5.99</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">6.22</td> +</tr> +</table><br /></div> + +<p>The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color +and flavor, depend upon the season of the year at which the leaves are +gathered, the variety of the plant, the age of the leaves, which +become tough as they grow older, and the care exercised in their +preparation. Much depends upon the manner in which tea is infused. (1) +Use freshly boiled water; (2) allow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> it to infuse only three or four +minutes, in order to avoid extracting the tannin. When carefully +prepared as above, tea is not considered unwholesome for people in +good health.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">COFFEE.</div> + +<p>Coffee is made from the berries of coffee-arabica, which are dried, +roasted and browned. The following table gives an approximate idea of +the composition of coffee beans (Konig):—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of coffee beans"> +<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>1.15</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'> 14.48</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Crude fibre</td><td align='right'>19.89</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash (mineral matter)</td><td align='right'> 4.75</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Caffeine</td><td align='right'> 1.24</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Albuminoids</td><td align='right'>13.98</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Other nitrogenous matter </td><td align='right'>45.09</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sugar, gum and dextrin</td><td align='right'>1.66</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Coffee is frequently adulterated with chicory, which is harmless. +Coffee should not be allowed to boil long or stand in the coffee pot +over a fire, as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more +indigestible. Much controversy has been indulged in over the effect of +coffee upon the system, but like many other similar questions it has +not reached a practical solution. The general opinion seems to be that +when properly made and used in moderation it is a valuable stimulant +and not harmful to adults.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">COCOA.</div> + +<p>Cocoa and chocolate contain more food substances than tea or coffee, +although their use in this respect is not of much value. The following +table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):—</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Analysis of cocoa"> +<tr><td align='left'>Theobromine</td><td align='right'>1.73</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Total nitrogenous substance</td><td align='right'>19.28</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>30.51</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>3.83</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Ash (mineral matter)</td><td align='right'> 8.30</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fibre and non-nitrogenous extract</td><td align='right'> 37.48</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="sidenote">ALCOHOL.</div> + +<p>The use of alcohol is wholly unnecessary for the health of the human +organism. (See Public School Physiology and Temperance.)</p> + + +<h3>Condiments.</h3> + +<p>Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little +nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very +injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve +monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry, +pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is +the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on +mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more +palatable without being injured is one of the fine arts in cookery. +Some flavors, such as lemon juice, vinegar, etc., increase the solvent +properties of the gastric juice, making certain foods more +digestible.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2> + +<h3>Preparing Food.</h3> + + +<p>The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of +little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge +of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in +whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first +requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of +fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal, +kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for +kindling and for a quick fire. Hard woods, oak, ash, etc., burn more +slowly, retain the heat longer, and are better adapted for cooking +purposes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">COAL.</div> + +<p>Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon. It kindles slowly, +gives a steady heat, and burns for a longer time without attention +than wood. Stoves for burning oil and gas have become popular, and are +very convenient and satisfactory for cooking purposes.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">OIL.</div> + +<p>Oil is considered to be the cheapest fuel.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">GAS.</div> + +<p>Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking purposes, but can only be +used in certain localities.</p> + +<h3>Making and Care of a Fire.</h3> + +<div class="sidenote">CARE OF A FIRE.</div> +<p>Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range. +The plainer the range the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> easier it will be to keep it clean. There +should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to +check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before +beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the +soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate +(saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper, +then kindling arranged crosswise, allowing plenty of air space between +the pieces, a little hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on the +covers, open the direct draft and oven damper, then light the paper. +When the wood is thoroughly kindled and the first layer of coal +heated, fill the fire-box with coal even with the top of the oven. +When the blue flame becomes white, close the oven damper, and when the +coal is burning freely, shut the direct draft. When coal becomes +bright red all through it has lost most of its heat. A great deal of +coal is wasted by filling the fire-box too full and leaving the drafts +open till the coal is red. To keep a steady fire it is better to add a +little coal often rather than to add a large quantity and allow it to +burn out. Never allow dust or cinders to accumulate around a range, +either inside or out. Learn to open and shut the oven door quietly and +quickly. Study the amount of fire required to heat the oven to the +desired temperature. Learn which is the hotter or cooler side of the +oven, and move the article which is being baked as required, being +very careful to move it gently.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p><h3>Measurements.</h3> + +<p>Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As +there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping +spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level +spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and +the cup is one holding 1/2 pint.</p> + +<p>The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Measurements"> +<tr> + <td align='left'>4 cups of flour</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="left">pound</td> + <td align="left">or 1 quart.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>2 cups of solid butter</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1/2 cup butter</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1/4</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>2 cups granulated sugar</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>21/2 cups powdered sugar</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>3 cups meal</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1 pint of milk or water</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>1 pint chopped meat, packed solidly</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>9 large eggs, 10 medium eggs</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>2 level tablespoonfuls butter</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">ounce.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>4 " " "</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="center">ounces</td> + <td align="left">or 1/4 cup.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Butter the size of an egg</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>2 level tablespoonfuls sugar</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>4 " " flour</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>4 " " coffee</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>4 " " powdered sugar</td> + <td align="center">=</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align="center">"</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + + +<h3>Table of Abbreviations.</h3> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Abbreviations."> +<tr><td align='left'>Saltspoon</td><td align='right'>ssp.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tablespoon</td><td align='right'>tbsp.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pint</td><td align='right'>pt.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gallon</td><td align='right'> gal.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Teaspoon</td><td align='right'> tsp.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cupful</td><td align='right'>cf.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Quart</td><td align='right'> qt.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Peck</td><td align='right'>pk.</td></tr> +</table><br /></div> + +<div class="center">A speck (spk.) is what you can put on a quarter inch square surface.</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p><h3>Time-table for Cooking.</h3> + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baking Bread, Cakes and Puddings</span>.<br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time-table for Baking Bread, Cakes and Puddings"> +<tr><td align='left'>Loaf bread</td><td align='right'>40 to 60 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Graham gems</td><td align='right'>25 to 30 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Sponge cake</td><td align='right'>45 to 60 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Cookies</td><td align='right'>10 to 15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rice and tapioca</td><td align='right'>1 hr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Custards</td><td align='right'>15 to 20 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pastry (thin puff)</td><td align='right'>10 to 15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pie crust</td><td align='right'>25 to 30 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Baked beans</td><td align='right'>6 to 8 hrs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Scalloped dishes</td><td align='right'>15 to 20 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Rolls, biscuit</td><td align='right'>10 to 20 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gingerbread</td><td align='right'>25 to 30 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fruit cake</td><td align='right'>2 to 3 hrs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Bread pudding</td><td align='right'>1 hr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Indian pudding</td><td align='right'>2 to 3 hrs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Steamed pudding</td><td align='right'>1 to 3 hrs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pastry (thick)</td><td align='right'>30 to 50 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>30 to 45 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Braised meat</td><td align='right'>3 to 4 hrs.</td></tr> +</table><br /></div> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baking Meats</span>.<br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Baking meat timetable"> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb.</td><td align='right'>8 to 10 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>12 to 15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb.</td><td align='right'>12 to 15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Beef, fillet, per lb.</td><td align='right'>20 to 30 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mutton, rare, per lb.</td><td align='right'> 10 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mutton, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Lamb, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Veal, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>20 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Pork, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>30 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Turkey, 10 lbs. weight</td><td align='right'>2-1/2 hrs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chicken, 3 to 4 lbs. weight</td><td align='right'>1 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Goose, 8 lbs.</td><td align='right'>2 hrs.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Tame duck</td><td align='right'>1 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Game</td><td align='right'>40 to 60 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Grouse</td><td align='right'>30 to 40 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Small birds</td><td align='right'>20 to 25 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Venison, per lb.</td><td align='right'>15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fish, 6 to 8 lbs.</td><td align='right'>1 hr.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fish, small</td><td align='right'>30 to 40 m.</td></tr> +</table><br /></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Vegetables</span> (<span class="smcap">Boiling</span>).<br /></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Boling timetable"> +<tr><td align='left'>Rice, green corn, peas, tomatoes, asparagus (hard boiled eggs)</td><td align='right'>20 to 25 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach2</td><td align='right'>5 to 30 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips, cauliflower</td><td align='right'>30 to 45 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Young cabbage, string beans, shell beans, oyster plant</td><td align='right'>45 to 60 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy and wheat</td><td align='right'> 1 to 2 hrs.</td></tr> +</table><br /></div> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Frying</span> (<span class="smcap">Deep</span>).<br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Deep frying timetable"> +<tr><td align='left'>Smelts, croquettes, fish balls</td><td align='right'>1 to 2 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Muffins, fritters, doughnuts</td><td align='right'>4 to 6 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fish, breaded chops</td><td align='right'> 5 to 7 m.</td></tr> +</table><br /></div> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiling</span>.<br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Broiling timetable"> +<tr><td align='left'>Steak, 1 inch thick</td><td align='right'> 6 to 8 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Steak, 1-1/2 inch thick</td><td align='right'> 8 to 10 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fish, small</td><td align='right'> 6 to 8 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fish, thick</td><td align='right'>12 to 15 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chops</td><td align='right'> 8 to 10 m.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Chicken</td><td align='right'>20 m.</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<h3>Table of Proportions.</h3> + +<ul> +<li>1 qt. of liquid to 3 qts. of flour for bread.</li> +<li>1 qt. of liquid to 2 qts. of flour for muffins.</li> +<li>1 qt. of liquid to 1 qt. of flour for batters.</li> +<li>1 cup of yeast (1 yeast cake) to 1 qt. of liquid.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of soda (level), 3 of cream tartar to 1 qt. of flour.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of sour milk.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of soda to 1 cup of molasses.</li> +<li>4 tsps. of baking powder to 1 qt. of flour.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of salt to 1 qt. of soup stock.</li> +<li>1 ssp. of salt to 1 loaf of cake.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. of each vegetable, chopped, to 1 qt. of stock.</li> +<li>1-1/2 tbsp. of flour to 1 qt. of stock for thickening soup.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. of flour to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of salt to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.</li> +<li>4 tbsps. (level) cornstarch to 1 pt. of milk (to mould).</li> +<li>1 tsp. of salt to 2 qts. of flour for biscuits, etc.</li> +</ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p><h3>Methods for Flour Mixtures.</h3> + +<div class="sidenote">STIRRING.</div> + +<p>Stirring is simply blending two or more materials by moving the spoon +round and round until smooth and of the proper consistency.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">BEATING.</div> + +<p>Beating is bringing the spoon up through the mixture with a quick +movement so as to entangle as much air as possible.</p> + +<div class="sidenote">CUTTING <span class="smcap">or</span> FOLDING.</div> + +<p>Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white of egg to a mixture +without breaking the air bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture +over and over as in folding. Do not stir or beat.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="RECIPES" id="RECIPES"></a>RECIPES.</h2> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="BATTERS_BISCUITS_AND_BREAD" id="BATTERS_BISCUITS_AND_BREAD"></a>BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Popovers</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>2 cups of flour.</li> +<li>3 eggs.</li> +<li>2 cups of milk.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + + +<p>Beat the eggs (without separating) until very light, then add the milk +and salt; pour this mixture on the flour (slowly), beating all the +while. Beat until smooth and light, about five minutes. Grease gem +pans or small cups, and bake in a moderately hot oven about +thirty-five minutes. They should increase to four times their original +size. (This recipe may be divided for class work.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pancakes</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint of flour.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. of melted butter.</li> +<li>1 pint of milk.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>2 tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + + +<p>Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately; add the yolks to the +milk, then the melted butter; salt. Sift the baking powder and flour +together, add slowly to the liquid, stir until smooth. Lastly, add the +whites of the eggs. These may be cooked in waffle irons or on a +griddle.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pancakes with Buttermilk</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint of buttermilk.</li> +<li>Flour to make a medium batter.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li></ul> + + +<p>Crush the soda, add it and the salt to the buttermilk, add the flour +gradually, beat until the batter is smooth, and bake on a hot griddle. +An egg may be added.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cornmeal Griddle Cakes</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint of Indian meal.</li> +<li>1 cup of flour.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>3 eggs.</li> +<li>4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1 pint of milk.</li></ul> + + +<p>Put the meal into a bowl, and pour over it just enough boiling water +to scald it; do not make it soft; let stand until cool. Then add the +milk; beat the eggs until very light, add them to the batter, add the +flour and salt in which the baking powder has been sifted. Mix well, +beat vigorously for a minute or two, and bake on a hot griddle.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread Griddle Cakes</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. of salt.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. of soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.</li> +<li>3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1/2 pt. stale bread crumbs.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>Flour to make a thin batter.</li></ul> + + +<p>Soak the bread in the milk for one hour, then beat it smooth. Beat the +eggs separately till very light, add first the yolks, then the flour +and salt and baking powder. Beat again, add the whites, and bake +quickly on a hot griddle.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Buckwheat Cakes</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. boiling water.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1/2 cup white flour.</li> +<li>1 ssp. soda.</li> +<li>1/2 cup corn or Graham meal.</li> +<li>1/4 yeast cake.</li> +<li>1 cup buckwheat flour.</li></ul> + + +<p>Pour the boiling water on the corn or Graham meal, add the salt, and +when lukewarm add the flour, beat until smooth, then add the yeast. +Let it rise over night. In the morning add the soda just before baking +(milk may be used instead of water). A tablespoonful of molasses is +sometimes added in order to make the cakes a darker brown.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fritters</span>.</div> + +<p>Beat two eggs together until light, add to them 1 cup of milk, 1/2 +tsp. salt and sufficient flour to make a batter that will drop from +the spoon. Beat until smooth. Have ready a deep pan of hot fat; add 3 +(l.) tsps. of baking powder to the batter, mix thoroughly and drop by +spoonfuls into the hot fat. When brown on one side turn and brown on +the other; take out with a skimmer and serve very hot. Do not pierce +with a fork as it allows the steam to escape and makes the fritter +heavy.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Gems—Whole Wheat or Graham Gems</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>2 cups of whole wheat flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li> +<li>2 eggs, beaten separately.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>1 cup water.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix flour, salt and sugar. Beat the eggs until light, add the milk and +water, stir this into the dry mixture. Bake in hot gem pans for 30 +minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Corn Muffins</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup cornmeal.</li> +<li>1 cup flour.</li> +<li>1-1/4 cups milk.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix all the dry ingredients together. Melt the butter in a hot cup. +Beat the egg till light. Add the milk to it and turn this mixture into +the bowl containing the dry ingredients. Add the melted butter and +beat vigorously and quickly. Pour into buttered muffin or gem pans, +and bake for one-half hour in a moderate oven.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Quick Muffins or Gems</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li> +<li>1 oz. butter.</li> +<li>3 cups of flour.</li> +<li>4 tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>3 eggs.</li></ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p><p>Beat the eggs separately till light, add the yolks to the milk, then +the flour, which must be more or less, according to the quality. The +batter must be thin and pour from the spoon. Now add the melted butter +and salt; give the whole a vigorous beating. Now add the baking powder +and the well beaten whites, stir till thoroughly mixed. Bake in muffin +rings in a quick oven or on the griddle.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tea Biscuit.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of flour.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. lard or butter.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. sugar.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix thoroughly in a sieve the flour, sugar, salt and baking powder, +and rub through the sieve. Rub the butter or lard into this mixture. +Now add the milk, stirring quickly with a strong spoon. Sprinkle the +board with flour, turn out the dough upon it. Roll to the thickness of +about 1/2 inch, cut with a small cutter. Bake in a quick oven. Do not +crowd the biscuit in the pan. They should bake from 10 to 15 minutes. +(All biscuit doughs should be mixed as soft as it is possible to +handle. Sour milk may be used in this recipe by substituting soda for +the baking powder.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hot Corn Bread.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 qt. of cornmeal.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of salt.</li> +<li>1 pt. sour milk or buttermilk.</li> +<li>1 oz. of butter.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of soda.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the cornmeal in a large bowl and pour over it just enough boiling +water to scald it through. Let it stand until cold, then add the eggs +well beaten, the milk or buttermilk, salt, and butter (melted); beat +thoroughly. Dissolve the soda in two tbsps. of boiling water, stir +into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> the mixture, turn quickly into a greased square, shallow pan, +put into a hot oven and bake 40 minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Shortcakes.</span></div> + +<div class="center">(<i>Suitable for strawberries or any sweetened fruit.</i>)</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li> +<li>1 cup sweet or sour milk.</li> +<li>1/4 cup butter.</li> +<li>2-1/2 tsps. baking powder, or 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix the salt, soda, cream tartar or baking powder with the flour, +sift; rub in the butter until fine like meal. Add the liquid +gradually, mixing with a knife, and use just enough to make it of a +light spongy consistency. Turn the dough out on a well floured board, +pat lightly into a flat cake and roll gently till half inch thick. +Bake either in a spider or pie plate in the oven; split, butter, and +spread with the fruit.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Doughnuts.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 egg</li> +<li>1 tbsp. melted butter.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tsp. cream tartar.</li> +<li>Flour enough to make into a soft dough.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li> +<li>1 ssp. cinnamon.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix all the dry ingredients, beat the egg until light, add to this the +milk, sugar and melted butter. Pour into the flour, mixing carefully +into a soft dough. Have the board well floured. Roll only a large +spoonful at a time. Cut into the desired shape and drop into hot fat. +The fat should be hot enough for the dough to rise to the top +instantly.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="BREAD" id="BREAD"></a>BREAD.</h2> + +<p>As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it +naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject +upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A +knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII) +must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained. +The first element to consider is the <i>yeast</i>, and the generating of +carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous.</p> + +<p>Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth produced from grain which has +commenced to bud or sprout, and which forms the substance called +diastase. This substance has the power to convert starch into sugar. +(See Chap. VII for effect of yeast upon flour.)</p> + +<p>The temperature at which fermentation takes place, and when to check +it, are important features of bread-making.</p> + +<p>The liquid (milk or water) should be tepid when mixed, as too great +heat destroys the growth of the yeast. The dough should rise in a +temperature of 75°. After fermentation has become active the +temperature may be gradually lowered—as in setting bread over +night—without injury.</p> + +<p>Avoid a cold draft or sudden change of temperature, as it checks +fermentation and affects the flavor.</p> + +<p>Never allow bread to rise until it "settles," or runs over the side of +the bowl. The usual rule is to let it rise until it is double in bulk, +both in the bowl and after it is put into the pans. If it is not +convenient to bake the bread when ready, it may be kneaded again and +kept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> in a cool place, to prevent souring. Bread should be mixed in a +stone or granite bowl.</p> + +<p>The only necessary ingredients for bread are water, flour, salt, and +yeast. Sugar may be added to restore the natural sweetness of the +flour which has been lost during fermentation, but it is not +necessary. If milk is used, and the bread well kneaded, no other +shortening is required; but with water, the addition of a little +butter or dripping makes the bread more tender, therefore it is more +easily penetrated by the digestive fluids. Tough, leathery bread is +not easily digested, no matter how light it may be. As already stated, +by the action of heat the ferment is killed, the starch-grains +ruptured, the gas carried off, and the crust formed. In order that +bread may be thoroughly cooked, and plenty of crust formed, each loaf +should be baked in a pan about 4 inches deep, 4 to 6 inches wide, and +from 8 to 12 inches long. Smaller loaves are even more desirable. It +is very difficult to bake a large loaf so as to insure the escape of +all the carbonic acid gas, and to cook the starch sufficiently without +injuring the crust, besides entailing an unnecessary waste of fuel. +The custom of baking several loaves together in one large pan is +contrary to all scientific rules of bread-making. The oven should be +hot enough to brown a spoonful of flour in five minutes, for bread. +The dough should rise during the first fifteen minutes, then begin to +brown; keep the heat steady for the next fifteen or twenty minutes, +then decrease it. If the oven is too hot a hard crust will form and +prevent the dough from rising, which will not only cause the bread to +be heavy, but will prevent the gas from escaping. If, on the other +hand, the oven is not hot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> enough, the bread will go on rising until +it becomes sour. A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from +fifty-five to sixty minutes to bake, and should give a hollow sound, +if tapped, when removed from the oven. Better take too long than not +long enough, as doughy bread is most objectionable and unwholesome. If +the crust is beginning to burn, cover the loaf with brown paper, and +reduce the heat, but have a brown crust, not a whity-brown, which is +usually hard and without flavor. Upon removing the loaves from the +pans, place them on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never +leave warm bread on a pine table, or where it will absorb odors.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread Made with Water</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>2 quarts flour.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li> +<li>1 pint lukewarm water.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter, dripping or lard.</li> +<li>1/2 cake compressed yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup water.</li></ul> + +<div class="center">(This recipe is for Manitoba flour. A little more fine flour would be +necessary.)</div> + +<p>Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a large bowl, pour +on the warm water, stir until they are dissolved. Add the flour +gradually until it forms a thin batter, then add the yeast; beat +vigorously for at least five minutes. Add more flour until the dough +is stiff enough to knead. Turn out on the board and knead for half +hour. Cover and let rise until double its bulk. Form into separate +loaves, put into the pans, cover, and let rise again till double its +bulk. Bake in a hot oven about an hour. (Milk or half milk may be +substituted in this recipe.)</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread (with a sponge).</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li> +<li>1/2 cup yeast or 1/2 yeast cake.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 pt. water.</li> +<li>About 2 qts. flour.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the butter, sugar and salt in the mixing bowl, add 1/4 cup boiling +water to dissolve them; then add enough lukewarm water to make a pint, +3 cups of flour, then the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in 1/4 +cup tepid water). Give it a vigorous beating, cover, and let it rise +over night. In the morning add flour to make it stiff enough to knead. +Knead for 1/2 hour. Cover closely, let it rise till it doubles its +bulk; shape into loaves; let it rise again in the pans; bake as +directed in previous recipe.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Whole Wheat or Graham Bread.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. milk, scalded and cooled.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>2 cups white flour.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour.</li> +<li>1/2 yeast cake or 1/2 cup yeast.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix in the same order as given in previous recipes. Whole wheat flour +makes a softer dough, consequently does not require so much kneading, +otherwise it should be treated the same as other bread, allowing it a +little longer time for baking; if too moist, a cupful of white flour +may be added.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Yeast.</span></div> + +<p>Steep 1/2 cup of loose hops in 1 quart of boiling water, in a granite +kettle, 5 minutes. Mix 1 cup of flour, 1/4 of a cup sugar and 1 tbsp. +salt. Strain the hop liquor and pour it boiling into the flour +mixture. Boil 1 minute, or till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast. +Cover and set in a warm place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more than half full, +and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled potatoes may be mashed +smoothly and added to this yeast if desired.)</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="SAUCES_AND_MILK_SOUPS" id="SAUCES_AND_MILK_SOUPS"></a>SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">White Sauce.</span></div> + +<div class="center">(<i>For Vegetables, Eggs, etc.</i>)</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. milk.</li> +<li>4 (l.) tbsps. flour.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. white pepper.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Heat the milk over hot water. Put the butter in a granite saucepan and +stir till it melts, being careful not to brown. Add the dry flour, and +stir quickly till well mixed. Add the milk gradually, stirring +carefully (especially from the sides) until perfectly smooth. Let it +boil until it thickens, then add salt and pepper.</p> + +<p>In using this sauce for creamed oysters, add 1/2 tsp. of celery salt, +a few grains of cayenne pepper, and a tsp. of lemon juice.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Drawn Butter Sauce.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. hot water or stock.</li> +<li>1/2 cup butter.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li> +<li>4 (l.) tbsps. flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted add the dry flour, and mix +well. Add the hot water or stock a little at a time, and stir rapidly +till it thickens; when smooth add the salt and pepper. Be careful to +have all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> sauces free from lumps. (Hard boiled eggs may be added to +this sauce for baked or boiled fish. Two tbsps. of chopped parsley may +be added if parsley sauce is desired.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Brown Sauce</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. hot stock.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. lemon juice.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. minced onions.</li> +<li>4 tbsps. flour.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li> +<li>Caramel enough to color.</li></ul> + +<p>Mince the onion and fry it in the butter 5 minutes. Be careful not to +burn it. When the butter is browned add the dry flour, and stir well. +Add the hot stock a little at a time; stir rapidly until it thickens +and is perfectly smooth. Add the salt and pepper. Simmer 5 minutes, +and strain to remove the onion.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Caramel for Coloring Soups and Sauces</span>.</div> + +<p>Melt 1 cup of sugar with 1 tbsp. of water in a frying-pan. Stir until +it becomes of a dark brown color. Add 1 cup of boiling water, simmer +10 minutes, and bottle when cool. This coloring is useful for many +purposes, and is more wholesome than browned butter.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mock Bisque Soup</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. stewed tomatoes.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 pt. milk.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper.</li></ul> + +<p>Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, put the remainder on to cook in a +stew-pan. Mix the flour with the cold milk,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> and stir into the boiling +milk. Cook for 10 minutes, then add the salt, pepper and butter. Stir +the soda into the hot tomatoes and stir 1/2 minute, then rub through a +strainer. Add the strained tomatoes to the thickened milk, and serve +at once.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potato Soup</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>4 potatoes, medium size.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. minced celery.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. of flour.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. of pepper.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. minced parsley.</li> +<li>1-1/2 pints of milk.</li> +<li>4 tbsps. minced onions.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of salt.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. of butter.</li></ul> + +<p>Pare the potatoes, place on the fire in enough boiling water to cover, +and cook for 30 minutes. Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder in +the double boiler with the onion and celery and place on the fire. Mix +the cold milk with the flour and stir into the boiling milk. When the +potatoes are cooked pour off the water, mash them until fine and +light. Gradually beat into them the milk; now add salt, pepper and +butter, and rub the soup through a sieve. Return to the fire and add +the minced parsley; simmer for 5 minutes and serve immediately. (The +parsley may be omitted and celery salt substituted for the minced +celery.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Celery Soup</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 head celery.</li> +<li>1 pint milk.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 pint water.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. chopped onion.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. flour.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash and scrape the celery, cut into 1/2 inch pieces, put it into the +pint of boiling salted water and cook until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> very soft. Mash in the +water in which it was boiled. Cook the onion with the milk in a double +boiler 10 minutes and add it to the celery. Rub all through a strainer +and put on to boil again. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the +flour and cook until smooth, but not brown, then stir it into the +boiling soup. Add the salt and pepper; simmer 5 minutes and strain +into the tureen. Serve very hot.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="EGGS" id="EGGS"></a>EGGS.</h2> + + +<p>While eggs are nutritious and valuable as food they should not be used +too freely, as they are a highly concentrated form of food. The +albumen (white) of egg is one of the most valuable tissue builders. +Much depends upon the manner in which they are cooked. Eggs fried in +fat or hard boiled are very indigestible. Do not use an egg until it +has been laid some hours, as the white does not become thick till then +and cannot be beaten stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place, +and handled carefully in order to avoid mixing the white and yolk, +which causes the egg to spoil quickly.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Eggs</span>.</div> + +<p>Have the water boiling in a saucepan. Put in the eggs and move to the +back of the stove where the water will keep hot, about 175 or 180 F., +for from 8 to 10 minutes. If the back of the stove is too hot, move to +the hearth. The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, the +yolks soft but not liquid. An egg to be cooked soft should never be +cooked in boiling water.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hard Boiled Eggs.</span></div> + +<p>Cook eggs for 20 minutes in water just below the boiling point. The +yolk of an egg cooked 10 minutes is tough and indigestible; 20 minutes +will make it dry and mealy, when it is more easily penetrated by the +gastric fluid.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Poached Eggs</span>.</div> + +<p>Have a clean, shallow pan nearly full of salted and boiling water. +Remove the scum and let the water just simmer. Break each egg +carefully into a saucer and slip it gently into the water. Dip the +water over it with the end of the spoon, and when a film has formed +over the yolk and the white is like a soft jelly, take up with a +skimmer and place on a piece of neatly trimmed toast. This is the most +wholesome way of cooking eggs for serving with ham or bacon.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Omelet</span>.</div> + +<p>Beat the yolks of two eggs, add two tbsps. of milk, 1 ssp. of salt and +1/4 of a ssp. of pepper. Beat the whites till stiff and dry. Cut and +fold them into the yolks till just covered. Have a clean, smooth +omelet pan (or spider). When hot, rub well with a teaspoonful of +butter; see that the butter is all over the pan, turn in the omelet +and spread evenly on the pan. Cook until slightly browned underneath, +being careful not to let it burn; set in a hot oven until dry on top. +When dry throughout, run a knife round the edge, tip the pan to one +side, fold the omelet and turn out on a hot platter. This may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> made +by beating the whites and yolks together for a plain omelet. A little +chopped parsley, a little fine grated onion, a tbsp. or two of chopped +ham, veal or chicken may be spread on the omelet before folding.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cup Custards</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li> +<li>1/4 cup of sugar.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the eggs until light, then add the sugar; beat again, add the +milk and nutmeg, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into custard +cups, stand the cups in a pan of boiling water and then put the pan in +the oven. Bake until the custards are set, or until a knife may be +slipped into the centre without anything adhering to it. When done, +take them out of the water and stand away to cool. (This custard may +be poured into a baking dish and baked in a quick oven until firm in +the centre.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Custard</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the milk on in the double boiler, beat the sugar and yolks of eggs +together until light, then stir them into the boiling milk; stir until +it begins to thicken, then take it from the fire; add the vanilla and +stand aside to cool. When cool, pour into a glass dish. Beat the +whites until stiff, add three tbsps. of powdered sugar gradually. Heap +them on a dinner plate and stand in the oven a moment until slightly +brown, then loosen from the plate, slip off gently on top of the +custard; serve very cold.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="FRUIT" id="FRUIT"></a>FRUIT.</h2> + + +<p>If people would only realize the value of fruit in its natural state, +much of the time devoted to the preparation of pies, puddings, etc., +would be saved. All uncooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and +served fresh and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when +the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when in its natural +state, therefore a few simple recipes for cooking fruit are given.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Applesauce</span>.</div> + +<p>Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. Make a syrup with 1/2 cup +of sugar, 1/2 cup of water, and a little grated lemon peel. When +boiling, add the apples and cook carefully till they are just tender, +but not broken. Remove them carefully, boil the syrup down a little +and pour it over the apples. (For serving with roast goose, etc., cook +the apples in a little water, mash until smooth, add sugar to taste.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Coddled Apples</span>.</div> + +<p>Pare tart apples of uniform size; remove the cores without breaking +the apples. Stand them in the bottom of a granite kettle, sprinkle +thickly with sugar, cover the bottom of the kettle with boiling water, +cover closely and allow the apples to steam on the back part of the +stove till tender. Lift carefully without breaking, pour the syrup +over them and stand away to cool (delicious served with whipped +cream).</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Prunes</span>.</div> + +<p>Wash carefully and soak in water an hour before cooking, put them into +a porcelain or granite kettle, cover with boiling water and let them +simmer until tender. Add a tbsp. of sugar for each pint of prunes, and +boil a few moments longer.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cranberries</span>.</div> + +<p>Put 1 pint of cranberries in a granite saucepan, 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup +of water. After they begin to boil cook 10 minutes, closely covered. +(This may be pressed through a sieve while hot, removing the skins, if +desired for a mould.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Rhubarb</span>.</div> + +<p>Wash the rhubarb (if young and tender it will not be necessary to +remove the skin), cut into pieces about 1 inch long. To every lb. of +rhubarb allow 1 lb. of sugar. Put the rhubarb into a porcelain or +granite kettle, cover with the sugar, and stand on the back part of +the fire until the sugar melts. Move forward, let simmer for a few +minutes without stirring, turn it out carefully to cool.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Pears</span>.</div> + +<p>Take large, sweet pears, wipe them but do not remove the stems. Stand +them in an earthen baking dish, pour around them a cup of boiling +water, add 2 tbsps. sugar, cover with another dish and bake slowly +until the pears are tender, basting occasionally with the liquor. When +done, stand away to cool in the dish in which they were baked. When +cold put them into a glass dish, pour the liquor over them and serve.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Apples.</span></div> + +<p>Pare and core, without breaking, tart apples. Put them into a shallow +earthen dish, fill the cavities with sugar, add water to cover the +bottom of the dish. Bake in a quick oven till soft, basting often with +the syrup. (Quinces may be baked in the same way.)</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="VEGETABLES" id="VEGETABLES"></a>VEGETABLES.</h2> + + +<p>Vegetables should be used very freely, as they contain saline +substances which counteract the effect of too much meat, and are the +chief source of mineral supply for the body. In cooking vegetables, a +common rule is to add salt, while cooking, to all classes growing +above ground (including onions), and to omit salt in the cooking of +vegetables growing underground. In cooking vegetables care must be +taken to preserve the flavor, and to prevent the waste of mineral +matter.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cabbage.</span></div> + +<p>Cut a small head of cabbage in quarters, soak in cold water 1 hour, +drain and shake dry. Remove the stalk, or hard part, and chop the +remainder rather fine. Put it into a stew-pan with enough boiling +water to cover, and boil 20 minutes. Drain in a colander. Turn into a +hot dish, and pour over it cream sauce or a little melted butter, +pepper and salt.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cauliflower.</span></div> + +<p>Pick off the outside leaves, soak in cold salted water, top downwards, +for 1 hour. Tie it round with a piece of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> twine to prevent breaking. +Cook in boiling salted water until tender, remove the string, turn +into a hot dish with the top up, cover with cream sauce or drawn +butter sauce. (When cold, it may be picked to pieces and served in a +salad.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Celery.</span></div> + +<p>Scrape clean and cut the stalks into 2-inch pieces: cook in salted +water until tender, drain and cover with a white sauce. The sauce +should be made with the water in which the celery has been stewed.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Beets.</span></div> + +<p>Wash, but do not cut them, as that injures the color. Cook in boiling +water until tender. When cooked put them into a pan of cold water and +rub off the skins. They may be cut in slices and served hot with +pepper, butter and salt, or sliced, covered with vinegar, and served +cold. They may be cut into dice and served as a salad, either alone or +mixed with potatoes and other vegetables.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beans (Dried).</span></div> + +<p>Lima beans should be soaked in warm water over night. In the morning +drain off this water and cover with fresh warm water. Two hours before +needed drain, cover with boiling water and boil 30 minutes; drain +again, cover with fresh boiling water, and boil until tender. Add a +teaspoonful of salt while they are boiling. When cooked drain them, +add a little butter, pepper and salt, or a cream sauce.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Asparagus.</span></div> + +<p>Wash the asparagus well in cold water, reject the tough parts, tie in +a bunch or cut into pieces 1 inch long. Put it in a kettle, cover with +boiling water, and boil until tender. Put it in a colander to drain. +Serve with melted butter, pepper and salt, or with a cream or drawn +butter sauce.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Onions.</span></div> + +<p>Scald in boiling water, then remove the skins. Put them in boiling +salted water; when they have boiled 10 minutes, change the water. Boil +until tender but not until broken. Drain and serve with either cream +sauce or butter, pepper and salt.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Wash and scrub with a brush. If old, soak in cold water after paring. +Put them in boiling water, when about half cooked add a tbsp. of salt. +Cook until soft but not broken. Drain carefully. Expose the potatoes +for a minute to a current of air, then cover and place on the back of +the stove to keep hot, allowing the steam to escape.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice Potatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Press the cooked potatoes through a coarse strainer into the dish in +which they are to be served.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mashed Potatoes.</span></div> + +<p>To 1 pint of hot boiled potatoes, add 1 tbsp. butter, 1/2 tsp. of +salt, 1/2 ssp. of white pepper and hot milk or cream to moisten. Mash +in the kettle in which they were boiled, beat with a fork until they +are light and creamy. Turn lightly into a dish.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potato Puffs.</span></div> + +<p>Prepare as for mashed potatoes, adding a little chopped parsley or +celery salt if the flavor is liked. Beat 2 eggs, yolks and whites +separately. Stir the beaten whites in carefully, shape into smooth +balls or cones, brush lightly with the beaten yolks, and bake in a +moderately hot oven until brown.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Creamed Potatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in a shallow pan, +cover with milk and cook until the potatoes have absorbed nearly all +the milk. To 1 pint of potatoes, add 1 tbsp. of butter, 1/2 tsp. of +salt, 1/2 ssp. of pepper and a little chopped parsley or onion.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Potatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Select smooth potatoes of uniform size, wash and scrub well. Bake in a +hot oven about 45 minutes or until soft. Break the skin or puncture +with a fork to let the steam escape and serve at once. This is the +most wholesome method of cooking potatoes, as the mineral matter is +retained.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fried Potatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Pare, wash and cut into slices or quarters. Soak in cold salted water, +drain and dry between towels. Have sufficient fat in a kettle to more +than cover the potatoes. When it is very hot drop the potatoes in, a +few at a time, so as not to reduce the heat of the fat too quickly. +When brown, which should be in about 4 or 5 minutes for quarters and +about 2 minutes if sliced, drain and sprinkle with salt.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tomatoes (Raw).</span></div> + +<p>Scald and peel sometime before using, place on ice, and serve with +salt, sugar and vinegar, or with a salad dressing.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Scalloped Tomatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Scald and peel as many tomatoes as required. Butter a deep dish and +sprinkle with fine bread or cracker crumbs, then a layer of sliced +tomato, over this sprinkle a little salt, pepper and sugar; then add a +layer of bread crumbs, another of tomatoes, sprinkle again with salt, +pepper and sugar: put bread crumbs on the top, moisten with a little +melted butter, and bake until brown.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Tomatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, remove the skins and the hard +green stem, cut into quarters or slices and stew in a granite kettle +until the pulp is soft, add salt, pepper, butter and a little sugar if +desired. If too thin the tomato may be thickened with crumbs or +cornstarch wet in a little cold water.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Spinach.</span></div> + +<p>Pick over carefully, discarding all decayed leaves. Wash thoroughly, +then place in a pan of cold water, let stand for a few minutes. Drain +and put in a large kettle with just enough water to keep it from +burning. Cook very slowly until tender. Drain and chop fine, add 1 +tbsp. of butter, a tsp. of salt, a ssp. of pepper. It may be served on +toast (hot) or garnished with hard boiled eggs.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Carrots and Turnips.</span></div> + +<p>Carrots as a vegetable for the table are more palatable when young and +tender. They should be washed and scraped, boiled until tender, and +served with butter, pepper and salt or a white sauce. Turnips contain +little nutriment; having no starch, they are very suitable for eating +with potatoes. They require more salt than any other vegetable, and +should be served with fat meat, corned beef, roast pork or mutton. +Turnips should be washed, pared, cut into slices or strips, boiled +until tender. Drain, mash and season with pepper and salt.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Peas (Green).</span></div> + +<p>Wash the pods, which should be green, crisp and plump, before +shelling, then the peas will not require washing. Put the peas into a +strainer or colander and shake out all the fine particles. Boil until +tender. When nearly done add the salt. Use little water in cooking, +when they may be served without draining; season with a little butter, +pepper and salt. If drained, serve either dry with butter, pepper and +salt, or with a white sauce.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Green Sweet Corn.</span></div> + +<p>Remove the husk and silky fibre, cover with boiling water (the flavor +is improved by adding a few of the clean inner husks) and cook, if +young and tender, from 10 to 15 minutes. Try a kernel and take up the +corn as soon as the milk has thickened and the raw taste is +destroyed.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="SALADS" id="SALADS"></a>SALADS.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">French Dressing.</span></div> + +<ul><li>3 tbsps. of olive oil.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. of salt.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. vinegar.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. of pepper or speck of cayenne.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix these ingredients together and serve. This makes a particularly +good dressing for lettuce or vegetable salads.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Salad Dressing.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1/2 cup vinegar.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1/2 cup cream.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. mustard.</li> +<li>A speck of cayenne pepper.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the eggs well, mix the sugar, salt, mustard and pepper together, +add to the beaten eggs, then add the vinegar. Place the saucepan on +the range in a pan of boiling water. Stir constantly until the +dressing becomes thick and light. Take from the fire and turn into a +cold bowl at once to prevent curdling. Beat the cream to a thick froth +and stir it into the cold dressing. (When cream is not available use +the same quantity of milk, previously thickened to the consistency of +cream with a little cornstarch, add a tsp. of butter; when cold, add +to the dressing.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mayonnaise Dressing.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1/2 pt. of olive oil.</li> +<li>1 tsp. mustard.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>Yolks of 2 uncooked eggs.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. lemon juice.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. vinegar.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. sugar.</li> +<li>A speck of cayenne.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the yolks of the eggs into a cold bowl, stir in the dry +ingredients, beat well, using a silver or small wooden spoon. Then add +the oil, drop by drop. When the mixture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> gets so thick that it is +difficult to stir, add a few drops of the vinegar to thin it. Continue +stirring in the oil and vinegar alternately until all are used, when +it should be very thick; add the lemon juice last and beat for a few +minutes longer; a cupful of whipped cream may be stirred into this +dressing before using. (The following rules must be observed in order +to insure success: (1) to beat the yolks and dry ingredients until +thick; (2) to add the oil only in drops at first; (3) always beat or +stir in one direction, reversing the motion is apt to curdle the +dressing.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lettuce Salad.</span></div> + +<p>Choose crisp, fresh lettuce, wash clean, let it remain for a little +time in cold or ice water, drain thoroughly, break or tear the leaves +into convenient pieces, dress with a French or cooked dressing; serve +at once, cold.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potato Salad.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. cold boiled potatoes.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1/2 cup cooked dressing. Or the French dressing, as given.</li> +<li>1 tsp. finely chopped onion.</li> +<li>1 sp. pepper.</li></ul> + +<p>Cut the potatoes into pieces about the size of dice, mix the +seasonings with the potatoes, turn into a dish in alternate layers of +potatoes and dressing, having a little dressing on top. Garnish with +parsley, and allow to stand at least an hour in a cold place before +serving, so that the potatoes may absorb the seasoning. (Cold boiled +beets cut into cubes may be added in alternate layers with the +potatoes in this recipe, using a little more dressing.)</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tomato Salad.</span></div> + +<p>Peel the tomatoes (without scalding) and put them on ice until very +cold, have crisp leaves of lettuce which have been washed and dried. +When ready to serve, cut the tomatoes in halves, place one-half on a +leaf of lettuce (the curly leaves being the best), on this put a tbsp. +of mayonnaise or cooked dressing, and serve immediately.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cabbage Salad.</span></div> + +<p>Cabbage or celery may be used as a salad by cutting rather fine, +allowing it to get cold and crisp, and serving with a cooked or French +dressing. Indeed almost any vegetable may be used for a salad. String +beans, asparagus, cauliflower, which have been cooked, are suitable +for salad, either alone or in combination with nasturtium, cress, hard +boiled eggs, etc.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Chicken Salad.</span></div> + +<p>One pint each of cold boiled or roasted chicken and celery. Cut the +chicken into 1/4-inch dice, scrape, wash and cut the celery into dice, +put the celery in a napkin and lay on the ice for 10 or 12 minutes; +season the chicken with vinegar, salt, pepper and oil (or the French +dressing-oil may be omitted if the flavor is not agreeable, +substituting cream or melted butter). Add the celery to the seasoned +chicken, add half the dressing (using either a cooked or mayonnaise), +heap in a dish, add the remainder of the dressing, garnish with the +tiny bleached celery leaves or small curly lettuce leaves. (A few +capers and a hard boiled egg may be used as a garnish if desired.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p><p>In summer the chicken may be served on a tender lettuce leaf, adding a +spoonful of dressing, and serving very cold.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fruit Salad.</span></div> + +<ul><li>4 oranges.</li> +<li>1 cup water.</li> +<li>1/4 package gelatine.</li> +<li>4 bananas.</li> +<li>Juice of 2 lemons.</li> +<li>1-1/2 cup sugar.</li></ul> + +<p>Dissolve the gelatine in the water, add the sugar and lemon juice, +strain and pour over the oranges and bananas, which have been peeled +and sliced and placed in alternate layers in a mould. Set away to +cool. When needed, turn out and serve. Garnish with Malaga grapes, +cherries, currants, or any suitable fruit.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CEREALS" id="CEREALS"></a>CEREALS.</h2> + + +<p>All cereals require thorough cooking, because of the starch in them, +also to soften the woody fibre. No matter what the cereal product may +be, it should be cooked not less than three-quarters of an hour, and +better if cooked longer.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Oatmeal Porridge.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of boiling water.</li> +<li>1/2 cup of oatmeal.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Be sure to have the water boiling. Sprinkle in the oatmeal slowly, +stirring all the time. Add the salt, and move back or set in a vessel +of boiling water where it will cook gently for 1 hour. Do not stir the +porridge after the first 5 minutes.</p> + +<p>All porridge (or mush) is made on the same principle.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cracked Wheat</span></div> + +<p>Should be cooked at least 4 or 5 hours.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cornmeal</span></div> + +<p>Should be cooked an hour or more.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice</span>.</div> + +<p>Wash 1 cup of rice. Have 2 quarts of water, with 1 tbsp. salt, boiling +rapidly. Sprinkle in the rice gradually, when you have it all in cover +the kettle and boil 20 minutes. If too thick add a little boiling +water. Test the grains, and the moment they are soft, and before the +starch begins to cloud the water, pour into a colander to drain. Stand +it in the oven a few minutes to dry, leaving the door open. Turn +carefully into a heated dish and serve without a cover. (Do not stir +the rice while cooking.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice Croquettes</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint of milk.</li> +<li>4 (l.) tbsps. of sugar.</li> +<li>1/2 cup raisins.</li> +<li>1/2 cup of rice.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li> +<li>Yolks of two eggs.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash the rice and put it into the boiling milk in a double boiler. +Cook until very thick; add the yolks of the eggs and the sugar, beat +thoroughly. Take from the fire, add the vanilla and the fruit, which +has been well floured. Turn out on a dish to cool, when cold form in +pyramids or cylinders; dip first in beaten egg, then in fine bread +crumbs and fry in deep, boiling fat. Put a little jelly on the top of +each croquette, dust the whole with powdered sugar, and serve with +vanilla sauce or cream and sugar.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Rice</span>.</div> + +<p>Wash 1/2 cup of rice, turn into a buttered pudding dish, add 2 tbsps. +sugar, grate 1/4 of a small nutmeg, add 1 qt. of milk, bake slowly for +at least 1-1/2 hour.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Farina</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint of milk.</li> +<li>3 level tbsps. of farina.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the milk in the double boiler, when the milk boils add the salt, +then sprinkle in the farina, stirring all the while; beat the mixture +well and cook for 30 minutes. Serve with cream and sugar. (This may be +made into a pudding by adding an egg, 2 tbsps. sugar, 1/2 tsp. +vanilla, baking in the oven until brown.)</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="MACARONI" id="MACARONI"></a>MACARONI.</h2> + + +<p>Macaroni is quite as valuable as bread for food, and should be used +very freely.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Macaroni</span>.</div> + +<p>Break the macaroni in pieces about 2 inches long. Have boiling water, +add a tsp. of salt; throw in the macaroni and boil rapidly 30 minutes, +put it into a colander to drain, return to the kettle, rub a tbsp. of +butter and flour together until smooth, add either milk or water until +the sauce is as thick as rich cream. Cook it a few minutes before +pouring over the macaroni, and serve (add salt to taste).</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni with Tomato Sauce</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/4 lb. macaroni.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. flour.</li> +<li>1 cup stewed tomatoes.</li></ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p><p>Hold the long sticks of macaroni in the hand; put the end into boiling +salted water, as it softens bend and coil in the water without +breaking. Boil rapidly 20 minutes. When done put it in a colander to +drain. Put the butter in a saucepan to melt, add to it the flour, mix +until smooth, then add the tomatoes (which have been strained), stir +carefully until it boils. Pour over the hot macaroni and serve at +once.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni and Cheese</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/4 lb. of macaroni.</li> +<li>1/4 lb. grated cheese.</li> +<li>Salt and white pepper to taste.</li> +<li>1/2 pt. milk.</li> +<li>1 tsp. butter.</li></ul> + +<p>Break the macaroni in pieces about 3 inches long. Put it into plenty +of boiling water. Add 1 tsp. salt and boil rapidly 25 minutes; drain, +throw into cold water to blanch for 10 minutes. Put the milk into the +double boiler, add to it the butter, then the macaroni which has been +drained, and cheese; stir until heated, add the salt and pepper, and +serve. (The macaroni may be placed in a baking dish in alternate +layers with the cheese, sprinkling each layer with pepper and salt, +pouring the milk over the top, cutting the butter in small bits +distributed over the top, and bake until brown in a moderately quick +oven.)</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CHEESE" id="CHEESE"></a>CHEESE.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cheese Souffle</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/4 lb. of cheese.</li> +<li>1 ssp. of soda.</li> +<li>A speck of cayenne.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. flour.</li> +<li>1/2 cup of milk.</li> +<li>1 tsp. mustard.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li></ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p><p>Put the butter in a saucepan, when melted stir in the flour, add the +milk slowly, then the salt, mustard and cayenne, which have been mixed +together. Add the yolks of the eggs which have been well beaten, then +the grated cheese; stir all together, lift from the fire and set away +to cool. When cold, add the stiff beaten whites, turn into a buttered +dish and bake 25 or 30 minutes. Serve immediately.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Welsh Rarebit</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/4 lb. cheese.</li> +<li>1 tsp. mustard.</li> +<li>A speck of cayenne.</li> +<li>1 tsp. butter.</li> +<li>1/4 cup cream or milk.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li></ul> + +<p>Grate the cheese, put it with the milk in the double boiler. While +this is heating, make some toast. Mix the mustard, salt and pepper, +add the egg and beat well. When the cheese has melted, stir in the egg +and butter, and cook about two minutes, or until it thickens a little, +but do not let it curdle. Pour it over the hot toast and serve at +once.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="BEVERAGES" id="BEVERAGES"></a>BEVERAGES.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tea</span>.</div> + +<p>In making tea, the following rules should be observed. The water +should be freshly boiled. The teapot, which should be of earthen or +china (never of tin), should be scalded and heated before putting in +the tea. Pour on the boiling water and cover closely, and let stand +for 3 or 4 minutes before using. Never, under any circumstances, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>allow tea to boil. The usual proportion is a small teaspoonful of tea +to 1 cup of boiling water, but this is too strong for general use.