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+Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Public School Domestic Science
+
+Author: Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2006 [EBook #18097]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC SCHOOL
+
+DOMESTIC SCIENCE
+
+BY
+
+MRS. J. HOODLESS,
+
+President School Of Domestic Science, Hamilton.
+
+
+This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if
+so ordered by a resolution of the Trustees.
+
+
+  TORONTO:
+  THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED,
+  1898.
+
+
+Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one
+thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY,
+LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of
+Agriculture.
+
+
+[Illustration: A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.]
+
+
+"I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which
+embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet,
+and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired
+vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and
+throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from
+the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil
+to be."--_Sir Henry Thompson._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing loss of
+health is of primary importance. We do not contend that possession of
+such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. But we do
+contend that the right knowledge impressed in the right way would
+effect much; and we further contend that as the laws of health must be
+recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of
+such knowledge must precede a more rational living."--_Herbert
+Spencer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of Calypso and
+Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the
+knowledge of all fruits, and herbs, and balms, and spices, and of all
+that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, and savory in meats;
+it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and
+willingness, and readiness of appliance; it means much tasting and no
+wasting; it means English thoroughness, and French art, and Arabian
+hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfect and always
+'ladies'--'loaf-givers.'"--_Ruskin._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+An eminent authority[1] says: "Up to the age of sixteen even a lucid
+statement