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Coffee.</span></div> + +<p>Coffee may be made in various ways; by filtering, clarifying with an +egg, or made with cold water. A common rule for making coffee is as +follows: 1 heaping tbsp. ground coffee to 2 cups of freshly boiling +water, 1 egg shell. Scald the coffee-pot, put in the coffee and the +egg shell, add the boiling water, cover and boil just 3 minutes. +Before serving, add a tbsp. of cold water; let stand for a few minutes +before using.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Coffee Made with an Egg.</span></div> + +<p>1 egg is sufficient to clear 1 cup of ground coffee; if a smaller +quantity be desired, half the egg may be used. Add 1/2 cup cold water +to the portion of egg to be used, and 1/2 cup of ground coffee. Beat +well, put it in the coffee-pot, add 1 qt. of boiling water, and boil 3 +minutes. Move back where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 10 +minutes. Pour out a little and pour it back again to clear the spout +before serving.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cocoa.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li> +<li>3 tbsps. of water.</li> +<li>2 (l.) tsps. of cocoa.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the milk in the double boiler and set on the fire, mix the cocoa +to a smooth paste with the cold water. When the milk boils, add the +cocoa and boil for 1 minute. Serve very hot. If more water and less +milk be used, allow a little more cocoa.</p> + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="SOUPS" id="SOUPS"></a>SOUPS.</h2> + + +<p>Soups may be divided into two classes, soup made with stock, and with +milk. As soup should form part of the regular daily diet, and may be +made from the cheaper materials, it is absolutely necessary that every +housekeeper should understand the art of making it properly.</p> + +<p>In the first place it is well to know what may be used in the process +of soup making. The first and most important step is to prepare the +stock. For this purpose have a large earthen bowl or "catch all," as +some teachers call it. Into this put all the bones, trimmings, bits of +steak or chop and gravy which has been left over. Keep in a cold +place. When needed, cover with cold water and simmer 4 or 5 hours; +strain and set away to cool. When cold, remove the fat which will have +formed a solid coating on the top. The stock is now ready for use. By +saving the remains of vegetables cooked for the table, the outer +stocks of celery, a hard boiled egg, etc., a very palatable and +nutritious soup may be made at a trifling cost. In families where +large quantities of meat are used, there should be sufficient material +without buying meat for soup. It is not necessary to have all the +ingredients mentioned in some recipes in order to secure satisfactory +results. It will, however, be necessary to understand soup flavorings, +so as to know which ones may be left out. Stock made from the shin of +beef, or from the cheaper pieces which contain the coarser fibre and +gristle, require long, slow cooking (see Methods).</p> + +<p>Never soak meat in water before cooking in any form. Wipe carefully +with a damp cloth before cutting or preparing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>for use. For soup break +or saw the bones into small pieces, and for each pound of meat and +bone allow 1 qt. of cold water. Cover the kettle closely and let it +heat slowly until it reaches the simmering point, when it should be +moved back and kept at that degree for several hours. Soup should +never be allowed to boil hard. The scum which rises to the surface is +the albumen and juices of the meat, and should not be skimmed off. If +the kettle is clean, and all impurities removed from the meat, there +will not be anything objectionable in the scum. Stock must always be +allowed to remain until cold, so that the fat may be removed before +using. A strong, greasy soup is rarely relished, and is one of the +principal reasons why so many people dislike this valuable article of +diet. Do not add salt to the meat which is being prepared for stock +until a few minutes before removing from the fire. Salt hardens the +water if added at first and makes the tissues more difficult to +dissolve. Stock may be kept for several days by occasionally bringing +it to the boiling point. This is not necessary in winter if it is kept +in a cold place.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Vegetable Soup.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 qt. stock.</li> +<li>1/2 cup each chopped turnip and cabbage.</li> +<li>1 tsp. sugar.</li> +<li>1 ssp. pepper.</li> +<li>1/2 cup each of onion, carrot, celery (chopped).</li> +<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>If all these vegetables are not available, a little macaroni, rice or +barley may be added. Chop all the vegetables very fine, cabbage or +onions should be parboiled 5 minutes, drain carefully. Put all the +vegetables together, cover with 1 qt. of water and simmer until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +tender, then add the stock, the seasoning, and allow it to simmer +about 10 minutes. Serve without straining.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tomato Soup.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of canned or stewed tomatoes.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tsp. sugar.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>2 whole cloves or 1/2 bay leaf.</li> +<li>1 pt. of stock.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. minced onion.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. flour or cornstarch.</li> +<li>A speck of cayenne may be added if desired.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the tomato and stock in a saucepan and set on the fire. Cook the +vegetables in the butter for 15 minutes; then press out the butter and +put the vegetables in the soup. Into the butter remaining in the pan +put the flour and stir until smooth, then add to the soup. Allow all +to simmer for 20 minutes; strain and serve.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Split Pea Soup.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. of split peas.</li> +<li>1-1/2 qt. of boiling water.</li> +<li>1 qt. of stock.</li> +<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash the peas in cold water (rejecting those which float) and soak +them over night. In the morning drain the water off and cover them +again with 1 qt. of the boiling water. Boil until tender, about 1-1/2 +hour. Now add the stock and 1 pt. of the boiling water. Press the +whole through a sieve; wash the soup kettle, return the soup, boil up +once, add salt and pepper and serve with croutons. Dried pea soup may +be made in exactly the same manner, using 1 pt. of dried peas instead +of the split ones.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Onion Soup.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 large Spanish onion.</li> +<li>1 qt. stock.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. flour.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li> +<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p><p>Peel and chop the onion. Put the butter in a frying-pan, add the +onion, and stir until a nice brown. Put the stock on to boil. Skim the +onions out of the butter and add them to the stock. Stir 1 tbsp. of +flour into the remaining butter, thin with a little of the stock, put +all together, and simmer for 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and it +is ready to serve.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni Soup</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 qt. clear soup.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>5 sticks macaroni.</li></ul> + +<p>Break the macaroni into small pieces and throw it into 1 quart of +boiling water containing the tsp. of salt. Let it boil uncovered 25 +minutes. Drain off the water and add the macaroni to the hot stock, +cover and cook slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. A little more seasoning +may be added if desired.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Oyster Soup</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. oysters.</li> +<li>1/2 pt. cold water.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper.</li> +<li>Salt to taste.</li> +<li>1 pt. milk.</li> +<li>2 (l.) tbsps. flour.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li></ul> + +<p>Put a strainer over a bowl and turn the oysters into it. Pour the +water over the oysters and stir with a spoon until all the liquid has +passed through the strainer. Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, pouring the +remainder into the double boiler, set it on the fire. Put the oyster +liquor in a stew-pan, and heat slowly. Mix the cold milk with the +flour, and stirring into the boiling milk; cook for 10 minutes. When +the oyster liquor boils, skim it. When the flour and milk have cooked +for 10 minutes, add the oysters, butter, salt, pepper and oyster +liquor.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> Cook until the oysters curl on the edge and are plump. Serve +at once.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bean Soup (Without Stock)</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 qt. dried white beans.</li> +<li>1 large tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>2 qts. water.</li> +<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash the beans, cover them with water, and soak over night. Next +morning drain, put them on to boil with 2 quarts of fresh cold water. +As soon as they come to a boil drain this water off and throw it away. +Cover again with 2 quarts of fresh boiling water, add 1 ssp. of soda, +and boil until soft. Press the beans through a sieve, return to the +kettle, and if too thick add enough boiling water to make the soup +about the consistency of cream. Add the salt, pepper and butter, and +serve. (Minced onion, carrot, or celery fried in a little butter or +dripping, and added to this soup before straining, improves the +flavor.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bouillon</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>2 lbs. lean beef.</li> +<li>1 small onion.</li> +<li>A sprig of parsley.</li> +<li>1 qt. cold water.</li> +<li>1 stalk celery, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed.</li> +<li>1 bay leaf.</li></ul> + +<p>Remove all the fat and chop the meat very fine. Put it into the soup +kettle with the water, bay leaf, parsley, onion and celery. Cover the +kettle closely and place it in the back part of the range for 2 hours. +Then move it over and let it come to a boil; skim at the first boil. +Move back and simmer gently for 4 hours. Strain, return to the kettle, +add salt and pepper. Beat the white of one egg with 1/2 cup of cold +water until thoroughly mixed. Wash the egg shell, mash it and add<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> to +the white. Now add the white, shell and water to the boiling bouillon; +let it boil hard for 10 minutes, then throw in 1/2 cup of cold water +and boil 5 minutes longer. Take the kettle off the fire, strain +through a flannel bag, add salt to taste, and color with caramel. (See +recipe for caramel.) This is an excellent preparation for invalids.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="FISH" id="FISH"></a>FISH.</h2> + +<p>Fish is an invaluable article of food. It provides variety in diet, +and while less stimulating than meat, is usually more easily digested. +Fish should be perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked. The most +wholesome as well as the most palatable methods for cooking fish are +broiling and baking. The flesh of fresh fish is firm and will not +retain the impress of the finger if pressed into it. The eyes should +be bright and glassy, the gills red and full of blood. Fish should be +cleaned as soon as possible and thoroughly wiped with a cloth wet in +salt water, and should be kept in a cool place. Do not put it near +other food such as milk, butter, etc., as they will absorb the odor.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Fish</span>.</div> + +<p>Rub a double broiler well with a piece of suet before putting in the +fish. Lay the fish flat so that the flesh side will be exposed on one +side of the broiler and the skin on the other. Broil carefully, as the +skin side burns very quickly. A fish weighing 3 lbs. will take about +25 or 30 minutes to broil. When cooked sprinkle with salt and pepper, +and serve very hot.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Fish</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup cracker or bread crumbs.</li> +<li>1 ssp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tsp. chopped onion.</li> +<li>1 tsp. chopped parsley.</li> +<li>1 ssp. pepper.</li> +<li>1/4 cup melted butter or dripping.</li></ul> + +<p>Clean, wipe and dry the fish, rub with salt; fill with stuffing and +sew or tie carefully. Rub all over with butter (or dripping), salt and +pepper, dredge with flour, put it into a hot oven; baste when the +flour is brown, and often afterwards. Remove carefully from the pan +and place upon a hot platter.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Scalloped Fish</span>.</div> + +<p>Pick over carefully any remnants of cold boiled or baked fish, put +into a shallow dish in alternate layers with bread crumbs and cream +sauce. Cover with crumbs and bake till brown.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Salt Fish Balls</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup salt fish.</li> +<li>1 tsp. butter.</li> +<li>1/4 ssp. pepper.</li> +<li>1 pint potatoes.</li> +<li>1 egg, well beaten.</li> +<li>More salt if needed.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash the fish, pick in pieces and free from bones. Pare the potatoes +and cut in quarters. Put the potatoes and fish in a stew-pan and cover +with boiling water. Boil until the potatoes are tender. Drain off all +the water; mash and beat the fish and potatoes till very light. Add +the butter and pepper, and when slightly cooled add the egg. Lift in a +tbsp. and drop into smoking hot fat 1 minute, drain on brown paper; +they may be formed into balls and browned in a very hot oven.</p> + + + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="MEAT" id="MEAT"></a>MEAT.</h2> + +<div class="center">(<i>See Analysis, Chap. V.</i>)</div> + + +<p>As meat is composed of several substances, fibrine, albumen, gelatin, +fat and the juices, it is necessary to understand the various methods +of cooking in order to secure the best results. Meat has its season as +well as many other foods. Pork is better in autumn and winter; veal in +the spring and summer; fowl in autumn and winter; lamb in the summer +and autumn; mutton and beef may be used any time. Meat should not be +allowed to remain in the paper in which it comes from market, as it +absorbs the juices and injures the flavor. Wipe all over with a clean +wet cloth. Examine carefully, remove any tainted or unclean portions +and keep in a clean, cool place until required. Good beef should be a +bright red color, well mixed with fat, and a layer of fat on the +outside; the suet should be dry and crumble easily. (See meat diagrams +for different cuts.) Mutton should have an abundance of clear, white +fat, the flesh fine grained and a bright red color. The fat of veal +should be clear and white, the lean pink, and should always be +thoroughly cooked. Pork is more indigestible when fresh than when +cured, as in bacon and ham. Fresh pork should be firm, the fat white, +the lean a pale red.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roast of Beef</span>.</div> + +<p>Wipe, trim, and tie or skewer into shape the cut for roasting. If +there be a large piece of the flank, cut it off and use for soups or +stews. If you wish to roast it, turn it underneath and fasten with a +skewer. Lay the meat on a rack in a pan, and dredge all over with +flour. Put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> on the top of a roast 2 or 3 tbsps. of dripping or pieces +of the fat; put it in a very hot oven at first. After the outside has +become seared, check off the heat and allow to cook slowly, basting +frequently. (See time table for baking.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Steak</span>.</div> + +<p>Trim the steak free from all suet (save all trimmings for stews or the +stock pot). Put the meat plate to warm, grease the broiler with a +little of the fat. See that the fire is clear. Put the steak on the +hot broiler and place it over the fire, turning every 10 seconds. It +will take about 8 minutes if the steak is 1 inch thick. When done, +place it on the hot plate, dredge it with salt and pepper; turn over +and season the other side. Serve immediately.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pan-Broiled Steak</span>.</div> + +<p>When the fire is not suitable for broiling, heat the frying pan until +smoking hot; trim the steak as for broiling, place firmly on the hot +pan, turn frequently as in broiling, with a broad knife or pancake +turner; never insert a fork, as it allows the juice to escape. It will +cook in 10 minutes. Season, and serve the same as broiled steak. If a +gravy is desired, fry a little of the suet and trimmings in the +pan—after the steak has been removed—until brown, lift out the meat +or suet, add 1 tbsp. of flour, stir until brown, add pepper and salt +to taste, then add 1 teacup of boiling water. Cook for 2 or 3 minutes +and strain over the steak.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hamburg Steak</span>.</div> + +<p>1 lb. of steak from the upper side of the round, or any piece of lean +beef free from gristle; chop very fine, add<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> 1 tbsp. of onion juice +(or finely minced onion), 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. black pepper, mix +well together; dip the hands in cold water, take 2 tbsps. of the +mixture and form with the hands into small round cakes. Have the +frying pan very hot, put in 2 tbsps. of dripping; when hot, put in the +steaks, brown on both sides—or they may be pan-broiled. Place them on +a hot dish, add a tbsp. of flour to the fat remaining in the pan, mix +until smooth and brown; add a cupful of boiling water, stir until it +boils, add pepper and salt to taste, and pour over the steak.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beef Stew with Dumplings</span>.</div> + +<p>2 lbs. of lean beef (cheaper cuts). Cut into pieces about 1 inch +square, dredge with flour. Put 2 tbsps. of dripping into a frying pan; +as soon as it is very hot put in the meat and shake or stir until +nicely browned. Skim out the meat and put it in a saucepan. Add 1 +tbsp. of flour to the dripping remaining in the pan, mix and add 1 +quart of boiling water; stir over the fire until it boils, then strain +it over the meat; add one small onion, pepper and salt to taste. Cover +the saucepan closely and let it simmer for 2 hours. Make the dumplings +by sifting 1 pint of flour, to which has been added 2 tsps. baking +powder. Add 1/4 tsp. salt and enough milk to make a soft dough. Lift +the dough in spoonfuls, placing them over the meat, cover quickly and +let boil 10 minutes. Do not uncover the saucepan while the dumplings +are cooking or they will fall immediately. Be careful not to allow the +stew to burn while the dumplings are cooking.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pot Roast</span>.</div> + +<p>Trim off the rough parts of a brisket of beef or any of the cheaper +cuts. Place it in a kettle over a good fire; brown on one side, then +turn and brown on the other; add 1 pint of boiling water, cover +closely and simmer, allowing 20 minutes to every pound. Add pepper and +salt when the meat is nearly done.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Braised Beef</span>.</div> + +<p>From 4 to 6 lbs. of beef from the lower part of the round or rump. +Trim and rub well with salt, pepper and flour. Chop 2 small onions and +fry until light brown in pork fat or dripping; skim them out and put +them into the pan in which the meat is to be braised, then brown the +meat all over, adding more fat if needed (this may be done in a very +hot oven). Put the meat into the pan, on skewers to keep it from +sticking, with the onions around it. Add 1 qt. of boiling water, cover +closely, putting a brick or heavy weight on the cover to keep it down, +and cook in a moderate oven 4 hours, basting occasionally. Turn once +and add more water as it evaporates, so as to have 1 pt. left for +gravy. When tender take up the meat, remove the fat, add more salt and +pepper, and if liked, a little lemon juice or tomato may be added. +Thicken with 2 tbsps. of flour wet in a little cold water. Cook 10 +minutes and pour the gravy over the meat. Any tough meat may be cooked +in this way.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hash</span>.</div> + +<p>Take any pieces left of a cold roast, steaks or stews, chop very fine; +take 1 tbsp. butter or dripping, 1 tbsp. of flour, stir together in a +hot frying pan, when brown add<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> 1 cup boiling water; add 1 tbsp. +chopped onion, pepper and salt to taste, let simmer for 10 minutes, +then add the meat, stir until heated thoroughly and serve on toast.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Corned Beef or Sausage Hash</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pt. hashed corn beef or sausage.</li> +<li>1 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter or dripping.</li> +<li>1 pt. of hashed potatoes.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. pepper.</li> +<li>1/2 cup of milk.</li> +<li>(Omit the milk if sausage is used).</li></ul> + +<p>Mix the potato and meat, season with the pepper and salt, add the milk +and stir lightly. Put the butter or dripping into a hot frying pan, +when melted put in the hash, spread it lightly and evenly, but do not +stir it. Cover the pan and set where the hash will cook slowly for 10 +or 15 minutes. Move over to a hotter part of the stove and let it +remain until a rich, brown crust has formed on the bottom. Fold over +and serve on a hot dish.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mutton—Boiled Leg of Mutton</span>.</div> + +<p>Wipe the leg with a damp towel. Dust a cloth with flour and wrap the +leg up with it. Put it into a kettle of boiling water and simmer +gently 20 minutes to every pound; add salt when the leg is nearly +done. When cooked remove the cloth carefully, garnish with parsley and +serve with caper sauce. Save the liquor in which it was boiled for +broth, stews, etc.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Irish Stew</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>3 lbs. of the neck of mutton.</li> +<li>4 good sized onions.</li> +<li>4 potatoes cut into dice.</li> +<li>2 qts. of water.</li> +<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul> + +<p>Cut the meat into small pieces, cover with the water, which should be +boiling, add the onions sliced, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> simmer gently for 3 hours. About +1/2 hour before the meat is done add the potatoes, season with pepper +and salt, and serve.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">To Bake or Roast a Quarter of Lamb</span>.</div> + +<p>Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, place in a baking pan, dredge with +pepper, put 1 tsp. of salt in the pan, add just enough water to keep +the pan from burning until enough of its own fat has fried out to use +for basting. Baste at least every 10 minutes; allow 15 minutes to +every pound in a very hot oven. Serve with mint sauce.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lamb Chops</span></div> + +<p>Are broiled or pan-broiled the same as beefsteak.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Veal—Veal Cutlets</span>.</div> + +<p>Have the cutlets about 1/4 of an inch thick, dredge with salt, pepper +and flour. Put a tbsp. of dripping in a frying pan, and when very hot +put in the cutlets; when brown on one side turn and brown on the +other, take out and place on a hot dish. Add a tbsp. of flour to the +fat remaining in the pan, mix and stir until brown; add a cupful of +boiling water, pepper and salt to taste, stir until it boils, pour +over the cutlets, and serve.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Knuckle of Veal</span>.</div> + +<p>Wipe the knuckle well with a damp cloth. Cut it into pieces. Put into +a kettle with 2 quarts of boiling water, add 1 onion chopped, 1/4 lb. +of chopped ham, and 1 bay leaf, pepper and salt to taste. Cover and +stew slowly for 2-1/2 hours (a half cup of rice may be added to this +stew).</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Jellied Veal</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 knuckle of veal.</li> +<li>1 blade of mace.</li> +<li>12 whole cloves.</li> +<li>1/2 cup of vinegar.</li> +<li>1 onion.</li> +<li>1 bay leaf.</li> +<li>6 pepper corns.</li> +<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul> + +<p>Wipe the knuckle and cut it into pieces. Put into a kettle with 2 +quarts of cold water; bring slowly to simmering point; skim and simmer +gently for 2 hours; then add the onion, mace, bay leaf, cloves, pepper +corns, and simmer 1 hour longer. Take out the knuckle, carefully +remove the bones and put the meat into a mould or square pan. Boil the +liquor until reduced to 1 quart, add the vinegar, pepper and salt to +taste, strain and pour over the meat. Stand away until cold, when it +may be turned out and garnished with parsley and lemon.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fillet of Veal (stuffed)</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup of bread crumbs.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of summer savory.</li> +<li>1 ssp. of pepper.</li> +<li>1/2 cup of chopped salt pork or ham.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Have the bone removed from the shoulder, fill the space from which the +bone was taken with the stuffing, fasten the meat together with a +skewer to prevent the stuffing from coming out, put into the pan with +3 or 4 tbsps. of dripping, allowing 20 minutes to each pound, basting +frequently in a moderately hot oven.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pork and Beans</span>.</div> + +<p>Soak the beans over night in cold water. In the morning wash them well +in a colander, put them on to boil in cold water, at the first boil +drain this water off<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> and cover with fresh boiling water. Score the +rind of the pork and put it in with the beans. Simmer gently until you +can blow off the skin of the beans. To do this, take 3 or 4 beans in +your hand, blow hard on them, and if the skin cracks they are done. +Take out the pork and drain. Put the beans into an earthen pot or +granite kettle with a cover; almost bury the pork in the centre of the +beans. Add 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pint of the water in which the beans +were boiled, pour this into the pot, sprinkle with pepper, pour over +the beans 1 large spoonful of molasses, put on the lid, bake in a +moderate oven for 6 or 8 hours. If baked in an ordinary iron baking +pan they must be covered with another on which has been placed a +weight, carefully watched, and baked only 3 hours.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roast Spare Ribs</span>.</div> + +<p>Put the spare ribs in a baking pan, sprinkle lightly with pepper, add +1/2 tsp. of salt to 1/2 cup of boiling water, and pour in the bottom +of the pan. Roast 20 minutes to every lb., basting often. When done, +make a gravy and serve as for any other roast. (Spare ribs may be +stuffed, the ribs cracked crosswise, the stuffing placed in the +centre, the two ends folded over, roast as above.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Ham</span>.</div> + +<p>Have the ham cut into slices about 1/4 inch thick, trim off the rind +and rusty edge. Broil the same as steak or chops. (This is a very nice +way to serve ham with poached eggs.)</p> + +<p>Ham may be pan-broiled as directed in former recipes.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fried Bacon</span>.</div> + +<p>Cut into very thin slices, put into a very hot frying pan, and cook +until clear and crisp.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sausage</span>.</div> + +<p>Prick the skins with a sharp fork so as to prevent bursting; place +them in a frying pan over a moderate fire and fry in their own fat +until a nice brown. After taking the sausage from the pan, add 1 tbsp. +of flour to the fat in the pan, add 1 cup of boiling water, stir until +it boils, pour over the sausage and serve.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Liver and Bacon</span>.</div> + +<p>Have the bacon cut in thin slices and keep it cold until the time to +cook it. Have the liver cut into slices about 1/3 of an inch thick. If +it be calf or sheep's liver, wash it in cold water and let it drain; +but if it be beef liver, after washing it, cover with boiling water +and let it stand for 5 minutes, then drain it. Cook the bacon as +directed, then take it up. Lay the slices of liver in the hot fat, +cook them for 8 or 10 minutes, turning often; season with pepper and +salt. Arrange the liver on a warm platter, make a gravy as directed in +other recipes, pour over the liver, placing the bacon round the +outside. (Always cook bacon quickly and liver slowly.)</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h2><a name="POULTRY" id="POULTRY"></a>POULTRY.</h2> + +<p>The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, smooth, +moist skin and plump breast; the cartilage on the end of the breast +bone is soft and pliable. Pin feathers always indicate a young bird +and long hairs an older one. All poultry should be dressed as soon as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +killed. Cut off the head, and if the fowl is to be roasted, slip the +skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close to the body, +leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. Remove the windpipe, +pull the crop away from the skin on the neck and breast, and cut off +close to the opening in the body. Cut through the skin about 2 inches +below the leg joint, bend the leg at the cut by pressing it on the +edge of the table and break off the bone. Then pull out the tendon. If +care be taken to cut only through the skin, these cords may be pulled +out easily, one at a time, with the fingers; or by putting the foot of +the fowl against the casing of a door, then shut the door tightly and +pull on the leg. The drum stick of a roast chicken or turkey is +greatly improved by removing the tendons. Cut out the oil bag in the +tail, make an incision near the vent, insert two fingers, keeping the +fingers up close to the breast bone until you can reach in beyond the +liver and heart, and loosen on either side down toward the back. Draw +everything out carefully. See that the kidneys and lungs are not left +in, and be very careful not to break any of the intestines. When the +fowl has been cleaned carefully it will not require much washing. +Rinse out the inside quickly and wipe dry. In stuffing and trussing a +fowl, place the fowl in a bowl and put the stuffing in at the neck, +fill out the breast until plump. Then draw the neck skin together at +the ends and sew it over on the back. Put the remainder of the +stuffing into the body at the other opening and sew with coarse thread +or fine twine. Draw the thighs up close to the body and tie the legs +over the tail firmly with twine. Put a long skewer through the thigh +into the body and out through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> the opposite thigh, turn the tips of +the wings under the back of the fowl, put a long skewer through from +one wing to the other. Wind a string from the tail to the skewer in +the thigh, then up to the one in the wing across the back to the other +wing, then down to the opposite side and tie firmly round the tail. If +you have no skewers, the fowl may be kept in shape by tying carefully +with twine. Clean all the giblets, cut away all that looks green near +the gall bladder, open the gizzard and remove the inner lining without +breaking. Put the gizzard, heart, liver, and the piece of neck which +has been cut off, into cold water, wash carefully, put in a saucepan, +cover with cold water, place on the back of the stove and simmer till +tender. Use the liquid for making the gravy; the meat may be chopped +and used for giblet soup.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roast Chicken (or Turkey).</span></div> + +<p>Singe carefully, remove the pin feathers, draw as directed above. +Wipe, stuff, sew and tie or skewer into shape, dredge with flour, +cover with plenty of dripping; roast in a hot oven. When the flour is +brown check the heat, baste frequently with the fat, and when nearly +cooked dredge with pepper and salt and again with flour. Bake a 4 lb. +chicken 1-1/2 hour, or until the joints separate easily. If browning +too fast, cover with paper. (Roast chicken is considered to be more +wholesome and to have a better flavor when cooked without stuffing.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fricassee of Chicken</span>.</div> + +<p>The first attempt of an inexperienced cook in the preparation of a +chicken should be a fricassee, as it will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> provide an opportunity for +her to study the anatomy of a chicken while cutting it in pieces, and +also show her the position of the intestines, so that when she +attempts to draw a fowl she will know just where to place her hand so +as to remove them without breaking.</p> + +<p>To prepare a chicken for a fricassee, clean and singe. Cut the chicken +at the joints in pieces for serving. Place in a kettle, cover with +boiling water, add 2 level tsps. of salt, a ssp. of pepper (some like +a small piece of salt pork). Simmer until tender, reducing the water +to a pint or less, lift the chicken, melt 1 tbsp. of butter in a +saucepan, add 2 tbsps. of flour, and when well mixed pour on slowly +the chicken liquor. Add more salt if needed, pepper, 1/2 tsp. of +celery salt, 1 tsp. of lemon juice (an egg may be used by beating and +pouring the sauce slowly on the egg, stirring well before adding it to +the chicken). Pour this gravy over the chicken and serve; dumplings +may be added if desired, or it may be placed in a deep dish, covered +with pastry and baked for chicken pie.</p> + +<p>(The chicken may be browned in a little hot fat as in braising meat, +and cooked in the same way.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Chicken</span>.</div> + +<p>Singe and split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, clean +and wipe with a wet cloth, sprinkle with pepper and salt, rub well +with butter or dripping, place in a double grid-iron and broil 20 +minutes over a clear fire. The chicken may be covered with fine bread +crumbs or dredged with flour, allowing a plentiful supply of butter or +dripping, and baked in a hot oven 1/2 hour.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Meat Souffle</span>.</div> + +<p>Make 1 cup of white sauce and season with chopped parsley and onion +juice. Stir 1 cup of chopped meat (chicken, tongue, veal or lamb) into +the sauce. When hot, add the beaten yolks of two eggs; cook 1 minute +and set away to cool. When cool, stir in the whites, beat very stiff. +Bake in a buttered dish about twenty minutes and serve immediately.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Croquettes</span>.</div> + +<p>These may be made with any kind of cooked meat, fish, rice, potatoes, +etc., or from a mixture of several ingredients, when mixed with a +thick white sauce, as follows: 1 pint hot milk, 2 tbsps. butter or +beef dripping, 6 (l.) tbsps. flour, or 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch, 1/2 +tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. white pepper, 1/2 tsp. celery salt, a speck of +cayenne. Melt the butter or dripping in a saucepan, when hot add the +dry cornstarch or flour. Stir till well mixed. Add 1/3 of the hot milk +and stir as it boils and thickens, add the remainder of the hot milk +gradually. The sauce should be very thick. Add the seasoning, and mix +it while hot with the meat or fish. It is improved by adding a beaten +egg just before the sauce is taken from the fire. When cold, shape +into rolls or like a pear, roll lightly in beaten egg, then in bread +crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat. Drain on coarse brown paper. If the +mixture be too soft to handle easily stir in enough fine cracker or +soft bread crumbs to stiffen it, but never flour.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="HOT_PUDDINGS" id="HOT_PUDDINGS"></a>HOT PUDDINGS.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Apple Pudding (baked).</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li> +<li>1/4 cup butter or dripping.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>1 tsp. cream of tartar.</li> +<li>3 tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. soda sifted into the flour.</li> +<li>6 tart apples.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix the dry ingredients, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, stir +this into the dry mixture. Core, pare and cut the apples into quarters +(if large into eighths). Place in the bottom of a pudding dish, +sprinkle over them the sugar, a little nutmeg or cinnamon may be added +if desired. Put the mixture over this, lifting the apples with a fork +or spoon so as to let the mixture penetrate to the bottom of the pan. +Bake in a moderately hot oven about 30 minutes. Serve with lemon sauce +or thin custard.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cottage Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/2 pint sifted flour.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li> +<li>1/2 cup milk.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>2 tsps. baking powder (level).</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, add the unbeaten egg, beat +vigorously for 3 or 4 minutes, add the salt, then the flour, with +which the baking powder should be mixed. Beat for a few seconds, then +turn the batter into a small, buttered pudding dish, bake about 25 +minutes in a moderate oven; serve with lemon sauce.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lemon Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>4 level tbsps. granulated sugar.</li> +<li>1 ssp. of salt.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. milk.</li> +<li>The juice and grated rind of a small lemon.</li> +<li>6 (l.) tsps. cornstarch.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>1/2 cup water.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix the cornstarch with 3 tbsps. cold water; put the remainder of the +water in the saucepan and set on to boil. Stir into this the mixed +cornstarch and cook until clear. Take from the fire, add the salt and +lemon, reserving 1/2 tsp. of the lemon. Beat the butter to a cream, +gradually beat into it the sugar, the yolk of the egg, lastly the +milk. Stir this mixture into the cooked ingredients, and bake in a +moderate oven for 20 minutes. Beat the white of the egg to a stiff +froth, beat into it 1 tbsp. of powdered sugar and the 1/2 tsp. of +lemon juice. Spread this over the hot pudding and leave in the oven +until slightly browned. (This pudding is better served very cold.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint stale bread crumbs.</li> +<li>1 quart of sugar.</li> +<li>1 ssp. of nutmeg or cinnamon.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Soak the bread crumbs for 1 hour in 1 quart of milk. Beat the eggs, +add the sugar and seasoning, stir all into the bread crumbs, bake 1 +hour in a buttered pudding dish. (Raisins or currants may be added if +desired.)</p> + +<p>Another method for making bread pudding is to butter thin slices of +stale bread, spread with a little jam or sprinkle a few currants (well +washed) over each layer, lay them in a pudding dish, pour over a quart +of milk,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> to which has been added 3 well beaten eggs, 1/2 cup sugar. +Bake until the custard thickens. This pudding may be served either hot +or cold.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Steamed Apple Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>3 pints pared and quartered apples.</li> +<li>1/2 pint flour.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>1/4 of a grated nutmeg.</li> +<li>1/2 cup milk.</li> +<li>1/2 pint water.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>2 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the apples, water, sugar, and nutmeg into a porcelain or granite +saucepan and set on the fire. When the apples begin to boil, set back +where they will cook gently. Mix the flour, salt and baking powder +together. Rub the butter into this dry mixture, wet with the milk, +stir quickly into a soft dough. Press or roll the dough lightly into a +round piece about the size of the top of the saucepan. Lay this on the +apples; put on a close cover and continue cooking gently for 30 +minutes. The crust may be lifted to a plate for a moment, the apples +turned into a pudding dish, then placing the crust over the top. To be +served with lemon or nutmeg sauce.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Rice Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/2 cup rice.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 pint milk.</li> +<li>1/2 cup raisins.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash the rice well. Put it on the fire in 1 pint of cold water and let +it cook for 10 minutes. Drain off the water, add the salt and milk; +then cook in the double boiler for 2 hours, add the raisins when about +half cooked. Do not stir the rice while it is cooking.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Brown Betty</span>.</div> + +<p>Pare, core and slice 6 or 7 tart apples. Put a layer of stale bread +crumbs in the bottom of the baking dish, then a layer of the apples, +another layer of bread crumbs and apples, and so on until all are +used, having the last layer crumbs. Add 1/2 cup of water to 1/2 cup +molasses, stir in 2 tbsps. of brown sugar; pour it over the crumbs and +bake in a moderate oven for 1 hour.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Apple Snow</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>6 apples.</li> +<li>Juice of 1 lemon.</li> +<li>1 cup white sugar.</li> +<li>Whites of 6 eggs.</li></ul> + +<p>Pare, core and steam the apples until tender, then press them through +a sieve and put aside to cool; when cold add the sugar and lemon +juice. Beat the whites of the eggs to a very stiff froth, add the +apples to them by spoonfuls, beating all the while. Heap in a glass +dish and serve immediately. (This is a very delicate and wholesome +pudding for an invalid.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Scalloped Apples</span>.</div> + +<p>Made the same as Brown Betty, omitting the molasses, adding water and +a little lemon juice instead.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Suet Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup suet.</li> +<li>1 cup molasses.</li> +<li>3 cups flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 cup raisins.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>1 tsp. cinnamon.</li> +<li>2 tsps. baking powder.</li></ul> + +<p>Chop the suet very fine. Stone the raisins. Add the molasses to the +suet, then the milk: mix well and add the salt, flour and cinnamon. +Beat vigorously for 2 or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> 3 minutes, then add the raisins. Rub in the +flour, to which has been added the baking powder; mix thoroughly, turn +into a buttered mould, steam for 3 hours.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tapioca Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup tapioca.</li> +<li>4 eggs.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1 quart milk.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tsp. vanilla.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash the tapioca carefully, then add it to the milk and soak 2 hours. +Beat the eggs and sugar together, add the salt, stir into the tapioca +and milk, and bake in a moderate oven at least 3/4 of an hour. Serve +hot or cold.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Chocolate Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 egg.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. cornstarch.</li> +<li>3 tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li> +<li>1 pint milk.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. boiling water.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 oz. shaved chocolate.</li></ul> + +<p>Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder on the fire in a double +boiler. Mix the cold milk with the cornstarch and salt. Beat the egg +well and add to the cornstarch mixture. Stir this into the boiling +milk and stir well. Put the chocolate, sugar and boiling water into a +small frying pan or saucepan, and set over a hot fire. Stir until the +mixture is smooth and glossy; beat this into the pudding and cook for +2 minutes longer. Take from the fire and add the vanilla. Dip a mould +into cold water and turn the pudding into it. Set away to cool. When +cold and stiff, turn out on a flat dish and surround with whipped +cream; or serve with cream and sugar or a soft custard.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Snow Pudding</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/4 box gelatine.</li> +<li>1 cup boiling water.</li> +<li>1 cup sugar.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. cold water.</li> +<li>Juice of one lemon.</li> +<li>Whites of 2 eggs.</li></ul> + +<p>Soak the gelatine in cold water for 2 hours. Pour upon this the +boiling water and stir until the gelatine is dissolved; then add the +sugar and lemon juice, stirring until the sugar is dissolved. Set the +bowl in a pan of cold water, or broken ice. Stir frequently; when it +begins to thicken, stir in the beaten whites of the eggs, pour into a +mould and set away until firm. Serve with boiled custard.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cream Pie</span>.</div> + +<p>Make a plain cup cake, and bake it in a shallow cake pan. When cooked +and cold, split it carefully. Put 1 pint of milk on to boil in a +farina boiler. Beat the yolks of 3 eggs and 1/2 cup of sugar together +until light, then add the well-beaten whites, and stir them into the +boiling milk; stir over the fire for about 1 minute, then take from +the fire, add 1 tsp. of vanilla, and stand away to cool. When cold, +and ready to serve, put a thick layer of this sauce between the layers +of cake, pour the remaining sauce around the pie, and serve +immediately.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Blanc Mange</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint milk.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the milk on to boil. Moisten the cornstarch with a little cold +milk, then add it to the boiling milk, and stir until it thickens; let +it cook slowly for 5 minutes; add the sugar and salt, take from the +fire, pour into a mould and set away to harden.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Strawberry Shortcake</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1 oz. butter.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix the salt, flour and butter together. Sift, then add the baking +powder and sift again. Add the liquid gradually, mixing and cutting +with a knife until the dough is light and spongy; turn it out on a +well floured board, pat into a flat cake and roll gently till 1/2 an +inch thick. Bake in a spider or pie plate in a rather hot oven. Split +and spread with sweetened berries and serve either hot or cold.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h2><a name="PUDDING_SAUCES" id="PUDDING_SAUCES"></a>PUDDING SAUCES.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Plain Sauce</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup water.</li> +<li>1 tsp. butter.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.</li> +<li>3 tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>2 tsps. flour or cornstarch.</li></ul> + +<p>Melt the butter and flour together, stir in the hot water, add the +sugar and flavoring, cook until smooth and clear.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Molasses Sauce</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/2 cup molasses.</li> +<li>1/2 cup water or 1/2 tbsp. vinegar.</li> +<li>2 (l.) tsps. flour.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. lemon juice.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix the flour and sugar together. Pour the boiling water upon it. Add +the molasses and place on the range. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the +other ingredients; boil up once and serve. (Omit lemon if vinegar is +used.)</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cream Sauce</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 egg.</li> +<li>1 tsp. butter.</li> +<li>1 tsp. cornstarch.</li> +<li>1/2 cup powdered sugar.</li> +<li>1 tsp. vanilla.</li> +<li>1 cup boiling milk.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth; then gradually beat into +it the powdered sugar and cornstarch. Next add the yolk of the egg and +beat well. Pour upon this the cupful of boiling milk and place on the +fire. Stir until it boils, then add the butter and vanilla.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lemon Sauce</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 tbsp. cornstarch.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1 pint boiling water.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li> +<li>1 lemon.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the egg, add the cornstarch and sugar, stir them well together; +add the boiling water gradually and stir over the fire until thick; +add the butter, juice and grated rind of one lemon. Serve hot.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Vanilla Sauce</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>2 (l.) tbsps. sugar.</li> +<li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the milk on to boil, beat the yolks and sugar till very light; add +them to the boiling milk; stir over the fire until creamy. Have the +whites beaten, pour over them the boiling mixture; beat thoroughly and +serve at once.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h2><a name="CAKE" id="CAKE"></a>CAKE.</h2> + +<p>There are practically two kinds of cake, that made with butter, and +cake made without butter. When these two methods are understood, cake +making becomes easy. A few simple rules must govern all cake making.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p><p>1st. Regulate the heat. Cakes without butter require a quick oven; +with butter, a moderate oven. 2nd. Beat whites and yolks separately. +3rd. Beat butter and sugar to a cream. 4th. Add the whites last. 5th. +Currants should be cleaned, washed and dried and floured (to which +flour some of the baking powder should be added). 6th. Add the milk or +water gradually. 7th. Sift the flour before measuring. 8th. 2 level +tsps. of baking powder are equal to 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of +tartar. 9th. When looking at a cake while baking, do it quickly and +without jarring the stove. 10th. To find out if it is baked, run a +broom straw through the centre, if no dough adheres the cake is done. +11th. If browning too quickly, cover with brown paper and reduce the +heat gradually. This is usually necessary in baking fruit cake. 12th. +Mix cake in an earthen bowl, never in tin. 13th. Soda, cream of +tartar, and baking powder should be crushed and sifted with the flour. +Always attend to the fire before beginning to make cake. Coarse +granulated sugar makes a coarse, heavy cake. If cake browns before +rising the oven is too hot. When it rises in the centre and cracks +open it is too stiff with flour. It should rise first round the edge, +then in the middle and remain level.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Gingerbread</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup molasses.</li> +<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li> +<li>1 tsp. ginger.</li> +<li>1 pint flour.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sour milk.</li> +<li>1 tsp. soda.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li></ul> + +<p>Put the molasses and butter in a pan and set on the stove. When the +mixture boils up add the soda and ginger, and take from the fire +immediately. Add the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> milk, the well-beaten egg and the flour, beat +well. Bake in a shallow cake pan in a rather quick oven for 20 +minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Spice Cake</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/4 cup butter.</li> +<li>1/2 cup molasses.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sour milk.</li> +<li>1/2 ssp. salt.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li> +<li>The juice and rind of 1/2 lemon.</li> +<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>2-1/2 cups flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. ginger.</li> +<li>1 tsp. cinnamon.</li> +<li>1/4 nutmeg, grated.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the butter to a cream. Gradually beat into it the sugar, then the +spice and lemon, next the molasses. Now dissolve the soda in one tbsp. +cold water and stir it into the sour milk; add this, and the egg well +beaten, to the other ingredients. Lastly add the flour, and beat +briskly for 1/2 minute. Pour into a well buttered pan and bake in a +moderate oven for about 50 minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sponge Cake</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>3 eggs.</li> +<li>2/3 cup flour.</li> +<li>2/3 cup pulverized sugar.</li> +<li>The grated rind and juice of 1/2 lemon.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the yolks of the eggs and sugar until very light, now add the +juice and rind of the lemon and half the flour; beat the whites to a +very stiff froth, add the remainder of the flour and the whites +alternately, stirring lightly, pour into a greased cake pan. Bake in a +quick oven from 25 to 30 minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roll Jelly Cake</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>2 eggs.</li> +<li>1 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1-1/2 cup flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 cup sweet milk.</li> +<li>3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li></ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p><p>Beat the eggs separately till very light, then beat them together, add +the sugar, then the milk gradually, then the flour in which the salt +and baking powder have been mixed. Spread very thin on long shallow +pans. Spread with jelly while warm and roll up.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Seed Cake</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup butter.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>2 tsps. caraway seeds.</li> +<li>3 tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1-1/2 cup sugar.</li> +<li>3 eggs.</li> +<li>3 cups flour.</li></ul> + +<p>Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of the eggs, +then the seeds; sift the baking powder with the flour; add the flour +and milk alternately a little at a time, lastly the whites which have +been beaten stiff and dry; bake from 40 to 50 minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cookies (plain).</span></div> + +<ul><li>1/2 cup butter.</li> +<li>1/4 cup milk.</li> +<li>2 even tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1 cup sugar.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li> +<li>Flour to roll out thin.</li></ul> + +<p>Cream the butter, add the sugar, milk, egg beaten lightly, and the +baking powder mixed with two cups of flour, then enough more flour to +roll out. Roll a little at a time. Cut out. Bake about 10 minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Layer Cake</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1/2 cup butter.</li> +<li>1 cup sugar.</li> +<li>2-1/2 cups flour.</li> +<li>3 eggs.</li> +<li>2/3 cup milk.</li> +<li>4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, then add the yolks of the eggs +gradually; then the flour and milk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> alternately (sifting the baking +powder with the flour), add the well-beaten whites last. Bake in 3 +tins in a moderate oven about 15 minutes. (Flavoring has been omitted +in this recipe as the cake is more delicate by allowing the filling to +provide the flavor.)</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Plain Fruit Cake</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>3 eggs.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>1 oz. candied lemon.</li> +<li>4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>2/3 cup butter.</li> +<li>3 (l.) cups flour.</li> +<li>1 cup raisins.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix as directed in preceding recipe, only mixing the fruit with the +flour and baking powder.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Icing</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>Whites of 2 eggs.</li> +<li>1/2 lb. powdered sugar.</li> +<li>1 tsp. of lemon juice.</li></ul> + +<p>Have the material very cold. Break the eggs carefully, beat the whites +until frothy (not stiff); sift the sugar in gradually, beating all the +while; add the lemon juice and continue beating until fine and white, +and stiff enough to stand alone. Keep in a cool place, when using, +spread with a knife dipped in cold water. If used for ornamenting +press through a tube. It may be divided and different colorings added.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Icing</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 cup granulated sugar.</li> +<li>1/3 cup boiling water.</li> +<li>1/4 tsp. cream of tartar.</li> +<li>White of 1 egg.</li></ul> + + +<p>Boil the sugar and water together until it hangs from the spoon. Beat +the egg to a stiff froth, add the cream of tartar, then pour on the +syrup, beating all the while. Beat until cold and thick.</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="PASTRY" id="PASTRY"></a>PASTRY.</h2> + + +<p>Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it +should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many +food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost +of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary +place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a +popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is +more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light +crust. In order to secure satisfactory results in pastry +making—especially puff pastry—three things should be observed: (1) +have all the materials cold; (2) use as little liquid as possible; (3) +handle lightly and quickly. Pastry should be very cold when it is put +into the oven. Have the oven very hot.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Puff Paste</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 lb. flour.</li> +<li>1 lb. butter.</li> +<li>Enough ice water to make into a very stiff dough.</li></ul> + +<p>If the butter is salty, wash it as follows: Scald a large bowl, then +fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse +them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to +the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice +water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and +elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard. +Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife +or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water +until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or +marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> about 1/4 inch +thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over +this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times. +If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold +plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so +as to keep it in layers—even when cutting off the roll keep the +layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For +patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided +it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin +as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a +cover for chicken pie.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Plain Pastry</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>2 cups flour.</li> +<li>1 cup butter or lard.</li></ul> + +<p>Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water +to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place +for at least 1/2 hour before baking.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Paste for Meat Pies, Etc.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li> +<li>1 tsp. cream tartar</li> +<li>Or 2 level tsps. baking powder.</li> +<li>1 egg.</li> +<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li> +<li>1 tsp. cream tartar.</li> +<li>1/4 cup butter or dripping.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix as for biscuit or shortcake.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h2><a name="MISCELLANEOUS" id="MISCELLANEOUS"></a>MISCELLANEOUS.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Shepherd's Pie</span>.</div> + +<p>Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1 +cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock +thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> the meat in small pieces and put +in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over +the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and +milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and +bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beef Stew</span>.</div> + +<p>Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove +all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about +1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry. +When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2 +small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the +fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add +the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and +pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water +and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer +until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil +more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for +dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely +and cook just 10 minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stuffed Tomatoes</span>.</div> + +<p>Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2 +tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread +crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from +the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the +pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp +and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> with this +mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the +tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley, +and serve.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Kidneys</span>.</div> + +<p>Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and +let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a +saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion +juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the +frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and +smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer +1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and +pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be +prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is +prepared.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Creamed Eggs</span>.</div> + +<p>Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of +toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then +part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the +yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat +this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for +about 3 minutes, then serve.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Buttered Toast</span>.</div> + +<p>Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to +draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a +plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Croutons (for soup).</span></div> + +<p>Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into +1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to +brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">French Toast</span>.</div> + +<ul><li>1 egg.</li> +<li>1 cup milk.</li> +<li>1 ssp. salt.</li> +<li>4 to 6 slices of stale bread.</li></ul> + +<p>Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and +milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well +buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a +little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the +other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sandwiches</span>.</div> + +<p>Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the +fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon +juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter +creamed. Cut bread—at least 1 day old—in very thin slices, spread +with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices +together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches +may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little +of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.)</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS" id="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS"></a>A FEW GENERAL HINTS.</h2> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">How to Blanch Almonds</span>.</div> + +<p>Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in +the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub +between the hands.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">To Clean Currants</span>.</div> + +<p>Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the +flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer +and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well +in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and +dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover +closely, and they are ready for use at any time.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Serving Food</span>.</div> + +<p>Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be +served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced +lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the +attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons +should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets, +carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with +a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast +cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes.</p> + +<p>Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light +puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to +vary the decoration.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Canning and Preserving</span>.</div> + +<p>Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any +fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general +rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good +fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars—test by filling with +water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and +are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so +that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into +them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer +for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit +slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up +with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to +cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of +water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking. +Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency, +screw on the top loosely—so as to allow the gas to escape—and place +in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the +jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10 +minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils. +Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at +once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by +cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made +by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order +to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water +on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit, +or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the +syrup, fruit or jelly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> Always see that the tops are screwed on +tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not +be done until the fruit has become cold.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Preserving</span>.</div> + +<p>Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise +the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights +of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Jellies</span>.</div> + +<p>Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar. +Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for +jelly. Cook the fruit—currants may be mashed and drained without +cooking—until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the +morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar +in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent +burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and +boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a +spoon.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_YOUNG_HOUSEKEEPERS" id="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_YOUNG_HOUSEKEEPERS"></a>SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.</h2> + +<p>Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion +of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the +proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats. +Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and +money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh +fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious, +economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> of +food—different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry—cooked in various +ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially +pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to +use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled) +is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over +exertion of any kind.</p> + +<p>See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn +before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for +porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before +using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the +water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have +it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish +cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish +cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to +dry—if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for +glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for +kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid +burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of +boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day.</p> + +<p>All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept +scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special +attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept +thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the +end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not +have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots +and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be +filled with cold water if not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> washed immediately after using. Never +put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the +handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all +refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse +pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of +carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put +pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it +only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more +difficult to clean.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Dish Washing</span>.</div> + +<p>Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of +the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of +china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of +housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to +know how everything pertaining to household management should be done, +and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.</p> + +<p>One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules +may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives, +forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and +arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never +pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires +separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with +soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the +glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways +so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> which +will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much +brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut, +use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry +such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing, +and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and +the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have +contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver +and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in +the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often, +especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the +water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the +kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on +the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with +bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold +in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any +circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash +the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish +towels, dish cloth and dish pan.</p> + +<p>Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and +scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place +them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor +of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become +rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours, +then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub +the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits +of turpentine.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Ventilation and Sanitation</span>.</div> + +<p>As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that +one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family +supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few +housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the +general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book +prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of +the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the +rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1. +See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either +natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry. +Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air, +and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly +cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if +possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4. +Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause +unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a +special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper +temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the +housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation +of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be +neglected.</p> + +<p>One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of +ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an +abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts, +either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of +the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the +cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be +thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few +inches at the bottom, or—as in some double or outside windows—by a +little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air +in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling, +which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for +foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.</p> + +<p>If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open +a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window +will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a +draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room +quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more +desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the +sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two +chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of +fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in +a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.</p> + +<p>When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during +the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the +bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as +to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of +the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been +occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and +bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which +has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should +be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to +prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the +night.</p> + +<p>Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to +prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the +house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near +the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a +draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the +purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen +chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are +placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very +cold weather.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Laundry Work</span>.</div> + +<p>As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water, +a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure +water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great +absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found. +The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air; +among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and +creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain +water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water +absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking +into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other +compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these +substances, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such +water is known as "hard."</p> + +<p>Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according +to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to +hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the +fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface +of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why +"hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much +better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or +sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely +upon soap for cleansing.</p> + +<p>Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing +soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have +a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything +stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly +than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised. +Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and +added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too +frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual +cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia +or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in +removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing +silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot +water.</p> + +<p><i>Removing Stains.</i>—All spots and stains should be taken out before +the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap. +Fruit stains are the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> frequent and the most indelible, when +neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by +boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour +boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are +allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a +bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains +should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk +may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains +usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.</p> + +<p>Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will +resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin, +besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water. +Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains, +although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in +cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is +Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is +composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2 +quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as +they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and +bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions +to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted +woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white +tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with +a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the +nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear +water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid +water;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less +soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used. +Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood +is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to +soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water—2 +tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If +applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.</p> + +<p>The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where +colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of +soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some +hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green +color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water. +Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered. +Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of +chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth +be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches +the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but +success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils +may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha, +chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot +alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the +point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene +before water and soap touch them.</p> + +<p>Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored +fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated +with oxalic, muriatic or hot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> tartaric acid, applied in the same +manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for +some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some +will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with +acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch +the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in +one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will +furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a +little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower +the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears. +Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia +water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric +protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight +stain.</p> + +<p>Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron +rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the +result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been +imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes +thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt, +and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is +unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in +the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year +is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of +blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of +the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching, +for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer. +When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> use a bleaching +powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can +in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the +acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot +water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot +water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled +portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll +the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover +the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed, +and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are +unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long +soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.</p> + +<p>Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the +materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional +disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to +be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes. +This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the +deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of +the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed. +The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little +or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and +remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot +than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete +removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful +of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a +bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> water over the +clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because +the temperature is so quickly lowered.</p> + +<p>The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of +all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of +alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while +the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali +may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and +disinfectant.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Washing of Woollens</span>.</div> + +<p>All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different +waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be +borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form +of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good +white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make +each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at +the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the +original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference +to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on +account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be +used to make the water very soft.</p> + +<p>Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly +brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen +fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool +should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> a +wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become +twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the +article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the +whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly +before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze, +for the teeth become knotted and hard.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Colored Cottons</span>.</div> + +<p>Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt +will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each +washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time +renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after +the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a +matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware. +The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth +of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried +thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly +wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water +and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the +disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place. +Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just +enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap.</p> + +<p>Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if +kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the +bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer +may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> a +few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the +kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease, +lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial +action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire +house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health.</p> + +<p>All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed +generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The +kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning +with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly +flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for +cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CARING_FOR_INVALIDS" id="CARING_FOR_INVALIDS"></a>CARING FOR INVALIDS.</h2> + + +<p>One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the +ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not +vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut +flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to +avoid a draft—especially when airing the room. If the room is too +small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to +raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this +put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain +until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn +the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of +either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but +injurious.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p><p>One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect +cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient. +Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom +with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and +prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire +by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire. +Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is +whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not +consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome +varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders +concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or +cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and +a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most +objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow +fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick +room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a +sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as +the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion.</p> + +<p>One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough +knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best +methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them +to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has +been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is +necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the +hunger—neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come +under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the +other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued +illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to +supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated +form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes +it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate +digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not +only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either +lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing. +Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly, +albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together), +and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry +toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence, +any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich +puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided.</p> + +<p>People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily +digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon +and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals, +and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or +milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of +gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for +invalids.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beverages</span>.</div> + +<p><i>Barley Water.</i>—Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold +water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of +water, and allow it to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain +and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be +added while boiling if desired.</p> + +<p><i>Apple Water.</i>—Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a +bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to +taste; serve when cold.</p> + +<p><i>Flax Seed Tea.</i>—One-half cupful of flax seed—which has been +carefully washed in cold water—to 1 quart of boiling water; boil +slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to +remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon +juice and sugar.</p> + +<p><i>Lemonade.</i>—Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the +lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or +cold as required.</p> + +<p><i>Orange Water.</i>—Made the same as lemonade.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Meat Extractives</span>.</div> + +<p><i>Beef Juice</i> is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through, +then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice +is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little +salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry +toast.</p> + +<p><i>Beef Tea.</i>—Cut juicy pieces of steak—the round steak is the +best—into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to +160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press, +strain, and flavor with salt and pepper.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p><p><i>Beef Tea</i> (<i>No. 2</i>).—Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass +fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour, +stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of +water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point. +Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the +jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer; +allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with +the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef +stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.)</p> + +<p><i>Beef Essence.</i>—(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of +finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of +soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60 +grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool +place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat +slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces +of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It +should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred +warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel +placed in hot water.</p> + +<p><i>Chicken Broth.</i>—Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the +chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a +fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or +crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the +skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the +meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer +till the meat is tender. A few minutes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> before removing from the fire +add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain, +and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary +quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg. +Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine +cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may +be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient +can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and +moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared +with the egg.</p> + +<p><i>Mutton Broth.</i>—Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour +over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very +red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain, +season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may +be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with +cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is +not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed +by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by +passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken +off with a spoon.</p> + +<p><i>Oatmeal Gruel.</i>—To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of +oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without +milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir +well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan. +Then boil the water.</p> + +<p><i>Egg Soup.</i>—Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double +boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> through a sieve and add 1/2 pint +of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir +gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste, +and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used.</p> + +<p><i>Albumen and Milk.</i>—Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk. +Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well +for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A +pinch of salt may be added if desired.</p> + +<p><i>Egg-Nog.</i>—Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, +and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2 +teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk +of the egg makes it more palatable.</p> + +<p><i>Orange Soup.</i>—Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind, +and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the +liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two +level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold +water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the +boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and +stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used +for this soup.)</p> + +<p><i>Arrowroot Gruel.</i>—Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a +little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds; +take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of +lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until +very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint +of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p><p><i>Rice Water or Jelly.</i>—Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls +of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and +sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into +a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink, +add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little +stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot +or cold.</p> + +<p><i>Stewed Figs.</i>—Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold +water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point, +and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until +the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down +the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve +cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them.</p> + +<p><i>Jellied Chicken.</i>—Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint +it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4 +inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then +put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being +careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the +chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the +meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin +and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or +mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the +meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the +chicken when cooking.)</p> + +<p><i>Raw Meat Sandwiches.</i>—Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped +very fine and rubbed through a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> hair sieve or scraped from a slice of +steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of +sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of +brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be +added if the flavor is liked.)</p> + +<p><i>Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc.</i> (See +recipes in preceding chapters.)</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDREN" id="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDREN"></a>A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.</h2> + + +<p>"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school +children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in +boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is +from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are +undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the +body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands, +therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food +must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to +yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food +should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of +formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of +dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later +life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in +circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the +accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits, +which are often a serious obstacle to normal development.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p><p>"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by +the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anæmia and chlorosis, +which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a +faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to +consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical +constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember +that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the +period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the +individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage +success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than +success in mental attainments." (Thompson.)</p> + +<p>An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which +becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from +carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of +habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals +should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before +each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably +without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be +required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to +hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or +game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after +meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at +food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite, +increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion.</p> + +<p>The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for +the reason given in the preceding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> sentence and for its effect upon +the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the +public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more +often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate +children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as +for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the +following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece +of whole wheat bread and butter should be given—if they +awaken—during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor, +and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be +given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and +butter, between meals.</p> + +<p>These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two +years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes +two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth +must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of +vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made +tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable +appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and +vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill +attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating +indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking +for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain +them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome +foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDRENS_DIET" id="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDRENS_DIET"></a>SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET.</h2> + + +<p>If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any +task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not +expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the +child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a +roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the +first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of +wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and +butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the +day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some +form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted, +should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as +pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a +porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice, +tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of +preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good +bowl of nutritious broth—or soup—with bread or crackers, may be +substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found +best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this +case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass +of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five.</p> + +<p>Some of the more important articles of school diet require special +mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical +Dietetics may prove helpful:—</p> + +<p><i>Bread.</i>—"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must +not be too coarse. The advantage of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> bread for children consists +in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than +is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served +with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children +need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are +very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however, +when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them."</p> + +<p><i>Milk.</i>—"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of +puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children +should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass +of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking. +Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a +dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of +milk.'"</p> + +<p><i>Meat.</i>—"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may +sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are +supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly +growing children."</p> + +<p><i>Sweets.</i>—"The greater number of children have a natural craving for +sweets."</p> + +<p>The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption +of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The +craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true +indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be +admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most +children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main +difficulty with such forms of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> sugar, however, is that children are +not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and +the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming +very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy, +which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much, +with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing +the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely +excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to +develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years. +(Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.)</p> + +<p><i>Exercise.</i>—As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children +disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when +taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the +romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often, +though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of +exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic +attack.</p> + +<p>Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is +the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated +appetites.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="INFANTS_DIET" id="INFANTS_DIET"></a>INFANTS' DIET.</h2> + + +<p>One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science +course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject +requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies +the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the +foundation upon which the future physical structure is built.</p> + +<p>It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and +attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids, +have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more +than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the +following suggestions may prove helpful.</p> + +<p>The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and +quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as +well as the comfort of the household.</p> + +<p>Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least, +seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to +assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the +child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's +supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's +milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than +human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline, +this must be corrected by the use of lime water.</p> + +<p>There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk, +therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following +proportions have been submitted as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> a digestible form of preparing +cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):—</p> + +<ul><li>Cream, 2 tbsps.</li> +<li>Milk, 1 tbsp.</li> +<li>Lime water, 2 tbsps.</li> +<li>Milk-sugar water, 3 tbsps.</li></ul> + +<p>One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day, +and once or twice at night.</p> + +<p>After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to +one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be +given at once.</p> + +<p>The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water +and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should +be:—</p> + +<ul><li>3 tbsps. milk.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. cream.</li> +<li>1 tbsp. lime water.</li> +<li>3 tbsps. sugar water.</li></ul> + +<p>When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be +increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Barley Water.</span></div> + +<ul><li>2 tbsps. pearl barley.</li> +<li>1 pt. boiling water.</li></ul> + +<p>Wash the barley carefully. Pour over it the boiling water. Let it +simmer for two hours. Strain and sweeten with a pinch of sugar of +milk.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Milk-Sugar Water.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1/2 oz. sugar of milk.</li> +<li>1/2 pt. boiling water.</li></ul> + +<p>Dissolve, and keep closely covered. It will not keep long, so should +be made when required to use.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lime Water.</span></div> + +<p>Take a lump of lime weighing about one ounce. Put in a bottle with a +quart of cold water (which has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> boiled). Shake the bottle well +until the lime is dissolved, and let it stand for 12 hours. Pour the +clear liquid into another bottle, being careful not to disturb the +sediment. Keep carefully corked. Water will only absorb a certain +quantity of lime, so there is no danger of its being too strong.</p> + +<p>As cow's milk is more difficult to digest than mother's milk, it is +sometimes necessary to substitute barley water in place of the lime +water and milk, using the same amount of cream as given in recipe.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Malted Food.</span></div> + +<ul><li>2 oz. wheat flour or barley meal.</li> +<li>1-3/4 qts. water.</li> +<li>1 tsp. extract of malt.</li></ul> + +<p>Mix the flour to a paste with a little water, gradually add a quart of +the water; put it in a double boiler and boil 10 minutes. Dissolve the +malt extract in 4 tbsps. of the water (cold). Lift out the inner +vessel and add the malt and remainder of the cold water. Let it stand +15 minutes, replace, and boil again for 15 minutes. Strain through a +wire gauze strainer. (Half this quantity may be made.)</p> + +<p>This preparation is used when both barley water and lime-water +disagree. It must always be given with milk. It prevents the large +tough curds forming, which is such an objectionable feature in using +cow's milk.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Peptonized Milk.</span></div> + +<p>In cases of especially weak digestion it may be necessary to peptonize +the milk, which may be done as follows: Add 5 grains of extract of +pancreas and 15<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> grains of baking soda to 1 pint of milk. (Tablets of +pancreatin and soda may be used.)</p> + +<p>After adding the peptonizing material put the milk in a double boiler +or in a vessel which may be set in a larger one, holding water, as hot +as the hand can bear being dipped into quickly, or about 115° Fah. +Leave the milk in the hot water about 20 minutes, then place on the +ice. If heated too long the milk will taste bitter.</p> + +<p>The preparation given in recipe No. 1, or with the barley water added, +may be peptonized.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sterilized or Pasteurized Milk.</span></div> + +<div class="center">(<i>See Milk, Chapter V.</i>)</div> + +<p>Put the amount of milk required for a meal into pint or half pint +bottles, allowing for the number of times the child is to be fed in 24 +hours. Use cotton batting as a stopper. Place a wire frame, or invert +a perforated tin pie plate, in the bottom of a saucepan; stand the +bottles on this, pour around them enough water to come well above the +milk, cover the saucepan or kettle, and when the water boils lift the +saucepan from the fire and allow the bottles to remain in the hot +water for 1 hour. Keep in the ice box or stand them in cold water +until needed. If milk is to be used during a long journey it will be +necessary to repeat the above operation three times, letting the milk +cool between each time.</p> + +<p>Unless the milk is perfectly fresh, and has been handled with great +care, it is safer to sterilize or pasteurize it. The former, if any +doubt is entertained as to the quality of the milk, the latter in +every case.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Temperature of Food.</span></div> + +<p>Food should be "milk warm," or about 99° Fah., when given to a baby. +Hot food is very injurious.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Nursing Bottles and Feeding.</span></div> + +<p>Have two plain bottles with rubber tops, <i>without tubes</i>. Bottles with +ounces and tablespoonfuls marked on them can be purchased, and are a +great convenience in measuring the amount of food required.</p> + +<p>After using the bottle, empty the remaining milk; rinse in cold water, +then in <i>scalding water</i>.</p> + +<p>If particles of milk adhere to the bottle use coarse salt or raw +potato cut in small pieces. If the glass looks cloudy, add a little +ammonia to the water. Turn the rubber tops inside out and scrub with a +stiff brush; boil them every alternate day for 10 minutes.</p> + +<p><i>Absolute cleanliness is a necessity</i> in the care of a baby's food, +bottles and rubber tops.</p> + +<p>The bottle should be held, while the baby is feeding, in such a +position that the top is full of milk. If air is sucked in with the +milk stomach-ache will likely result.</p> + +<p>Starchy food should not be given to a child until it is able to +masticate. (See digestion of starch, Chap. VIII.)</p> + +<p>Arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, etc., <i>must not be given to infants</i>.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Flour Ball.</span></div> + +<p>Put a bowlful of flour into a strong cloth, tie it up like a pudding, +and place it in a kettle of boiling water. Boil for 10 or 12 hours. +When boiled turn it out of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> the cloth and cut away the soft outside +coating. When cool, grate the hard inside portion and use a +teaspoonful at each feeding, for a baby 8 months old, increasing the +amount for an older child. This may be prepared in the same manner as +cornstarch or flour. The long boiling converts the starch into +dextrine, which is more easily digested than starch. This is +especially valuable in cases of diarrhœa, and may be used instead +of barley gruel as a food.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Oatmeal Gruel.</span></div> + +<p>Pound a cupful of oatmeal in a pestle or on a bread board. Put in a +bowl and pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Stir it up, then let the +mixture settle for a few minutes. Pour off the milky fluid, repeat +this process. Boil this water for an hour, adding a pinch of salt, and +use it to dilute the milk instead of water.</p> + +<p>A thicker gruel may be made from oatmeal by allowing 1 tablespoonful +to a cup of boiling water. Let it boil 1 hour, then strain through a +wire strainer.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Farina Gruel.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 tbsp. farina.</li> +<li>2 cups boiling water.</li> +<li>A spk. of salt.</li></ul> + +<p>Cook for 20 minutes; use as directed for oatmeal.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beef Juice</span>.</div> + +<div class="center">(<i>See page 145.</i>)</div> + +<p><i>Beef juice</i> is sometimes ordered for delicate babies. For a child 9 +months old, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls may be given once a day.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Albuminized Food.</span></div> + +<p>When milk cannot be taken, albuminized food proves an excellent +substitute.</p> + +<p>Shake the white of 1 egg with 1/2 a pint of water (filtered or boiled +and cooled) in a glass jar until they are thoroughly mixed. Add a few +grains of salt.</p> + +<p>Children do not require a great variety in their food. Give one +article of diet at a time and see how it agrees before trying another.</p> + +<p>After a child is a year old the various cereals may be given as +porridge instead of gruel, with the addition of a little sugar.</p> + +<p>Remember, all cereals should be thoroughly cooked (see page 83).</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Biscuits.</span></div> + +<p>Gluten, soda, oatmeal or Graham biscuits may be soaked in milk or +given alone. Do not give the fancy or sweet biscuits to young +children.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Eggs.</span></div> + +<p>A properly boiled egg (see page 69) may be given every alternate day +to a child 1 year old.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Junket.</span></div> + +<p>Junket is much better for young children than custards or puddings, +and sometimes agrees well with babies.</p> + +<p>Take 1 pint of milk, heat it to 98° Fah., or milk warm. Add 1 +teaspoonful of rennet and 1 teaspoonful of sugar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> Stir all together +and let it stand in a warm place until it becomes as thick as jelly. +Remove at once to a cool place or whey will appear.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Potatoes.</span></div> + +<p>Potatoes should not be given to a child under 2 years old in any other +form than baked. The potash salts are the most valuable constituent, +and are lost when they are peeled and boiled. They should be dry and +mealy. A little salt, butter or cream should be added.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni.</span></div> + +<div class="center">(<i>See page 85.</i>)</div> + +<p>Macaroni is an excellent food for young children.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fruit.</span></div> + +<p>Baked apples and the juice of an orange are the only fruits which +should be given to children under two years of age.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice.</span></div> + +<p>Rice is an excellent food for young children, but not for infants.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Ventilation.</span></div> + +<p>Foul air is injurious to grown persons, but it is infinitely more +dangerous to the sensitive organization of a child. Therefore special +attention should be given to the ventilation of rooms occupied by a +baby (see page 132).</p> + +<p>Fresh air, wholesome food, regular bathing, and plenty of sleep will +insure the normal growth of the average baby, and are within reach of +every one who has the care of young children.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p><p>The writer is indebted to Miss Scovil, Superintendent of Newport +Hospital, and one of the associate editors of the <i>Ladies' Home +Journal</i>, for many of the above hints concerning the diet of infants.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Emergencies.</span></div> + +<p>As frequent accidents occur during the performance of household +duties, a few suggestions as to how slight injuries should be treated +may prove useful to the young housekeeper.</p> + +<p><i>Cuts.</i>—A cut should be washed with cold water, covered with a small +pad of cotton, bound up, and left alone. Should matter form, the +bandage must be taken off, the wound bathed with carbolized water, +1-80, and a little carbolized vaseline spread on a bit of linen and +laid over it. The washing and dressing should be repeated two or three +times a day if there is much discharge.</p> + +<p><i>Bruises.</i>—A flannel wrung out of very hot water, and laid on a +bruise, relieves the soreness.</p> + +<p>For bruises on the face, apply ice. Brown paper wet in vinegar is an +old-fashioned remedy. If the skin is broken, treat as a wound, with +carbolized water and carbolized vaseline.</p> + +<p><i>Sprains.</i>—Both hot and cold treatment is recommended. Immerse the +joint in water as hot as can be borne. Keep up the temperature by +gradually adding more hot water. Let it soak for an hour or more. Then +wrap in warm flannel, and surround with hot water bags or bottles.</p> + +<p><i>Stings.</i>—Bathe the part in ammonia, or baking soda and water; wet a +cloth in the same, and bind over it.</p> + +<p><i>Burns.</i>—The best household remedies for burns are baking soda and +carbolized vaseline. For slight burns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> mix the soda to a paste with +water, and spread thickly over the part; cover with linen or old +cotton. This may be kept wet by squeezing water over it. If shreds of +clothing adhere to a burn, they should be soaked with oil, and not +pulled off until softened. If the skin is gone, spread carbolized +vaseline on linen, and bind on the part until the doctor arrives.</p> + +<p>In burns caused by acids, water should not be applied to the parts. +Cover with dry baking soda.</p> + +<p>If caused by an alkali, such as lye, ammonia, or quick-lime, use an +acid, as vinegar or lemon juice, diluted.</p> + +<p><i>Poisoning.</i>—For poison ivy, saturate a cloth in a solution of baking +soda, or ammonia and water, and lay over the part.</p> + +<p>When poison has been swallowed, the first thing to do is to get it out +of the stomach. Secondly, to prevent what remains from doing more +mischief. Give an emetic at once. One tbsp. of salt in a glass of +<i>tepid</i> water; 1 tsp. of mustard, or 1 tsp. of powdered alum in a +glass of tepid water. A tsp. of wine of ipecac, followed by warm +water. Repeat any of these three or four times if necessary. The +quantities given are for children; larger doses may be given to +adults. It is well to give a dose of castor oil after the danger is +over, to carry off any remnants of the poison that may have lodged in +the intestines.</p> + +<p>After a poison has burned the mouth and throat, plenty of milk may be +given, also flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch gruel.</p> + +<p>For drowning and other serious accidents, see Public School +Physiology.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p> +<div class="center">FURNISHING A CLASS-ROOM.</div> + +<p>The furnishing of a class-room should be so complete that each pupil +should be able to attend to the appointed task without delay. The +furniture should consist of a stove, or range, gas stove if more +convenient, a hot water tank or boiler, sink, table (side), towel +rack, 2 dozen chairs, or seats with tablet arms, a cupboard or kitchen +"dresser" for table ware, a large cupboard or arrangement for lockers, +in which caps, aprons, etc., should be kept, a large table—horseshoe +shape is the most satisfactory—with drawers, and space for rolling +pin, bread board, etc., underneath. The table should be large enough +to allow at least 2 ft. 6 in. for each pupil. Twenty pupils is the +limit of a practice class. On the table should be placed at regular +intervals, 10 gas burners with frame. The teacher's table should stand +in the opening at the end of the table so that she may see each pupil +while at work, and when demonstrating may be seen by each pupil.</p> + +<p>The following list of utensils will be found sufficient for practice +work for a class of 20 pupils.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Earthen, China and Glass Ware.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 dinner set.</li> +<li>2 quart pitchers.</li> +<li>2 pint pitchers.</li> +<li>2 small oval baking dishes.</li> +<li>2 small round baking dishes.</li> +<li>4 4-quart bowls, with lips.</li> +<li>6 2-quart bowls, with lips.</li> +<li>4 1-quart bowls.</li> +<li>12 baking cups.</li> +<li>6 kitchen cups.</li> +<li>2 small platters.</li> +<li>2 medium size platters.</li> +<li>2 deep pie plates.</li> +<li>6 shallow pie plates.</li> +<li>2 jelly moulds.</li> +<li>1 teapot.</li> +<li>1 dozen quart gem jars.</li> +<li>1 dozen pint gem jars.</li> +<li>6 4-quart stone jars or crocks.</li> +<li>1 dozen fancy plates, and glass dishes for serving.</li></ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Woodenware.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 wash-board.</li> +<li>12 small bread boards.</li> +<li>12 rolling pins.</li> +<li>2 chopping trays.</li> +<li>2 potato mashers.</li> +<li>1 potato ricer.</li> +<li>1 water pail.</li> +<li>1 scrubbing pail.</li> +<li>1 pail or bucket for refuse.</li> +<li>1 flour bucket, with cover.</li> +<li>6 wooden spoons—small.</li> +<li>1 2-gallon ice cream freezer.</li> +<li>1 broom.</li> +<li>1 whisk-broom.</li> +<li>1 crumb pan and brush.</li> +<li>1 floor scrubbing brush.</li> +<li>6 small scrubbing brushes.</li> +<li>1 stove brush.</li> +<li>1 pastry brush.</li> +<li>1 small refrigerator.</li> +<li>Spice boxes.</li> +<li>Dish mops.</li> +<li>Lemon squeezers, etc.</li></ul> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Agate Ware.</span></div> + +<ul><li>4 double boilers.</li> +<li>2 4-quart kettles.</li> +<li>2 2-quart saucepans.</li> +<li>4 1-quart saucepans.</li> +<li>4 pt. saucepans.</li> +<li>2 oval pudding dishes.</li> +<li>1 4-quart preserving kettle.</li> +<li>1 hand basin.</li> +<li>1 tea kettle.</li></ul> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Iron Ware.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 spider.</li> +<li>1 griddle.</li> +<li>1 pan for meat.</li> +<li>1 pan for fish.</li> +<li>1 meat fork.</li> +<li>1 can opener.</li> +<li>1 meat cleaver.</li> +<li>2 wooden-handled spoons.</li> +<li>1 braising pan (cover).</li> +<li>Scales, etc.</li></ul> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tin and Wire Ware.</span></div> + +<ul><li>2 large graters.</li> +<li>1 nutmeg grater.</li> +<li>12 flour dredges.</li> +<li>12 measuring cups.</li> +<li>1 funnel.</li> +<li>1 basting spoon.</li> +<li>1 wire broiler, for toast.</li> +<li>2 wire broilers, for steak.</li> +<li>1 wire soap dish.</li> +<li>3 Dover egg beaters.</li> +<li>3 small wire strainers.</li> +<li>1 large wire strainer.</li> +<li>1 flour scoop.</li> +<li>2 flour sifters.</li> +<li>1 gravy strainer.</li> +<li>1 colander.</li> +<li>2 dish pans.</li> +<li>2 2-qt. milk cans.</li> +<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>1 quart measure.</li> +<li>1 pint measure.</li> +<li>1 steamer.</li> +<li>6 small bread pans.</li> +<li>6 small jelly moulds.</li> +<li>1 set gem pans.</li> +<li>1 doz. muffin rings.</li> +<li>2 dustpans.</li> +<li>2 plain cake cutters.</li> +<li>1 doughnut cutter.</li> +<li>1 small biscuit cutter.</li> +<li>1 frying basket.</li> +<li>1 dipper.</li> +<li>2 long, shallow cake tins.</li> +<li>2 egg whisks.</li> +<li>1 round cake tin.</li> +<li>1 wire frame.</li> +<li>1 vegetable cutter.</li></ul> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous.</span></div> + +<ul><li>1 doz. dish towels.</li> +<li>2 floor cloths.</li> +<li>12 holders.</li> +<li>Cheese cloth.</li> +<li>Pudding cloth.</li> +<li>Needles.</li> +<li>Twine.</li> +<li>Scissors.</li> +<li>Skewers.</li> +<li>Screw driver.</li> +<li>Corkscrew.</li> +<li>1 doz. knives and forks.</li> +<li>Hammer.</li> +<li>Tacks and Nails.</li> +<li>Ironing sheet and holder.</li> +<li>Coal scuttle.</li> +<li>Fire shovel.</li> +<li>Coal sieve.</li> +<li>Ash hod.</li> +<li>Flat irons.</li> +<li>Paper for cake tins.</li> +<li>Wrapping paper.</li> +<li>Small tub for laundry work.</li> +<li>6 tablespoons.</li> +<li>2 doz. teaspoons.</li></ul> + +<p>While this may seem a formidable list, it will not be found expensive. +Some of the above articles may be omitted and others substituted. It +must be remembered that the utensils will be well cared for, +consequently will last for many years. In country schools, or where +gas is not available, oil stoves may be used. In some schools, where +space is limited, one small table is used, two or more pupils +demonstrating the lesson under the supervision of the teacher, the +pupils taking this duty in alternation. The remainder of the class +observe and take notes.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p><p>The cost of material is trifling. It should not average more than +fifty cents per pupil per annum, and for a large number should average +less than this amount.</p> + +<p>The Boston school kitchens are, many of them, furnished at a cost of +from $200 to $300. A fair average cost for Ontario should be about +$175.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="PLANNING_AND_SERVING_MEALS" id="PLANNING_AND_SERVING_MEALS"></a>PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS.</h2> + + +<p>During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a +typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain +number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the +choice of food for each meal.</p> + +<p>State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost. +Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how +the meal should be served. <i>System</i>, neatness and promptness should be +especially emphasized. Clean table linen—no matter how coarse—is +possible for every one. A dish of fruit or flowers, if only a bunch of +green foliage, improves the appearance of the table.</p> + +<p>During the school course a special lesson should be devoted to setting +the table and serving meals, with and without a waitress, so as to +give a knowledge of how a meal should be served, no matter what the +pupil's position in life may be or what part she may have to perform.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">A Few General Hints on Setting the Table.</span></div> + +<p>Although every housekeeper has her own method for serving meals, a few +general principles govern all properly regulated service. When setting +the table, cover first with a canton-flannel or felt cloth, in order +to prevent noise and protect the table. Place each article in its +proper place and not in a confused "jumble." See that the tablecloth +is spread smoothly, that the corners are of equal length, that the +crease—if the cloth has been folded instead of rolled—is exactly in +the centre. Place the fruit or flowers in the centre of the table.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p><p>For each person place knife, spoon and glass on the right, fork and +napkin on the left. Place the glass at the point of the knife. Turn +the edge of the knife towards the plate and the fork tines up, the +spoon with the bowl up. If soup is to be served, place a square of +bread or a roll on top of the napkin or between the folds. Place the +pepper and salt at the corners of the table, unless individual salts +are used, when they should be placed at the head of the plates, where +the dessert spoon may be placed—the handle towards the right—for +convenience.</p> + +<p>The general rule in serving simple family meals, with or without a +waitress, is for the hostess to serve the porridge and coffee at +breakfast; the soup, salad and dessert at dinner, and pour the tea at +the evening meal. When luncheon is served in the middle of the day the +hostess usually does the greater part of the serving, as luncheon is +considered to be the most informal meal of the day.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">A Few Hints for Waitresses.</span></div> + +<p>Learn to move quickly and quietly. Be scrupulously clean and neat in +every detail of dress and habit. Before serving a meal see that hands +and finger nails are clean. Always have a fresh white apron ready to +put on before the meal is announced. Look over the table and see that +everything is in its place before announcing a meal. Fill the glasses +with water either before the family enter the dining room or +immediately after they are seated. Lift the covers from hot dishes and +turn them over at once in order to prevent the steam from dropping on +the cloth. Take the plate from the host or hostess, and place before +each person from the right side—keep the thumb well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> under the plate. +When passing anything from which the persons seated at table help +themselves, such as vegetables, sauces, etc., always go to the left, +so as to leave the right hand of the one to be served free. Keep a +watchful eye over the table and pass anything apparently required.</p> + +<p>Learn to receive instructions from the hostess in an undertone. Do not +get excited and try to do too many things at once. It is an +accomplishment to be a good waitress, as it requires special +refinement and deftness, which are scarcely compatible with an untidy +nature.</p> + +<p>When serving meals without a waitress, the daughters of the house +should consider it their special privilege to save the mother any +annoyance or discomfort during the meal time. Never allow dishes, +which have been used, to accumulate on the table or allow the table to +become disordered. As much of the food as possible should be placed on +the table before the family are seated, and the plates or dishes +removed at once after using. No matter how simple the meal may be, +every housekeeper should see that it is served neatly and on time. +Teachers may exercise a far-reaching influence in the refining of home +life by impressing upon the pupils the importance of these—too often +considered—minor matters, and by giving minute instructions in the +setting of table and serving the meal. One carefully planned +<i>practice</i> lesson will convey more knowledge of such matters than any +number of lectures or pages of theory.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="CONSIDERATION_OF_MENUS" id="CONSIDERATION_OF_MENUS"></a>CONSIDERATION OF MENUS.</h2> + + +<p>The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74, +prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so +as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods +in combination. <i>It must be remembered that the prices given are in +excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less +than is given in these illustrations.</i> The more expensive menus have +been omitted. The writer of the article says:—</p> + +<p>"In planning a well balanced diet the following points must be +considered:—</p> + +<p>(1) The use of any considerable amount of fat meat or starchy food +should be offset by the use of some material rich in protein. Thus, if +roast pork is to be eaten for dinner, veal, fish, or lean beef might +well be eaten for breakfast or supper, or both. Bean soup furnishes a +considerable amount of protein, while bouillon, consommé, and tomato +soup are practically useless as a source of nutriment. Skim milk also +furnishes protein, with but very little accompanying fats and +carbohydrates to increase the fuel value.</p> + +<p>(2) The use of lean meats or fish for all three meals would require +the use of such foods as rice, tapioca, or cornstarch pudding, +considerable quantities of sugar and butter, and more vegetables, in +order to furnish sufficient fuel value.</p> + +<p>(3) Since flour, sugar, and butter or lard enter very largely into +pastries and desserts, the larger the quantities <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>of these dishes that +are consumed the larger does the fuel value tend to become as compared +with the protein."</p> + +<p>The principal classes of food materials may be roughly grouped as +follows as regards the proportion of protein to fuel value, beginning +with those which have the largest proportion of protein and ending +with those which contain little or no protein:—</p> + +<ul> +<li> +Foods containing a large amount of protein as compared with the fuel value. + +<ul> +<li>Fish;</li> +<li>veal;</li> +<li>lean beef, such as shank, shoulder, canned corned, round, neck, and chuck;</li> +<li>skim milk.</li> +</ul> +</li> +<li> +Foods containing a medium amount of protein. + +<ul><li>Fowl;</li> +<li>eggs;</li> +<li>mutton leg and shoulder;</li> +<li>beef, fatter cuts, such as rib, loin, rump, flank, and brisket;</li> +<li>whole milk;</li> +<li>beans and peas;</li> +<li>mutton chuck and loin;</li> +<li>cheese;</li> +<li>lean pork;</li> +<li>oatmeal and other breakfast foods;</li> +<li>flour;</li> +<li>bread, etc.</li></ul> +</li> +<li> +Foods containing little or no protein. +<ul> +<li>Vegetables and fruit;</li> +<li>fat pork;</li> +<li>rice;</li> +<li>tapioca;</li> +<li>starch;</li> +<li>butter and other fats and oils;</li> +<li>sugar, syrups.</li></ul> + +</li></ul> + + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap"><br />The Menus</span>.</div> + +<p>To illustrate the ways in which milk may be combined with other food +materials, to form daily dietaries with about the amount of protein +and the fuel value called for by the standard for men at moderate +muscular work, a few menus are given in the following pages. These +menus are intended to show how approximately the same nutritive value +may be obtained by food combinations differing widely as regards the +number, kind, and price of the food materials used to make up three +daily meals. They also illustrate how the cost of the daily menu may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> +vary greatly with the kind and variety of materials purchased, though +the nutritive value remains the same. These sample menus should not, +however, be regarded as in any sense "models" to be followed in actual +practice. The daily menus for any family will necessarily vary with +the market supply, the season, and the relative expensiveness of +different food materials, as well as with the tastes and purse of the +consumers. The point to which we wish here to draw especial attention +is that the prudent buyer of foods for family consumption can not +afford to wholly neglect their nutritive value in making such +purchases.</p> + +<p>With reference to the following daily menus, several points must be +definitely borne in mind. (1) The amounts given represent about what +would be called for in a family equivalent to four full-grown men at +ordinary manual labor, such as machinists, carpenters, mill-workers, +farmers, truckmen, etc., according to the usually accepted standards. +Sedentary people would require somewhat less than the amounts here +given. (2) Children as a rule may be considered as having "moderate +muscular exercise," and it may easily be understood that the +14-year-old boy eats as much as his father who is engaged in business +or professional occupation, both requiring, according to the tentative +standard, 0.8 of the food needed by a man with moderate muscular work. +(3) It is not assumed that any housewife will find it convenient to +follow exactly the proportions suggested in the menus. The purpose is +to show her about what amounts and proportions of food materials would +give the required nutrients.</p> + +<p>A family equivalent to four men having little muscular +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>exercise—<i>i.e.</i>, men with sedentary occupation—would require but +about 0.8 the quantities indicated in the following menus. It would be +very doubtful, however, if they would eat proportionally less of every +food material. It would, in fact, be more probable that the amounts of +meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, and bread eaten would be reduced in a much +greater proportion than fruit, pastry, coffee, etc.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pecuniary Economy of Milk and Other Foods</span>.</div> + + +<div class="center"><i>Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials for +10 cts.</i><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<br /> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials"> +<tr> + <td colspan="4" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Food Material.</i></td> + <td align="center" style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td> + <td align="center" style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Whole</td><td align='left'>Milk,</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> + <td align='left'>cts. per qt.</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="right">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>8</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="right">8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>7</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align="right">14</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>6</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align="right">3</td> + <td align="right">5</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>5</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align="right">4</td> + <td align="right">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>4</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align="right">5</td> + <td align="right">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Skim</td><td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>3</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align="right">6</td> + <td align="right">11</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left'>Skim</td><td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>2</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align="right">10</td> + <td align="right">0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Butter,</td> + <td align='right'>24</td> + <td align="left">cts. per lb.</td> + <td align="right">0</td> + <td align="right">7</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Cheese,</td> + <td align='right'> 16</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Beef, round,</td> + <td align='right'>12</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'> " sirloin,</td> + <td align='right'>18</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>9</td></tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Mutton, loin,</td> + <td align='right'>16</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>10</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Pork, salt</td> + <td align='right'>12</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'> 0</td> + <td align='right'>13</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Cod, salt</td> + <td align='right'>6</td> + <td align='center'>"</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='right'>9</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Eggs,</td> + <td align='right'>22</td> + <td align="left"> cts. per doz.</td> + <td align="right">0</td> + <td align='right'>11</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Oysters,</td> + <td align='right'>30</td> + <td align="left">cts. per qt.</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='right'>11</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Potatoes,</td> + <td align='right'>60</td> + <td align="left">cts. per bushel</td> + <td align="right">10</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left'>Beans, dried,</td> + <td align='right'>8</td> + <td align="left">cts. per qt.</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align='right'> 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align='left' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">Wheat flour,</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3</td> + <td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">cts. per lb.</td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3</td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 5</td> +</tr> +</table><br /> +</div> + +<div class="center"><br /> +<span class="smcap">Menu</span> I.—<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i> +<br /><br /></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu I"> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i> Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bananas, 4 (or grapes, 1 pound)</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009 </td> + <td align='right'>362</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast cereal</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .031 </td> + <td align='right'>421</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> } 3</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{ .016 </td> + <td align='right'>162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align='right'> 175</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Veal cutlets</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.200 </td> + <td align='right'>775</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.018 </td> + <td align='right'>325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align='right'>653</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rolls</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.077 </td> + <td align='right'>1,148</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align='right'>410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">44½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.361 </td> + <td align='right'>4,431</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pea soup: </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Split peas</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .121 </td> + <td align="right">820</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> } 5</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Flour</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ .007 </td> + <td align="right">103</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Roast beef, chuck rib </td> + <td>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">21 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.275 </td> + <td align="right"> 1,260</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1⅓</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022 </td> + <td align="right">406</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.005 </td> + <td align="right">67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> + Cottage pudding with lemon sauce: + </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 cup flour</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> / .028 </td> + <td align="right">410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Sugar</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> / <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">350</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ 6½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 cup milk</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ .016 </td> + <td align="right">162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Sugar</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> / <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">465</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Cornstarch</td> + <td></td><td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">} 2½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">172</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">108</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right">410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">41 </td> + <td align="right" style="border-right: solid 2px;">.484 </td> + <td align="right">5,275</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk toast:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Milk</td> + <td align='right'>2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .066 </td> + <td align="right">650</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Bread</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ 18</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .107</td> + <td align="right">1,356</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> /</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">869</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Cornstarch</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">228</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Canned salmon</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">8 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.098 </td> + <td align="right">340</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fried potatoes:</td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Potatoes </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .009</td> + <td align="right">162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Lard</td> + <td colspan="2" align="right" style="border-right: solid 2px;">½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">132</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cake</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6</td> + <td align="right" style="border-right: solid 2px;">4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026 </td> + <td align='right'>619</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee or tea</td> + <td></td><td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right">410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align="right" style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total </td> + <td></td><td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">34½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.316 </td> + <td align="right">4,766</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">120 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.161 </td> + <td align="right">14,472</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one Man </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">30 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.290 </td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,618</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br /></div> + + +<div class="center"><br /> +<span class="smcap">Menu</span> II.—<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i> +<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu II"> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i> Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td> + <td align='right'> 0</td> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .019 </td> + <td align='right'>232</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> } 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{ .012</td> + <td align="right">122</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">175</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fresh pork sausage</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">18 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.192 </td> + <td align='right' >3,255</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.013 </td> + <td align="right">244</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071 </td> + <td align="right">904</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right">434</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee </td> + <td></td><td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right">410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' >——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">31½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.317 </td> + <td align='right' >5,776</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, for stew</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.347 </td> + <td align='right'>1,900</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.027 </td> + <td align="right">487</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.005 </td> + <td align="right">67</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.048 </td> + <td align="right">603</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right">217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Indian pudding:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Cornmeal</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .022 </td> + <td align="right">414</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Molasses</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ 6</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .007 </td> + <td align="right">329</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter</td> + <td></td><td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> /</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b></td> + <td align="right">108</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Skim milk</td> + <td align="right">2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ .068 </td> + <td align="right">340</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right">410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' >——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">31½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.534 </td> + <td align='right' >4,875</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>Corned beef hash:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Corned beef, canned</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.142 </td> + <td align="right">560</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Potatoes</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009 </td> + <td align="right">162</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071 </td> + <td align="right">904</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right">434</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apples </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.003 </td> + <td align="right">191</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk </td> + <td align='right' > 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.066 </td> + <td align="right">725</td></tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' >——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">21 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.291 </td> + <td align='right'>2,976</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' >===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">84 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.142 </td> + <td align='right' >13,627</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' >===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">21 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.285 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,407</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>In these menus the amount of milk has, as a rule, been taken as +representing somewhere near the average consumption. The amount of +milk can be increased in any of the menus given above either by +substituting it to some extent for coffee or tea, or by using more +milk and smaller quantities of meats, butter or eggs. Roughly +speaking, 1 quart of whole milk could be substituted for half a pound +of meat or eggs and the amount of nutrients would be the same, while a +pint of milk would give as large a fuel value as 1-1/2 ounces of +butter, and in addition considerable protein not furnished by the +latter.</p> + +<p>This replacement of meats by milk is illustrated in the following +menu, in which a diet with a rather small quantity of milk is so +changed as to include a much larger amount. Thus for breakfast in the +modified ration a pint and a half of milk is made to take the place of +half a pound of broiled steak. For dinner a quart of skim milk (or +buttermilk) is called for, or a glass for each person unless some of +it is used in the cooking. At the same time, 4 ounces less roast pork +is required. In the same way a glass of whole milk is allowed each +person for supper, or the bread can be made into milk toast and the +most of the extra milk used in this way. This allows the canned salmon +to be reduced 6 ounces.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p> + +<div class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Menu</span> III.—<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate exercise.</i> +<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu III"> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="4" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Weight of food.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials. </td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">With<br />small<br />amount<br />of milk.</td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">With<br />large<br />amount<br />of milk.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bananas, apples, or pears</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='left' >12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Wheat preparation </td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk </td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Broiled sirloin steak</td> + <td align='right'> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"></td> + <td align='left' >12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Baked potatoes</td> + <td align='right'> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' > 1</td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Hot rolls</td> + <td align='right'> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' > 1</td> + <td align='left' > 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2½ </td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 2½</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Extra milk</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' >1</td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tomato soup</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align='left' >12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Roast pork</td> + <td align="right"> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align="right"> 1</td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Mashed potatoes</td> + <td align="right"> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align="right"> 1</td> + <td align='left' > 4</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apple fritters:</td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Apples</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Flour</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 egg</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Lard</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1½</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 1½</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right'> </td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Extra skim milk</td> + <td align="right"></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align="right"> 2</td> + <td align="left"> 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Canned salmon</td> + <td align="right"> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6</td> + <td align="right">1</td> + <td align='left' > 0</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align="right"> </td> + <td align='left' >12</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Berries, canned or fresh </td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right'></td> + <td align='left' > 8</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Extra milk</td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 0</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> + +<div class="center"><br /><i>Cost, protein, and fuel value of the above.</i></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu III"> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> Cost.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Protein. </td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> Fuel</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"><i>With small amount of milk.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> <i>Cents.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> <i>Pounds.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> <i>Calories.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 48 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .39 </td> + <td align='right' > 5,300</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Dinner </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 51 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .39 </td> + <td align='right' > 5,800</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Supper or lunch</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 33½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .34 </td> + <td align='right' > 3,200</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' >———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 132½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.12 </td> + <td align='right'>14,300</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====== </td> + <td align='right' >======</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for one man</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 33 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .28 </td> + <td align='right'> 3,575</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====== </td> + <td align='right' >======</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>With large amount of milk.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 43 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .36 </td> + <td align='right'> 5,270</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Dinner </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 47½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .41 </td> + <td align='right'> 5,400</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Supper or lunch</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 34½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .34 </td> + <td align='right'> 3,600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' >———</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 125 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.11 </td> + <td align='right' >14,270</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====== </td> + <td align='right' >======</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 31 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> .28 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 3,567</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Menus VI and VII, following, are intended to illustrate how nourishing +food can be procured in sufficient quantities and moderate variety at +a cost of not over 16 cents per day. The cost to the farmer would be +much less, since these menus call for considerable amounts of milk, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>which is hardly worth more than one-half or one-third as much on the +farm as it costs in the towns and cities. Coffee has not always been +indicated, but can be introduced for any meal at a cost of from 1/2 to +1-1/2 cents per cup, according to how much coffee is used in making +the infusion, and how much sugar, milk, and cream are added.</p> + +<p>It is, of course, not important that each meal, or the total food of +each individual day, should have just the right amount of nutrients, +or that the proportions of protein and fuel ingredients should be +exactly correct so as to make the meal or day's diet well balanced. +The body is continually storing nutritive materials and using them. It +is not dependent any day upon the food eaten that particular day. +Hence an excess one day may be made up by a deficiency the next or +<i>vice versa</i>. Healthful nourishment requires simply that the nutrients +as a whole, during longer or shorter periods, should be fitted to the +actual needs of the body for use.</p> + + +<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Menu</span> IV.—<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i> +<br /><br /></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu IV"> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i> Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bananas, 4 (or grapes, 1 pound)</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009 </td> + <td align='right' > 362</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast cereal</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .031 </td> + <td align='right'>421</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> } 3</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{ .012 </td> + <td align='right'>122</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align='right'>232</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton chops</td> + <td align='right' >1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.165 </td> + <td align='right' >1,812</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align='right' >1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.018 </td> + <td align='right' > 325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align='right'> 653</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rolls </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.077 </td> + <td align='right' > 1,148</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align='right' > 410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">44½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.322 </td> + <td align='right' >5,485</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tomato Soup</td> + <td align='right' >2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.036 </td> + <td align="right"> 370</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Roast pork</td> + <td align='right' >2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">32 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.353 </td> + <td align="right">3,350</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align='right' >1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022 </td> + <td align="right"> 406</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.005 </td> + <td align="right"> 67</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>Tapioca pudding: + </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Tapioca</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .001 </td> + <td align="right"> 310</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Apples</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .004 </td> + <td align="right"> 255</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Sugar </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ 7 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 232</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Cream </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ .006 </td> + <td align="right"> 228</td></tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee </td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right"> 410</td></tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">57 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.437 </td> + <td align="right">5,628</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk toast:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Milk</td> + <td align='right'>2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> / .066 </td> + <td align="right"> 650</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Bread</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ 18 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .107 </td> + <td align="right">1,356</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> /</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 869</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Cornstarch</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 238</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sliced cold pork</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071 </td> + <td align="right"> 670</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fried potatoes:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Potatoes</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ 1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .009 </td> + <td align="right"> 162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Lard</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> ½</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 132</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cake </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026 </td> + <td align="right"> 619</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee or tea</td> + <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right"> 410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">32½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.289 </td> + <td align="right">5,096</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">134 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.048 </td> + <td align="right"> 16,209</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">33½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.262 </td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">4,052</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="center"><br /> +<span class="smcap">Menu</span> V.—<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i> +<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu V"> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Baked apples</td> + <td align='right'>2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.008 </td> + <td align="right"> 510</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Boiled hominy</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> / .041 </td> + <td align="right"> 823</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> } 4½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{ .020 </td> + <td align="right"> 202</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> \ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 350</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Broiled sirloin</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">11 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.099 </td> + <td align="right"> 650</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009 </td> + <td align="right"> 162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Muffins:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 egg</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ 5 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .032 </td> + <td align="right"> 162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2 cups flour</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ .057 </td> + <td align="right"> 820</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 435</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right"> 410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">31 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.276 </td> + <td align="right">4,524</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tomato soup</td> + <td align='right'>2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.036 </td> + <td align="right"> 370</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Veal stew, shoulder </td> + <td align='right'>2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.332 </td> + <td align="right">1,350</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align='right'>3</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.054 </td> + <td align="right"> 975</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apple dumpling:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 egg</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .016 </td> + <td align="right"> 81</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4 apples</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ 8 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ .006 </td> + <td align="right"> 382</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1/2 cup lard</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> /</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right">1,055</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 cup flour</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ .028 </td> + <td align="right"> 410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> + <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>Sauce for dumpling: + </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Butter</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Sugar</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 465</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071 </td> + <td align="right"> 904</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee or tea</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b></td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010 </td> + <td align="right"> 410</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">50 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.553 </td> + <td align='right'>6,836</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper or lunch.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Dried canned corned beef</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.142 </td> + <td align='right' > 560</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potato croquette</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009 </td> + <td align="right"> 162</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Biscuit</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.070 </td> + <td align="right">1,297</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oranges, 4</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">7 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.007 </td> + <td align="right"> 400</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Skim milk</td> + <td align='right' >1</td> + <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.046 </td> + <td align="right"> 234</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">23 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.274 </td> + <td align="right">2,978</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">104 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.103 </td> + <td align="right"> 14,338</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">26 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.275 </td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,585</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<div class="center"><br /> +<span class="smcap">Menu</span> VI.—<i>For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate muscular work.</i> +<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu VI"> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i> Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cornmeal, in mush or cake</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 5</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022 </td> + <td align="right"> 414</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.012 </td> + <td align="right"> 64</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 232</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Toast </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059 </td> + <td align="right"> 753</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter (24 cents per pound)</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 434</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.093 </td> + <td align="right">1,897</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef roll (for roasting)</td> + <td align='right'>3</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.417 </td> + <td align="right">2,280</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026 </td> + <td align="right"> 488</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beets </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.007 </td> + <td align="right"> 85</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059 </td> + <td align="right"> 753</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 434</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr><tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">23½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.509 </td> + <td align="right">4,040</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beans, baked</td> + <td align='right'>2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.446 </td> + <td align="right">3,180</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pork </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.012 </td> + <td align="right">2,556</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes, fried</td> + <td align='right' >1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026 </td> + <td align="right"> 488</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Lard </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 537</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059 </td> + <td align="right"> 753</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 434</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.543 </td> + <td align="right">7,948</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr><tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.145 </td> + <td align="right"> 13,885</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">13 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.285 </td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,471</td> +</tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p> +<div class="center"><br /> +<span class="smcap">Menu</span> VII.—<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i> +<br /><br /></div> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu VII"> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td> + <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i> Lbs.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td> + <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td> + <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td> + <td align='right'>0</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059 </td> + <td align="right"> 697</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Skim milk, 1 pint</td> + <td align='right' >1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.034 </td> + <td align="right"> 170</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 232</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread (homemade)</td> + <td align='right'>1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.095 </td> + <td align="right">1,205</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sausage</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.080 </td> + <td align="right">1,358</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter (24 cents per pound)</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 217</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">14½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.268 </td> + <td align="right">3,879</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef flank, stew</td> + <td align='right' > 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.430 </td> + <td align="right">2,988</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes (60 cents per bushel)</td> + <td align='right' > 3</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.054 </td> + <td align="right"> 975</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cabbage</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.013 </td> + <td align="right"> 105</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cornmeal pudding:</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Cornmeal</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022 </td> + <td align="right"> 414</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Skim milk, 1 quart </td> + <td align='right'> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.068 </td> + <td align="right"> 340</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Molasses</td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.020 </td> + <td align="right"> 987</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">22½</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.604 </td> + <td align="right">5,889</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, warmed in gravy </td> + <td align='right'> 1</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.086 </td> + <td align="right"> 598</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Hot biscuit</td> + <td align='right'> 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.340 </td> + <td align="right">2,600</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter </td> + <td></td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b> </td> + <td align="right"> 434</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk, 1 quart</td> + <td align='right' > 2</td> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 0</td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.033 </td> + <td align="right"> 325</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">——— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">—— </td> + <td align='right'>——— </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">18 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.259 </td> + <td align="right">3,957</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">55 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.134 </td> + <td align="right">3,645</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td style="border-right: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">===== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">==== </td> + <td align='right'>===== </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man </td> + <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">14 </td> + <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.285 </td> + <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,411</td> +</tr> +</table><br /><br /> +</div> + + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Discussion of the Menus</span>.</div> + +<p>These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of +food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in +the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied +and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the +use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided. +The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is +believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course +they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials, +oatmeal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> and other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these +substances as purchased.</p> + +<p>The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the +different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of +these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used +simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of +protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest.</p> + +<p>The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or +less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the +character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the +more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as +follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14 +cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents; +bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart); +skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese, +16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2 +to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other +vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents +(20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per +dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel).</p> + +<p>It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the +average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of +the country than in the central and western portions, where meats, +cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to +be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can +be purchased much cheaper than here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> indicated, while on the other +hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The +choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their +abundance and cost.</p> + +<p>Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and +consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is +to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course, +different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These +figures express only general averages and are based upon the best +information accessible.</p> + + +<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Few Points to be Considered in Planning Meals</span>.</div> + +<p>Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular +work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day, +leaving such articles of food as soup—which is a valuable stimulant +after a day of hard work—fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal, +when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated +foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the +day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the +necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish +sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and +beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk or +<i>strained</i> tea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc.</p> + +<p>Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building +requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words, +food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work. +Supper in such cases<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> should consist of a good broth or well made +soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more +substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for +the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less +expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings, +fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day.</p> + +<p>On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such +as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the +day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much +slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room, +and where little exercise is taken.<a name="FNanchor_5_6" id="FNanchor_5_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_6" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Care should be taken in +planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much +oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry, +griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man +should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and +butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable +for luncheon.</p> + +<p>Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See +p. 153.)</p> + +<p>Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a +rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece +of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient.</p> + +<p>Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently +hurry away to their work in the morning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> without taking a substantial +breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be +followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten +and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute +for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active +exercise for any length of time.</p> + +<p>Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel. +The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long, +slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done +by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick +fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in +both food and fuel may be exercised.</p> + +<p>FOOTNOTE:</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_6" id="Footnote_5_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_6">[5]</a> The teacher may make this clear by comparing the +digestion of the two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a +range with the drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, +effect of oxygen, etc.</p></div> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="SUGGESTIVE_QUESTIONS" id="SUGGESTIVE_QUESTIONS"></a>SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.</h2> + + +<p>In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful +to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be +likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility, +etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as +fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to +keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent +illustrations and comparisons should be made.</p> + +<p>Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as +every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few +suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful.</p> + + +<p>Why do we eat food?</p> + +<p>What is nitrogenous food?</p> + +<p>What is its chief office?</p> + +<p>Where is it to be found?</p> + +<p>In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant?</p> + +<p>What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs?</p> + +<p>Of what is it composed?</p> + +<p>Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous?</p> + +<p>Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh?</p> + +<p>Which are the most important heat-giving compounds?</p> + +<p>What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming +compounds?</p> + +<p>What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p><p>Give their use?</p> + +<p>Where are they to be found?</p> + +<p>What is common salt?</p> + +<p>Where is it found?</p> + +<p>Why do we use it?</p> + +<p>Give the three digestive juices.</p> + +<p>What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables?</p> + +<p>Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in +the dust bin or garbage pail?</p> + +<p>What should be done with them?</p> + +<p>Which are the most important warmth-giving foods?</p> + +<p>Give another name for these foods?</p> + +<p>Why are they so called?</p> + +<p>What is combustion?</p> + +<p>How do these foods produce force, etc.?</p> + +<p>What other elements do these foods contain?</p> + +<p>Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or +sugar?</p> + +<p>What elements unite and form water?</p> + +<p>What is the proportion of water in the body?</p> + +<p>Give its use?</p> + +<p>Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat?</p> + +<p>Why does starch need cooking?</p> + +<p>To what kingdom does it belong?</p> + +<p>Which section is of most value?</p> + +<p>How is starch changed into sugar?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p><p>What changes food into blood?</p> + +<p>What gives the red color to blood?</p> + +<p>What mineral helps digestion most?</p> + +<p>What is sugar?</p> + +<p>What causes sugar to ferment?</p> + +<p>What is the result?</p> + +<p>Where is it to be found?</p> + +<p>What are food adjuncts?</p> + +<p>Of what value are they?</p> + +<p>Give the names of combustible nutrients.</p> + +<p>Give the names of incombustible nutrients.</p> + +<p>For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain?</p> + +<p>What supports combustion?</p> + +<p>What is chemically pure water?</p> + +<p>What causes the hardness of water?</p> + +<p>What is gluten?</p> + +<p>What is dextrine?</p> + +<p>Where is it found?</p> + +<p>In what way does dextrine differ from starch?</p> + +<p>What is decomposition?</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2><a name="SCHEDULE_OF_LESSONS_FOR_PUBLIC_SCHOOL_CLASSES" id="SCHEDULE_OF_LESSONS_FOR_PUBLIC_SCHOOL_CLASSES"></a>SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES.</h2> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lesson</span>.</p> +<ol> +<li>Information regarding the conduct of classes. Practice in +measuring. Practice in lighting gas-burners and oven. +Practice in lighting and regulating a range.</li> + +<li>Fruit—Applesauce. Coddled apples. Stewed prunes.</li> + +<li>Starch—Boiled rice. Potatoes, boiled and mashed.</li> + +<li>Starch—Thickening liquids with flour.</li> + +<li>Starch—Practice in No. 4.</li> + +<li>Vegetables—Onions, cabbage, parsnips, etc.</li> + +<li>Eggs—Boiled eggs. Poached eggs. Toast.</li> + +<li>Eggs and milk—Boiled and baked custard.</li> + +<li>Flour mixtures—Popovers, griddle cake.</li> + +<li>Flour mixtures—Milk biscuits. Corn bread. Apple +pudding.</li> + +<li>Bread—Making sponge, kneading, and setting to rise.</li> + +<li>Bread—Moulding and baking.</li> + +<li>Fish—Boiled and baked fish. Creamed fish and sauce.</li> + +<li>Review of theory and recipes.</li> + +<li>Meat—Roasting meat. Soup stock.</li> + +<li>Meat—Stewed meat.</li> + +<li>Meat—Cold meat and broiling.</li> + +<li>Salads.</li> + +<li>Beans.</li> + +<li>Plain puddings.</li></ol> + +<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.—After this each teacher must arrange lessons according +to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with +lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary +matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving.</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX.</h2> + + +<p>Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof. +Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Outline I</span>.</div> + +<p>The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an +average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school. +The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and +interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate +a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season +of the year.</p> + +<p>It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are +four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking +of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and +introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this +arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food +principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so +that there is a constant review of principles already established; and +to give practical work of increasing difficulty.</p> + +<p>The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in +house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken +for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food +values, the cost of food, marketing, etc.</p> + +<p>1. Simple experiments in combustion—to illustrate the structure of +stoves and the care of such stoves. Study<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> of the fuel and apparatus +to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus; +comparison with other apparatus.</p> + +<p>2. Utensils—what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to +have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing.</p> + +<p>Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in +tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double +boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough +for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter, +croutons may be made.</p> + +<p>3. Measuring—experiment with the cooking of starch in water; +cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the +effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting +of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking.</p> + +<p>4. A cereal and a fruit,—say, baked apples. In the cereal, in +addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in +both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being +a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process.</p> + +<p>5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and +cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and +vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of +peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar +with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances.</p> + +<p>If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this +may be given in the next lesson.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p><p>6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review +lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions, +several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to +how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of +soup.</p> + +<p>7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and +yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain +omelet.</p> + +<p>8. Eggs and milk.</p> + +<p>9. Oysters.</p> + +<p>10. Fish.</p> + +<p>11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially +proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters +is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder +biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given +for sake of variety.</p> + +<p>14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling.</p> + +<p>15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy.</p> + +<p>18. Tough meat. Soups and stews.</p> + +<p>19. Tough meat. Soups and stews.</p> + +<p>Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also.</p> + +<p>20. Beverages.</p> + +<p>21. Salads.</p> + +<p>22. Desserts.</p> + +<p>23. A breakfast.</p> + +<p>24. A luncheon.</p> + +<p>25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p><p>Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them; +bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving; +dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes.</p> + + +<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Outline</span> II.</div> + +<p>This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was +advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals. +The plan can be followed in a longer course.</p> + + +<p><i>Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc.</i></p> + +<p>1. A cereal and fruit.</p> + +<p>2. Eggs.</p> + +<p>3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat.</p> + +<p>4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee.</p> + +<p>5. A breakfast.</p> + +<p>6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup.</p> + +<p>7. A made dish of meat or fish.</p> + +<p>8. Salad and dressing.</p> + +<p>9. Muffins or biscuit.</p> + +<p>10. A luncheon or supper.</p> + +<p>11. Vegetables. Macaroni.</p> + +<p>12. Meat.</p> + +<p>13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert.</p> + +<p>14. Bread or rolls.</p> + +<p>15. A dinner.</p> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. 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Hoodless + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Public School Domestic Science + +Author: Mrs. J. Hoodless + +Release Date: April 1, 2006 [EBook #18097] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE *** + + + + +Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + +PUBLIC SCHOOL + +DOMESTIC SCIENCE + +BY + +MRS. J. HOODLESS, + +President School Of Domestic Science, Hamilton. + + +This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if +so ordered by a resolution of the Trustees. + + + TORONTO: + THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED, + 1898. + + +Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one +thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, +LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of +Agriculture. + + +[Illustration: A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.] + + +"I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which +embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet, +and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired +vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and +throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from +the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil +to be."--_Sir Henry Thompson._ + + * * * * * + +"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing loss of +health is of primary importance. We do not contend that possession of +such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. But we do +contend that the right knowledge impressed in the right way would +effect much; and we further contend that as the laws of health must be +recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of +such knowledge must precede a more rational living."--_Herbert +Spencer._ + + * * * * * + +"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of Calypso and +Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the +knowledge of all fruits, and herbs, and balms, and spices, and of all +that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, and savory in meats; +it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and +willingness, and readiness of appliance; it means much tasting and no +wasting; it means English thoroughness, and French art, and Arabian +hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfect and always +'ladies'--'loaf-givers.'"--_Ruskin._ + + + + +PREFACE. + + +An eminent authority[1] says: "Up to the age of sixteen even a lucid +statement of principles is received by all but a few pupils as dogma. +They do not and cannot in any adequate sense realize the reasoning +process by which scientific conclusions are reached. They are taught +not only facts but classifications and laws, and causes in relation to +their effect. These are not, in the majority of cases, elaborated by +the pupil. The teaching of them accordingly degenerates into a +statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of memory." + +To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize its effects +somewhat, is one of the principal reasons for introducing Domestic +Science into the Public School curriculum; a science which relates so +closely to the daily life that it cannot be left to an act of memory; +where cause and effect are so palpable that the pupil may readily +arrive at an individual conclusion. + +The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring a +knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to +co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to make a practical use +of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an important part in +the arranging of weights and measures, in the study of the analysis +and relative value of various kinds of food, in estimating the cost of +manufactured products in proportion to their market value, in the +purchase of food material, etc. History and geography are closely +allied to the study of the diet and customs of the different +countries, with their variety of climate and products. Physiology and +temperance principles permeate the whole course of study. In addition +to these are the direct lessons, provided by the practice work, in +neatness, promptness and cleanliness. It will therefore be necessary +to have a wide general knowledge before entering upon a course in +Domestic Science. + +Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the Public +Schools, it will be impossible to teach more than a few of the first +principles governing each department of the work, viz., a knowledge of +the constituent parts of the human body; the classification of food +and the relation of each class to the sustenance and repair of the +body; simple recipes illustrating the most wholesome and economical +methods of preparing the various kinds of food; the science of +nutrition, economy and hygiene; general hints on household management, +laundry work, and care of the sick. + +To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, bacteriology, etc., +would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the average school girl, +and possibly create a distaste for knowledge containing so much +abstract matter. + +This book is not a teacher's manual, nor is it intended to take the +place of the teacher in any way. The normal training prescribed for +teachers will enable them to supplement the information contained +herein, by a much more general and comprehensive treatment of the +various questions, than would be possible or judicious in a primary +text-book. It has been found difficult for pupils to copy the recipes +given with each lesson, or to write out the instructions carefully +without infringing upon the time which should be devoted to practice +work.[2] In order to meet this difficulty, also to enable the pupil to +work at home under the same rules which govern the class work, simple +recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a knowledge of +heat and its effect, going on to those requiring hand dexterity, +before attempting the more difficult subjects. After the pupils have +acquired a knowledge of the "why and wherefore" of the different +processes required in cooking, they will have little difficulty in +following the more elaborate recipes given in the numberless +cook-books provided for household use. Once the art--and it is a fine +art--of cookery is mastered, it becomes not only a pleasant occupation +but provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing the +reaction which frequently follows school life. + +The tables given are to be used for reference, and _not to be +memorized_ by the pupil. + +The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his kindly +interest and assistance in providing much valuable information, which +in some instances is given verbatim; also to Dr. Gilman Thompson for +permission to give extracts from his valuable book, "Practical +Dietetics"; to Prof. Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science +Dept.), for review and suggestions; to Miss Watson, Principal Hamilton +School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule for +school work. The Boston Cook Book (with Normal Instruction), by Mrs. +M.J. Lincoln; and the Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen H. +Richards (Prof. of Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology), +and Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further +information on practical household matters. The publications of the +U.S. Experiment Stations, by Prof. Atwater and other eminent chemists, +contain much valuable information. + +To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, this book is +respectfully dedicated. + +ADELAIDE HOODLESS. + + "EASTCOURT," + Hamilton, June, 1898. + + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] S.S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and History of +Education, Edinburgh University. + +[2] Where time is allowed, much benefit may be derived from writing +notes, as a study in composition, spelling, etc. + + + + +SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER. + + +Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for the +teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the various +questions; to explain the underlying principles so thoroughly that +"the why and the wherefore" of every action in the preparation of food +will be clearly understood. She should endeavor to impress upon the +pupils the value of thoroughly understanding the relation of food to +the body. In practice lessons frequent _reference_ should be made to +the analysis of the various foods, as given in the tables and charts. + +The first practice lesson should be given on the making and care of a +fire, regulating dampers, cleaning stove, etc. The pupils should then +be taught the name and place of all the utensils. Special attention +should be given to the explanation of weights and measures; the table +of abbreviations should be memorized. Arrange the class work so that +each pupil may in alternation share the duties of both kitchen work +and cooking. + +Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should +be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned +back or confined in some way, and covered by a cap. A large clean +apron and a holder should be worn while at work. Never allow the +pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in place of a holder. +Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-room. Set an example of +perfect order and neatness, and insist upon pupils following that +example. Teach the pupils that cooking may be done without soiling +either hands or clothes. The pupils should do all the work of the +class-room, except scrubbing the floor. Everything must be left in +perfect order at the close of each lesson. + +Frequent _reviews_ are absolutely necessary. Urge the pupils to think +for themselves, and not to rely upon the text-book. Where pupils are +backward, or have not had previous practice in kitchen work, give +special attention to their manner of holding a knife or spoon in +preparing articles for use, and in beating or stirring mixtures. +Encourage deftness and light handling of kitchen ware. Insist upon +promptness and keeping within the time limit, both in preparing the +food and in the cooking. + +Owing to the variety of climate and markets, it would be impossible to +arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A few sample +menus are given at the back of the book, but each teacher must be +governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons for her class. For +instance, recipes without eggs should be given in mid-winter, when +eggs are dear. Fruits and vegetables must be given in season. + +The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work; in +some cases it may be necessary to divide them, as the quantities given +are intended for home practice. The teacher should consider herself at +liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider valuable. The +digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants--especially of tea and +coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be carefully impressed +upon the pupil. + +The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly before +her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arithmetic, +history, geography, physiology and temperance; (2) to develop the +mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the children; (3) to +enable pupils to understand the reason for doing certain things in a +certain way; in other words, to work with an intelligent conception +of the value, both physically and hygienically, of knowing how the +daily duties should be performed. + +In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each class of +food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For instance, +before giving a lesson in the preparation of starches, each pupil +should be given an opportunity to learn how to mix and stir the +mixture over the fire, so as to prevent it from burning or becoming +lumpy; this may be done by using water and common laundry starch, or +flour. The same test applies to sauces, etc. A few cheap apples and +potatoes may be used in learning to pare these articles. The effect of +cold and hot water on albumen and tissues may be illustrated by the +cheaper pieces of meat. + +Although the more scientific studies are grouped together, it does not +follow that they are to be studied in the order given. The teacher +must arrange her lessons--from the beginning--so as to include a +certain amount of the theory with the practice work. Frequent +reference should be made during practice lessons to the various +chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking, so as to +interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food question. + +The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes while +she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not be entirely +dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations must simply +serve as the key-note for further study. + +Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion," page +58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be +studied--especially pages 71-75--in conjunction with "Food +Classifications" (Chap. 2); also in dealing with the digestibility of +starches, etc. + + + + +COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS--(_Atwater_) + +_Nutritive Ingredients, Refuse, and Food Value._ + + Nutrients: + P--Protein. + F--Fats. + C--Carbohydrates. + M--Mineral Matters. + + Non-nutrients: + W--Water. + R--Refuse. + + Fuel Value: + X--Calories. + + _Protein_ Compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) + of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. + + _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, \ + \ serve as fuel to yield + / heat and muscular power. + _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar, / + + + Nutrients, etc., p.c | 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 + ---------------------+-------------------------------------------------| + Fuel value of 1 lb. | 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 + | | | | | | | | | | | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRR| + Beef, round |XXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPPP|FFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Beef, round[A] |XXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRR| + Beef, sirloin |XXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Beef, sirloin[A] |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRR| + Beef, rib |XXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Beef, rib[A] |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPP|FFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRR| + Mutton, leg |XXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR| + Pork, spare rib |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWW|RRR| + Pork, salt |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR| + Ham, smoked |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPP|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRRRR| + Codfish, fresh |XXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPP|MMMMMMM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRR| + Codfish, salt |XXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PP|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Oysters |XXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |P|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Milk |XXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |P|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|M|WWWW| + Butter |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Cheese |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRR| + Eggs |XXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWW| + Wheat bread |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW| + Wheat flour |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWW| + Cornmeal |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPP|FFF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WW| + Oatmeal |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PPPPPPPPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|MM|WWWWW| + Beans, dried |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW| + Rice |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |P|CCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR| + Potatoes |XXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| + Sugar |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----| + + [A] Without bone. + + + + +PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD--(_Atwater_). + +_Amounts of actually Nutritive Ingredients obtained in different Food +Materials for 10 cents._ + + P--Protein. + F--Fats. + C--Carbohydrates. + X--Fuel Value. + + _Protein_ compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) + of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. + + _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter and oil, \ + \ serve as fuel to yield + / heat and muscular power. + _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar, / + + --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------| + | Price | Ten | | + | per | cents| Pounds of Nutrients and Calories of | + | pound.| will | Fuel Value in 10 cents worth. | + | | buy--| | + --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------| + | Cents.| Lbs. | 1 Lb. 2 Lbs. 3 Lbs. 4 Lbs. | + | | | 2000 Cal. 4000 Cal. 6000 Cal. 8000 Cal.| + | | | | | | | | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|F| | + Beef, round | 12 | .83 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|F| | + Beef, sirloin | 18 | .55 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|F| | + Beef, rib | 16 | .63 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|F| | + Mutton, leg | 12 | .83 |XXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Pork, | | |PP|FF| | + spare rib | 12 | .83 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Pork, | | |P|FFFF| | + salt, fat | 14 | .71 |XXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|FFF| | + Ham, smoked | 16 | .63 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Codfish, | | |PP| | + fresh | 8 | 1.25 |XX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Codfish, | | |PPP| | + salt | 6 | 1.67 |XXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Oysters, 40 | | |P| | + cents quart | 20 | .50 |X| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Milk, 6 cents | | |P|F|C| | + quart | 3 | 3.33 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |FFFF| | + Butter | 24 | .42 |XXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|FF| | + Cheese | 16 | .63 |XXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Eggs, 25 | | |P|F| | + cents dozen | 16-3/4| .60 |XXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Wheat bread | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Wheat flour | 2-1/2| 4.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Cornmeal | 2 | 5.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |PP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Oatmeal | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Beans, white, | | |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + dried | 4 | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Rice | 5 | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + Potatoes, 60 | | |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + cents bushel| 1 |10.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + | | |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC| | + Sugar | 5 | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX| | + --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----| + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PAGE. + Preface v + Suggestions to Teachers ix + Composition of Food Materials (_Atwater_) xii + Pecuniary Economy of Food (_Atwater_) xiii + + CHAPTER I. + The Relation of Food to the Body 1 + + CHAPTER II. + Food Classification 6 + + CHAPTER III. + Nutrition 10 + + CHAPTER IV. + Food and Economy 12 + + CHAPTER V. + Foods containing Protein or Nitrogenous Matter 22 + + CHAPTER VI. + Fats and Oils 34 + + CHAPTER VII. + Carbohydrate Foods 37 + + CHAPTER VIII. + Fruits 50 + + CHAPTER IX. + Preparing Food 54 + + RECIPES: + Batters, Biscuits and Bread 60 + Bread 65 + Sauces and Milk Soups 66 + Eggs 69 + Fruit 72 + Vegetables 74 + Salads 80 + Macaroni 85 + Cheese 86 + Beverages 87 + Soups 89 + Fish 94 + Meat 96 + Poultry 104 + Hot Puddings 109 + Plain Sauces 115 + Pastry 121 + Miscellaneous 122 + + General Hints 126 + + Suggestions for Young Housekeepers 128 + + Caring for Invalids 142 + + General Hints for School Children 150 + + Suggestions for School Children's Diet 153 + + Infants' Diet 156 + + Planning and Serving Meals 170 + + Consideration of Menus 173 + + Suggestive Questions 188 + + Schedule of Lessons for Public School Classes 191 + + Appendix 193 + + + + +PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +The Relation of Food to the Body. + + +In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and +repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what +the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the +food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The +following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148 +pounds:-- + + Oxygen 92.1 pounds. + Hydrogen 14.6 " + Carbon 31.6 " + Nitrogen 4.6 " + Phosphorus 1.4 " + Calcium 2.8 " + Sulphur 0.24 " + Chlorine 0.12 " + Sodium 0.12 " + Iron 0.02 " + Potassium 0.34 " + Magnesium 0.04 " + Silica ? " + Fluorine 0.02 " + ------ + Total 148.00 pounds. + +As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing +and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary +some knowledge of the relation of food to the body is, in order to +preserve health. + +Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we find from the above +calculation that about three-fifths of the body is composed of water. +Carbon is a solid: diamonds are nearly pure carbon; "lead" of lead +pencils, anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon. Carbon +combined with other elements in the body makes about one-fifth of the +whole weight. Carbon with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon +taken into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen of the +inhaled air, yields heat to keep the body warm, and force--muscular +strength--for work. The carbonic acid (or carbon dioxide) is given out +through the lungs and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous +foods, their relation to the body as fuel will be more clearly +understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element. Phosphorus +is a solid. According to the table, about one pound six ounces would +be found in a body weighing 148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus +forms what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes +phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones and teeth; +it is found also in the brain and nerves, flesh and blood. Hydrogen is +a gas, and like carbon unites with the oxygen of the inhaled air in +the body, thus serving as fuel. The water produced is given off in the +respiration through the lungs and as perspiration through the skin.[3] +Calcium is a metal. The table given allows three pounds of calcium; +united with oxygen, calcium forms lime. This with phosphoric acid +makes phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in which +nearly all the calcium of the body is found. + +The elements which bear no direct relation to the force production of +the body, but which enter into tissue formation, are chlorine, +sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium. +Bone tissue contains about 50 per cent. of lime phosphate, hence the +need of this substance in the food of a growing infant, in order that +the bones may become firm and strong. Lack of iron salts in the food +impoverishes the coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles on which +they depend for their power of carrying oxygen to the tissues; anaemia +and other disorders of deficient oxidation result. The lack of +sufficient potash salts is a factor in producing scurvy, a condition +aggravated by the use of common salt. A diet of salt meat and starches +may cause it, with absence of fresh fruit and vegetables. Such +illustrations show the need of a well-balanced diet. + +In order to understand the value of the various classes of food and +their relation to the body as force producers, tissue builders, etc., +the following table may prove helpful:-- + + | | C.H. + | | Combustibles + | Nitrogen. | Calculated as + | | Carbon. + ---------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------- + Beef, uncooked | 3.00 | 11.00 + Roast beef | 3.53 | 17.76 + Calf's liver | 3.09 | 15.68 + Foie-gras | 2.12 | 65.58 + Sheep's kidneys | 2.66 | 12.13 + Skate | 3.83 | 12.25 + Cod, salted | 5.02 | 16.00 + Herring, salted | 3.11 | 23.00 + Herring, fresh | 1.83 | 21.00 + Whiting | 2.41 | 9.00 + Mackerel | 3.74 | 19.26 + Sole | 1.91 | 12.25 + Salmon | 2.09 | 16.00 + Carp | 3.49 | 12.10 + Oysters | 2.13 | 7.18 + Lobster, uncooked | 2.93 | 10.96 + Eggs | 1.90 | 13.50 + Milk (cows') | 0.66 | 8.00 + Cheese (Brie) | 2.93 | 35.00 + Cheese (Gruyere) | 5.00 | 38.00 + Cheese (Roquefort) | 4.21 | 44.44 + Chocolate | 1.52 | 58.00 + Wheat (hard Southern, variable average) | 3.00 | 41.00 + Wheat (soft Southern, variable average) | 1.81 | 39.00 + Flour, white (Paris) | 1.64 | 38.50 + Rye flour | 1.75 | 41.00 + Winter barley | 1.90 | 40.00 + Maize | 1.70 | 44.00 + Buckwheat | 2.20 | 42.50 + Rice | 1.80 | 41.00 + Oatmeal | 1.95 | 44.00 + Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water) | 1.08 | 29.50 + Bread, brown (soldiers' rations formerly) | 1.07 | 28.00 + Bread, brown (soldiers' rations at present) | 1.20 | 30.00 + Bread, from flour of hard wheat | 2.20 | 31.00 + Potatoes | 0.33 | 11.00 + Beans | 4.50 | 42.00 + Lentils, dry | 3.87 | 43.00 + Peas, dry | 3.66 | 44.00 + Carrots | 0.31 | 5.50 + Mushrooms | 0.60 | 4.52 + Figs, fresh | 0.41 | 15.50 + Figs, dry | 0.92 | 34.00 + Coffee (infusion of 100 grams) | 1.10 | 9.00 + Tea (infusion of 100 grams) | 1.00 | 10.50 + Bacon | 1.29 | 71.14 + Butter | 0.64 | 83.00 + Olive oil | Trace | 98.00 + Beer, strong | 0.05 | 4.50 + Wine | 0.15 | 4.00 + ---------------------------------------------+-----------+-------------- + +"The hydrogen existing in the compound in excess of what is required +to form water with the oxygen present is calculated as carbon. It is +only necessary to multiply the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount +of dry proteids in 100 grams of the fresh food substance." +(Dujardin-Beauretz.) The following simple rules are given by +Parks:--"1st. To obtain the amount of nitrogen in proteid of foods, +divide the quantity of food by 6.30. 2nd. To obtain the carbon in fat +multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To obtain the carbon in carbohydrate food +multiply by 0.444. 4. To obtain the carbon in proteid food multiply by +0.535." + +Finding that our food and our bodies contain essentially the same +elements, we must also bear in mind that the body cannot create +anything for itself, neither material nor energy; all must be supplied +by the food we eat, which is transformed into repair material for the +body. Therefore, the object of a course of study dealing with the +science of this question, as it relates to the daily life, should be +to learn something of how food builds the body, repairs the waste, +yields heat and energy, and to teach the principles of food economy in +its relation to health and income. This, with the development of +executive ability, is all that can be attempted in a primary course. + + +FOOTNOTE: + +[3] An illustration of vapor rising may be given by breathing upon a +mirror. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +Food Classification. + + +The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four +principal classes of nutrients: + + PROTEIN: + + _Proteids._ + + _Albuminoids_, _e.g._, albumen of eggs; myosin, + the basis of muscle (lean meat); the albuminoids + which make up the gluten of wheat, etc. + + _Gelatinoids_, constituents of connective tissue which + yield gelatin and allied substances, _e.g._, collagen + of tendon; ossein of bone. + + "Nitrogenous extractives" of flesh, _i.e._, of meats and fish. + These include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the + chief ingredients of beef tea and most meat extracts. + Amids: this term is frequently applied to the nitrogenous + non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable foods and feeding + stuffs, among which are amido acids, such as aspartic acid + and asparagin. Some of them are more or less allied in + chemical constitution to the nitrogenous extractives of + flesh. + + _Fats._ + + Fat of meat: fat of milk; oil of corn, wheat, etc. The + ingredients of the "ether extract" of animal and vegetable + foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary to group + together roughly as fats, include, with the true fats, + various other substances, as lecithians, and chlorophylls. + + _Carbohydrates_, sugars, starches, celluloses, gums, woody fibre, etc. + + _Mineral matter._ + + Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorids, sulphates + and phosphates. (Atwater). + +The terms (_a_) "nitrogenous" and (_b_) "carbonaceous" are frequently +used to designate the two distinct classes of food, viz.: (_a_) the +tissue builders and flesh formers; (_b_) fuel and force producers. + +Each of these classes contains food material derived from both the +animal and vegetable kingdom, although the majority of the animal +substances belong to the nitrogenous, and the majority of the +vegetable substances to the carbonaceous group. + +Therefore, for practical purposes, we will confine ourselves to the +more general terms used in Atwater's table. + + +Uses of Food. + +First, food is used to form the materials of the body and repair its +waste; second, to yield energy in the form of (1) heat to keep the +body warm, (2) to provide muscular and other power for the work it has +to do. In forming the tissues and fluids of the body the food serves +for building and repair. In yielding energy, it serves as fuel for +heat and power. The principal tissue formers are the albuminoids; +these form the frame-work of the body. They build and repair the +nitrogenous materials, as those of muscle, tendon and bone, and supply +the albuminoids of blood, milk and other fluids. The chief fuel +ingredients of food are the carbohydrates and fats. These are either +consumed in the body or are stored as fat to be used as occasion +demands. + + +Water. + +By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water composes +three-fifths of the entire body. The elasticity of muscles, cartilage, +tendons, and even of bones is due in great part to the water which +these tissues contain. The amount of water required by a healthy man +in twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the average +between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25 ounces taken as an +ingredient of solid food, thus making a total of from 75 to 85 ounces. +One of the most universal dietetic failings is neglect to take enough +water into the system. Dr. Gilman Thompson gives the following uses of +water in the body:-- + +(1) It enters into the chemical composition of the tissues; (2) it +forms the chief ingredient of all the fluids of the body and maintains +their proper degree of dilution; (3) by moistening various surfaces of +the body, such as the mucous and serous membranes, it prevents +friction and the uncomfortable symptoms which might result from +drying; (4) it furnishes in the blood and lymph a fluid medium by +which food may be taken to remote parts of the body and the waste +matter removed, thus promoting rapid tissue changes; (5) it serves as +a distributer of body heat; (6) it regulates the body temperature by +the physical processes of absorption and evaporation. + + +Salts (Mineral Matter).--Use of Salts in Food. + +(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and other fluids of +the body; (2) to preserve the tissues from disorganization and +putrefaction; (3) to enter into the composition of the teeth and +bones. These are only a few of the uses of salts in the body, but are +sufficient for our purpose. Fruits and nuts contain the least quantity +of salts, meat ranks next, then vegetables and pulses, cereals contain +most of all (Chambers). Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most +important and valuable salt. It must not however be used in excess. +Potassium salts rank next in importance.[4] Calcium, phosphorus, +sulphur and iron are included in this class. + +The quantity of salts or mineral matter contained in some important +articles of vegetable and animal food is shown in this table (Church): + +_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 14 Vegetable Products._ + + Lbs. + Apples 4 + Rice 5 + Wheaten flour 7 + Turnips 8 + Potatoes 10 + Barley 11 + Cabbage 12 + Bread 12 + Watercress 13 + Maize 20 + Oatmeal 21 + Peas 30 + Cocoa nibs 36 + Wheaten bran 60 + +_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 8 Animal Products._ + + Lbs. + Fat Pork 5 + Cow's milk 7 + Eggs (without shells) 13 + Lean of mutton 17 + Flesh of common fowl 16 + Bacon 44 + Gloucester cheese 49 + Salted herrings 158 + +"In most seeds and fruits there is much phosphate in the mineral +matter, and in most green vegetables much potash. One important kind +of mineral matter alone is deficient in vegetable food, and that is +common salt." + + +FOOTNOTE: + +[4] See Vegetables, Chap. VII. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +Nutrition. + + +It is not within the scope of this book to deal with the science of +nutrition; but a few general principles may be given which concern the +effect upon the system of the different classes of food. Animal food +requires a considerable quantity of oxygen for its complete +combustion. Meat in general has a more stimulating effect upon the +system and is more strengthening than vegetable food. There is, +however, a tendency to eat too much meat, and when its effects are not +counter-balanced by free outdoor exercise, it causes biliousness and +sometimes gout and other troubles. Albuminous foods can be eaten +longer alone without exciting loathing than can fats, sugars or +starches. A carbonaceous diet taxes the excretory organs less than +animal food. Meat is not necessary to life. Nitrogenous food man must +have, but it need not be in the form of meat. The estimate commonly +given is, that meat should occupy one-fourth and vegetable food +three-fourths of a mixed diet, but in many cases the meat eaten is +much in excess of this allowance. The proper association of different +foods always keeps healthy people in better condition; there are +times, however, when it may be necessary to abstain from certain +articles of diet. It may be well to bear in mind, that the protein +compounds can do the work of the carbohydrates and fats in being +consumed for fuel, but the carbohydrates and fats cannot do the work +of protein in building and repairing the tissues of the body. As +already stated, a mixed diet is the only rational one for man. An +exclusively vegetable diet, while it may maintain a condition of +health for a time, eventually results in a loss of strength and power +to resist disease. Therefore it is necessary to understand the +approximate value of each class of food in arranging the daily +dietary. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +Food and Economy. + + +It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of +moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the +same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for +them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes +nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds +of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat +flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for +nourishment, but not in the proportion best adapted for ordinary use. +A man might live on beef alone, but it would be a very one-sided and +imperfect diet. Meat and bread together make the essentials of a +healthful diet. In order to give a general idea of food economy, it +will be necessary to deal briefly with the functions of the various +food principles. As our bodies contain a great deal of muscle, the +waste of which is repaired by protein found in such food as lean meat, +eggs, cheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish, etc., a supply of these +articles must be considered in purchasing the daily supply. Fatty +tissue (not muscle) serves as fuel, therefore the value of such foods +as butter, cream, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates form fat and +serve as fuel and force producers; these come in the form of starches, +sugars,--vegetables and grains being the most important. In being +themselves burned to yield energy, the nutrients protect each other +from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like +those of foods. An important use of the carbohydrates and fats is to +protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. "The most healthful +food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user: the +cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment +at the least cost: the best food is that which is both healthful and +cheap." By referring to the various charts a fair estimate of food +values may be obtained. + +As will be noticed, the animal foods contain the most protein and +fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. A pound of +cheese may have 0.28 pound of protein, as much as a man at ordinary +work needs for a day's sustenance, while a pound of milk would have +only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02 pound of protein. The +materials which have the most fats and carbohydrates have the highest +fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2.995 +calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only .315 +calories. On the other hand, the nutritive material of the codfish +would consist almost entirely of protein, while the pork contains very +little. Among the vegetable foods, peas and beans have a high +proportion of protein. Oatmeal contains a large proportion also. +Potatoes are low in fuel value as well as in protein, because they are +three-fourths water. For the same reason milk, which is seven-eights +water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value, hence the +reason why it is not so valuable as food for an adult as many of the +other food materials. + +These few illustrations will help to show the need of an intelligent +idea of food values before attempting to purchase the supplies for +family use. As one-half a laboring man's income goes towards +providing food, it must follow that such knowledge will help the +housewife very materially in securing the best results from the amount +expended. + +The _average daily diet_ of an adult should contain (Church):-- + + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + NUTRIENTS. | IN 100 PARTS. | EACH 24 HOURS. + --------------------------------|-----------------|-------------------- + | | lb. oz. gr. + Water | 81.5 | 5 8 .320 + Albuminoids | 3.9 | 0 4 .178 + Fat | 3.0 | 0 3 .337 + Common salt | 3.7 | 0 0 .325 + Phosphates, potash, salts, etc. | 0.3 | 0 0 0.170 + ----------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +Quantity of Food Required. + +The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous +condition depends upon the following conditions:--(1) Climate and +season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized +countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain +health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of +food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts +one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence +the need for more or less food. Abundant clothing in cold weather +conserves the body heat; less food is therefore required to maintain +life. Exercise and muscular work cause greater oxidation in the +tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must be replaced by +proper food. Outdoor work requires more food than indoor, and physical +labor more than mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten +years requires half as much food as a grown woman, and one of fourteen +an equal amount. The rapidly growing active boy often eats as much as +a man, and the middle-aged man requires more than the aged. A man of +seventy years may preserve health on a quantity which would soon +starve his grandson." + +Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain +and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which have not +yet been solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and +phosphorus, which are found in protein compounds but not in the true +fats, sugars, and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen and +oxygen. We naturally infer that the protein compounds must be +especially concerned in building up brain and nerve, and keeping them +in repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question +which has not yet been decided. In general it appears that a man or a +woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without +vigorous exercise and does but little hard muscular work, needs much +less than the man at hard manual labor, and that the brain worker +needs comparatively little of carbohydrates or fats. Many physicians, +physiologists and students of hygiene have become convinced that +well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too +much; that the diet of people of this class as a whole is one-sided as +well as excessive, and that the principal evil is the use of too much +fat, starch and sugar. It is well to remember that it is the quantity +of food digested which builds the body, and more injury is likely to +result from over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value +of having food cooked so as to aid digestion. The following dietary +standards may be interesting to the more advanced pupils, housewives, +etc.:-- + +STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIET OF LABORING MAN AT MODERATE MUSCULAR +WORK. + + ========================+==========+=======+============================ + | | | Nutrients in Daily Food. + Author. | Protein. | Fats. |---------------+------------ + | | | Carbohydrates.| Fuel Value. + ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------ + | lb. | lb. | lb. | Calories. + Playfair, England | .26 | .11 | 1.17 | 3.140 + Moleschotte, Italy | .29 | .09 | 1.21 | 3.160 + Wolff, Germany | .28 | .08 | 1.19 | 3.030 + Voit, Germany | .26 | .12 | 1.10 | 3.055 + Atwater, United States | .28 | 17.33 | 88.1.21 | 3.500 + ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------ + + +Quality of Food. + +It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard +to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter, +etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. _Poor +cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment._ No doubt a well +broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of +the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in +nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the +cheaper pieces of beef equally palatable. That expensive food is not +necessary to maintain life has been clearly demonstrated by the +traditional diet of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and herring; +the Irish, potatoes and buttermilk; New England, codfish and potatoes, +and pork and beans; the Chinese, rice, etc. Monotony of diet, however, +is not recommended, for reasons given in a previous chapter, and in +the countries where a special diet prevails owing to the climate, +nature of soil and markets, the results have not warranted us in +believing that it is as good as a mixed diet. From this necessarily +brief outline of the food question we have learned (1) that a +knowledge of the requirements of the body are absolutely necessary in +regulating a proper diet; (2) to furnish the food principles in a +cheap rather than a dear form; (3) to understand the art of cookery so +as to secure the full nutritive value and at the same time stimulate +the appetite; (4) the value of economy in regard to food principles. +When the housekeeper has acquired this knowledge she will have covered +the field of food economy. Prof. Atwater says: "When we know what are +the kinds and amount of nutritive substances our bodies need and our +food materials contain, then and not till then shall we be able to +adjust our diet to the demands of health and purse." + + +Cooking of Food. + +It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities +will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the +customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of +civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the +definition of the term as it concerns ourselves. + +Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for +the conversion of food material." + +As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to +render it more palatable, more digestible, and with the greatest +economy of time, fuel and money, is an object deserving the most +careful attention. The art of cooking lies in the power to develop +certain flavors which are agreeable to the palate, or in other words, +which "make the mouth water," without interfering with the nutritive +qualities of the food prepared, to understand by what method certain +foods may be rendered more digestible, and to provide variety. +Monotony of diet and of flavor lessens the appetite and fails to +stimulate the digestive organs. + +The chemical changes, produced by cooking food properly, aid +digestion, beside destroying any germs which may be contained in the +food. Nearly all foods--except fruit--require cooking. The +digestibility of starch depends almost entirely upon the manner in +which it is cooked, especially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are +sure to follow the use of improperly cooked grains or starches. (See +Chap. VII.) + + +Methods. + +The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1) +boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6) +braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming. + +BOILING. + +Water boils at a temperature of 212 deg. F. Simmering should be at a +temperature of from 175 deg. F. to 180 deg. F. When water has reached the +boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted +into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has +already reached the boiling point. + +STEWING. + +Stewing allows the juices of the meat to become dissolved in water +heated to the simmering point. The juices thus dissolved are eaten +with the meat. If not injured by the addition of rich sauces or fats, +this is usually a very digestible method of preparing certain kinds of +meat. + +BROILING. + +Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coals. A coating of +coagulated albumen is formed upon the outer surface. This coating +prevents the evaporation of the juices, which with the extractive +materials are retained and improve the flavor. Meat cooked in this way +has a decided advantage, in both flavor and nutritive value, over that +which has been boiled or stewed. There are, however, only certain +kinds of meat that are suitable for broiling. + +FRYING. + +Frying is cooking in hot fat. The boiling point of fat is far above +that of water. Fat should not be heated above 400 deg. F., as it will then +turn dark and emit a disagreeable odor. Fried food, unless very +carefully prepared, is considered unwholesome. The only proper method +for frying is to immerse the food completely in a bath of hot fat. + +BRAISING. + +Braising is cooking meat in a covered vessel surrounded by a solution +of vegetable and animal juices in a strong but not boiling +temperature. Tough meat may be rendered very palatable and nutritious +by cooking in this way. The cover of the pan or kettle must fit +closely enough to prevent evaporation. It requires long, steady +cooking. The flavor is improved by browning the meat in either hot +fat or in a very hot oven before braising. + +BAKING. + +Baking is cooking in confined heat. Meat properly cooked in an oven is +considered by many authorities as quite equal in delicacy of flavor to +that roasted before a fire, and is equally digestible. + +STEAMING. + +Steaming is cooking food over condensed steam, and is an excellent +method for preparing food which requires long, slow cooking. Puddings, +cereals, and other glutinous mixtures are often cooked in this way. It +is an economical method, and has the advantage of developing flavor +without loss of substance. + + +Food Preservation. + +Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking, +(3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7) +addition of antiseptic and preservative substances. + +DRYING. + +Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by +housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by +drying, the latter with the addition of salt. + +SMOKING. + +Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish, +which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a +long time until they absorb a certain percentage of antiseptic +material, which prevents the fat from becoming rancid, and the albumen +from putrefying. Well smoked bacon cut thin and properly cooked is a +digestible form of fatty food, especially for tubercular patients. +Smoking improves the digestibility of ham. + +SALTING. + +Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. The addition +of a little saltpetre helps to preserve the color of the meat. Brine +is frequently used to temporarily preserve meat and other substances. +Corned beef is a popular form of salt preservation. All salted meats +require long, slow cooking. They should always be placed in cold water +and heated gradually in order to extract the salt. Salt meats are less +digestible and not quite so nutritious as fresh meats. + +FREEZING. + +Food may be kept in a frozen condition almost indefinitely, but will +decompose very quickly when thawed, hence the necessity for cooking +immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of its nutritive value in +cooking. + +REFRIGERATING. + +This process does not involve actual freezing, but implies +preservation in chambers at a temperature maintained a few degrees +above freezing point. This method does not affect the flavor or +nutritive value of food so much as freezing. + +SEALING. + +Sealing is accomplished not only in the process of canning but by +covering with substances which are impermeable. Beef has been +preserved for considerable time by immersing in hot fat in which it +was allowed to remain after cooling. + +CHEMICALS. + +Chemicals are sometimes used in the preservation of food, but the +other methods are safer. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter. + + +Animal foods contain nutritive matter in a concentrated form, and +being chemically similar to the composition of the body is doubtless +the reason why they assimilate more readily than vegetable foods, +although the latter are richer in mineral matter. The most valuable +animal foods in common use are meat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin and +fats. + +MEAT. + +Meat is composed of muscular tissue, connective tissue or gristle, +fatty tissue, blood-vessels, nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as +food is due chiefly to the nitrogenous compound it contains, the most +valuable being the albuminoids: the gelatinoid of meat is easily +changed into gelatin by the action of hot water. Gelatin when combined +with the albuminoids and extractives has considerable nutritive value. +Extractives are meat bases, or rather meat which has been dissolved by +water, such as soup stock and beef tea. The object in cooking meat is +to soften and loosen the tissue, which renders it more easily +digested. Another object is to sterilize or kill any germs which may +exist and to make it more palatable. The digestibility of meat is +influenced by the age of the animal killed and the feeding. The +following table is given as an average of the digestibility of animal +foods:-- + + +TABLE OF COMPARATIVE DIGESTIBILITY. + +_Commencing with the most digestible and ending with the least +digestible of meats and other animal foods._ (Thompson.) + + Oysters. + Soft cooked eggs. + Sweetbread. + Whitefish, etc. + Chicken, boiled or broiled. + Lean roast beef or beefsteak. + Eggs, scrambled, omelette. + Mutton. + Bacon. + Roast fowl, chicken, turkey, etc. + Tripe, brains, liver. + Roast lamb. + Chops, mutton or lamb. + Corn beef. + Veal. + Duck and other game. + Salmon, mackerel, herring. + Roast goose. + Lobster and crabs. + Pork. + Fish, smoked, dried, pickled. + +Cooking affects the digestibility of meat, which is evident from the +figures given in the following table (Church):-- + + +TIME OF DIGESTION. + + --------------------+---------------- + | Hours. + --------------------+---------------- + Beef, raw | 2 + Beef, half boiled | 2-1/2 + Beef, well boiled | 2-3/4 to 3 + Beef, half roasted | 2-3/4 to 3 + Beef, well roasted | 2-1/4 to 4 + Mutton, raw | 2 + Mutton, boiled | 3 + Mutton, roasted | 3-1/4 + Veal, raw | 2-1/2 + Pork, raw | 3 + Pork, roasted | 5-1/4 + Fowl, boiled | 4 + Turkey, boiled | 2-1/2 + Venison, broiled | 1-1/2 + --------------------+---------------- + +It may be well to add here that animal food is more digestible when +cooked between 160 deg. and 180 deg. F. than at a higher temperature. + + +Cooking of Meat. + +_(For more general information, see Recipes.)_ + +In boiling meat two principles must be considered, the softening of +the fibre and preserving of the juices. If the meat alone is to be +used it should be placed in sufficient boiling water to completely +cover, and kept at boiling point (212 deg. F.) for at least ten minutes, +so as to harden the albumen and prevent the escape of the juices. The +temperature should then be allowed to fall to simmering point (175 deg. +F.). If the water is kept boiling it will render the meat tough and +dry. If the juice is to be extracted and the broth used, the meat +should be placed in cold water; if bones are added they should be cut +or broken into small pieces in order that the gelatin may be +dissolved. If the water is heated gradually the soluble materials are +more easily dissolved. The albumen will rise as a scum to the top, but +should not be skimmed off, as it contains the most nutriment and will +settle to the bottom as sediment. + +STEWING. + +If both meat and broth are to be used the process of cooking should be +quite different. In stewing, the meat should be cut into small pieces, +put into cold water in order that the juices, flavoring material and +fibre may be dissolved. The temperature should be gradually raised to +simmering point and remain at that heat for at least three or four +hours, the vessel being kept closely covered. Cooked in this way the +broth will be rich, and the meat tender and juicy. Any suitable +flavoring may be added. This is a good method for cooking meat +containing gristle. + +ROASTING AND BROILING. + +When the meat alone is to be eaten, either roasting, broiling or +frying in deep fat is a more economical method, as the juices are +saved. The shrinkage in a roast of meat during cooking is chiefly due +to a loss of water. A small roast will require a hotter fire than a +larger one, in order to harden the exterior and prevent the juices +from escaping. Meat is a poor conductor of heat, consequently a large +roast exposed to this intense heat would become burned before the +interior could be heated. The large roast should be exposed to intense +heat for a few minutes, but the temperature should then be reduced, +and long steady cooking allowed. + +Broiling (see broiling in previous chapter, p. 19.) + + +Varieties of Meat. + +BEEF TONGUE. + +Beef tongue is a tender form of meat, but contains too much fat to +agree well with people of delicate digestion. + +VEAL. + +Veal, when obtained from animals killed too young, is apt to be tough, +pale and indigestible, but good veal is considered fairly nutritious. +It contains more gelatin than beef, and in broth is considered +valuable, especially for the sick. + +MUTTON. + +Mutton is considered to be more digestible than beef, that is well fed +mutton from sheep at least three years old; but as it is more +difficult to obtain tender mutton than beef, the latter is more +generally preferred. Mutton broth is wholesome and valuable in +sickness. + +LAMB. + +Lamb, when tender and of the right age, is quite as digestible as beef +or mutton, but the flesh contains too large a proportion of fat. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of cuts of beef.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of cuts of veal.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of cuts of pork.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of cuts of mutton.] + +VENISON. + +Venison is a tender meat with short fibres, which is very digestible +when obtained from young deer, but is considered to be rather too +stimulating. Its chemical composition is similar to lean beef. + +PORK. + +Pork is a tender-fibred meat, but is very indigestible owing to the +high percentage of fat, which is considerably more than the +nitrogenous material it contains. Pork ribs may have as much as 42 per +cent. of fat. + +HAM AND BACON. + +Ham is more digestible when well boiled and eaten cold. Bacon is more +easily digested than either ham or pork; when cut thin and cooked +quickly--until transparent and crisp--it can often be eaten by +dyspeptics, and forms an excellent food for consumptives. + +FOWL. + +Chicken is one of the most digestible of meats, contains considerable +phosphorus and is particularly valuable as food for invalids. Turkey +is somewhat less digestible than chicken. Ducks and geese are +difficult of digestion, unless quite young, on account of the fat they +contain. + +GAME. + +Game, if well cooked, is fairly digestible. + +SWEETBREAD. + +Sweetbread, which is thymus gland of the calf, is a delicate and +agreeable article of diet, particularly for invalids. Tripe, heart, +liver and kidneys are other forms of animal viscera used as +food--valuable chiefly as affording variety. + +FISH. + +The chief difference in fish is the coarseness of fibre and the +quantity of fat present. Fish which are highly flavored and fat, while +they may be nutritious, are much less easy of digestion than +flounder, sole, whitefish, and the lighter varieties. The following +fish contain the largest percentage of albuminoids:--Red snapper, +whitefish, brook trout, salmon, bluefish, shad, eels, mackerel, +halibut, haddock, lake trout, bass, cod and flounder. The old theory +that fish constituted "brain food," on account of the phosphorus it +contained, has proved to be entirely without foundation, as in reality +many fish contain less of this element than meat. The tribes which +live largely on fish are not noted for intellectuality. Fish having +white meat when broiled or boiled--not fried--are excellent food for +invalids or people of weak digestion. Fish should be well cooked. + +OYSTERS. + +Oysters are a nutritious food, and may be eaten either raw or cooked. +Lobsters, crabs and shrimps are called "sea scavengers," and unless +absolutely fresh are not a desirable food. + +MILK. + +Milk contains all the elements which are necessary to maintain life; +and constitutes a complete diet for infants. It will sustain life in +an adult for several months. Although milk furnishes a useful food, it +is not essential to a diet required for active bodily exercise. It is +seldom given to athletes while in active training. Adults who are able +to eat any kind of food are kept in better health by abstaining from +milk, except as used for cooking purposes. An occasional glass of hot +milk taken as a stimulant for tired brain and nerves is sometimes +beneficial. Milk is composed of water, salts, fat, milk sugar or +lactose, albumen and casein. Average milk has from 8 to 10 per cent. +of cream. Good milk should form a layer of cream about 2-1/2 in. thick +as it stands in a quart bottle. Lactose (milk sugar) is an important +ingredient in milk. It is less liable to ferment in the stomach than +cane sugar. In the presence of fermenting nitrogenous material it is +converted into lactic acid, making the milk sour. Casein is present in +milk chiefly in its alkaline form, and in conjunction with calcium +phosphate. Milk absorbs germs from the air and from unclean vessels +very readily. Good, clean, uncontaminated milk ought to keep fresh, +exposed in a clean room at a temperature of 68 deg. F., for 48 hours +without souring. If the milk is tainted in any way it will sour in a +few hours. Boiled milk will keep fresh half as long again as fresh +milk. Milk absorbs odors very quickly, therefore should never be left +in a refrigerator with stale cheese, ham, vegetables, etc., unless in +an air-tight jar. It should never be left exposed in a sick room or +near waste pipes. Absolute cleanliness is necessary for the +preservation of milk; vessels in which it is to be kept must be +thoroughly scalded with boiling water, not merely washed out with warm +water. + + +_Methods of Preserving Milk._ + +STERILIZED MILK. + +Milk to be thoroughly sterilized and germ free must be heated to the +boiling point (212 deg. F.). This may be done by putting the milk into +perfectly clean bottles and placing in a rack, in a kettle of boiling +water, remaining until it reaches the necessary degree of heat. The +bottle should be closely covered _immediately_ after with absorbent +cotton or cotton batting in order to prevent other germs getting into +the milk. + +PASTEURIZED MILK. + +The difference between pasteurizing and sterilizing is only in the +degree of heat to which the milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the +milk is kept at a temperature of 170 deg. F. from 10 to 20 minutes. This +is considered a better method for treating milk which is to be given +to young children, as it is more easily digested than sterilized milk. +All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in warm weather, +especially for children. + +CHEESE. + +Cheese is one of the most nutritious of foods, and when meat is scarce +makes an excellent substitute, as it contains more protein than meat. +Cheese is the separated casein of milk, which includes some of the +fats and salts. + +EGGS. + +Eggs contain all the ingredients necessary to support life. Out of an +egg the entire structure of the bird--bones, nerves, muscles, viscera, +and feathers--is developed. The inner portion of the shell is +dissolved to furnish phosphate for the bones. The composition of a +hen's egg is about as follows (Church):-- + + ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------ + | White--In || | Yolk--In + | 100 parts. || | 100 parts. + ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------ + Water | 84.8 || Water | 51.5 + Albumen | 12.0 || Casein and albumen | 15.0 + Fat, sugar, | || Oil and fat | 30.0 + extractives, etc. | 2.0 || Pigment | + Mineral matter | 1.2 || extractives, etc. | 2.1 + | || Mineral matter | 1.4 + ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------ + +The albumen--or the "white"--of an egg is greatly altered by cooking. +When heated beyond boiling point it becomes a very indigestible +substance. Eggs cooked at a temperature of about 170 deg. F., leaving the +whites soft, are easily digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in +1-1/2 hour, while a baked egg requires from 2 to 3 hours. Eggs _baked_ +in puddings, or in any other manner, form one of the most insoluble +varieties of albumen. + +GELATIN. + +Gelatin is obtained from bones, ligaments, and other connective +tissues. In combinations with other foods it has considerable +nutritive value. The place given to it by scientists is to save the +albumen of the body; as it does not help to form tissue or repair +waste it cannot replace albumen entirely. Gelatin will not sustain +life, but when used in the form of soup stock, etc., is considered +valuable as a stimulant. + + * * * * * + +LEGUMES--PEAS, BEANS AND LENTILS. + +These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being +inferior in quality to that contained in meat, they can scarcely be +given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an +intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the +standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value, +especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.) + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +Fats and Oils. + + +Fats and oils contain three elements--carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. +About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results +from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed. + +USES OF FAT. + +(1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply +force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to +lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the +tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose, +and come before the carbohydrates in fuel and force value; in +combination with proteids, they form valuable foods for those engaged +in severe muscular exercise, such as army marching, mining +expeditions, etc. + +Fats and oils are but little changed during digestion. The fat is +divided into little globules by the action of the pancreatic juice and +other digestive elements, and is absorbed by the system. Fat forms the +chief material in adipose tissue, a fatty layer lying beneath the +skin, which keeps the warmth in the body, and is re-absorbed into the +blood, keeping up heat and activity, and preserving other tissues +during abstinence from food. Fat sometimes aids the digestion of +starchy foods by preventing them from forming lumpy masses in the +mouth and stomach, hence the value of using butter with bread, +potatoes, etc. The animal fats are more nutritive than the vegetable, +butter and cream heading the list. Cooking fats at a very high +temperature, such as frying, causes a reaction or decomposition, which +irritates the mucous membrane and interferes with digestion. + +The principal animal fats are butter, cream, lard, suet, the fat of +mutton, pork, bacon, beef, fish and cod liver oil. The vegetable fats +and oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds, olives, and +nuts. The most important fats and oils for household purposes are: + +BUTTER. + +Butter, which contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of water, 11.7 per cent. +fat, 0.5 per cent. casein, 0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The +addition of salt to butter prevents fermentation. Butter will not +support life when taken alone, but with other foods is highly +nutritious and digestible. + +CREAM. + +Cream is one of the most wholesome and agreeable forms of fat. It is +an excellent substitute for cod liver oil in tuberculosis. Ice cream +when eaten slowly is very nutritious. + +LARD. + +Lard is hog fat, separated by melting. + +SUET. + +Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys. + +COTTOLENE. + +Cottolene is a preparation of cotton-seed oil. + +OLEOMARGARINE. + +Oleomargarine is a preparation of beef fat provided as a substitute +for butter. + +OLIVE OIL. + +Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is considered to be very +wholesome; in some cases being preferred to either cod-liver oil or +cream for consumptives. + +COTTON SEED OIL. + +Cotton seed oil is frequently substituted for olive oil. + +NUTS. + +Nuts contain a good deal of oil. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +Carbohydrate Foods. + + +The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as +laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course, +more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many +starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich +in proteids. + +The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):-- + + +PERCENTAGE OF STARCH IN VEGETABLE FOODS. + + -----------------+----------- + | Per Cent. + -----------------+----------- + Wheat bread | 55.5 + Wheat flour | 75.6 + Graham flour | 71.8 + Rye flour | 78.7 + Buckwheat flour | 77.6 + Beans | 57.4 + Oatmeal | 68.1 + Cornmeal | 71.0 + Rice | 79.4 + Potatoes | 21.3 + Sweet Potatoes | 21.1 + Turnips | 6.9 + Carrots | 10.1 + Cabbage | 6.2 + Melons | 2.5 + Apples | 14.3 + Pears | 16.3 + Bananas | 23.3 + -----------------+----------- + +It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat, +oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes. +Vegetable proteids, as already stated, are less easily digested than +those belonging to the animal kingdom, therefore it must be remembered +that a purely vegetable diet, even though it may be so arranged as to +provide the necessary protein, is apt to over-tax the digestive +organs more than a mixed diet from both the animal and vegetable +kingdoms. Much depends upon the cooking of the starchy foods in order +to render them digestible. (Study chapter on Digestion in the Public +School Physiology.) + +STARCH. + +The digestion of starch--which is insoluble in cold water--really +begins with the cooking, which by softening the outer coating or fibre +of the grains, causes them to swell and burst, thereby preparing them +for the chemical change which is caused by the action of the saliva in +converting the starch into a species of sugar before it enters the +stomach. Substances which are insoluble in cold water cannot be +absorbed into the blood, therefore are not of any value as food until +they have become changed, and made soluble, which overtaxes the +digestive organs and causes trouble. The temperature of the saliva is +too low to dissolve the starch fibre unaided. Each of the digestive +juices has its own work to do, and the saliva acts directly upon the +starchy food; hence the importance of thoroughly masticating such food +as bread, potatoes, rice, cereals, etc. The action of heat, in baking, +which causes the vapor to rise, and forms the crust of starchy food, +produces what is called dextrine, or partially digested starch. +Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence the ease with which crust and +toast--when properly made--are digested. It is more important to +thoroughly chew starchy food than meat, as it is mixed with another +digestive juice, which acts upon it in the stomach. + + +Sugars. + +SUGAR. + +There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar, +grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars +have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its +solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in +sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and +nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and +can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular +work. Cane sugar is the clarified and crystallized juice of the sugar +cane. Nearly half the sugar used in the world comes from sugar cane, +the other half from beet roots. The latter is not quite so sweet as +the cane sugar. Sugar is also made from the sap of the maple tree, but +this is considered more of a luxury; consequently, not generally used +for cooking purposes. + +MOLASSES AND TREACLE. + +Molasses and treacle are formed in the process of crystallizing and +refining sugar. Treacle is the waste drained from moulds used in +refining sugar, and usually contains more or less dirt. + +GLUCOSE. + +Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufactured from starch. It is +found in almost all the sweeter varieties of fruit. It is not so +desirable for general use as cane sugar. + +HONEY. + +Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees from the nectar of flowering +plants, and stored by them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13, +fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous matter 1.29, mineral +matter 0.12 per cent. (Konig.) + + +Grains. + +While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more +valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them, +and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They, +however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and +render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place: + +WHEAT. + +A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer +one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the +starch. Some of the mineral matter for which wheat is so valuable is +contained in the bran, hence the value of at least a portion of that +part of the wheat being included in bread flour--not by the addition +of coarse bran (which is indigestible) to the ordinary flour, but by +the refining process employed in producing whole wheat flour. While +wheat is used in other forms, its principal use as food is in the form +of flour. + +The following table, giving the composition of bread from wheat and +maize, will be of interest (Stone):-- + + +COMPOSITION OF BREAD FROM WHEAT AND MAIZE. + + -------------------------+-------------------------------------------- + | In Air-Dry Material. + +------+-----+-----+-------+--------+-------- + | | | | | |Nitrogen + |Water.| Ash.| Fat.| Fibre.|Protein.| free + | | | | | |extract. + -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+-------- + |P.ct. |P.ct.|P.ct.| P.ct. | P.ct. | P.ct. + Bread from whole winter | | | | | | + wheat | 3.07 | 2.33| 1.22| 2.86 | 15.70 | 74.82 + Bread from whole spring | | | | | | + wheat | 7.46 | 1.69| 1.24| 2.80 | 15.26 | 71.55 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | | + winter wheat |10.39 | .59| .32| .44 | 11.94 | 76.32 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | | + spring wheat | 8.00 | .43| .47| .39 | 14.41 | 76.30 + Corn bread from whole | | | | | | + maize | 3.40 | 1.88| 4.14| 2.53 | 12.88 | 75.17 + -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+-------- + + + -------------------------+------------------------------------------ + | In Dry Matter + +------+------+--------+---------+--------- + | | | | | Nitrogen + | Ash. | Fat. | Fibre. | Protein.| free + | | | | | extract. + -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+--------- + |P.ct. |P.ct. | P.ct. | P.ct. | P.ct. + Bread from whole winter | | | | | + wheat | 2.40 | 1.25 | 2.95 | 16.20 | 77.20 + Bread from whole spring | | | | | + wheat | 1.82 | 1.34 | 3.02 | 16.49 | 77.33 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | + winter wheat | .66 | .35 | .49 | 13.33 | 85.17 + Bread from fine flour, | | | | | + spring wheat | .47 | .51 | .42 | 15.66 | 82.94 + Corn bread from whole | | | | | + maize | 1.95 | 4.29 | 2.62 | 13.33 | 77.81 + -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+--------- + + +BREAD. + +The most valuable food product manufactured from flour is bread. + +Bread contains so many of the ingredients required to nourish the +body, viz.: fat, proteid, salts, sugar and starch, that it may well be +termed the "staff of life." As it does not contain enough fat for a +perfect food the addition of butter to it renders it more valuable as +an article of diet. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives the following +explanation of what constitutes ideal bread: "(1) It should retain as +much as possible of the nutritive principles of the grain from which +it is made; (2) it should be prepared in such a manner as to secure +the complete assimilation of these nutritive principles; (3) it should +be light and porous, so as to allow the digestive juices to penetrate +it quickly and thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free from +coarse bran, which causes too rapid muscular action to allow of +complete digestion. This effect is also produced when the bread is +sour." Bread is made from a combination of flour, liquid (either milk +or water), and a vegetable ferment called yeast (see yeast recipes). +The yeast acts slowly or rapidly according to the temperature to which +it is exposed. The starch has to be changed by the ferment called +diastase (diastase is a vegetable ferment which converts starchy foods +into a soluble material called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into +alcohol and carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), when it makes itself +known by the bubbles which appear and the gradual swelling of the +whole mass. It is the effect of the carbonic acid gas upon the gluten, +which, when checked at the proper time before the ferment becomes +acetic (sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome bread which is +the pride of all good housekeepers. The kneading of bread is to break +up the gas bubbles into small portions in order that there may be no +large holes and the fermentation be equal throughout. The loaf is +baked in order to kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, to +expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the alcohol, to stiffen the +gluten and to form a crust which shall have a pleasant flavor. Much of +the indigestibility of bread is owing to the imperfect baking; unless +the interior of the loaf has reached the sterilizing point, 212 deg. F., +the bacteria contained in the yeast will not be killed, and some of +the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf. The scientific method +of baking bread is to fix the air cells as quickly as possible at +first. This can be done better by baking the bread in small loaves in +separate pans, thereby securing a uniform heat and more crust, which +is considered to be the most easily digested part of the bread. Some +cooks consider that long, slow baking produces a more desirable flavor +and renders bread more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour will +make an average of one hundred and thirty-five pounds of bread. This +increase of weight is due to the addition of water. + +MACARONI. + +Macaroni is a flour preparation of great food value. It contains about +six per cent. more gluten than bread, and is regarded by Sir Henry +Thompson as equal to meat for flesh-forming purposes. Dieticians say +that macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli are not used so extensively as +their value deserves. + +BUCKWHEAT. + +Buckwheat is the least important of the cereals. + +RYE. + +Rye is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. Its treatment in +regard to bread making is similar to that of wheat. + +CORN. + +Corn contains fat, proteid and starch, and produces heat and energy. +It is very fattening, and when eaten as a vegetable is considered +difficult of digestion. Cornmeal is a wholesome food; it contains more +fat than wheat flour, and less mineral matter. + +RICE. + +Rice constitutes a staple food of a great many of the world's +inhabitants. It contains more starch than any other cereal, but when +properly cooked is very easily digested. It should be combined with +some animal food, as it contains too little nitrogen to satisfy the +demands of the system. It forms a wholesome combination with fruit, +such as apples, peaches, prunes, berries, etc. + +BARLEY. + +Barley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. It contains more +fat, mineral matter and cellulose (cellulose is often called +indigestible fibre, as it resists the solvent action of the digestive +juices, and is of no value as a nutrient), and less proteid and +digestible carbohydrates. + +OATMEAL. + +Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods. Oats contain fat, proteid, +salts and cellulose, in addition to a large percentage of starch. The +nutritive value of oatmeal is great, but much depends upon the manner +of cooking. (See recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should lead a +vigorous outdoor life. The following analysis of oatmeal is given +(Letheby):-- + + Nitrogenous matter 12.6 per cent. + Carbohydrates, starch, etc. 63.8 " + Fatty matter 5.6 " + Mineral matter 3.0 " + Water 15.0 " + ---- + Total 100.0 + + +Vegetables. + +Legumes--peas, beans and lentils--have an exceedingly leathery +envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water--in +order to soften the woody fibre--and are then cooked slowly for some +hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very +nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which +form they are used in soups. + +POTATOES. + +Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet +they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourths water. +They contain some mineral matter, hence the reason why they are better +boiled and baked in their skins, so as to prevent the escape of the +salts into the water. Potatoes are more easily digested when baked +than cooked in any other form. + +BEETS. + +Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of starch and sugar, some +salts, and a little over one per cent. of proteid matter. Young beets, +either in the form of a vegetable or a salad, are considered to be +very wholesome. + +CARROTS, TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, OYSTER PLANT. + +Carrots, turnips, parsnips and oyster plant, although containing a +large percentage of water, are considered valuable as nutrients, the +turnip being the least nutritious. + +GREEN VEGETABLES. + +Green vegetables do not contain much nutriment, and are chiefly +valuable as affording a pleasing variety in diet; also for supplying +mineral matter and some acids. In this class we may include cabbage, +cauliflower, spinach, lettuce and celery. + +TOMATOES. + +Tomatoes are wholesome vegetables; on account of the oxalic acid they +contain they do not always agree with people of delicate digestion. + +CUCUMBERS. + +Cucumbers are neither wholesome nor digestible. + +ASPARAGUS. + +Asparagus is a much prized vegetable. The substance called asparagin +which it contains is supposed to possess some value. + +RHUBARB. + +Rhubarb is a wholesome vegetable. + +ONIONS, GARLIC, SHALLOTS. + +Onions, garlic, and shallots are valuable both as condiments and eaten +separately. They contain more nutrients than the last vegetables +considered. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +Fruits. + + +Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable +jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids +in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in +lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in +apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the +least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries +are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid +of all. + + +Uses of Fruit. + +(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and +relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and +acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics; +(5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite, +improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and +oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and +magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is +highly beneficial, and should be used freely in season. Cooked fruit +is more easily digested than raw, and when over-ripe should always be +cooked in order to prevent fruit poisoning. + +NUTS. + +Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and sugar, but are not +considered valuable as nutrients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English +walnuts are the most nutritious. + + +Beverages. + +TEA. + +Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is +also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a +preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The +difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of +preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains +more tannin than black. The following table will show the +difference:-- + + =======================+===================+=================== + | GREEN TEA. | BLACK TEA. + -----------------------+-------------------+------------------- + Crude protein | 37.43 | 38.90 + Fibre | 10.06 | 10.07 + Ash (mineral matter) | 4.92 | 4.93 + Theine | 3.20 | 3.30 + Tannin | 10.64 | 4.89 + Total nitrogen | 5.99 | 6.22 + -----------------------+-------------------+------------------- + +The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color +and flavor, depend upon the season of the year at which the leaves are +gathered, the variety of the plant, the age of the leaves, which +become tough as they grow older, and the care exercised in their +preparation. Much depends upon the manner in which tea is infused. (1) +Use freshly boiled water; (2) allow it to infuse only three or four +minutes, in order to avoid extracting the tannin. When carefully +prepared as above, tea is not considered unwholesome for people in +good health. + +COFFEE. + +Coffee is made from the berries of coffee-arabica, which are dried, +roasted and browned. The following table gives an approximate idea of +the composition of coffee beans (Konig):-- + + Water 1.15 + Fat 14.48 + Crude fibre 19.89 + Ash (mineral matter) 4.75 + Caffeine 1.24 + Albuminoids 13.98 + Other nitrogenous matter 45.09 + Sugar, gum and dextrin 1.66 + +Coffee is frequently adulterated with chicory, which is harmless. +Coffee should not be allowed to boil long or stand in the coffee pot +over a fire, as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more +indigestible. Much controversy has been indulged in over the effect of +coffee upon the system, but like many other similar questions it has +not reached a practical solution. The general opinion seems to be that +when properly made and used in moderation it is a valuable stimulant +and not harmful to adults. + +COCOA. + +Cocoa and chocolate contain more food substances than tea or coffee, +although their use in this respect is not of much value. The following +table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):-- + + Theobromine 1.73 + Total nitrogenous substance 19.28 + Fat 30.51 + Water 3.83 + Ash (mineral matter) 8.30 + Fibre and non-nitrogenous extract 37.48 + +ALCOHOL. + +The use of alcohol is wholly unnecessary for the health of the human +organism. (See Public School Physiology and Temperance.) + + +Condiments. + +Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little +nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very +injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve +monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry, +pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is +the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on +mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more +palatable without being injured is one of the fine arts in cookery. +Some flavors, such as lemon juice, vinegar, etc., increase the solvent +properties of the gastric juice, making certain foods more +digestible. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +Preparing Food. + + +The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of +little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge +of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in +whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first +requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of +fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal, +kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for +kindling and for a quick fire. Hard woods, oak, ash, etc., burn more +slowly, retain the heat longer, and are better adapted for cooking +purposes. + +COAL. + +Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon. It kindles slowly, +gives a steady heat, and burns for a longer time without attention +than wood. Stoves for burning oil and gas have become popular, and are +very convenient and satisfactory for cooking purposes. + +OIL. + +Oil is considered to be the cheapest fuel. + +GAS. + +Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking purposes, but can only be +used in certain localities. + + +Making and Care of a Fire. + +CARE OF A FIRE. + +Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range. +The plainer the range the easier it will be to keep it clean. There +should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to +check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before +beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the +soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate +(saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper, +then kindling arranged crosswise, allowing plenty of air space between +the pieces, a little hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on the +covers, open the direct draft and oven damper, then light the paper. +When the wood is thoroughly kindled and the first layer of coal +heated, fill the fire-box with coal even with the top of the oven. +When the blue flame becomes white, close the oven damper, and when the +coal is burning freely, shut the direct draft. When coal becomes +bright red all through it has lost most of its heat. A great deal of +coal is wasted by filling the fire-box too full and leaving the drafts +open till the coal is red. To keep a steady fire it is better to add a +little coal often rather than to add a large quantity and allow it to +burn out. Never allow dust or cinders to accumulate around a range, +either inside or out. Learn to open and shut the oven door quietly and +quickly. Study the amount of fire required to heat the oven to the +desired temperature. Learn which is the hotter or cooler side of the +oven, and move the article which is being baked as required, being +very careful to move it gently. + +Measurements. + +Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As +there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping +spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level +spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and +the cup is one holding 1/2 pint. + +The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:-- + + 4 cups of flour = 1 pound or 1 quart. + 2 cups of solid butter = 1 " + 1/2 cup butter = 1/4 " + 2 cups granulated sugar = 1 " + 2-1/2 cups powdered sugar = 1 " + 3 cups meal = 1 " + 1 pint of milk or water = 1 " + 1 pint chopped meat, packed solidly = 1 " + 9 large eggs, 10 medium eggs = 1 " + 2 level tablespoonfuls butter = 1 ounce. + 4 " " " = 2 ounces or 1/4 cup. + Butter the size of an egg = 2 " " " + 2 level tablespoonfuls sugar = 1 " + 4 " " flour = 1 " + 4 " " coffee = 1 " + 4 " " powdered sugar = 1 " + + +Table of Abbreviations. + + Saltspoon ssp. + Tablespoon tbsp. + Pint pt. + Gallon gal. + Teaspoon tsp. + Cupful cf. + Quart qt. + Peck pk. + +A speck (spk.) is what you can put on a quarter inch square surface. + + +Time-table for Cooking. + +BAKING BREAD, CAKES AND PUDDINGS. + + Loaf bread 40 to 60 m. + Graham gems 25 to 30 m. + Sponge cake 45 to 60 m. + Cookies 10 to 15 m. + Rice and tapioca 1 hr. + Custards 15 to 20 m. + Pastry (thin puff) 10 to 15 m. + Pie crust 25 to 30 m. + Baked beans 6 to 8 hrs. + Scalloped dishes 15 to 20 m. + Rolls, biscuit 10 to 20 m. + Gingerbread 25 to 30 m. + Fruit cake 2 to 3 hrs. + Bread pudding 1 hr. + Indian pudding 2 to 3 hrs. + Steamed pudding 1 to 3 hrs. + Pastry (thick) 30 to 50 m. + Potatoes 30 to 45 m. + Braised meat 3 to 4 hrs. + + +BAKING MEATS. + + Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb. 8 to 10 m. + Beef, well done, per lb. 12 to 15 m. + Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb. 12 to 15 m. + Beef, fillet, per lb. 20 to 30 m. + Mutton, rare, per lb. 10 m. + Mutton, well done, per lb. 15 m. + Lamb, well done, per lb. 15 m. + Veal, well done, per lb. 20 m. + Pork, well done, per lb. 30 m. + Turkey, 10 lbs. weight 2-1/2 hrs. + Chicken, 3 to 4 lbs. weight 1 to 1-1/2 hr. + Goose, 8 lbs. 2 hrs. + Tame duck 1 to 1-1/2 hr. + Game 40 to 60 m. + Grouse 30 to 40 m. + Small birds 20 to 25 m. + Venison, per lb. 15 m. + Fish, 6 to 8 lbs. 1 hr. + Fish, small 30 to 40 m. + + +VEGETABLES (BOILING). + + Rice, green corn, peas, tomatoes, asparagus + (hard boiled eggs) 20 to 25 m. + Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach 25 to 30 m. + Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips, + cauliflower 30 to 45 m. + Young cabbage, string beans, shell beans, oyster plant 45 to 60 m. + Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy and wheat 1 to 2 hrs. + + +FRYING (DEEP). + + Smelts, croquettes, fish balls 1 to 2 m. + Muffins, fritters, doughnuts 4 to 6 m. + Fish, breaded chops 5 to 7 m. + + +BROILING. + + Steak, 1 inch thick 6 to 8 m. + Steak, 1-1/2 inch thick 8 to 10 m. + Fish, small 6 to 8 m. + Fish, thick 12 to 15 m. + Chops 8 to 10 m. + Chicken 20 m. + + +Table of Proportions. + + 1 qt. of liquid to 3 qts. of flour for bread. + 1 qt. of liquid to 2 qts. of flour for muffins. + 1 qt. of liquid to 1 qt. of flour for batters. + 1 cup of yeast (1 yeast cake) to 1 qt. of liquid. + 1 tsp. of soda (level), 3 of cream tartar to 1 qt. of flour. + 1 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of sour milk. + 1 tsp. of soda to 1 cup of molasses. + 4 tsps. of baking powder to 1 qt. of flour. + 1 tsp. of salt to 1 qt. of soup stock. + 1 ssp. of salt to 1 loaf of cake. + 1 tbsp. of each vegetable, chopped, to 1 qt. of stock. + 1-1/2 tbsp. of flour to 1 qt. of stock for thickening soup. + 1 tbsp. of flour to 1 pt. of stock for sauces. + 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pt. of stock for sauces. + 4 tbsps. (level) cornstarch to 1 pt. of milk (to mould). + 1 tsp. of salt to 2 qts. of flour for biscuits, etc. + + +Methods for Flour Mixtures. + +STIRRING. + +Stirring is simply blending two or more materials by moving the spoon +round and round until smooth and of the proper consistency. + +BEATING. + +Beating is bringing the spoon up through the mixture with a quick +movement so as to entangle as much air as possible. + +CUTTING OR FOLDING. + +Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white of egg to a mixture +without breaking the air bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture +over and over as in folding. Do not stir or beat. + + * * * * * + + +RECIPES. + + * * * * * + + +BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD. + + +POPOVERS. + + 2 cups of flour. + 3 eggs. + 2 cups of milk. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Beat the eggs (without separating) until very light, then add the milk +and salt; pour this mixture on the flour (slowly), beating all the +while. Beat until smooth and light, about five minutes. Grease gem +pans or small cups, and bake in a moderately hot oven about +thirty-five minutes. They should increase to four times their original +size. (This recipe may be divided for class work.) + + +PANCAKES. + + 1 pint of flour. + 1 tbsp. of melted butter. + 1 pint of milk. + 2 eggs. + 2 tsps. baking powder. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately; add the yolks to the +milk, then the melted butter; salt. Sift the baking powder and flour +together, add slowly to the liquid, stir until smooth. Lastly, add the +whites of the eggs. These may be cooked in waffle irons or on a +griddle. + + +PANCAKES WITH BUTTERMILK. + + 1 pint of buttermilk. + Flour to make a medium batter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + +Crush the soda, add it and the salt to the buttermilk, add the flour +gradually, beat until the batter is smooth, and bake on a hot griddle. +An egg may be added. + + +CORNMEAL GRIDDLE CAKES. + + 1 pint of Indian meal. + 1 cup of flour. + 1 tsp. salt. + 3 eggs. + 4 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 1 pint of milk. + +Put the meal into a bowl, and pour over it just enough boiling water +to scald it; do not make it soft; let stand until cool. Then add the +milk; beat the eggs until very light, add them to the batter, add the +flour and salt in which the baking powder has been sifted. Mix well, +beat vigorously for a minute or two, and bake on a hot griddle. + + +BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 1/2 tsp. of salt. + 1/2 tsp. of soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar. + 3 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 1/2 pt. stale bread crumbs. + 2 eggs. + Flour to make a thin batter. + +Soak the bread in the milk for one hour, then beat it smooth. Beat the +eggs separately till very light, add first the yolks, then the flour +and salt and baking powder. Beat again, add the whites, and bake +quickly on a hot griddle. + + +BUCKWHEAT CAKES. + + 1 pt. boiling water. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 cup white flour. + 1 ssp. soda. + 1/2 cup corn or Graham meal. + 1/4 yeast cake. + 1 cup buckwheat flour. + +Pour the boiling water on the corn or Graham meal, add the salt, and +when lukewarm add the flour, beat until smooth, then add the yeast. +Let it rise over night. In the morning add the soda just before baking +(milk may be used instead of water). A tablespoonful of molasses is +sometimes added in order to make the cakes a darker brown. + + +FRITTERS. + +Beat two eggs together until light, add to them 1 cup of milk, 1/2 +tsp. salt and sufficient flour to make a batter that will drop from +the spoon. Beat until smooth. Have ready a deep pan of hot fat; add 3 +(l.) tsps. of baking powder to the batter, mix thoroughly and drop by +spoonfuls into the hot fat. When brown on one side turn and brown on +the other; take out with a skimmer and serve very hot. Do not pierce +with a fork as it allows the steam to escape and makes the fritter +heavy. + + +GEMS--WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM GEMS. + + 2 cups of whole wheat flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 2 eggs, beaten separately. + 1 cup milk. + 1 cup water. + +Mix flour, salt and sugar. Beat the eggs until light, add the milk and +water, stir this into the dry mixture. Bake in hot gem pans for 30 +minutes. + + +CORN MUFFINS. + + 1 cup cornmeal. + 1 cup flour. + 1-1/4 cups milk. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 2-1/2 tsps. baking powder. + 1 egg. + +Mix all the dry ingredients together. Melt the butter in a hot cup. +Beat the egg till light. Add the milk to it and turn this mixture into +the bowl containing the dry ingredients. Add the melted butter and +beat vigorously and quickly. Pour into buttered muffin or gem pans, +and bake for one-half hour in a moderate oven. + + +QUICK MUFFINS OR GEMS. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 1 oz. butter. + 3 cups of flour. + 4 tsps. baking powder. + 1 tsp. salt. + 3 eggs. + +Beat the eggs separately till light, add the yolks to the milk, then +the flour, which must be more or less, according to the quality. The +batter must be thin and pour from the spoon. Now add the melted butter +and salt; give the whole a vigorous beating. Now add the baking powder +and the well beaten whites, stir till thoroughly mixed. Bake in muffin +rings in a quick oven or on the griddle. + + +TEA BISCUIT. + + 1 pt. of flour. + 1 cup milk. + 2-1/2 tsps. baking powder. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. lard or butter. + 1/2 tsp. sugar. + +Mix thoroughly in a sieve the flour, sugar, salt and baking powder, +and rub through the sieve. Rub the butter or lard into this mixture. +Now add the milk, stirring quickly with a strong spoon. Sprinkle the +board with flour, turn out the dough upon it. Roll to the thickness of +about 1/2 inch, cut with a small cutter. Bake in a quick oven. Do not +crowd the biscuit in the pan. They should bake from 10 to 15 minutes. +(All biscuit doughs should be mixed as soft as it is possible to +handle. Sour milk may be used in this recipe by substituting soda for +the baking powder.) + + +HOT CORN BREAD. + + 1 qt. of cornmeal. + 1 tsp. of salt. + 1 pt. sour milk or buttermilk. + 1 oz. of butter. + 2 eggs. + 1 tsp. of soda. + +Put the cornmeal in a large bowl and pour over it just enough boiling +water to scald it through. Let it stand until cold, then add the eggs +well beaten, the milk or buttermilk, salt, and butter (melted); beat +thoroughly. Dissolve the soda in two tbsps. of boiling water, stir +into the mixture, turn quickly into a greased square, shallow pan, +put into a hot oven and bake 40 minutes. + + +SHORTCAKES. + +(_Suitable for strawberries or any sweetened fruit._) + + 1 pint flour. + 1 cup sweet or sour milk. + 1/4 cup butter. + 2-1/2 tsps. baking powder, or 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Mix the salt, soda, cream tartar or baking powder with the flour, +sift; rub in the butter until fine like meal. Add the liquid +gradually, mixing with a knife, and use just enough to make it of a +light spongy consistency. Turn the dough out on a well floured board, +pat lightly into a flat cake and roll gently till half inch thick. +Bake either in a spider or pie plate in the oven; split, butter, and +spread with the fruit. + + +DOUGHNUTS. + + 1 egg + 1 tbsp. melted butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. cream tartar. + Flour enough to make into a soft dough. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 cup milk. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + 1 ssp. cinnamon. + +Mix all the dry ingredients, beat the egg until light, add to this the +milk, sugar and melted butter. Pour into the flour, mixing carefully +into a soft dough. Have the board well floured. Roll only a large +spoonful at a time. Cut into the desired shape and drop into hot fat. +The fat should be hot enough for the dough to rise to the top +instantly. + + * * * * * + + +BREAD. + +As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it +naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject +upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A +knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII) +must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained. +The first element to consider is the _yeast_, and the generating of +carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous. + +Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth produced from grain which has +commenced to bud or sprout, and which forms the substance called +diastase. This substance has the power to convert starch into sugar. +(See Chap. VII for effect of yeast upon flour.) + +The temperature at which fermentation takes place, and when to check +it, are important features of bread-making. + +The liquid (milk or water) should be tepid when mixed, as too great +heat destroys the growth of the yeast. The dough should rise in a +temperature of 75 deg.. After fermentation has become active the +temperature may be gradually lowered--as in setting bread over +night--without injury. + +Avoid a cold draft or sudden change of temperature, as it checks +fermentation and affects the flavor. + +Never allow bread to rise until it "settles," or runs over the side of +the bowl. The usual rule is to let it rise until it is double in bulk, +both in the bowl and after it is put into the pans. If it is not +convenient to bake the bread when ready, it may be kneaded again and +kept in a cool place, to prevent souring. Bread should be mixed in a +stone or granite bowl. + +The only necessary ingredients for bread are water, flour, salt, and +yeast. Sugar may be added to restore the natural sweetness of the +flour which has been lost during fermentation, but it is not +necessary. If milk is used, and the bread well kneaded, no other +shortening is required; but with water, the addition of a little +butter or dripping makes the bread more tender, therefore it is more +easily penetrated by the digestive fluids. Tough, leathery bread is +not easily digested, no matter how light it may be. As already stated, +by the action of heat the ferment is killed, the starch-grains +ruptured, the gas carried off, and the crust formed. In order that +bread may be thoroughly cooked, and plenty of crust formed, each loaf +should be baked in a pan about 4 inches deep, 4 to 6 inches wide, and +from 8 to 12 inches long. Smaller loaves are even more desirable. It +is very difficult to bake a large loaf so as to insure the escape of +all the carbonic acid gas, and to cook the starch sufficiently without +injuring the crust, besides entailing an unnecessary waste of fuel. +The custom of baking several loaves together in one large pan is +contrary to all scientific rules of bread-making. The oven should be +hot enough to brown a spoonful of flour in five minutes, for bread. +The dough should rise during the first fifteen minutes, then begin to +brown; keep the heat steady for the next fifteen or twenty minutes, +then decrease it. If the oven is too hot a hard crust will form and +prevent the dough from rising, which will not only cause the bread to +be heavy, but will prevent the gas from escaping. If, on the other +hand, the oven is not hot enough, the bread will go on rising until +it becomes sour. A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from +fifty-five to sixty minutes to bake, and should give a hollow sound, +if tapped, when removed from the oven. Better take too long than not +long enough, as doughy bread is most objectionable and unwholesome. If +the crust is beginning to burn, cover the loaf with brown paper, and +reduce the heat, but have a brown crust, not a whity-brown, which is +usually hard and without flavor. Upon removing the loaves from the +pans, place them on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never +leave warm bread on a pine table, or where it will absorb odors. + + +BREAD MADE WITH WATER. + + 2 quarts flour. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 1 pint lukewarm water. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. butter, dripping or lard. + 1/2 cake compressed yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup water. + +(This recipe is for Manitoba flour. A little more fine flour would be +necessary.) + +Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a large bowl, pour +on the warm water, stir until they are dissolved. Add the flour +gradually until it forms a thin batter, then add the yeast; beat +vigorously for at least five minutes. Add more flour until the dough +is stiff enough to knead. Turn out on the board and knead for half +hour. Cover and let rise until double its bulk. Form into separate +loaves, put into the pans, cover, and let rise again till double its +bulk. Bake in a hot oven about an hour. (Milk or half milk may be +substituted in this recipe.) + + +BREAD (WITH A SPONGE). + + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 1/2 cup yeast or 1/2 yeast cake. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 pt. water. + About 2 qts. flour. + +Put the butter, sugar and salt in the mixing bowl, add 1/4 cup boiling +water to dissolve them; then add enough lukewarm water to make a pint, +3 cups of flour, then the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in 1/4 +cup tepid water). Give it a vigorous beating, cover, and let it rise +over night. In the morning add flour to make it stiff enough to knead. +Knead for 1/2 hour. Cover closely, let it rise till it doubles its +bulk; shape into loaves; let it rise again in the pans; bake as +directed in previous recipe. + + +WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM BREAD. + + 1 pt. milk, scalded and cooled. + 1 tsp. salt. + 2 cups white flour. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour. + 1/2 yeast cake or 1/2 cup yeast. + +Mix in the same order as given in previous recipes. Whole wheat flour +makes a softer dough, consequently does not require so much kneading, +otherwise it should be treated the same as other bread, allowing it a +little longer time for baking; if too moist, a cupful of white flour +may be added. + + +YEAST. + +Steep 1/2 cup of loose hops in 1 quart of boiling water, in a granite +kettle, 5 minutes. Mix 1 cup of flour, 1/4 of a cup sugar and 1 tbsp. +salt. Strain the hop liquor and pour it boiling into the flour +mixture. Boil 1 minute, or till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast. +Cover and set in a warm place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5 +hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more than half full, +and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled potatoes may be mashed +smoothly and added to this yeast if desired.) + + * * * * * + + +SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS. + + +WHITE SAUCE. + +(_For Vegetables, Eggs, etc._) + + 1 pt. milk. + 4 (l.) tbsps. flour. + 1/2 ssp. white pepper. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Heat the milk over hot water. Put the butter in a granite saucepan and +stir till it melts, being careful not to brown. Add the dry flour, and +stir quickly till well mixed. Add the milk gradually, stirring +carefully (especially from the sides) until perfectly smooth. Let it +boil until it thickens, then add salt and pepper. + +In using this sauce for creamed oysters, add 1/2 tsp. of celery salt, +a few grains of cayenne pepper, and a tsp. of lemon juice. + + +DRAWN BUTTER SAUCE. + + 1 pt. hot water or stock. + 1/2 cup butter. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + 4 (l.) tbsps. flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted add the dry flour, and mix +well. Add the hot water or stock a little at a time, and stir rapidly +till it thickens; when smooth add the salt and pepper. Be careful to +have all sauces free from lumps. (Hard boiled eggs may be added to +this sauce for baked or boiled fish. Two tbsps. of chopped parsley may +be added if parsley sauce is desired.) + + +BROWN SAUCE. + + 1 pt. hot stock. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. lemon juice. + 2 tbsps. minced onions. + 4 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + Caramel enough to color. + +Mince the onion and fry it in the butter 5 minutes. Be careful not to +burn it. When the butter is browned add the dry flour, and stir well. +Add the hot stock a little at a time; stir rapidly until it thickens +and is perfectly smooth. Add the salt and pepper. Simmer 5 minutes, +and strain to remove the onion. + + +CARAMEL FOR COLORING SOUPS AND SAUCES. + +Melt 1 cup of sugar with 1 tbsp. of water in a frying-pan. Stir until +it becomes of a dark brown color. Add 1 cup of boiling water, simmer +10 minutes, and bottle when cool. This coloring is useful for many +purposes, and is more wholesome than browned butter. + + +MOCK BISQUE SOUP. + + 1 pt. stewed tomatoes. + 2 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 pt. milk. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1/4 tsp. pepper. + +Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, put the remainder on to cook in a +stew-pan. Mix the flour with the cold milk, and stir into the boiling +milk. Cook for 10 minutes, then add the salt, pepper and butter. Stir +the soda into the hot tomatoes and stir 1/2 minute, then rub through a +strainer. Add the strained tomatoes to the thickened milk, and serve +at once. + + +POTATO SOUP. + + 4 potatoes, medium size. + 2 tbsps. minced celery. + 2 tbsps. of flour. + 1/4 tsp. of pepper. + 1/2 tsp. minced parsley. + 1-1/2 pints of milk. + 4 tbsps. minced onions. + 1 tsp. of salt. + 1 tbsp. of butter. + +Pare the potatoes, place on the fire in enough boiling water to cover, +and cook for 30 minutes. Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder in +the double boiler with the onion and celery and place on the fire. Mix +the cold milk with the flour and stir into the boiling milk. When the +potatoes are cooked pour off the water, mash them until fine and +light. Gradually beat into them the milk; now add salt, pepper and +butter, and rub the soup through a sieve. Return to the fire and add +the minced parsley; simmer for 5 minutes and serve immediately. (The +parsley may be omitted and celery salt substituted for the minced +celery.) + + +CELERY SOUP. + + 1 head celery. + 1 pint milk. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 pint water. + 1 tbsp. chopped onion. + 2 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + +Wash and scrape the celery, cut into 1/2 inch pieces, put it into the +pint of boiling salted water and cook until very soft. Mash in the +water in which it was boiled. Cook the onion with the milk in a double +boiler 10 minutes and add it to the celery. Rub all through a strainer +and put on to boil again. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the +flour and cook until smooth, but not brown, then stir it into the +boiling soup. Add the salt and pepper; simmer 5 minutes and strain +into the tureen. Serve very hot. + + * * * * * + + +EGGS. + +While eggs are nutritious and valuable as food they should not be used +too freely, as they are a highly concentrated form of food. The +albumen (white) of egg is one of the most valuable tissue builders. +Much depends upon the manner in which they are cooked. Eggs fried in +fat or hard boiled are very indigestible. Do not use an egg until it +has been laid some hours, as the white does not become thick till then +and cannot be beaten stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place, +and handled carefully in order to avoid mixing the white and yolk, +which causes the egg to spoil quickly. + + +BOILED EGGS. + +Have the water boiling in a saucepan. Put in the eggs and move to the +back of the stove where the water will keep hot, about 175 or 180 F., +for from 8 to 10 minutes. If the back of the stove is too hot, move to +the hearth. The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, the +yolks soft but not liquid. An egg to be cooked soft should never be +cooked in boiling water. + + +HARD BOILED EGGS. + +Cook eggs for 20 minutes in water just below the boiling point. The +yolk of an egg cooked 10 minutes is tough and indigestible; 20 minutes +will make it dry and mealy, when it is more easily penetrated by the +gastric fluid. + + +POACHED EGGS. + +Have a clean, shallow pan nearly full of salted and boiling water. +Remove the scum and let the water just simmer. Break each egg +carefully into a saucer and slip it gently into the water. Dip the +water over it with the end of the spoon, and when a film has formed +over the yolk and the white is like a soft jelly, take up with a +skimmer and place on a piece of neatly trimmed toast. This is the most +wholesome way of cooking eggs for serving with ham or bacon. + + +OMELET. + +Beat the yolks of two eggs, add two tbsps. of milk, 1 ssp. of salt and +1/4 of a ssp. of pepper. Beat the whites till stiff and dry. Cut and +fold them into the yolks till just covered. Have a clean, smooth +omelet pan (or spider). When hot, rub well with a teaspoonful of +butter; see that the butter is all over the pan, turn in the omelet +and spread evenly on the pan. Cook until slightly browned underneath, +being careful not to let it burn; set in a hot oven until dry on top. +When dry throughout, run a knife round the edge, tip the pan to one +side, fold the omelet and turn out on a hot platter. This may be made +by beating the whites and yolks together for a plain omelet. A little +chopped parsley, a little fine grated onion, a tbsp. or two of chopped +ham, veal or chicken may be spread on the omelet before folding. + + +CUP CUSTARDS. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 1/4 cup of sugar. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg. + +Beat the eggs until light, then add the sugar; beat again, add the +milk and nutmeg, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into custard +cups, stand the cups in a pan of boiling water and then put the pan in +the oven. Bake until the custards are set, or until a knife may be +slipped into the centre without anything adhering to it. When done, +take them out of the water and stand away to cool. (This custard may +be poured into a baking dish and baked in a quick oven until firm in +the centre.) + + +BOILED CUSTARD. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + +Put the milk on in the double boiler, beat the sugar and yolks of eggs +together until light, then stir them into the boiling milk; stir until +it begins to thicken, then take it from the fire; add the vanilla and +stand aside to cool. When cool, pour into a glass dish. Beat the +whites until stiff, add three tbsps. of powdered sugar gradually. Heap +them on a dinner plate and stand in the oven a moment until slightly +brown, then loosen from the plate, slip off gently on top of the +custard; serve very cold. + + * * * * * + + +FRUIT. + +If people would only realize the value of fruit in its natural state, +much of the time devoted to the preparation of pies, puddings, etc., +would be saved. All uncooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and +served fresh and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when +the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when in its natural +state, therefore a few simple recipes for cooking fruit are given. + + +APPLESAUCE. + +Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. Make a syrup with 1/2 cup +of sugar, 1/2 cup of water, and a little grated lemon peel. When +boiling, add the apples and cook carefully till they are just tender, +but not broken. Remove them carefully, boil the syrup down a little +and pour it over the apples. (For serving with roast goose, etc., cook +the apples in a little water, mash until smooth, add sugar to taste.) + + +CODDLED APPLES. + +Pare tart apples of uniform size; remove the cores without breaking +the apples. Stand them in the bottom of a granite kettle, sprinkle +thickly with sugar, cover the bottom of the kettle with boiling water, +cover closely and allow the apples to steam on the back part of the +stove till tender. Lift carefully without breaking, pour the syrup +over them and stand away to cool (delicious served with whipped +cream). + + +STEWED PRUNES. + +Wash carefully and soak in water an hour before cooking, put them into +a porcelain or granite kettle, cover with boiling water and let them +simmer until tender. Add a tbsp. of sugar for each pint of prunes, and +boil a few moments longer. + + +CRANBERRIES. + +Put 1 pint of cranberries in a granite saucepan, 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup +of water. After they begin to boil cook 10 minutes, closely covered. +(This may be pressed through a sieve while hot, removing the skins, if +desired for a mould.) + + +STEWED RHUBARB. + +Wash the rhubarb (if young and tender it will not be necessary to +remove the skin), cut into pieces about 1 inch long. To every lb. of +rhubarb allow 1 lb. of sugar. Put the rhubarb into a porcelain or +granite kettle, cover with the sugar, and stand on the back part of +the fire until the sugar melts. Move forward, let simmer for a few +minutes without stirring, turn it out carefully to cool. + + +BAKED PEARS. + +Take large, sweet pears, wipe them but do not remove the stems. Stand +them in an earthen baking dish, pour around them a cup of boiling +water, add 2 tbsps. sugar, cover with another dish and bake slowly +until the pears are tender, basting occasionally with the liquor. When +done, stand away to cool in the dish in which they were baked. When +cold put them into a glass dish, pour the liquor over them and serve. + + +BAKED APPLES. + +Pare and core, without breaking, tart apples. Put them into a shallow +earthen dish, fill the cavities with sugar, add water to cover the +bottom of the dish. Bake in a quick oven till soft, basting often with +the syrup. (Quinces may be baked in the same way.) + + * * * * * + + +VEGETABLES. + +Vegetables should be used very freely, as they contain saline +substances which counteract the effect of too much meat, and are the +chief source of mineral supply for the body. In cooking vegetables, a +common rule is to add salt, while cooking, to all classes growing +above ground (including onions), and to omit salt in the cooking of +vegetables growing underground. In cooking vegetables care must be +taken to preserve the flavor, and to prevent the waste of mineral +matter. + + +CABBAGE. + +Cut a small head of cabbage in quarters, soak in cold water 1 hour, +drain and shake dry. Remove the stalk, or hard part, and chop the +remainder rather fine. Put it into a stew-pan with enough boiling +water to cover, and boil 20 minutes. Drain in a colander. Turn into a +hot dish, and pour over it cream sauce or a little melted butter, +pepper and salt. + + +CAULIFLOWER. + +Pick off the outside leaves, soak in cold salted water, top downwards, +for 1 hour. Tie it round with a piece of twine to prevent breaking. +Cook in boiling salted water until tender, remove the string, turn +into a hot dish with the top up, cover with cream sauce or drawn +butter sauce. (When cold, it may be picked to pieces and served in a +salad.) + + +CELERY. + +Scrape clean and cut the stalks into 2-inch pieces: cook in salted +water until tender, drain and cover with a white sauce. The sauce +should be made with the water in which the celery has been stewed. + + +BOILED BEETS. + +Wash, but do not cut them, as that injures the color. Cook in boiling +water until tender. When cooked put them into a pan of cold water and +rub off the skins. They may be cut in slices and served hot with +pepper, butter and salt, or sliced, covered with vinegar, and served +cold. They may be cut into dice and served as a salad, either alone or +mixed with potatoes and other vegetables. + + +BEANS (DRIED). + +Lima beans should be soaked in warm water over night. In the morning +drain off this water and cover with fresh warm water. Two hours before +needed drain, cover with boiling water and boil 30 minutes; drain +again, cover with fresh boiling water, and boil until tender. Add a +teaspoonful of salt while they are boiling. When cooked drain them, +add a little butter, pepper and salt, or a cream sauce. + + +ASPARAGUS. + +Wash the asparagus well in cold water, reject the tough parts, tie in +a bunch or cut into pieces 1 inch long. Put it in a kettle, cover with +boiling water, and boil until tender. Put it in a colander to drain. +Serve with melted butter, pepper and salt, or with a cream or drawn +butter sauce. + + +ONIONS. + +Scald in boiling water, then remove the skins. Put them in boiling +salted water; when they have boiled 10 minutes, change the water. Boil +until tender but not until broken. Drain and serve with either cream +sauce or butter, pepper and salt. + + +POTATOES. + +Wash and scrub with a brush. If old, soak in cold water after paring. +Put them in boiling water, when about half cooked add a tbsp. of salt. +Cook until soft but not broken. Drain carefully. Expose the potatoes +for a minute to a current of air, then cover and place on the back of +the stove to keep hot, allowing the steam to escape. + + +RICE POTATOES. + +Press the cooked potatoes through a coarse strainer into the dish in +which they are to be served. + + +MASHED POTATOES. + +To 1 pint of hot boiled potatoes, add 1 tbsp. butter, 1/2 tsp. of +salt, 1/2 ssp. of white pepper and hot milk or cream to moisten. Mash +in the kettle in which they were boiled, beat with a fork until they +are light and creamy. Turn lightly into a dish. + + +POTATO PUFFS. + +Prepare as for mashed potatoes, adding a little chopped parsley or +celery salt if the flavor is liked. Beat 2 eggs, yolks and whites +separately. Stir the beaten whites in carefully, shape into smooth +balls or cones, brush lightly with the beaten yolks, and bake in a +moderately hot oven until brown. + + +CREAMED POTATOES. + +Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in a shallow pan, +cover with milk and cook until the potatoes have absorbed nearly all +the milk. To 1 pint of potatoes, add 1 tbsp. of butter, 1/2 tsp. of +salt, 1/2 ssp. of pepper and a little chopped parsley or onion. + + +BAKED POTATOES. + +Select smooth potatoes of uniform size, wash and scrub well. Bake in a +hot oven about 45 minutes or until soft. Break the skin or puncture +with a fork to let the steam escape and serve at once. This is the +most wholesome method of cooking potatoes, as the mineral matter is +retained. + + +FRIED POTATOES. + +Pare, wash and cut into slices or quarters. Soak in cold salted water, +drain and dry between towels. Have sufficient fat in a kettle to more +than cover the potatoes. When it is very hot drop the potatoes in, a +few at a time, so as not to reduce the heat of the fat too quickly. +When brown, which should be in about 4 or 5 minutes for quarters and +about 2 minutes if sliced, drain and sprinkle with salt. + + +TOMATOES (RAW). + +Scald and peel sometime before using, place on ice, and serve with +salt, sugar and vinegar, or with a salad dressing. + + +SCALLOPED TOMATOES. + +Scald and peel as many tomatoes as required. Butter a deep dish and +sprinkle with fine bread or cracker crumbs, then a layer of sliced +tomato, over this sprinkle a little salt, pepper and sugar; then add a +layer of bread crumbs, another of tomatoes, sprinkle again with salt, +pepper and sugar: put bread crumbs on the top, moisten with a little +melted butter, and bake until brown. + + +STEWED TOMATOES. + +Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, remove the skins and the hard +green stem, cut into quarters or slices and stew in a granite kettle +until the pulp is soft, add salt, pepper, butter and a little sugar if +desired. If too thin the tomato may be thickened with crumbs or +cornstarch wet in a little cold water. + + +SPINACH. + +Pick over carefully, discarding all decayed leaves. Wash thoroughly, +then place in a pan of cold water, let stand for a few minutes. Drain +and put in a large kettle with just enough water to keep it from +burning. Cook very slowly until tender. Drain and chop fine, add 1 +tbsp. of butter, a tsp. of salt, a ssp. of pepper. It may be served on +toast (hot) or garnished with hard boiled eggs. + + +CARROTS AND TURNIPS. + +Carrots as a vegetable for the table are more palatable when young and +tender. They should be washed and scraped, boiled until tender, and +served with butter, pepper and salt or a white sauce. Turnips contain +little nutriment; having no starch, they are very suitable for eating +with potatoes. They require more salt than any other vegetable, and +should be served with fat meat, corned beef, roast pork or mutton. +Turnips should be washed, pared, cut into slices or strips, boiled +until tender. Drain, mash and season with pepper and salt. + + +PEAS (GREEN). + +Wash the pods, which should be green, crisp and plump, before +shelling, then the peas will not require washing. Put the peas into a +strainer or colander and shake out all the fine particles. Boil until +tender. When nearly done add the salt. Use little water in cooking, +when they may be served without draining; season with a little butter, +pepper and salt. If drained, serve either dry with butter, pepper and +salt, or with a white sauce. + + +GREEN SWEET CORN. + +Remove the husk and silky fibre, cover with boiling water (the flavor +is improved by adding a few of the clean inner husks) and cook, if +young and tender, from 10 to 15 minutes. Try a kernel and take up the +corn as soon as the milk has thickened and the raw taste is +destroyed. + + * * * * * + + +SALADS. + + +FRENCH DRESSING. + + 3 tbsps. of olive oil. + 1/4 tsp. of salt. + 1 tbsp. vinegar. + 1/2 ssp. of pepper or speck of cayenne. + +Mix these ingredients together and serve. This makes a particularly +good dressing for lettuce or vegetable salads. + + +SALAD DRESSING. + + 1/2 cup vinegar. + 1 tbsp. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 cup cream. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. mustard. + A speck of cayenne pepper. + +Beat the eggs well, mix the sugar, salt, mustard and pepper together, +add to the beaten eggs, then add the vinegar. Place the saucepan on +the range in a pan of boiling water. Stir constantly until the +dressing becomes thick and light. Take from the fire and turn into a +cold bowl at once to prevent curdling. Beat the cream to a thick froth +and stir it into the cold dressing. (When cream is not available use +the same quantity of milk, previously thickened to the consistency of +cream with a little cornstarch, add a tsp. of butter; when cold, add +to the dressing.) + + +MAYONNAISE DRESSING. + + 1/2 pt. of olive oil. + 1 tsp. mustard. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + Yolks of 2 uncooked eggs. + 1 tbsp. lemon juice. + 1 tbsp. vinegar. + 1/2 tsp. sugar. + A speck of cayenne. + +Put the yolks of the eggs into a cold bowl, stir in the dry +ingredients, beat well, using a silver or small wooden spoon. Then add +the oil, drop by drop. When the mixture gets so thick that it is +difficult to stir, add a few drops of the vinegar to thin it. Continue +stirring in the oil and vinegar alternately until all are used, when +it should be very thick; add the lemon juice last and beat for a few +minutes longer; a cupful of whipped cream may be stirred into this +dressing before using. (The following rules must be observed in order +to insure success: (1) to beat the yolks and dry ingredients until +thick; (2) to add the oil only in drops at first; (3) always beat or +stir in one direction, reversing the motion is apt to curdle the +dressing.) + + +LETTUCE SALAD. + +Choose crisp, fresh lettuce, wash clean, let it remain for a little +time in cold or ice water, drain thoroughly, break or tear the leaves +into convenient pieces, dress with a French or cooked dressing; serve +at once, cold. + + +POTATO SALAD. + + 1 pt. cold boiled potatoes. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1/2 cup cooked dressing. Or the French dressing, as given. + 1 tsp. finely chopped onion. + 1 sp. pepper. + +Cut the potatoes into pieces about the size of dice, mix the +seasonings with the potatoes, turn into a dish in alternate layers of +potatoes and dressing, having a little dressing on top. Garnish with +parsley, and allow to stand at least an hour in a cold place before +serving, so that the potatoes may absorb the seasoning. (Cold boiled +beets cut into cubes may be added in alternate layers with the +potatoes in this recipe, using a little more dressing.) + + +TOMATO SALAD. + +Peel the tomatoes (without scalding) and put them on ice until very +cold, have crisp leaves of lettuce which have been washed and dried. +When ready to serve, cut the tomatoes in halves, place one-half on a +leaf of lettuce (the curly leaves being the best), on this put a tbsp. +of mayonnaise or cooked dressing, and serve immediately. + + +CABBAGE SALAD. + +Cabbage or celery may be used as a salad by cutting rather fine, +allowing it to get cold and crisp, and serving with a cooked or French +dressing. Indeed almost any vegetable may be used for a salad. String +beans, asparagus, cauliflower, which have been cooked, are suitable +for salad, either alone or in combination with nasturtium, cress, hard +boiled eggs, etc. + + +CHICKEN SALAD. + +One pint each of cold boiled or roasted chicken and celery. Cut the +chicken into 1/4-inch dice, scrape, wash and cut the celery into dice, +put the celery in a napkin and lay on the ice for 10 or 12 minutes; +season the chicken with vinegar, salt, pepper and oil (or the French +dressing-oil may be omitted if the flavor is not agreeable, +substituting cream or melted butter). Add the celery to the seasoned +chicken, add half the dressing (using either a cooked or mayonnaise), +heap in a dish, add the remainder of the dressing, garnish with the +tiny bleached celery leaves or small curly lettuce leaves. (A few +capers and a hard boiled egg may be used as a garnish if desired.) + +In summer the chicken may be served on a tender lettuce leaf, adding a +spoonful of dressing, and serving very cold. + + +FRUIT SALAD. + + 4 oranges. + 1 cup water. + 1/4 package gelatine. + 4 bananas. + Juice of 2 lemons. + 1-1/2 cup sugar. + +Dissolve the gelatine in the water, add the sugar and lemon juice, +strain and pour over the oranges and bananas, which have been peeled +and sliced and placed in alternate layers in a mould. Set away to +cool. When needed, turn out and serve. Garnish with Malaga grapes, +cherries, currants, or any suitable fruit. + + * * * * * + + +CEREALS. + +All cereals require thorough cooking, because of the starch in them, +also to soften the woody fibre. No matter what the cereal product may +be, it should be cooked not less than three-quarters of an hour, and +better if cooked longer. + + +OATMEAL PORRIDGE. + + 1 pt. of boiling water. + 1/2 cup of oatmeal. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Be sure to have the water boiling. Sprinkle in the oatmeal slowly, +stirring all the time. Add the salt, and move back or set in a vessel +of boiling water where it will cook gently for 1 hour. Do not stir the +porridge after the first 5 minutes. + +All porridge (or mush) is made on the same principle. + + +CRACKED WHEAT + +Should be cooked at least 4 or 5 hours. + + +CORNMEAL + +Should be cooked an hour or more. + + +RICE. + +Wash 1 cup of rice. Have 2 quarts of water, with 1 tbsp. salt, boiling +rapidly. Sprinkle in the rice gradually, when you have it all in cover +the kettle and boil 20 minutes. If too thick add a little boiling +water. Test the grains, and the moment they are soft, and before the +starch begins to cloud the water, pour into a colander to drain. Stand +it in the oven a few minutes to dry, leaving the door open. Turn +carefully into a heated dish and serve without a cover. (Do not stir +the rice while cooking.) + + +RICE CROQUETTES. + + 1 pint of milk. + 4 (l.) tbsps. of sugar. + 1/2 cup raisins. + 1/2 cup of rice. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + Yolks of two eggs. + +Wash the rice and put it into the boiling milk in a double boiler. +Cook until very thick; add the yolks of the eggs and the sugar, beat +thoroughly. Take from the fire, add the vanilla and the fruit, which +has been well floured. Turn out on a dish to cool, when cold form in +pyramids or cylinders; dip first in beaten egg, then in fine bread +crumbs and fry in deep, boiling fat. Put a little jelly on the top of +each croquette, dust the whole with powdered sugar, and serve with +vanilla sauce or cream and sugar. + + +BAKED RICE. + +Wash 1/2 cup of rice, turn into a buttered pudding dish, add 2 tbsps. +sugar, grate 1/4 of a small nutmeg, add 1 qt. of milk, bake slowly for +at least 1-1/2 hour. + + +FARINA. + + 1 pint of milk. + 3 level tbsps. of farina. + +Put the milk in the double boiler, when the milk boils add the salt, +then sprinkle in the farina, stirring all the while; beat the mixture +well and cook for 30 minutes. Serve with cream and sugar. (This may be +made into a pudding by adding an egg, 2 tbsps. sugar, 1/2 tsp. +vanilla, baking in the oven until brown.) + + * * * * * + + +MACARONI. + +Macaroni is quite as valuable as bread for food, and should be used +very freely. + + +BOILED MACARONI. + +Break the macaroni in pieces about 2 inches long. Have boiling water, +add a tsp. of salt; throw in the macaroni and boil rapidly 30 minutes, +put it into a colander to drain, return to the kettle, rub a tbsp. of +butter and flour together until smooth, add either milk or water until +the sauce is as thick as rich cream. Cook it a few minutes before +pouring over the macaroni, and serve (add salt to taste). + + +MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE. + + 1/4 lb. macaroni. + 1 tbsp. butter. + Salt and pepper to taste. + 1 tbsp. flour. + 1 cup stewed tomatoes. + +Hold the long sticks of macaroni in the hand; put the end into boiling +salted water, as it softens bend and coil in the water without +breaking. Boil rapidly 20 minutes. When done put it in a colander to +drain. Put the butter in a saucepan to melt, add to it the flour, mix +until smooth, then add the tomatoes (which have been strained), stir +carefully until it boils. Pour over the hot macaroni and serve at +once. + + +MACARONI AND CHEESE. + + 1/4 lb. of macaroni. + 1/4 lb. grated cheese. + Salt and white pepper to taste. + 1/2 pt. milk. + 1 tsp. butter. + +Break the macaroni in pieces about 3 inches long. Put it into plenty +of boiling water. Add 1 tsp. salt and boil rapidly 25 minutes; drain, +throw into cold water to blanch for 10 minutes. Put the milk into the +double boiler, add to it the butter, then the macaroni which has been +drained, and cheese; stir until heated, add the salt and pepper, and +serve. (The macaroni may be placed in a baking dish in alternate +layers with the cheese, sprinkling each layer with pepper and salt, +pouring the milk over the top, cutting the butter in small bits +distributed over the top, and bake until brown in a moderately quick +oven.) + + * * * * * + + +CHEESE. + + +CHEESE SOUFFLE. + + 1/4 lb. of cheese. + 1 ssp. of soda. + A speck of cayenne. + 2 tbsps. flour. + 1/2 cup of milk. + 1 tsp. mustard. + 2 eggs. + 2 tbsps. butter. + +Put the butter in a saucepan, when melted stir in the flour, add the +milk slowly, then the salt, mustard and cayenne, which have been mixed +together. Add the yolks of the eggs which have been well beaten, then +the grated cheese; stir all together, lift from the fire and set away +to cool. When cold, add the stiff beaten whites, turn into a buttered +dish and bake 25 or 30 minutes. Serve immediately. + + +WELSH RAREBIT. + + 1/4 lb. cheese. + 1 tsp. mustard. + A speck of cayenne. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1/4 cup cream or milk. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 egg. + +Grate the cheese, put it with the milk in the double boiler. While +this is heating, make some toast. Mix the mustard, salt and pepper, +add the egg and beat well. When the cheese has melted, stir in the egg +and butter, and cook about two minutes, or until it thickens a little, +but do not let it curdle. Pour it over the hot toast and serve at +once. + + * * * * * + + +BEVERAGES. + + +TEA. + +In making tea, the following rules should be observed. The water +should be freshly boiled. The teapot, which should be of earthen or +china (never of tin), should be scalded and heated before putting in +the tea. Pour on the boiling water and cover closely, and let stand +for 3 or 4 minutes before using. Never, under any circumstances, +allow tea to boil. The usual proportion is a small teaspoonful of tea +to 1 cup of boiling water, but this is too strong for general use. + + +COFFEE. + +Coffee may be made in various ways; by filtering, clarifying with an +egg, or made with cold water. A common rule for making coffee is as +follows: 1 heaping tbsp. ground coffee to 2 cups of freshly boiling +water, 1 egg shell. Scald the coffee-pot, put in the coffee and the +egg shell, add the boiling water, cover and boil just 3 minutes. +Before serving, add a tbsp. of cold water; let stand for a few minutes +before using. + + +COFFEE MADE WITH AN EGG. + +1 egg is sufficient to clear 1 cup of ground coffee; if a smaller +quantity be desired, half the egg may be used. Add 1/2 cup cold water +to the portion of egg to be used, and 1/2 cup of ground coffee. Beat +well, put it in the coffee-pot, add 1 qt. of boiling water, and boil 3 +minutes. Move back where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 10 +minutes. Pour out a little and pour it back again to clear the spout +before serving. + + +COCOA. + + 1 pt. of milk. + 3 tbsps. of water. + 2 (l.) tsps. of cocoa. + +Put the milk in the double boiler and set on the fire, mix the cocoa +to a smooth paste with the cold water. When the milk boils, add the +cocoa and boil for 1 minute. Serve very hot. If more water and less +milk be used, allow a little more cocoa. + + * * * * * + + +SOUPS. + +Soups may be divided into two classes, soup made with stock, and with +milk. As soup should form part of the regular daily diet, and may be +made from the cheaper materials, it is absolutely necessary that every +housekeeper should understand the art of making it properly. + +In the first place it is well to know what may be used in the process +of soup making. The first and most important step is to prepare the +stock. For this purpose have a large earthen bowl or "catch all," as +some teachers call it. Into this put all the bones, trimmings, bits of +steak or chop and gravy which has been left over. Keep in a cold +place. When needed, cover with cold water and simmer 4 or 5 hours; +strain and set away to cool. When cold, remove the fat which will have +formed a solid coating on the top. The stock is now ready for use. By +saving the remains of vegetables cooked for the table, the outer +stocks of celery, a hard boiled egg, etc., a very palatable and +nutritious soup may be made at a trifling cost. In families where +large quantities of meat are used, there should be sufficient material +without buying meat for soup. It is not necessary to have all the +ingredients mentioned in some recipes in order to secure satisfactory +results. It will, however, be necessary to understand soup flavorings, +so as to know which ones may be left out. Stock made from the shin of +beef, or from the cheaper pieces which contain the coarser fibre and +gristle, require long, slow cooking (see Methods). + +Never soak meat in water before cooking in any form. Wipe carefully +with a damp cloth before cutting or preparing for use. For soup break +or saw the bones into small pieces, and for each pound of meat and +bone allow 1 qt. of cold water. Cover the kettle closely and let it +heat slowly until it reaches the simmering point, when it should be +moved back and kept at that degree for several hours. Soup should +never be allowed to boil hard. The scum which rises to the surface is +the albumen and juices of the meat, and should not be skimmed off. If +the kettle is clean, and all impurities removed from the meat, there +will not be anything objectionable in the scum. Stock must always be +allowed to remain until cold, so that the fat may be removed before +using. A strong, greasy soup is rarely relished, and is one of the +principal reasons why so many people dislike this valuable article of +diet. Do not add salt to the meat which is being prepared for stock +until a few minutes before removing from the fire. Salt hardens the +water if added at first and makes the tissues more difficult to +dissolve. Stock may be kept for several days by occasionally bringing +it to the boiling point. This is not necessary in winter if it is kept +in a cold place. + + +VEGETABLE SOUP. + + 1 qt. stock. + 1/2 cup each chopped turnip and cabbage. + 1 tsp. sugar. + 1 ssp. pepper. + 1/2 cup each of onion, carrot, celery (chopped). + 1-1/2 tsp. salt. + +If all these vegetables are not available, a little macaroni, rice or +barley may be added. Chop all the vegetables very fine, cabbage or +onions should be parboiled 5 minutes, drain carefully. Put all the +vegetables together, cover with 1 qt. of water and simmer until +tender, then add the stock, the seasoning, and allow it to simmer +about 10 minutes. Serve without straining. + + +TOMATO SOUP. + + 1 pt. of canned or stewed tomatoes. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. sugar. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 2 whole cloves or 1/2 bay leaf. + 1 pt. of stock. + 1/2 ssp. pepper. + 1 tbsp. minced onion. + 1 tbsp. flour or cornstarch. + A speck of cayenne may be added if desired. + +Put the tomato and stock in a saucepan and set on the fire. Cook the +vegetables in the butter for 15 minutes; then press out the butter and +put the vegetables in the soup. Into the butter remaining in the pan +put the flour and stir until smooth, then add to the soup. Allow all +to simmer for 20 minutes; strain and serve. + + +SPLIT PEA SOUP. + + 1 pt. of split peas. + 1-1/2 qt. of boiling water. + 1 qt. of stock. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Wash the peas in cold water (rejecting those which float) and soak +them over night. In the morning drain the water off and cover them +again with 1 qt. of the boiling water. Boil until tender, about 1-1/2 +hour. Now add the stock and 1 pt. of the boiling water. Press the +whole through a sieve; wash the soup kettle, return the soup, boil up +once, add salt and pepper and serve with croutons. Dried pea soup may +be made in exactly the same manner, using 1 pt. of dried peas instead +of the split ones. + + +ONION SOUP. + + 1 large Spanish onion. + 1 qt. stock. + 1 tbsp. flour. + 2 tbsps. butter. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Peel and chop the onion. Put the butter in a frying-pan, add the +onion, and stir until a nice brown. Put the stock on to boil. Skim the +onions out of the butter and add them to the stock. Stir 1 tbsp. of +flour into the remaining butter, thin with a little of the stock, put +all together, and simmer for 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and it +is ready to serve. + + +MACARONI SOUP. + + 1 qt. clear soup. + 1 tsp. salt. + 5 sticks macaroni. + +Break the macaroni into small pieces and throw it into 1 quart of +boiling water containing the tsp. of salt. Let it boil uncovered 25 +minutes. Drain off the water and add the macaroni to the hot stock, +cover and cook slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. A little more seasoning +may be added if desired. + + +OYSTER SOUP. + + 1 pt. oysters. + 1/2 pt. cold water. + 1/4 tsp. pepper. + Salt to taste. + 1 pt. milk. + 2 (l.) tbsps. flour. + 2 tbsps. butter. + +Put a strainer over a bowl and turn the oysters into it. Pour the +water over the oysters and stir with a spoon until all the liquid has +passed through the strainer. Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, pouring the +remainder into the double boiler, set it on the fire. Put the oyster +liquor in a stew-pan, and heat slowly. Mix the cold milk with the +flour, and stirring into the boiling milk; cook for 10 minutes. When +the oyster liquor boils, skim it. When the flour and milk have cooked +for 10 minutes, add the oysters, butter, salt, pepper and oyster +liquor. Cook until the oysters curl on the edge and are plump. Serve +at once. + + +BEAN SOUP (WITHOUT STOCK). + + 1 qt. dried white beans. + 1 large tbsp. butter. + 2 qts. water. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Wash the beans, cover them with water, and soak over night. Next +morning drain, put them on to boil with 2 quarts of fresh cold water. +As soon as they come to a boil drain this water off and throw it away. +Cover again with 2 quarts of fresh boiling water, add 1 ssp. of soda, +and boil until soft. Press the beans through a sieve, return to the +kettle, and if too thick add enough boiling water to make the soup +about the consistency of cream. Add the salt, pepper and butter, and +serve. (Minced onion, carrot, or celery fried in a little butter or +dripping, and added to this soup before straining, improves the +flavor.) + + +BOUILLON. + + 2 lbs. lean beef. + 1 small onion. + A sprig of parsley. + 1 qt. cold water. + 1 stalk celery, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed. + 1 bay leaf. + +Remove all the fat and chop the meat very fine. Put it into the soup +kettle with the water, bay leaf, parsley, onion and celery. Cover the +kettle closely and place it in the back part of the range for 2 hours. +Then move it over and let it come to a boil; skim at the first boil. +Move back and simmer gently for 4 hours. Strain, return to the kettle, +add salt and pepper. Beat the white of one egg with 1/2 cup of cold +water until thoroughly mixed. Wash the egg shell, mash it and add to +the white. Now add the white, shell and water to the boiling bouillon; +let it boil hard for 10 minutes, then throw in 1/2 cup of cold water +and boil 5 minutes longer. Take the kettle off the fire, strain +through a flannel bag, add salt to taste, and color with caramel. (See +recipe for caramel.) This is an excellent preparation for invalids. + + * * * * * + + +FISH. + +Fish is an invaluable article of food. It provides variety in diet, +and while less stimulating than meat, is usually more easily digested. +Fish should be perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked. The most +wholesome as well as the most palatable methods for cooking fish are +broiling and baking. The flesh of fresh fish is firm and will not +retain the impress of the finger if pressed into it. The eyes should +be bright and glassy, the gills red and full of blood. Fish should be +cleaned as soon as possible and thoroughly wiped with a cloth wet in +salt water, and should be kept in a cool place. Do not put it near +other food such as milk, butter, etc., as they will absorb the odor. + + +BROILED FISH. + +Rub a double broiler well with a piece of suet before putting in the +fish. Lay the fish flat so that the flesh side will be exposed on one +side of the broiler and the skin on the other. Broil carefully, as the +skin side burns very quickly. A fish weighing 3 lbs. will take about +25 or 30 minutes to broil. When cooked sprinkle with salt and pepper, +and serve very hot. + + +BAKED FISH. + + 1 cup cracker or bread crumbs. + 1 ssp. salt. + 1 tsp. chopped onion. + 1 tsp. chopped parsley. + 1 ssp. pepper. + 1/4 cup melted butter or dripping. + +Clean, wipe and dry the fish, rub with salt; fill with stuffing and +sew or tie carefully. Rub all over with butter (or dripping), salt and +pepper, dredge with flour, put it into a hot oven; baste when the +flour is brown, and often afterwards. Remove carefully from the pan +and place upon a hot platter. + + +SCALLOPED FISH. + +Pick over carefully any remnants of cold boiled or baked fish, put +into a shallow dish in alternate layers with bread crumbs and cream +sauce. Cover with crumbs and bake till brown. + + +SALT FISH BALLS. + + 1 cup salt fish. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1/4 ssp. pepper. + 1 pint potatoes. + 1 egg, well beaten. + More salt if needed. + +Wash the fish, pick in pieces and free from bones. Pare the potatoes +and cut in quarters. Put the potatoes and fish in a stew-pan and cover +with boiling water. Boil until the potatoes are tender. Drain off all +the water; mash and beat the fish and potatoes till very light. Add +the butter and pepper, and when slightly cooled add the egg. Lift in a +tbsp. and drop into smoking hot fat 1 minute, drain on brown paper; +they may be formed into balls and browned in a very hot oven. + + * * * * * + + +MEAT. + +(_See Analysis, Chap. V._) + +As meat is composed of several substances, fibrine, albumen, gelatin, +fat and the juices, it is necessary to understand the various methods +of cooking in order to secure the best results. Meat has its season as +well as many other foods. Pork is better in autumn and winter; veal in +the spring and summer; fowl in autumn and winter; lamb in the summer +and autumn; mutton and beef may be used any time. Meat should not be +allowed to remain in the paper in which it comes from market, as it +absorbs the juices and injures the flavor. Wipe all over with a clean +wet cloth. Examine carefully, remove any tainted or unclean portions +and keep in a clean, cool place until required. Good beef should be a +bright red color, well mixed with fat, and a layer of fat on the +outside; the suet should be dry and crumble easily. (See meat diagrams +for different cuts.) Mutton should have an abundance of clear, white +fat, the flesh fine grained and a bright red color. The fat of veal +should be clear and white, the lean pink, and should always be +thoroughly cooked. Pork is more indigestible when fresh than when +cured, as in bacon and ham. Fresh pork should be firm, the fat white, +the lean a pale red. + + +ROAST OF BEEF. + +Wipe, trim, and tie or skewer into shape the cut for roasting. If +there be a large piece of the flank, cut it off and use for soups or +stews. If you wish to roast it, turn it underneath and fasten with a +skewer. Lay the meat on a rack in a pan, and dredge all over with +flour. Put on the top of a roast 2 or 3 tbsps. of dripping or pieces +of the fat; put it in a very hot oven at first. After the outside has +become seared, check off the heat and allow to cook slowly, basting +frequently. (See time table for baking.) + + +BROILED STEAK. + +Trim the steak free from all suet (save all trimmings for stews or the +stock pot). Put the meat plate to warm, grease the broiler with a +little of the fat. See that the fire is clear. Put the steak on the +hot broiler and place it over the fire, turning every 10 seconds. It +will take about 8 minutes if the steak is 1 inch thick. When done, +place it on the hot plate, dredge it with salt and pepper; turn over +and season the other side. Serve immediately. + + +PAN-BROILED STEAK. + +When the fire is not suitable for broiling, heat the frying pan until +smoking hot; trim the steak as for broiling, place firmly on the hot +pan, turn frequently as in broiling, with a broad knife or pancake +turner; never insert a fork, as it allows the juice to escape. It will +cook in 10 minutes. Season, and serve the same as broiled steak. If a +gravy is desired, fry a little of the suet and trimmings in the +pan--after the steak has been removed--until brown, lift out the meat +or suet, add 1 tbsp. of flour, stir until brown, add pepper and salt +to taste, then add 1 teacup of boiling water. Cook for 2 or 3 minutes +and strain over the steak. + + +HAMBURG STEAK. + +1 lb. of steak from the upper side of the round, or any piece of lean +beef free from gristle; chop very fine, add 1 tbsp. of onion juice +(or finely minced onion), 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. black pepper, mix +well together; dip the hands in cold water, take 2 tbsps. of the +mixture and form with the hands into small round cakes. Have the +frying pan very hot, put in 2 tbsps. of dripping; when hot, put in the +steaks, brown on both sides--or they may be pan-broiled. Place them on +a hot dish, add a tbsp. of flour to the fat remaining in the pan, mix +until smooth and brown; add a cupful of boiling water, stir until it +boils, add pepper and salt to taste, and pour over the steak. + + +BEEF STEW WITH DUMPLINGS. + +2 lbs. of lean beef (cheaper cuts). Cut into pieces about 1 inch +square, dredge with flour. Put 2 tbsps. of dripping into a frying pan; +as soon as it is very hot put in the meat and shake or stir until +nicely browned. Skim out the meat and put it in a saucepan. Add 1 +tbsp. of flour to the dripping remaining in the pan, mix and add 1 +quart of boiling water; stir over the fire until it boils, then strain +it over the meat; add one small onion, pepper and salt to taste. Cover +the saucepan closely and let it simmer for 2 hours. Make the dumplings +by sifting 1 pint of flour, to which has been added 2 tsps. baking +powder. Add 1/4 tsp. salt and enough milk to make a soft dough. Lift +the dough in spoonfuls, placing them over the meat, cover quickly and +let boil 10 minutes. Do not uncover the saucepan while the dumplings +are cooking or they will fall immediately. Be careful not to allow the +stew to burn while the dumplings are cooking. + + +POT ROAST. + +Trim off the rough parts of a brisket of beef or any of the cheaper +cuts. Place it in a kettle over a good fire; brown on one side, then +turn and brown on the other; add 1 pint of boiling water, cover +closely and simmer, allowing 20 minutes to every pound. Add pepper and +salt when the meat is nearly done. + + +BRAISED BEEF. + +From 4 to 6 lbs. of beef from the lower part of the round or rump. +Trim and rub well with salt, pepper and flour. Chop 2 small onions and +fry until light brown in pork fat or dripping; skim them out and put +them into the pan in which the meat is to be braised, then brown the +meat all over, adding more fat if needed (this may be done in a very +hot oven). Put the meat into the pan, on skewers to keep it from +sticking, with the onions around it. Add 1 qt. of boiling water, cover +closely, putting a brick or heavy weight on the cover to keep it down, +and cook in a moderate oven 4 hours, basting occasionally. Turn once +and add more water as it evaporates, so as to have 1 pt. left for +gravy. When tender take up the meat, remove the fat, add more salt and +pepper, and if liked, a little lemon juice or tomato may be added. +Thicken with 2 tbsps. of flour wet in a little cold water. Cook 10 +minutes and pour the gravy over the meat. Any tough meat may be cooked +in this way. + + +HASH. + +Take any pieces left of a cold roast, steaks or stews, chop very fine; +take 1 tbsp. butter or dripping, 1 tbsp. of flour, stir together in a +hot frying pan, when brown add 1 cup boiling water; add 1 tbsp. +chopped onion, pepper and salt to taste, let simmer for 10 minutes, +then add the meat, stir until heated thoroughly and serve on toast. + + +CORNED BEEF OR SAUSAGE HASH. + + 1 pt. hashed corn beef or sausage. + 1 tsp. salt. + 1 tbsp. butter or dripping. + 1 pt. of hashed potatoes. + 1/4 tsp. pepper. + 1/2 cup of milk. + (Omit the milk if sausage is used). + +Mix the potato and meat, season with the pepper and salt, add the milk +and stir lightly. Put the butter or dripping into a hot frying pan, +when melted put in the hash, spread it lightly and evenly, but do not +stir it. Cover the pan and set where the hash will cook slowly for 10 +or 15 minutes. Move over to a hotter part of the stove and let it +remain until a rich, brown crust has formed on the bottom. Fold over +and serve on a hot dish. + + +MUTTON--BOILED LEG OF MUTTON. + +Wipe the leg with a damp towel. Dust a cloth with flour and wrap the +leg up with it. Put it into a kettle of boiling water and simmer +gently 20 minutes to every pound; add salt when the leg is nearly +done. When cooked remove the cloth carefully, garnish with parsley and +serve with caper sauce. Save the liquor in which it was boiled for +broth, stews, etc. + + +IRISH STEW. + + 3 lbs. of the neck of mutton. + 4 good sized onions. + 4 potatoes cut into dice. + 2 qts. of water. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Cut the meat into small pieces, cover with the water, which should be +boiling, add the onions sliced, and simmer gently for 3 hours. About +1/2 hour before the meat is done add the potatoes, season with pepper +and salt, and serve. + + +TO BAKE OR ROAST A QUARTER OF LAMB. + +Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, place in a baking pan, dredge with +pepper, put 1 tsp. of salt in the pan, add just enough water to keep +the pan from burning until enough of its own fat has fried out to use +for basting. Baste at least every 10 minutes; allow 15 minutes to +every pound in a very hot oven. Serve with mint sauce. + + +LAMB CHOPS + +Are broiled or pan-broiled the same as beefsteak. + + +VEAL--VEAL CUTLETS. + +Have the cutlets about 1/4 of an inch thick, dredge with salt, pepper +and flour. Put a tbsp. of dripping in a frying pan, and when very hot +put in the cutlets; when brown on one side turn and brown on the +other, take out and place on a hot dish. Add a tbsp. of flour to the +fat remaining in the pan, mix and stir until brown; add a cupful of +boiling water, pepper and salt to taste, stir until it boils, pour +over the cutlets, and serve. + + +STEWED KNUCKLE OF VEAL. + +Wipe the knuckle well with a damp cloth. Cut it into pieces. Put into +a kettle with 2 quarts of boiling water, add 1 onion chopped, 1/4 lb. +of chopped ham, and 1 bay leaf, pepper and salt to taste. Cover and +stew slowly for 2-1/2 hours (a half cup of rice may be added to this +stew). + + +JELLIED VEAL. + + 1 knuckle of veal. + 1 blade of mace. + 12 whole cloves. + 1/2 cup of vinegar. + 1 onion. + 1 bay leaf. + 6 pepper corns. + Salt and pepper to taste. + +Wipe the knuckle and cut it into pieces. Put into a kettle with 2 +quarts of cold water; bring slowly to simmering point; skim and simmer +gently for 2 hours; then add the onion, mace, bay leaf, cloves, pepper +corns, and simmer 1 hour longer. Take out the knuckle, carefully +remove the bones and put the meat into a mould or square pan. Boil the +liquor until reduced to 1 quart, add the vinegar, pepper and salt to +taste, strain and pour over the meat. Stand away until cold, when it +may be turned out and garnished with parsley and lemon. + + +FILLET OF VEAL (STUFFED). + + 1 cup of bread crumbs. + 1 tsp. of summer savory. + 1 ssp. of pepper. + 1/2 cup of chopped salt pork or ham. + 1 tsp. of salt. + +Have the bone removed from the shoulder, fill the space from which the +bone was taken with the stuffing, fasten the meat together with a +skewer to prevent the stuffing from coming out, put into the pan with +3 or 4 tbsps. of dripping, allowing 20 minutes to each pound, basting +frequently in a moderately hot oven. + + +PORK AND BEANS. + +Soak the beans over night in cold water. In the morning wash them well +in a colander, put them on to boil in cold water, at the first boil +drain this water off and cover with fresh boiling water. Score the +rind of the pork and put it in with the beans. Simmer gently until you +can blow off the skin of the beans. To do this, take 3 or 4 beans in +your hand, blow hard on them, and if the skin cracks they are done. +Take out the pork and drain. Put the beans into an earthen pot or +granite kettle with a cover; almost bury the pork in the centre of the +beans. Add 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pint of the water in which the beans +were boiled, pour this into the pot, sprinkle with pepper, pour over +the beans 1 large spoonful of molasses, put on the lid, bake in a +moderate oven for 6 or 8 hours. If baked in an ordinary iron baking +pan they must be covered with another on which has been placed a +weight, carefully watched, and baked only 3 hours. + + +ROAST SPARE RIBS. + +Put the spare ribs in a baking pan, sprinkle lightly with pepper, add +1/2 tsp. of salt to 1/2 cup of boiling water, and pour in the bottom +of the pan. Roast 20 minutes to every lb., basting often. When done, +make a gravy and serve as for any other roast. (Spare ribs may be +stuffed, the ribs cracked crosswise, the stuffing placed in the +centre, the two ends folded over, roast as above.) + + +BROILED HAM. + +Have the ham cut into slices about 1/4 inch thick, trim off the rind +and rusty edge. Broil the same as steak or chops. (This is a very nice +way to serve ham with poached eggs.) + +Ham may be pan-broiled as directed in former recipes. + + +FRIED BACON. + +Cut into very thin slices, put into a very hot frying pan, and cook +until clear and crisp. + + +SAUSAGE. + +Prick the skins with a sharp fork so as to prevent bursting; place +them in a frying pan over a moderate fire and fry in their own fat +until a nice brown. After taking the sausage from the pan, add 1 tbsp. +of flour to the fat in the pan, add 1 cup of boiling water, stir until +it boils, pour over the sausage and serve. + + +LIVER AND BACON. + +Have the bacon cut in thin slices and keep it cold until the time to +cook it. Have the liver cut into slices about 1/3 of an inch thick. If +it be calf or sheep's liver, wash it in cold water and let it drain; +but if it be beef liver, after washing it, cover with boiling water +and let it stand for 5 minutes, then drain it. Cook the bacon as +directed, then take it up. Lay the slices of liver in the hot fat, +cook them for 8 or 10 minutes, turning often; season with pepper and +salt. Arrange the liver on a warm platter, make a gravy as directed in +other recipes, pour over the liver, placing the bacon round the +outside. (Always cook bacon quickly and liver slowly.) + + * * * * * + + +POULTRY. + +The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, smooth, +moist skin and plump breast; the cartilage on the end of the breast +bone is soft and pliable. Pin feathers always indicate a young bird +and long hairs an older one. All poultry should be dressed as soon as +killed. Cut off the head, and if the fowl is to be roasted, slip the +skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close to the body, +leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. Remove the windpipe, +pull the crop away from the skin on the neck and breast, and cut off +close to the opening in the body. Cut through the skin about 2 inches +below the leg joint, bend the leg at the cut by pressing it on the +edge of the table and break off the bone. Then pull out the tendon. If +care be taken to cut only through the skin, these cords may be pulled +out easily, one at a time, with the fingers; or by putting the foot of +the fowl against the casing of a door, then shut the door tightly and +pull on the leg. The drum stick of a roast chicken or turkey is +greatly improved by removing the tendons. Cut out the oil bag in the +tail, make an incision near the vent, insert two fingers, keeping the +fingers up close to the breast bone until you can reach in beyond the +liver and heart, and loosen on either side down toward the back. Draw +everything out carefully. See that the kidneys and lungs are not left +in, and be very careful not to break any of the intestines. When the +fowl has been cleaned carefully it will not require much washing. +Rinse out the inside quickly and wipe dry. In stuffing and trussing a +fowl, place the fowl in a bowl and put the stuffing in at the neck, +fill out the breast until plump. Then draw the neck skin together at +the ends and sew it over on the back. Put the remainder of the +stuffing into the body at the other opening and sew with coarse thread +or fine twine. Draw the thighs up close to the body and tie the legs +over the tail firmly with twine. Put a long skewer through the thigh +into the body and out through the opposite thigh, turn the tips of +the wings under the back of the fowl, put a long skewer through from +one wing to the other. Wind a string from the tail to the skewer in +the thigh, then up to the one in the wing across the back to the other +wing, then down to the opposite side and tie firmly round the tail. If +you have no skewers, the fowl may be kept in shape by tying carefully +with twine. Clean all the giblets, cut away all that looks green near +the gall bladder, open the gizzard and remove the inner lining without +breaking. Put the gizzard, heart, liver, and the piece of neck which +has been cut off, into cold water, wash carefully, put in a saucepan, +cover with cold water, place on the back of the stove and simmer till +tender. Use the liquid for making the gravy; the meat may be chopped +and used for giblet soup. + + +ROAST CHICKEN (OR TURKEY). + +Singe carefully, remove the pin feathers, draw as directed above. +Wipe, stuff, sew and tie or skewer into shape, dredge with flour, +cover with plenty of dripping; roast in a hot oven. When the flour is +brown check the heat, baste frequently with the fat, and when nearly +cooked dredge with pepper and salt and again with flour. Bake a 4 lb. +chicken 1-1/2 hour, or until the joints separate easily. If browning +too fast, cover with paper. (Roast chicken is considered to be more +wholesome and to have a better flavor when cooked without stuffing.) + + +FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN. + +The first attempt of an inexperienced cook in the preparation of a +chicken should be a fricassee, as it will provide an opportunity for +her to study the anatomy of a chicken while cutting it in pieces, and +also show her the position of the intestines, so that when she +attempts to draw a fowl she will know just where to place her hand so +as to remove them without breaking. + +To prepare a chicken for a fricassee, clean and singe. Cut the chicken +at the joints in pieces for serving. Place in a kettle, cover with +boiling water, add 2 level tsps. of salt, a ssp. of pepper (some like +a small piece of salt pork). Simmer until tender, reducing the water +to a pint or less, lift the chicken, melt 1 tbsp. of butter in a +saucepan, add 2 tbsps. of flour, and when well mixed pour on slowly +the chicken liquor. Add more salt if needed, pepper, 1/2 tsp. of +celery salt, 1 tsp. of lemon juice (an egg may be used by beating and +pouring the sauce slowly on the egg, stirring well before adding it to +the chicken). Pour this gravy over the chicken and serve; dumplings +may be added if desired, or it may be placed in a deep dish, covered +with pastry and baked for chicken pie. + +(The chicken may be browned in a little hot fat as in braising meat, +and cooked in the same way.) + + +BROILED CHICKEN. + +Singe and split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, clean +and wipe with a wet cloth, sprinkle with pepper and salt, rub well +with butter or dripping, place in a double grid-iron and broil 20 +minutes over a clear fire. The chicken may be covered with fine bread +crumbs or dredged with flour, allowing a plentiful supply of butter or +dripping, and baked in a hot oven 1/2 hour. + + +MEAT SOUFFLE. + +Make 1 cup of white sauce and season with chopped parsley and onion +juice. Stir 1 cup of chopped meat (chicken, tongue, veal or lamb) into +the sauce. When hot, add the beaten yolks of two eggs; cook 1 minute +and set away to cool. When cool, stir in the whites, beat very stiff. +Bake in a buttered dish about twenty minutes and serve immediately. + + +CROQUETTES. + +These may be made with any kind of cooked meat, fish, rice, potatoes, +etc., or from a mixture of several ingredients, when mixed with a +thick white sauce, as follows: 1 pint hot milk, 2 tbsps. butter or +beef dripping, 6 (l.) tbsps. flour, or 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch, 1/2 +tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. white pepper, 1/2 tsp. celery salt, a speck of +cayenne. Melt the butter or dripping in a saucepan, when hot add the +dry cornstarch or flour. Stir till well mixed. Add 1/3 of the hot milk +and stir as it boils and thickens, add the remainder of the hot milk +gradually. The sauce should be very thick. Add the seasoning, and mix +it while hot with the meat or fish. It is improved by adding a beaten +egg just before the sauce is taken from the fire. When cold, shape +into rolls or like a pear, roll lightly in beaten egg, then in bread +crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat. Drain on coarse brown paper. If the +mixture be too soft to handle easily stir in enough fine cracker or +soft bread crumbs to stiffen it, but never flour. + + * * * * * + + +HOT PUDDINGS. + + +APPLE PUDDING (BAKED). + + 1 pint flour. + 1/4 cup butter or dripping. + 1 cup milk. + 1 tsp. cream of tartar. + 3 tbsps. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 egg. + 1/2 tsp. soda sifted into the flour. + 6 tart apples. + +Mix the dry ingredients, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, stir +this into the dry mixture. Core, pare and cut the apples into quarters +(if large into eighths). Place in the bottom of a pudding dish, +sprinkle over them the sugar, a little nutmeg or cinnamon may be added +if desired. Put the mixture over this, lifting the apples with a fork +or spoon so as to let the mixture penetrate to the bottom of the pan. +Bake in a moderately hot oven about 30 minutes. Serve with lemon sauce +or thin custard. + + +COTTAGE PUDDING. + + 1/2 pint sifted flour. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1/4 tsp. salt. + 1 egg. + 1/2 cup milk. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 2 tsps. baking powder (level). + +Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, add the unbeaten egg, beat +vigorously for 3 or 4 minutes, add the salt, then the flour, with +which the baking powder should be mixed. Beat for a few seconds, then +turn the batter into a small, buttered pudding dish, bake about 25 +minutes in a moderate oven; serve with lemon sauce. + + +LEMON PUDDING. + + 4 level tbsps. granulated sugar. + 1 ssp. of salt. + 2 tbsps. milk. + The juice and grated rind of a small lemon. + 6 (l.) tsps. cornstarch. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/2 cup water. + 1 egg. + +Mix the cornstarch with 3 tbsps. cold water; put the remainder of the +water in the saucepan and set on to boil. Stir into this the mixed +cornstarch and cook until clear. Take from the fire, add the salt and +lemon, reserving 1/2 tsp. of the lemon. Beat the butter to a cream, +gradually beat into it the sugar, the yolk of the egg, lastly the +milk. Stir this mixture into the cooked ingredients, and bake in a +moderate oven for 20 minutes. Beat the white of the egg to a stiff +froth, beat into it 1 tbsp. of powdered sugar and the 1/2 tsp. of +lemon juice. Spread this over the hot pudding and leave in the oven +until slightly browned. (This pudding is better served very cold.) + + +BREAD PUDDING. + + 1 pint stale bread crumbs. + 1 quart of sugar. + 1 ssp. of nutmeg or cinnamon. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + +Soak the bread crumbs for 1 hour in 1 quart of milk. Beat the eggs, +add the sugar and seasoning, stir all into the bread crumbs, bake 1 +hour in a buttered pudding dish. (Raisins or currants may be added if +desired.) + +Another method for making bread pudding is to butter thin slices of +stale bread, spread with a little jam or sprinkle a few currants (well +washed) over each layer, lay them in a pudding dish, pour over a quart +of milk, to which has been added 3 well beaten eggs, 1/2 cup sugar. +Bake until the custard thickens. This pudding may be served either hot +or cold. + + +STEAMED APPLE PUDDING. + + 3 pints pared and quartered apples. + 1/2 pint flour. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/4 of a grated nutmeg. + 1/2 cup milk. + 1/2 pint water. + 1/4 tsp. salt. + 2 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + +Put the apples, water, sugar, and nutmeg into a porcelain or granite +saucepan and set on the fire. When the apples begin to boil, set back +where they will cook gently. Mix the flour, salt and baking powder +together. Rub the butter into this dry mixture, wet with the milk, +stir quickly into a soft dough. Press or roll the dough lightly into a +round piece about the size of the top of the saucepan. Lay this on the +apples; put on a close cover and continue cooking gently for 30 +minutes. The crust may be lifted to a plate for a moment, the apples +turned into a pudding dish, then placing the crust over the top. To be +served with lemon or nutmeg sauce. + + +BOILED RICE PUDDING. + + 1/2 cup rice. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 pint milk. + 1/2 cup raisins. + +Wash the rice well. Put it on the fire in 1 pint of cold water and let +it cook for 10 minutes. Drain off the water, add the salt and milk; +then cook in the double boiler for 2 hours, add the raisins when about +half cooked. Do not stir the rice while it is cooking. + + +BROWN BETTY. + +Pare, core and slice 6 or 7 tart apples. Put a layer of stale bread +crumbs in the bottom of the baking dish, then a layer of the apples, +another layer of bread crumbs and apples, and so on until all are +used, having the last layer crumbs. Add 1/2 cup of water to 1/2 cup +molasses, stir in 2 tbsps. of brown sugar; pour it over the crumbs and +bake in a moderate oven for 1 hour. + + +APPLE SNOW. + + 6 apples. + Juice of 1 lemon. + 1 cup white sugar. + Whites of 6 eggs. + +Pare, core and steam the apples until tender, then press them through +a sieve and put aside to cool; when cold add the sugar and lemon +juice. Beat the whites of the eggs to a very stiff froth, add the +apples to them by spoonfuls, beating all the while. Heap in a glass +dish and serve immediately. (This is a very delicate and wholesome +pudding for an invalid.) + + +SCALLOPED APPLES. + +Made the same as Brown Betty, omitting the molasses, adding water and +a little lemon juice instead. + + +SUET PUDDING. + + 1 cup suet. + 1 cup molasses. + 3 cups flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 cup raisins. + 1 cup milk. + 1 tsp. cinnamon. + 2 tsps. baking powder. + +Chop the suet very fine. Stone the raisins. Add the molasses to the +suet, then the milk: mix well and add the salt, flour and cinnamon. +Beat vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes, then add the raisins. Rub in the +flour, to which has been added the baking powder; mix thoroughly, turn +into a buttered mould, steam for 3 hours. + + +TAPIOCA PUDDING. + + 1 cup tapioca. + 4 eggs. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 quart milk. + 1/4 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. vanilla. + +Wash the tapioca carefully, then add it to the milk and soak 2 hours. +Beat the eggs and sugar together, add the salt, stir into the tapioca +and milk, and bake in a moderate oven at least 3/4 of an hour. Serve +hot or cold. + + +CHOCOLATE PUDDING. + + 1 egg. + 2 tbsps. cornstarch. + 3 tbsps. sugar. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + 1 pint milk. + 1 tbsp. boiling water. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 oz. shaved chocolate. + +Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder on the fire in a double +boiler. Mix the cold milk with the cornstarch and salt. Beat the egg +well and add to the cornstarch mixture. Stir this into the boiling +milk and stir well. Put the chocolate, sugar and boiling water into a +small frying pan or saucepan, and set over a hot fire. Stir until the +mixture is smooth and glossy; beat this into the pudding and cook for +2 minutes longer. Take from the fire and add the vanilla. Dip a mould +into cold water and turn the pudding into it. Set away to cool. When +cold and stiff, turn out on a flat dish and surround with whipped +cream; or serve with cream and sugar or a soft custard. + + +SNOW PUDDING. + + 1/4 box gelatine. + 1 cup boiling water. + 1 cup sugar. + 2 tbsps. cold water. + Juice of one lemon. + Whites of 2 eggs. + +Soak the gelatine in cold water for 2 hours. Pour upon this the +boiling water and stir until the gelatine is dissolved; then add the +sugar and lemon juice, stirring until the sugar is dissolved. Set the +bowl in a pan of cold water, or broken ice. Stir frequently; when it +begins to thicken, stir in the beaten whites of the eggs, pour into a +mould and set away until firm. Serve with boiled custard. + + +CREAM PIE. + +Make a plain cup cake, and bake it in a shallow cake pan. When cooked +and cold, split it carefully. Put 1 pint of milk on to boil in a +farina boiler. Beat the yolks of 3 eggs and 1/2 cup of sugar together +until light, then add the well-beaten whites, and stir them into the +boiling milk; stir over the fire for about 1 minute, then take from +the fire, add 1 tsp. of vanilla, and stand away to cool. When cold, +and ready to serve, put a thick layer of this sauce between the layers +of cake, pour the remaining sauce around the pie, and serve +immediately. + + +BLANC MANGE. + + 1 pint milk. + 2 tbsps. sugar. + 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch. + 1/2 ssp. salt. + +Put the milk on to boil. Moisten the cornstarch with a little cold +milk, then add it to the boiling milk, and stir until it thickens; let +it cook slowly for 5 minutes; add the sugar and salt, take from the +fire, pour into a mould and set away to harden. + + +STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE. + + 1 pint flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 3 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 1 oz. butter. + 1 cup milk. + +Mix the salt, flour and butter together. Sift, then add the baking +powder and sift again. Add the liquid gradually, mixing and cutting +with a knife until the dough is light and spongy; turn it out on a +well floured board, pat into a flat cake and roll gently till 1/2 an +inch thick. Bake in a spider or pie plate in a rather hot oven. Split +and spread with sweetened berries and serve either hot or cold. + + * * * * * + + +PUDDING SAUCES. + + +PLAIN SAUCE. + + 1 cup water. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg. + 3 tbsps. sugar. + 2 tsps. flour or cornstarch. + +Melt the butter and flour together, stir in the hot water, add the +sugar and flavoring, cook until smooth and clear. + + +MOLASSES SAUCE. + + 1/2 cup molasses. + 1/2 cup water or 1/2 tbsp. vinegar. + 2 (l.) tsps. flour. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 tbsp. lemon juice. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1/2 ssp. salt. + +Mix the flour and sugar together. Pour the boiling water upon it. Add +the molasses and place on the range. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the +other ingredients; boil up once and serve. (Omit lemon if vinegar is +used.) + + +CREAM SAUCE. + + 1 egg. + 1 tsp. butter. + 1 tsp. cornstarch. + 1/2 cup powdered sugar. + 1 tsp. vanilla. + 1 cup boiling milk. + +Beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth; then gradually beat into +it the powdered sugar and cornstarch. Next add the yolk of the egg and +beat well. Pour upon this the cupful of boiling milk and place on the +fire. Stir until it boils, then add the butter and vanilla. + + +LEMON SAUCE. + + 1 tbsp. cornstarch. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 1 pint boiling water. + 1 tbsp. butter. + 1 egg. + 1 lemon. + +Beat the egg, add the cornstarch and sugar, stir them well together; +add the boiling water gradually and stir over the fire until thick; +add the butter, juice and grated rind of one lemon. Serve hot. + + +VANILLA SAUCE. + + 1 cup milk. + 2 (l.) tbsps. sugar. + 2 eggs. + 1/2 tsp. vanilla. + +Put the milk on to boil, beat the yolks and sugar till very light; add +them to the boiling milk; stir over the fire until creamy. Have the +whites beaten, pour over them the boiling mixture; beat thoroughly and +serve at once. + + * * * * * + + +CAKE. + +There are practically two kinds of cake, that made with butter, and +cake made without butter. When these two methods are understood, cake +making becomes easy. A few simple rules must govern all cake making. + +1st. Regulate the heat. Cakes without butter require a quick oven; +with butter, a moderate oven. 2nd. Beat whites and yolks separately. +3rd. Beat butter and sugar to a cream. 4th. Add the whites last. 5th. +Currants should be cleaned, washed and dried and floured (to which +flour some of the baking powder should be added). 6th. Add the milk or +water gradually. 7th. Sift the flour before measuring. 8th. 2 level +tsps. of baking powder are equal to 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of +tartar. 9th. When looking at a cake while baking, do it quickly and +without jarring the stove. 10th. To find out if it is baked, run a +broom straw through the centre, if no dough adheres the cake is done. +11th. If browning too quickly, cover with brown paper and reduce the +heat gradually. This is usually necessary in baking fruit cake. 12th. +Mix cake in an earthen bowl, never in tin. 13th. Soda, cream of +tartar, and baking powder should be crushed and sifted with the flour. +Always attend to the fire before beginning to make cake. Coarse +granulated sugar makes a coarse, heavy cake. If cake browns before +rising the oven is too hot. When it rises in the centre and cracks +open it is too stiff with flour. It should rise first round the edge, +then in the middle and remain level. + + +GINGERBREAD. + + 1 cup molasses. + 2 tbsps. butter. + 1 tsp. ginger. + 1 pint flour. + 1/2 cup sour milk. + 1 tsp. soda. + 1 egg. + +Put the molasses and butter in a pan and set on the stove. When the +mixture boils up add the soda and ginger, and take from the fire +immediately. Add the milk, the well-beaten egg and the flour, beat +well. Bake in a shallow cake pan in a rather quick oven for 20 +minutes. + + +SPICE CAKE. + + 1/4 cup butter. + 1/2 cup molasses. + 1/2 cup sour milk. + 1/2 ssp. salt. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + The juice and rind of 1/2 lemon. + 1/2 cup sugar. + 2-1/2 cups flour. + 1/2 tsp. ginger. + 1 tsp. cinnamon. + 1/4 nutmeg, grated. + 1 egg. + +Beat the butter to a cream. Gradually beat into it the sugar, then the +spice and lemon, next the molasses. Now dissolve the soda in one tbsp. +cold water and stir it into the sour milk; add this, and the egg well +beaten, to the other ingredients. Lastly add the flour, and beat +briskly for 1/2 minute. Pour into a well buttered pan and bake in a +moderate oven for about 50 minutes. + + +SPONGE CAKE. + + 3 eggs. + 2/3 cup flour. + 2/3 cup pulverized sugar. + The grated rind and juice of 1/2 lemon. + +Beat the yolks of the eggs and sugar until very light, now add the +juice and rind of the lemon and half the flour; beat the whites to a +very stiff froth, add the remainder of the flour and the whites +alternately, stirring lightly, pour into a greased cake pan. Bake in a +quick oven from 25 to 30 minutes. + + +ROLL JELLY CAKE. + + 2 eggs. + 1 cup sugar. + 1-1/2 cup flour. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 cup sweet milk. + 3 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + +Beat the eggs separately till very light, then beat them together, add +the sugar, then the milk gradually, then the flour in which the salt +and baking powder have been mixed. Spread very thin on long shallow +pans. Spread with jelly while warm and roll up. + + +SEED CAKE. + + 1 cup butter. + 1 cup milk. + 2 tsps. caraway seeds. + 3 tsps. baking powder. + 1-1/2 cup sugar. + 3 eggs. + 3 cups flour. + +Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of the eggs, +then the seeds; sift the baking powder with the flour; add the flour +and milk alternately a little at a time, lastly the whites which have +been beaten stiff and dry; bake from 40 to 50 minutes. + + +COOKIES (PLAIN). + + 1/2 cup butter. + 1/4 cup milk. + 2 even tsps. baking powder. + 1 cup sugar. + 1 egg. + Flour to roll out thin. + +Cream the butter, add the sugar, milk, egg beaten lightly, and the +baking powder mixed with two cups of flour, then enough more flour to +roll out. Roll a little at a time. Cut out. Bake about 10 minutes. + + +LAYER CAKE. + + 1/2 cup butter. + 1 cup sugar. + 2-1/2 cups flour. + 3 eggs. + 2/3 cup milk. + 4 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + +Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, then add the yolks of the eggs +gradually; then the flour and milk alternately (sifting the baking +powder with the flour), add the well-beaten whites last. Bake in 3 +tins in a moderate oven about 15 minutes. (Flavoring has been omitted +in this recipe as the cake is more delicate by allowing the filling to +provide the flavor.) + + +PLAIN FRUIT CAKE. + + 3 eggs. + 1 cup milk. + 1 oz. candied lemon. + 4 (l.) tsps. baking powder. + 2/3 cup butter. + 3 (l.) cups flour. + 1 cup raisins. + +Mix as directed in preceding recipe, only mixing the fruit with the +flour and baking powder. + + +ICING. + + Whites of 2 eggs. + 1/2 lb. powdered sugar. + 1 tsp. of lemon juice. + +Have the material very cold. Break the eggs carefully, beat the whites +until frothy (not stiff); sift the sugar in gradually, beating all the +while; add the lemon juice and continue beating until fine and white, +and stiff enough to stand alone. Keep in a cool place, when using, +spread with a knife dipped in cold water. If used for ornamenting +press through a tube. It may be divided and different colorings added. + + +BOILED ICING. + + 1 cup granulated sugar. + 1/3 cup boiling water. + 1/4 tsp. cream of tartar. + White of 1 egg. + +Boil the sugar and water together until it hangs from the spoon. Beat +the egg to a stiff froth, add the cream of tartar, then pour on the +syrup, beating all the while. Beat until cold and thick. + + * * * * * + + +PASTRY. + +Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it +should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many +food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost +of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary +place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a +popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is +more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light +crust. In order to secure satisfactory results in pastry +making--especially puff pastry--three things should be observed: (1) +have all the materials cold; (2) use as little liquid as possible; (3) +handle lightly and quickly. Pastry should be very cold when it is put +into the oven. Have the oven very hot. + + +PUFF PASTE. + + 1 lb. flour. + 1 lb. butter. + Enough ice water to make into a very stiff dough. + +If the butter is salty, wash it as follows: Scald a large bowl, then +fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse +them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to +the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice +water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and +elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard. +Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife +or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water +until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or +marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until about 1/4 inch +thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over +this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times. +If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold +plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so +as to keep it in layers--even when cutting off the roll keep the +layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For +patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided +it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin +as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a +cover for chicken pie. + + +PLAIN PASTRY. + + 2 cups flour. + 1 cup butter or lard. + +Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water +to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place +for at least 1/2 hour before baking. + + +PASTE FOR MEAT PIES, ETC. + + 1 pint flour. + 1/2 tsp. soda. + 1 tsp. cream tartar + Or 2 level tsps. baking powder. + 1 egg. + 1/2 tsp. salt. + 1 tsp. cream tartar. + 1/4 cup butter or dripping. + 1 cup milk. + +Mix as for biscuit or shortcake. + + * * * * * + + +MISCELLANEOUS. + + +SHEPHERD'S PIE. + +Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1 +cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock +thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut the meat in small pieces and put +in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over +the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and +milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and +bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown. + + +BEEF STEW. + +Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove +all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about +1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry. +When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2 +small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the +fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add +the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and +pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water +and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer +until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil +more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for +dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely +and cook just 10 minutes. + + +STUFFED TOMATOES. + +Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2 +tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread +crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from +the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the +pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp +and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes with this +mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the +tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley, +and serve. + + +STEWED KIDNEYS. + +Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and +let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a +saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion +juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the +frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and +smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer +1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and +pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be +prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is +prepared. + + +CREAMED EGGS. + +Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of +toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then +part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the +yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat +this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for +about 3 minutes, then serve. + + +BUTTERED TOAST. + +Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to +draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a +plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving. + + +CROUTONS (FOR SOUP). + +Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into +1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to +brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt. + + +FRENCH TOAST. + + 1 egg. + 1 cup milk. + 1 ssp. salt. + 4 to 6 slices of stale bread. + +Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and +milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well +buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a +little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the +other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar. + + +SANDWICHES. + +Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the +fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon +juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter +creamed. Cut bread--at least 1 day old--in very thin slices, spread +with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices +together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches +may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little +of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.) + + * * * * * + + +A FEW GENERAL HINTS. + + +HOW TO BLANCH ALMONDS. + +Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in +the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub +between the hands. + + +TO CLEAN CURRANTS. + +Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the +flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer +and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well +in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and +dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover +closely, and they are ready for use at any time. + + +SERVING FOOD. + +Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be +served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced +lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the +attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons +should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets, +carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with +a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast +cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes. + +Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light +puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to +vary the decoration. + + +CANNING AND PRESERVING. + +Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any +fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general +rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good +fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars--test by filling with +water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and +are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so +that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into +them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer +for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit +slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up +with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to +cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of +water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking. +Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency, +screw on the top loosely--so as to allow the gas to escape--and place +in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the +jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10 +minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils. +Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at +once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by +cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made +by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order +to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water +on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit, +or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the +syrup, fruit or jelly. Always see that the tops are screwed on +tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not +be done until the fruit has become cold. + + +PRESERVING. + +Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise +the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights +of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes. + + +JELLIES. + +Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar. +Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for +jelly. Cook the fruit--currants may be mashed and drained without +cooking--until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the +morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar +in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent +burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and +boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a +spoon. + + * * * * * + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS. + +Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion +of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the +proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats. +Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and +money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh +fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious, +economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of +food--different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry--cooked in various +ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially +pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to +use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled) +is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over +exertion of any kind. + +See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn +before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for +porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before +using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the +water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have +it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish +cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish +cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to +dry--if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for +glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for +kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid +burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of +boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day. + +All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept +scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special +attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept +thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the +end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not +have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots +and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be +filled with cold water if not washed immediately after using. Never +put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the +handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all +refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse +pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of +carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put +pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it +only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more +difficult to clean. + + +DISH WASHING. + +Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of +the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of +china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of +housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to +know how everything pertaining to household management should be done, +and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others. + +One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules +may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives, +forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and +arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never +pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires +separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with +soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the +glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways +so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once, which +will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much +brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut, +use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry +such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing, +and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and +the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have +contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver +and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in +the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often, +especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the +water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the +kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on +the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with +bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold +in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any +circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash +the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish +towels, dish cloth and dish pan. + +Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and +scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place +them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor +of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become +rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours, +then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub +the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits +of turpentine. + + +VENTILATION AND SANITATION. + +As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that +one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family +supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few +housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the +general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book +prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of +the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the +rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1. +See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either +natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry. +Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air, +and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly +cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if +possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4. +Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause +unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a +special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper +temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the +housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation +of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be +neglected. + +One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of +ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an +abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts, +either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and +odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of +the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the +cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be +thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few +inches at the bottom, or--as in some double or outside windows--by a +little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air +in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling, +which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for +foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air. + +If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open +a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window +will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a +draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room +quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more +desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the +sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two +chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of +fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in +a bedroom more than twenty-four hours. + +When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during +the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the +bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as +to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of +the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been +occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and +bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which +has been occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should +be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to +prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the +night. + +Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to +prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the +house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near +the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a +draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the +purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen +chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are +placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very +cold weather. + + +LAUNDRY WORK. + +As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water, +a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure +water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great +absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found. +The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air; +among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and +creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain +water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water +absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking +into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other +compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these +substances, forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such +water is known as "hard." + +Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according +to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to +hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the +fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface +of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why +"hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much +better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or +sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely +upon soap for cleansing. + +Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing +soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have +a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything +stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly +than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised. +Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and +added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too +frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual +cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia +or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in +removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing +silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot +water. + +_Removing Stains._--All spots and stains should be taken out before +the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap. +Fruit stains are the most frequent and the most indelible, when +neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by +boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour +boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are +allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a +bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains +should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk +may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains +usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform. + +Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will +resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin, +besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water. +Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains, +although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in +cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is +Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is +composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2 +quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as +they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and +bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions +to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted +woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white +tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with +a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the +nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear +water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid +water; hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less +soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used. +Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood +is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to +soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water--2 +tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If +applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out. + +The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where +colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of +soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some +hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green +color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water. +Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered. +Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of +chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth +be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches +the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but +success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils +may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha, +chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot +alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the +point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene +before water and soap touch them. + +Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored +fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated +with oxalic, muriatic or hot tartaric acid, applied in the same +manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for +some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some +will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with +acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch +the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in +one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will +furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a +little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower +the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears. +Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia +water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric +protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight +stain. + +Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron +rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the +result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been +imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes +thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt, +and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is +unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in +the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year +is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of +blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of +the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching, +for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer. +When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available, use a bleaching +powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can +in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the +acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot +water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot +water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled +portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll +the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover +the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed, +and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are +unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long +soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric. + +Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the +materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional +disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to +be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes. +This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the +deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of +the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed. +The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little +or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and +remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot +than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete +removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful +of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a +bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling water over the +clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because +the temperature is so quickly lowered. + +The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of +all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of +alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while +the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali +may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and +disinfectant. + + +WASHING OF WOOLLENS. + +All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different +waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be +borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form +of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good +white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make +each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at +the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the +original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference +to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on +account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be +used to make the water very soft. + +Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly +brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen +fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool +should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through a +wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become +twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the +article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the +whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly +before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze, +for the teeth become knotted and hard. + + +COLORED COTTONS. + +Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt +will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each +washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time +renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after +the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a +matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware. +The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth +of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried +thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly +wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water +and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the +disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place. +Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just +enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap. + +Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if +kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the +bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer +may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and a +few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the +kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease, +lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial +action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire +house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health. + +All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed +generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The +kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning +with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly +flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for +cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator. + + * * * * * + + +CARING FOR INVALIDS. + +One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the +ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not +vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut +flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to +avoid a draft--especially when airing the room. If the room is too +small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to +raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this +put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain +until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn +the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of +either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but +injurious. + +One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect +cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient. +Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom +with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and +prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire +by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire. +Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is +whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not +consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome +varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders +concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or +cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and +a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most +objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow +fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick +room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a +sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as +the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion. + +One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough +knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best +methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them +to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has +been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is +necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the +hunger--neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come +under the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the +other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued +illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to +supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated +form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes +it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate +digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not +only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either +lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing. +Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly, +albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together), +and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry +toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence, +any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich +puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided. + +People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily +digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon +and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals, +and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or +milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of +gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for +invalids. + + +BEVERAGES. + +_Barley Water._--Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold +water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of +water, and allow it to boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain +and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be +added while boiling if desired. + +_Apple Water._--Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a +bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to +taste; serve when cold. + +_Flax Seed Tea._--One-half cupful of flax seed--which has been +carefully washed in cold water--to 1 quart of boiling water; boil +slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to +remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon +juice and sugar. + +_Lemonade._--Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the +lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or +cold as required. + +_Orange Water._--Made the same as lemonade. + + +MEAT EXTRACTIVES. + +_Beef Juice_ is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through, +then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice +is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little +salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry +toast. + +_Beef Tea._--Cut juicy pieces of steak--the round steak is the +best--into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to +160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press, +strain, and flavor with salt and pepper. + +_Beef Tea_ (_No. 2_).--Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass +fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour, +stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of +water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point. +Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the +jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer; +allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with +the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef +stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.) + +_Beef Essence._--(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of +finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of +soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60 +grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool +place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat +slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces +of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It +should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred +warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel +placed in hot water. + +_Chicken Broth._--Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the +chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a +fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or +crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the +skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the +meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer +till the meat is tender. A few minutes before removing from the fire +add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain, +and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary +quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg. +Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine +cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may +be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient +can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and +moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared +with the egg. + +_Mutton Broth._--Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour +over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very +red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain, +season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may +be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with +cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is +not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed +by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by +passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken +off with a spoon. + +_Oatmeal Gruel._--To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of +oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without +milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir +well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan. +Then boil the water. + +_Egg Soup._--Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double +boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain through a sieve and add 1/2 pint +of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir +gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste, +and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used. + +_Albumen and Milk._--Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk. +Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well +for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A +pinch of salt may be added if desired. + +_Egg-Nog._--Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar, +and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2 +teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk +of the egg makes it more palatable. + +_Orange Soup._--Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind, +and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the +liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two +level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold +water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the +boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and +stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used +for this soup.) + +_Arrowroot Gruel._--Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a +little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds; +take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of +lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until +very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint +of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.) + +_Rice Water or Jelly._--Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls +of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and +sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into +a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink, +add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little +stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot +or cold. + +_Stewed Figs._--Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold +water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point, +and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until +the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down +the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve +cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them. + +_Jellied Chicken._--Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint +it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4 +inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then +put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being +careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the +chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the +meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin +and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or +mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the +meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the +chicken when cooking.) + +_Raw Meat Sandwiches._--Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped +very fine and rubbed through a hair sieve or scraped from a slice of +steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of +sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of +brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be +added if the flavor is liked.) + +_Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc._ (See +recipes in preceding chapters.) + + * * * * * + + +A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN. + +"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school +children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in +boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is +from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are +undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the +body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands, +therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food +must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to +yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food +should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of +formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of +dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later +life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in +circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the +accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits, +which are often a serious obstacle to normal development. + +"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by +the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anaemia and chlorosis, +which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a +faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to +consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical +constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember +that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the +period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the +individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage +success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than +success in mental attainments." (Thompson.) + +An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which +becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from +carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of +habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals +should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before +each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably +without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be +required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to +hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or +game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after +meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at +food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite, +increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion. + +The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for +the reason given in the preceding sentence and for its effect upon +the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the +public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more +often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate +children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as +for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the +following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece +of whole wheat bread and butter should be given--if they +awaken--during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor, +and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be +given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and +butter, between meals. + +These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two +years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes +two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth +must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of +vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made +tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable +appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and +vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill +attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating +indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking +for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain +them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome +foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it. + + * * * * * + + +SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET. + +If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any +task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not +expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the +child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a +roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the +first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of +wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and +butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the +day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some +form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted, +should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as +pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a +porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice, +tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of +preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good +bowl of nutritious broth--or soup--with bread or crackers, may be +substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found +best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this +case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass +of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five. + +Some of the more important articles of school diet require special +mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical +Dietetics may prove helpful:-- + +_Bread._--"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must +not be too coarse. The advantage of this bread for children consists +in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than +is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served +with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children +need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are +very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however, +when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them." + +_Milk._--"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of +puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children +should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass +of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking. +Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a +dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of +milk.'" + +_Meat._--"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may +sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are +supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly +growing children." + +_Sweets._--"The greater number of children have a natural craving for +sweets." + +The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption +of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The +craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true +indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be +admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most +children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main +difficulty with such forms of sugar, however, is that children are +not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and +the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming +very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy, +which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much, +with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing +the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely +excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to +develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years. +(Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.) + +_Exercise._--As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children +disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when +taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the +romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often, +though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of +exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic +attack. + +Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is +the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated +appetites. + + * * * * * + + +INFANTS' DIET. + +One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science +course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject +requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies +the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the +foundation upon which the future physical structure is built. + +It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and +attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids, +have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more +than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the +following suggestions may prove helpful. + +The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and +quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as +well as the comfort of the household. + +Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least, +seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to +assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the +child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's +supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's +milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than +human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline, +this must be corrected by the use of lime water. + +There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk, +therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following +proportions have been submitted as a digestible form of preparing +cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):-- + + Cream, 2 tbsps. + Milk, 1 tbsp. + Lime water, 2 tbsps. + Milk-sugar water, 3 tbsps. + +One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day, +and once or twice at night. + +After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to +one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be +given at once. + +The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water +and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should +be:-- + + 3 tbsps. milk. + 1 tbsp. cream. + 1 tbsp. lime water. + 3 tbsps. sugar water. + +When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be +increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding. + + +BARLEY WATER. + + 2 tbsps. pearl barley. + 1 pt. boiling water. + +Wash the barley carefully. Pour over it the boiling water. Let it +simmer for two hours. Strain and sweeten with a pinch of sugar of +milk. + + +MILK-SUGAR WATER. + + 1/2 oz. sugar of milk. + 1/2 pt. boiling water. + +Dissolve, and keep closely covered. It will not keep long, so should +be made when required to use. + + +LIME WATER. + +Take a lump of lime weighing about one ounce. Put in a bottle with a +quart of cold water (which has been boiled). Shake the bottle well +until the lime is dissolved, and let it stand for 12 hours. Pour the +clear liquid into another bottle, being careful not to disturb the +sediment. Keep carefully corked. Water will only absorb a certain +quantity of lime, so there is no danger of its being too strong. + +As cow's milk is more difficult to digest than mother's milk, it is +sometimes necessary to substitute barley water in place of the lime +water and milk, using the same amount of cream as given in recipe. + + +MALTED FOOD. + + 2 oz. wheat flour or barley meal. + 1-3/4 qts. water. + 1 tsp. extract of malt. + +Mix the flour to a paste with a little water, gradually add a quart of +the water; put it in a double boiler and boil 10 minutes. Dissolve the +malt extract in 4 tbsps. of the water (cold). Lift out the inner +vessel and add the malt and remainder of the cold water. Let it stand +15 minutes, replace, and boil again for 15 minutes. Strain through a +wire gauze strainer. (Half this quantity may be made.) + +This preparation is used when both barley water and lime-water +disagree. It must always be given with milk. It prevents the large +tough curds forming, which is such an objectionable feature in using +cow's milk. + + +PEPTONIZED MILK. + +In cases of especially weak digestion it may be necessary to peptonize +the milk, which may be done as follows: Add 5 grains of extract of +pancreas and 15 grains of baking soda to 1 pint of milk. (Tablets of +pancreatin and soda may be used.) + +After adding the peptonizing material put the milk in a double boiler +or in a vessel which may be set in a larger one, holding water, as hot +as the hand can bear being dipped into quickly, or about 115 deg. Fah. +Leave the milk in the hot water about 20 minutes, then place on the +ice. If heated too long the milk will taste bitter. + +The preparation given in recipe No. 1, or with the barley water added, +may be peptonized. + + +STERILIZED OR PASTEURIZED MILK. + +(_See Milk, Chapter V._) + +Put the amount of milk required for a meal into pint or half pint +bottles, allowing for the number of times the child is to be fed in 24 +hours. Use cotton batting as a stopper. Place a wire frame, or invert +a perforated tin pie plate, in the bottom of a saucepan; stand the +bottles on this, pour around them enough water to come well above the +milk, cover the saucepan or kettle, and when the water boils lift the +saucepan from the fire and allow the bottles to remain in the hot +water for 1 hour. Keep in the ice box or stand them in cold water +until needed. If milk is to be used during a long journey it will be +necessary to repeat the above operation three times, letting the milk +cool between each time. + +Unless the milk is perfectly fresh, and has been handled with great +care, it is safer to sterilize or pasteurize it. The former, if any +doubt is entertained as to the quality of the milk, the latter in +every case. + + +TEMPERATURE OF FOOD. + +Food should be "milk warm," or about 99 deg. Fah., when given to a baby. +Hot food is very injurious. + + +NURSING BOTTLES AND FEEDING. + +Have two plain bottles with rubber tops, _without tubes_. Bottles with +ounces and tablespoonfuls marked on them can be purchased, and are a +great convenience in measuring the amount of food required. + +After using the bottle, empty the remaining milk; rinse in cold water, +then in _scalding water_. + +If particles of milk adhere to the bottle use coarse salt or raw +potato cut in small pieces. If the glass looks cloudy, add a little +ammonia to the water. Turn the rubber tops inside out and scrub with a +stiff brush; boil them every alternate day for 10 minutes. + +_Absolute cleanliness is a necessity_ in the care of a baby's food, +bottles and rubber tops. + +The bottle should be held, while the baby is feeding, in such a +position that the top is full of milk. If air is sucked in with the +milk stomach-ache will likely result. + +Starchy food should not be given to a child until it is able to +masticate. (See digestion of starch, Chap. VIII.) + +Arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, etc., _must not be given to infants_. + + +FLOUR BALL. + +Put a bowlful of flour into a strong cloth, tie it up like a pudding, +and place it in a kettle of boiling water. Boil for 10 or 12 hours. +When boiled turn it out of the cloth and cut away the soft outside +coating. When cool, grate the hard inside portion and use a +teaspoonful at each feeding, for a baby 8 months old, increasing the +amount for an older child. This may be prepared in the same manner as +cornstarch or flour. The long boiling converts the starch into +dextrine, which is more easily digested than starch. This is +especially valuable in cases of diarrhoea, and may be used instead +of barley gruel as a food. + + +OATMEAL GRUEL. + +Pound a cupful of oatmeal in a pestle or on a bread board. Put in a +bowl and pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Stir it up, then let the +mixture settle for a few minutes. Pour off the milky fluid, repeat +this process. Boil this water for an hour, adding a pinch of salt, and +use it to dilute the milk instead of water. + +A thicker gruel may be made from oatmeal by allowing 1 tablespoonful +to a cup of boiling water. Let it boil 1 hour, then strain through a +wire strainer. + + +FARINA GRUEL. + + 1 tbsp. farina. + 2 cups boiling water. + A spk. of salt. + +Cook for 20 minutes; use as directed for oatmeal. + + +BEEF JUICE. + +(_See page 145._) + +_Beef juice_ is sometimes ordered for delicate babies. For a child 9 +months old, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls may be given once a day. + + +ALBUMINIZED FOOD. + +When milk cannot be taken, albuminized food proves an excellent +substitute. + +Shake the white of 1 egg with 1/2 a pint of water (filtered or boiled +and cooled) in a glass jar until they are thoroughly mixed. Add a few +grains of salt. + +Children do not require a great variety in their food. Give one +article of diet at a time and see how it agrees before trying another. + +After a child is a year old the various cereals may be given as +porridge instead of gruel, with the addition of a little sugar. + +Remember, all cereals should be thoroughly cooked (see page 83). + + +BISCUITS. + +Gluten, soda, oatmeal or Graham biscuits may be soaked in milk or +given alone. Do not give the fancy or sweet biscuits to young +children. + + +EGGS. + +A properly boiled egg (see page 69) may be given every alternate day +to a child 1 year old. + + +JUNKET. + +Junket is much better for young children than custards or puddings, +and sometimes agrees well with babies. + +Take 1 pint of milk, heat it to 98 deg. Fah., or milk warm. Add 1 +teaspoonful of rennet and 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Stir all together +and let it stand in a warm place until it becomes as thick as jelly. +Remove at once to a cool place or whey will appear. + + +BAKED POTATOES. + +Potatoes should not be given to a child under 2 years old in any other +form than baked. The potash salts are the most valuable constituent, +and are lost when they are peeled and boiled. They should be dry and +mealy. A little salt, butter or cream should be added. + + +MACARONI. + +(_See page 85._) + +Macaroni is an excellent food for young children. + + +FRUIT. + +Baked apples and the juice of an orange are the only fruits which +should be given to children under two years of age. + + +RICE. + +Rice is an excellent food for young children, but not for infants. + + +VENTILATION. + +Foul air is injurious to grown persons, but it is infinitely more +dangerous to the sensitive organization of a child. Therefore special +attention should be given to the ventilation of rooms occupied by a +baby (see page 132). + +Fresh air, wholesome food, regular bathing, and plenty of sleep will +insure the normal growth of the average baby, and are within reach of +every one who has the care of young children. + +The writer is indebted to Miss Scovil, Superintendent of Newport +Hospital, and one of the associate editors of the _Ladies' Home +Journal_, for many of the above hints concerning the diet of infants. + + +EMERGENCIES. + +As frequent accidents occur during the performance of household +duties, a few suggestions as to how slight injuries should be treated +may prove useful to the young housekeeper. + +_Cuts._--A cut should be washed with cold water, covered with a small +pad of cotton, bound up, and left alone. Should matter form, the +bandage must be taken off, the wound bathed with carbolized water, +1-80, and a little carbolized vaseline spread on a bit of linen and +laid over it. The washing and dressing should be repeated two or three +times a day if there is much discharge. + +_Bruises._--A flannel wrung out of very hot water, and laid on a +bruise, relieves the soreness. + +For bruises on the face, apply ice. Brown paper wet in vinegar is an +old-fashioned remedy. If the skin is broken, treat as a wound, with +carbolized water and carbolized vaseline. + +_Sprains._--Both hot and cold treatment is recommended. Immerse the +joint in water as hot as can be borne. Keep up the temperature by +gradually adding more hot water. Let it soak for an hour or more. Then +wrap in warm flannel, and surround with hot water bags or bottles. + +_Stings._--Bathe the part in ammonia, or baking soda and water; wet a +cloth in the same, and bind over it. + +_Burns._--The best household remedies for burns are baking soda and +carbolized vaseline. For slight burns mix the soda to a paste with +water, and spread thickly over the part; cover with linen or old +cotton. This may be kept wet by squeezing water over it. If shreds of +clothing adhere to a burn, they should be soaked with oil, and not +pulled off until softened. If the skin is gone, spread carbolized +vaseline on linen, and bind on the part until the doctor arrives. + +In burns caused by acids, water should not be applied to the parts. +Cover with dry baking soda. + +If caused by an alkali, such as lye, ammonia, or quick-lime, use an +acid, as vinegar or lemon juice, diluted. + +_Poisoning._--For poison ivy, saturate a cloth in a solution of baking +soda, or ammonia and water, and lay over the part. + +When poison has been swallowed, the first thing to do is to get it out +of the stomach. Secondly, to prevent what remains from doing more +mischief. Give an emetic at once. One tbsp. of salt in a glass of +_tepid_ water; 1 tsp. of mustard, or 1 tsp. of powdered alum in a +glass of tepid water. A tsp. of wine of ipecac, followed by warm +water. Repeat any of these three or four times if necessary. The +quantities given are for children; larger doses may be given to +adults. It is well to give a dose of castor oil after the danger is +over, to carry off any remnants of the poison that may have lodged in +the intestines. + +After a poison has burned the mouth and throat, plenty of milk may be +given, also flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch gruel. + +For drowning and other serious accidents, see Public School +Physiology. + + +FURNISHING A CLASS-ROOM. + +The furnishing of a class-room should be so complete that each pupil +should be able to attend to the appointed task without delay. The +furniture should consist of a stove, or range, gas stove if more +convenient, a hot water tank or boiler, sink, table (side), towel +rack, 2 dozen chairs, or seats with tablet arms, a cupboard or kitchen +"dresser" for table ware, a large cupboard or arrangement for lockers, +in which caps, aprons, etc., should be kept, a large table--horseshoe +shape is the most satisfactory--with drawers, and space for rolling +pin, bread board, etc., underneath. The table should be large enough +to allow at least 2 ft. 6 in. for each pupil. Twenty pupils is the +limit of a practice class. On the table should be placed at regular +intervals, 10 gas burners with frame. The teacher's table should stand +in the opening at the end of the table so that she may see each pupil +while at work, and when demonstrating may be seen by each pupil. + +The following list of utensils will be found sufficient for practice +work for a class of 20 pupils. + + +EARTHEN, CHINA AND GLASS WARE. + + 1 dinner set. + 2 quart pitchers. + 2 pint pitchers. + 2 small oval baking dishes. + 2 small round baking dishes. + 4 4-quart bowls, with lips. + 6 2-quart bowls, with lips. + 4 1-quart bowls. + 12 baking cups. + 6 kitchen cups. + 2 small platters. + 2 medium size platters. + 2 deep pie plates. + 6 shallow pie plates. + 2 jelly moulds. + 1 teapot. + 1 dozen quart gem jars. + 1 dozen pint gem jars. + 6 4-quart stone jars or crocks. + 1 dozen fancy plates, and glass dishes for serving. + +WOODENWARE. + + 1 wash-board. + 12 small bread boards. + 12 rolling pins. + 2 chopping trays. + 2 potato mashers. + 1 potato ricer. + 1 water pail. + 1 scrubbing pail. + 1 pail or bucket for refuse. + 1 flour bucket, with cover. + 6 wooden spoons--small. + 1 2-gallon ice cream freezer. + 1 broom. + 1 whisk-broom. + 1 crumb pan and brush. + 1 floor scrubbing brush. + 6 small scrubbing brushes. + 1 stove brush. + 1 pastry brush. + 1 small refrigerator. + Spice boxes. + Dish mops. + Lemon squeezers, etc. + +AGATE WARE. + + 4 double boilers. + 2 4-quart kettles. + 2 2-quart saucepans. + 4 1-quart saucepans. + 4 pt. saucepans. + 2 oval pudding dishes. + 1 4-quart preserving kettle. + 1 hand basin. + 1 tea kettle. + +IRON WARE. + + 1 spider. + 1 griddle. + 1 pan for meat. + 1 pan for fish. + 1 meat fork. + 1 can opener. + 1 meat cleaver. + 2 wooden-handled spoons. + 1 braising pan (cover). + Scales, etc. + +TIN AND WIRE WARE. + + 2 large graters. + 1 nutmeg grater. + 12 flour dredges. + 12 measuring cups. + 1 funnel. + 1 basting spoon. + 1 wire broiler, for toast. + 2 wire broilers, for steak. + 1 wire soap dish. + 3 Dover egg beaters. + 3 small wire strainers. + 1 large wire strainer. + 1 flour scoop. + 2 flour sifters. + 1 gravy strainer. + 1 colander. + 2 dish pans. + 2 2-qt. milk cans. + 1 quart measure. + 1 pint measure. + 1 steamer. + 6 small bread pans. + 6 small jelly moulds. + 1 set gem pans. + 1 doz. muffin rings. + 2 dustpans. + 2 plain cake cutters. + 1 doughnut cutter. + 1 small biscuit cutter. + 1 frying basket. + 1 dipper. + 2 long, shallow cake tins. + 2 egg whisks. + 1 round cake tin. + 1 wire frame. + 1 vegetable cutter. + +MISCELLANEOUS. + + 1 doz. dish towels. + 2 floor cloths. + 12 holders. + Cheese cloth. + Pudding cloth. + Needles. + Twine. + Scissors. + Skewers. + Screw driver. + Corkscrew. + 1 doz. knives and forks. + Hammer. + Tacks and Nails. + Ironing sheet and holder. + Coal scuttle. + Fire shovel. + Coal sieve. + Ash hod. + Flat irons. + Paper for cake tins. + Wrapping paper. + Small tub for laundry work. + 6 tablespoons. + 2 doz. teaspoons. + +While this may seem a formidable list, it will not be found expensive. +Some of the above articles may be omitted and others substituted. It +must be remembered that the utensils will be well cared for, +consequently will last for many years. In country schools, or where +gas is not available, oil stoves may be used. In some schools, where +space is limited, one small table is used, two or more pupils +demonstrating the lesson under the supervision of the teacher, the +pupils taking this duty in alternation. The remainder of the class +observe and take notes. + +The cost of material is trifling. It should not average more than +fifty cents per pupil per annum, and for a large number should average +less than this amount. + +The Boston school kitchens are, many of them, furnished at a cost of +from $200 to $300. A fair average cost for Ontario should be about +$175. + + * * * * * + + +PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS. + +During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a +typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain +number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the +choice of food for each meal. + +State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost. +Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how +the meal should be served. _System_, neatness and promptness should be +especially emphasized. Clean table linen--no matter how coarse--is +possible for every one. A dish of fruit or flowers, if only a bunch of +green foliage, improves the appearance of the table. + +During the school course a special lesson should be devoted to setting +the table and serving meals, with and without a waitress, so as to +give a knowledge of how a meal should be served, no matter what the +pupil's position in life may be or what part she may have to perform. + + +A FEW GENERAL HINTS ON SETTING THE TABLE. + +Although every housekeeper has her own method for serving meals, a few +general principles govern all properly regulated service. When setting +the table, cover first with a canton-flannel or felt cloth, in order +to prevent noise and protect the table. Place each article in its +proper place and not in a confused "jumble." See that the tablecloth +is spread smoothly, that the corners are of equal length, that the +crease--if the cloth has been folded instead of rolled--is exactly in +the centre. Place the fruit or flowers in the centre of the table. + +For each person place knife, spoon and glass on the right, fork and +napkin on the left. Place the glass at the point of the knife. Turn +the edge of the knife towards the plate and the fork tines up, the +spoon with the bowl up. If soup is to be served, place a square of +bread or a roll on top of the napkin or between the folds. Place the +pepper and salt at the corners of the table, unless individual salts +are used, when they should be placed at the head of the plates, where +the dessert spoon may be placed--the handle towards the right--for +convenience. + +The general rule in serving simple family meals, with or without a +waitress, is for the hostess to serve the porridge and coffee at +breakfast; the soup, salad and dessert at dinner, and pour the tea at +the evening meal. When luncheon is served in the middle of the day the +hostess usually does the greater part of the serving, as luncheon is +considered to be the most informal meal of the day. + + +A FEW HINTS FOR WAITRESSES. + +Learn to move quickly and quietly. Be scrupulously clean and neat in +every detail of dress and habit. Before serving a meal see that hands +and finger nails are clean. Always have a fresh white apron ready to +put on before the meal is announced. Look over the table and see that +everything is in its place before announcing a meal. Fill the glasses +with water either before the family enter the dining room or +immediately after they are seated. Lift the covers from hot dishes and +turn them over at once in order to prevent the steam from dropping on +the cloth. Take the plate from the host or hostess, and place before +each person from the right side--keep the thumb well under the plate. +When passing anything from which the persons seated at table help +themselves, such as vegetables, sauces, etc., always go to the left, +so as to leave the right hand of the one to be served free. Keep a +watchful eye over the table and pass anything apparently required. + +Learn to receive instructions from the hostess in an undertone. Do not +get excited and try to do too many things at once. It is an +accomplishment to be a good waitress, as it requires special +refinement and deftness, which are scarcely compatible with an untidy +nature. + +When serving meals without a waitress, the daughters of the house +should consider it their special privilege to save the mother any +annoyance or discomfort during the meal time. Never allow dishes, +which have been used, to accumulate on the table or allow the table to +become disordered. As much of the food as possible should be placed on +the table before the family are seated, and the plates or dishes +removed at once after using. No matter how simple the meal may be, +every housekeeper should see that it is served neatly and on time. +Teachers may exercise a far-reaching influence in the refining of home +life by impressing upon the pupils the importance of these--too often +considered--minor matters, and by giving minute instructions in the +setting of table and serving the meal. One carefully planned +_practice_ lesson will convey more knowledge of such matters than any +number of lectures or pages of theory. + + * * * * * + + +CONSIDERATION OF MENUS. + +The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74, +prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so +as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods +in combination. _It must be remembered that the prices given are in +excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less +than is given in these illustrations._ The more expensive menus have +been omitted. The writer of the article says:-- + +"In planning a well balanced diet the following points must be +considered:-- + +(1) The use of any considerable amount of fat meat or starchy food +should be offset by the use of some material rich in protein. Thus, if +roast pork is to be eaten for dinner, veal, fish, or lean beef might +well be eaten for breakfast or supper, or both. Bean soup furnishes a +considerable amount of protein, while bouillon, consomme, and tomato +soup are practically useless as a source of nutriment. Skim milk also +furnishes protein, with but very little accompanying fats and +carbohydrates to increase the fuel value. + +(2) The use of lean meats or fish for all three meals would require +the use of such foods as rice, tapioca, or cornstarch pudding, +considerable quantities of sugar and butter, and more vegetables, in +order to furnish sufficient fuel value. + +(3) Since flour, sugar, and butter or lard enter very largely into +pastries and desserts, the larger the quantities of these dishes that +are consumed the larger does the fuel value tend to become as compared +with the protein." + +The principal classes of food materials may be roughly grouped as +follows as regards the proportion of protein to fuel value, beginning +with those which have the largest proportion of protein and ending +with those which contain little or no protein:-- + + Foods containing a large amount of protein as + compared with the fuel value. + + Fish; + veal; + lean beef, such as shank, shoulder, canned corned, + round, neck, and chuck; + skim milk. + + + Foods containing a medium amount of protein. + + Fowl; + eggs; + mutton leg and shoulder; + beef, fatter cuts, such as rib, loin, rump, flank, and brisket; + whole milk; + beans and peas; + mutton chuck and loin; + cheese; + lean pork; + oatmeal and other breakfast foods; + flour; + bread, etc. + + + Foods containing little or no protein. + + Vegetables and fruit; + fat pork; + rice; + tapioca; + starch; + butter and other fats and oils; + sugar, syrups. + + +THE MENUS. + +To illustrate the ways in which milk may be combined with other food +materials, to form daily dietaries with about the amount of protein +and the fuel value called for by the standard for men at moderate +muscular work, a few menus are given in the following pages. These +menus are intended to show how approximately the same nutritive value +may be obtained by food combinations differing widely as regards the +number, kind, and price of the food materials used to make up three +daily meals. They also illustrate how the cost of the daily menu may +vary greatly with the kind and variety of materials purchased, though +the nutritive value remains the same. These sample menus should not, +however, be regarded as in any sense "models" to be followed in actual +practice. The daily menus for any family will necessarily vary with +the market supply, the season, and the relative expensiveness of +different food materials, as well as with the tastes and purse of the +consumers. The point to which we wish here to draw especial attention +is that the prudent buyer of foods for family consumption can not +afford to wholly neglect their nutritive value in making such +purchases. + +With reference to the following daily menus, several points must be +definitely borne in mind. (1) The amounts given represent about what +would be called for in a family equivalent to four full-grown men at +ordinary manual labor, such as machinists, carpenters, mill-workers, +farmers, truckmen, etc., according to the usually accepted standards. +Sedentary people would require somewhat less than the amounts here +given. (2) Children as a rule may be considered as having "moderate +muscular exercise," and it may easily be understood that the +14-year-old boy eats as much as his father who is engaged in business +or professional occupation, both requiring, according to the tentative +standard, 0.8 of the food needed by a man with moderate muscular work. +(3) It is not assumed that any housewife will find it convenient to +follow exactly the proportions suggested in the menus. The purpose is +to show her about what amounts and proportions of food materials would +give the required nutrients. + +A family equivalent to four men having little muscular +exercise--_i.e._, men with sedentary occupation--would require but +about 0.8 the quantities indicated in the following menus. It would be +very doubtful, however, if they would eat proportionally less of every +food material. It would, in fact, be more probable that the amounts of +meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, and bread eaten would be reduced in a much +greater proportion than fruit, pastry, coffee, etc. + + +PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF MILK AND OTHER FOODS. + +_Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials for +10 cts._ + + _Food Material._ _Lbs. Oz._ + + Whole Milk, 10 cts. per qt. 2 0 + " " 8 " 2 8 + " " 7 " 2 14 + " " 6 " 3 5 + " " 5 " 4 0 + " " 4 " 5 0 + Skim " 3 " 6 11 + Skim " 2 " 10 0 + Butter, 24 cts. per lb. 0 7 + Cheese, 16 " 0 10 + Beef, round, 12 cts. per lb. 0 13 + " sirloin, 18 " 0 9 + Mutton, loin, 16 " 0 10 + Pork, salt 12 " 0 13 + Cod, salt 6 " 1 9 + Eggs, 22 cts. per doz. 0 11 + Oysters, 30 cts. per qt. 0 11 + Potatoes, 60 cts. per bushel 10 0 + Beans, dried, 8 cts. per qt. 2 8 + Wheat flour, 3 cts. per lb. 3 5 + + +MENU I.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Bananas, 4 (or grapes, | | | | + 1 pound) | 1 4 | 6-1/2 | .009 | 362 + Breakfast cereal | 4 |\ | / .031 | 421 + Milk | 8 | > 3 |< .016 | 162 + Sugar | 1-1/ 2|/ | \ ... | 175 + Veal cutlets | 1 0 | 20 | .200 | 775 + Potatoes | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .018 | 325 + Butter | 3 | 6 | ... | 653 + Rolls | 12 | 4 | .077 | 1,148 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+--------- + Total | | 44-1/2 | .361 | 4,431 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Pea soup: | | | | + Split peas | 8 |\ | / .121 | 820 + Butter | 1 | > 5 |< ... | 217 + Flour | 1 |/ | \ .007 | 103 + Roast beef, chuck rib | 1 12 | 21 | .275 | 1,260 + Potatoes | 1 4 | 1-1/3 | .022 | 406 + Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67 + Cottage pudding with | | | | + lemon sauce: | | | | + 1 cup flour | 4 |\ | / .028 | 410 + Sugar | 3 | \ |/ ... | 350 + Butter | 1-1/2 | / 6-1/2 |\ ... | 325 + 1 cup milk | 8 |/ | \ .016 | 162 + Sugar | 4 |\ | / ... | 465 + Cornstarch | 1-1/2 | > 2-1/2 |< ... | 172 + Butter | 1/2 |/ | \ ... | 108 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 41 | .484 | 5,275 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Milk toast: | | | | + Milk | 2 0 |\ | / .066 | 650 + Bread | 1 2 | \ 18 |/ .107 | 1,356 + Butter | 4 | / |\ ... | 869 + Cornstarch | 2 |/ | \ ... | 228 + Canned salmon | 8 | 8 | .098 | 340 + Fried potatoes: | | | | + Potatoes | 8 |\ 1 |/ .009 | 162 + Lard | 1/2 |/ |\ ... | 132 + Cake | 6 | 4 | .026 | 619 + Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 34-1/2 | .316 | 4,766 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 120 | 1.161 | 14,472 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one Man | | 30 | .290 | 3,618 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU II.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Oatmeal | 0 2 |\ | / .019 | 232 + Milk | 6-1/2 | > 2 |< .012 | 122 + Sugar | 1 |/ | \ ... | 175 + Fresh pork sausage | 1 8 | 18 | .192 | 3,255 + Potatoes | 12 | 1 | .013 | 244 + Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904 + Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 434 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 31-1/2 | .317 | 5,776 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef, for stew | 2 8 | 15 | .347 | 1,900 + Potatoes | 1 8 | 2 | .027 | 487 + Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67 + Bread | 8 | 2 | .048 | 603 + Butter | 1 | 2 | ... | 217 + Indian pudding: | | | | + Cornmeal | 4 |\ | / .022 | 414 + Molasses | 4 | \ 6 |/ .007 | 329 + Butter | 1/2 | / |\ ... | 108 + Skim milk | 2 0 |/ | \ .068 | 340 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 31-1/2 | .534 | 4,875 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Corned beef hash: | | | | + Corned beef, canned | 8 | 6 | .142 | 560 + Potatoes | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162 + Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904 + Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 434 + Apples | 12 | 1 | .003 | 191 + Milk | 2 0 | 6 | .066 | 725 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 21 | .291 | 2,976 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total per day | | 84 | 1.142 | 13,627 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 21 | .285 | 3,407 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + +In these menus the amount of milk has, as a rule, been taken as +representing somewhere near the average consumption. The amount of +milk can be increased in any of the menus given above either by +substituting it to some extent for coffee or tea, or by using more +milk and smaller quantities of meats, butter or eggs. Roughly +speaking, 1 quart of whole milk could be substituted for half a pound +of meat or eggs and the amount of nutrients would be the same, while a +pint of milk would give as large a fuel value as 1-1/2 ounces of +butter, and in addition considerable protein not furnished by the +latter. + +This replacement of meats by milk is illustrated in the following +menu, in which a diet with a rather small quantity of milk is so +changed as to include a much larger amount. Thus for breakfast in the +modified ration a pint and a half of milk is made to take the place of +half a pound of broiled steak. For dinner a quart of skim milk (or +buttermilk) is called for, or a glass for each person unless some of +it is used in the cooking. At the same time, 4 ounces less roast pork +is required. In the same way a glass of whole milk is allowed each +person for supper, or the bread can be made into milk toast and the +most of the extra milk used in this way. This allows the canned salmon +to be reduced 6 ounces. + + +MENU III.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate exercise._ + + --------------------------+---------------------------------- + | Weight of food. + |-----------------+---------------- + Food materials. | With | With + | small | large + | amount | amount + | of milk. | of milk. + --------------------------+-----------------+---------------- + | | + _Breakfast._ | Lbs. Oz. | Lbs. Oz. + | | + Bananas, apples, or pears | 0 12 | 0 12 + Wheat preparation | 4 | 4 + Milk | 8 | 8 + Sugar | 2 | 2 + Broiled sirloin steak | 1 4 | 12 + Baked potatoes | 1 8 | 1 8 + Hot rolls | 1 0 | 1 0 + Butter | 2-1/2 | 2-1/2 + Extra milk | | 1 8 + | | + _Dinner._ | | + | | + Tomato soup | 1 12 | 1 12 + Roast pork | 1 12 | 1 8 + Mashed potatoes | 1 4 | 1 4 + Turnips | 8 | 8 + Apple fritters: | | + Apples | 8 | 8 + Flour | 2 | 2 + 1 egg | 2 | 2 + Lard | 1-1/2 | 1-1/2 + Bread | 8 | 8 + Butter | 2 | 2 + Extra skim milk | | 2 0 + | | + _Supper._ | | + | | + Canned salmon | 1 6 | 1 0 + Potatoes | 12 | 12 + Bread | 8 | 8 + Butter | 2 | 2 + Berries, canned or fresh | 8 | 8 + Extra milk | | 2 0 + --------------------------+-----------------+----------------- + + _Cost, protein, and fuel value of the above._ + + -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------ + | Cost. | Protein. | Fuel + | | | Value. + -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------ + | | | + _With small amount of milk._ | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | + | | | + Breakfast | 48 | .39 | 5,300 + Dinner | 51 | .39 | 5,800 + Supper or lunch | 33-1/2 | .34 | 3,200 + |-------------+--------------+------------ + Total per day | 132-1/2 | 1.12 | 14,300 + |=============|==============|============ + Total for one man | 33 | .28 | 3,575 + |=============|==============|============ + | | | + _With large amount of milk._ | | | + | | | + Breakfast | 43 | .36 | 5,270 + Dinner | 47-1/2 | .41 | 5,400 + Supper or lunch | 34-1/2 | .34 | 3,600 + |-------------|--------------|------------ + Total per day | 125 | 1.11 | 14,270 + |=============|==============|============ + Total for one man | 31 | .28 | 3,567 + -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------ + +Menus VI and VII, following, are intended to illustrate how nourishing +food can be procured in sufficient quantities and moderate variety at +a cost of not over 16 cents per day. The cost to the farmer would be +much less, since these menus call for considerable amounts of milk, +which is hardly worth more than one-half or one-third as much on the +farm as it costs in the towns and cities. Coffee has not always been +indicated, but can be introduced for any meal at a cost of from 1/2 to +1-1/2 cents per cup, according to how much coffee is used in making +the infusion, and how much sugar, milk, and cream are added. + +It is, of course, not important that each meal, or the total food of +each individual day, should have just the right amount of nutrients, +or that the proportions of protein and fuel ingredients should be +exactly correct so as to make the meal or day's diet well balanced. +The body is continually storing nutritive materials and using them. It +is not dependent any day upon the food eaten that particular day. +Hence an excess one day may be made up by a deficiency the next or +_vice versa_. Healthful nourishment requires simply that the nutrients +as a whole, during longer or shorter periods, should be fitted to the +actual needs of the body for use. + + +MENU IV.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Bananas, 4 (or grapes, | | | | + 1 pound) | 1 4 | 6-1/2 | .009 | 362 + Breakfast cereal | 4 |\ | / .031 | 421 + Milk | 6 | > 3 |< .012 | 122 + Sugar | 2 |/ | \ ... | 232 + Mutton chops | 1 4 | 20 | .165 | 1,812 + Potatoes | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .018 | 325 + Butter | 3 | 6 | ... | 653 + Rolls | 12 | 4 | .077 | 1,148 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+--------- + Total | | 44-1/2 | .322 | 5,485 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Tomato Soup | 2 0 | 12 | .036 | 370 + Roast pork | 2 8 | 32 | .353 | 3,350 + Potatoes | 1 4 | 1-1/2 | .022 | 406 + Turnips | 8 | 1 | .005 | 67 + | | | | + Tapioca pudding: | | | | + Tapioca | 3 |\ | / .001 | 310 + Apples | 1 0 | \ |/ .004 | 255 + Sugar | 2 | / 7 |\ ... | 232 + Cream | 4 |/ | \ .006 | 228 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 57 | .437 | 5,628 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Milk toast: | | | | + Milk | 2 0 |\ | / .066 | 650 + Bread | 1 2 | \ 18 |/ .107 | 1,356 + Butter | 4 | / |\ ... | 869 + Cornstarch | 2 |/ | \ ... | 238 + Sliced cold pork | 8 | 6 | .071 | 670 + Fried potatoes: | | | | + Potatoes | 8 |\ 1 |/ .009 | 162 + Lard | 1/2 |/ |\ ... | 132 + Cake | 6 | 4 | .026 | 619 + Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 32-1/2 | .289 | 5,096 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 134 | 1.048 | 16,209 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 33-1/2 | .262 | 4,052 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU V.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Baked apples | 2 0 | 2 | .008 | 510 + Boiled hominy | 8 |\ | / .041 | 823 + Milk | 10 | > 4-1/2 |< .020 | 202 + Sugar | 3 |/ | \ ... | 350 + Broiled sirloin | 10 | 11 | .099 | 650 + Potatoes | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162 + Muffins: | | | | + 1 egg | 4 |\ 5 |/ .032 | 162 + 2 cups flour | 8 |/ |\ .057 | 820 + Butter | 2 | 4 | ... | 435 + Coffee | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 31 | .276 | 4,524 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Tomato soup | 2 0 | 6 | .036 | 370 + Veal stew, shoulder | 2 0 | 20 | .332 | 1,350 + Potatoes | 3 0 | 4-1/2 | .054 | 975 + Apple dumpling: | | | | + 1 egg | 2 |\ | / .016 | 81 + 4 apples | 1 8 | \ 8 |/ .006 | 382 + 1/2 cup lard | 4 | / |\ ... | 1,055 + 1 cup flour | 4 |/ | \ .028 | 410 + | | | | + Sauce for dumpling: | | | | + Butter | 1 |\ 3 |/ ... | 217 + Sugar | 4 |/ |\ ... | 465 + Bread | 12 | 3 | .071 | 904 + Butter | 1 | 2 | ... | 217 + Coffee or tea | ... | 3-1/2 | .010 | 410 + |-----------+----------+---------+--------- + Total | | 50 | .553 | 6,836 + | | | | + | | | | + _Supper or lunch._ | | | | + | | | | + Dried canned corned beef | 8 | 6 | .142 | 560 + Potato croquette | 8 | 1 | .009 | 162 + Biscuit | 12 | 4 | .070 | 1,297 + Butter | 1-1/2 | 3 | ... | 325 + Oranges, 4 | 1 4 | 7 | .007 | 400 + Skim milk | 1 6 | 2 | .046 | 234 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 23 | .274 | 2,978 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 104 | 1.103 | 14,338 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 26 | .275 | 3,585 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU VI.--_For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate +muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Cornmeal, in mush or cake | 0 5 | 1 | .022 | 414 + Milk | 6 | 1 | .012 | 64 + Sugar | 2 | 1/2 | ... | 232 + Toast | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753 + Butter (24 cents per pound) | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 8 | .093 | 1,897 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef roll (for roasting) | 3 0 | 15 | .417 | 2,280 + Potatoes | 1 8 | 2 | .026 | 488 + Beets | 8 | 1 | .007 | 85 + Bread | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753 + Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 23-1/2 | .509 | 4,040 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Beans, baked | 2 0 | 6 | .446 | 3,180 + Pork | 12 | 6 | .012 | 2,556 + Potatoes, fried | 1 8 | 2 | .026 | 488 + Lard | 2 | 1 | ... | 537 + Bread | 10 | 2-1/2 | .059 | 753 + Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 20-1/2 | .543 | 7,948 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for day | | 20-1/2 | 1.145 | 13,885 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 13 | .285 | 3,471 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +MENU VII.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._ + + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | Fuel + Food materials. | Weight. | Cost. | Protein.| Value. + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + | | | | + _Breakfast._ |Lbs. Oz. | Cents. | Pounds. | Calories. + | | | | + Oatmeal | 0 6 | 2 | .059 | 697 + Skim milk, 1 pint | 1 0 | 1-1/2 | .034 | 170 + Sugar | 2 | 1/2 | ... | 232 + Bread (homemade) | 1 0 | 3 | .095 | 1,205 + Sausage | 10 | 6 | .080 | 1,358 + Butter (24 cents per pound) | 1 | 1-1/2 | ... | 217 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 14-1/2 | .268 | 3,879 + | | | | + _Dinner._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef flank, stew | 2 8 | 15 | .430 | 2,988 + Potatoes (60 cents per | | | | + bushel) | 3 0 | 3 | .054 | 975 + Cabbage | 12 | 1 | .013 | 105 + Cornmeal pudding: | | | | + Cornmeal | 4 | 1/2 | .022 | 414 + Skim milk, 1 quart | 2 0 | 3 | .068 | 340 + Molasses | 12 | 1 | .020 | 987 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 22-1/2 | .604 | 5,889 + | | | | + _Supper._ | | | | + | | | | + Beef, warmed in gravy | 1 8 | 3 | .086 | 598 + Hot biscuit | 2 0 | 6 | .340 | 2,600 + Butter | 2 | 3 | ... | 434 + Milk, 1 quart | 2 0 | 6 | .033 | 325 + |-----------+----------+---------+---------- + Total | | 18 | .259 | 3,957 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total per day | | 55 | 1.134 | 3,645 + |===========|==========|=========|========== + Total for one man | | 14 | .285 | 3,411 + ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+---------- + + +DISCUSSION OF THE MENUS. + +These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of +food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in +the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied +and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the +use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided. +The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is +believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course +they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials, +oatmeal and other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these +substances as purchased. + +The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the +different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of +these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used +simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of +protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest. + +The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or +less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the +character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the +more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as +follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14 +cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents; +bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart); +skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese, +16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2 +to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other +vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents +(20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per +dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel). + +It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the +average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of +the country than in the central and western portions, where meats, +cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to +be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can +be purchased much cheaper than here indicated, while on the other +hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The +choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their +abundance and cost. + +Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and +consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is +to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course, +different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These +figures express only general averages and are based upon the best +information accessible. + + +A FEW POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLANNING MEALS. + +Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular +work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day, +leaving such articles of food as soup--which is a valuable stimulant +after a day of hard work--fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal, +when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated +foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the +day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the +necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish +sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and +beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk or +_strained_ tea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc. + +Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building +requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words, +food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work. +Supper in such cases should consist of a good broth or well made +soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more +substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for +the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less +expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings, +fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day. + +On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such +as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the +day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much +slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room, +and where little exercise is taken.[5] Care should be taken in +planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much +oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry, +griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man +should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and +butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable +for luncheon. + +Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See +p. 153.) + +Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a +rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece +of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient. + +Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently +hurry away to their work in the morning without taking a substantial +breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be +followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten +and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute +for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active +exercise for any length of time. + +Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel. +The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long, +slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done +by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick +fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in +both food and fuel may be exercised. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[5] The teacher may make this clear by comparing the digestion of the +two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a range with the +drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, effect of oxygen, +etc. + + * * * * * + + +SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. + +In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful +to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be +likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility, +etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as +fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to +keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent +illustrations and comparisons should be made. + +Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as +every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few +suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful. + + +Why do we eat food? + +What is nitrogenous food? + +What is its chief office? + +Where is it to be found? + +In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant? + +What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs? + +Of what is it composed? + +Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous? + +Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh? + +Which are the most important heat-giving compounds? + +What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming +compounds? + +What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food? + +Give their use? + +Where are they to be found? + +What is common salt? + +Where is it found? + +Why do we use it? + +Give the three digestive juices. + +What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables? + +Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in +the dust bin or garbage pail? + +What should be done with them? + +Which are the most important warmth-giving foods? + +Give another name for these foods? + +Why are they so called? + +What is combustion? + +How do these foods produce force, etc.? + +What other elements do these foods contain? + +Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or +sugar? + +What elements unite and form water? + +What is the proportion of water in the body? + +Give its use? + +Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat? + +Why does starch need cooking? + +To what kingdom does it belong? + +Which section is of most value? + +How is starch changed into sugar? + +What changes food into blood? + +What gives the red color to blood? + +What mineral helps digestion most? + +What is sugar? + +What causes sugar to ferment? + +What is the result? + +Where is it to be found? + +What are food adjuncts? + +Of what value are they? + +Give the names of combustible nutrients. + +Give the names of incombustible nutrients. + +For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain? + +What supports combustion? + +What is chemically pure water? + +What causes the hardness of water? + +What is gluten? + +What is dextrine? + +Where is it found? + +In what way does dextrine differ from starch? + +What is decomposition? + + * * * * * + + +SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES. + +LESSON. + +I. Information regarding the conduct of classes. Practice in +measuring. Practice in lighting gas-burners and oven. Practice in +lighting and regulating a range. + +II. Fruit--Applesauce. Coddled apples. Stewed prunes. + +III. Starch--Boiled rice. Potatoes, boiled and mashed. + +IV. Starch--Thickening liquids with flour. + +V. Starch--Practice in No. 4. + +VI. Vegetables--Onions, cabbage, parsnips, etc. + +VII. Eggs--Boiled eggs. Poached eggs. Toast. + +VIII. Eggs and milk--Boiled and baked custard. + +IX. Flour mixtures--Popovers, griddle cake. + +X. Flour mixtures--Milk biscuits. Corn bread. Apple pudding. + +XI. Bread--Making sponge, kneading, and setting to rise. + +XII. Bread--Moulding and baking. + +XIII. Fish--Boiled and baked fish. Creamed fish and sauce. + +XIV. Review of theory and recipes. + +XV. Meat--Roasting meat. Soup stock. + +XVI. Meat--Stewed meat. + +XVII. Meat--Cold meat and broiling. + +XVIII. Salads. + +XIX. Beans. + +XX. Plain puddings. + +NOTE.--After this each teacher must arrange lessons according +to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with +lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary +matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving. + + * * * * * + + +APPENDIX. + +Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof. +Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City. + + +OUTLINE I. + +The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an +average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school. +The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and +interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate +a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season +of the year. + +It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are +four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking +of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and +introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this +arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food +principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so +that there is a constant review of principles already established; and +to give practical work of increasing difficulty. + +The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in +house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken +for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food +values, the cost of food, marketing, etc. + +1. Simple experiments in combustion--to illustrate the structure of +stoves and the care of such stoves. Study of the fuel and apparatus +to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus; +comparison with other apparatus. + +2. Utensils--what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to +have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing. + +Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in +tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double +boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough +for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter, +croutons may be made. + +3. Measuring--experiment with the cooking of starch in water; +cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the +effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting +of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking. + +4. A cereal and a fruit,--say, baked apples. In the cereal, in +addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in +both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being +a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process. + +5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and +cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and +vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of +peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar +with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances. + +If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this +may be given in the next lesson. + +6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review +lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions, +several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to +how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of +soup. + +7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and +yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain +omelet. + +8. Eggs and milk. + +9. Oysters. + +10. Fish. + +11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially +proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters +is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder +biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given +for sake of variety. + +14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling. + +15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy. + +18. Tough meat. Soups and stews. + +19. Tough meat. Soups and stews. + +Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also. + +20. Beverages. + +21. Salads. + +22. Desserts. + +23. A breakfast. + +24. A luncheon. + +25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper. + +Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them; +bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving; +dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes. + + +OUTLINE II. + +This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was +advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals. +The plan can be followed in a longer course. + +_Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc._ + +1. A cereal and fruit. + +2. Eggs. + +3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat. + +4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee. + +5. A breakfast. + +6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup. + +7. A made dish of meat or fish. + +8. Salad and dressing. + +9. Muffins or biscuit. + +10. A luncheon or supper. + +11. Vegetables. Macaroni. + +12. Meat. + +13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert. + +14. Bread or rolls. + +15. A dinner. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. 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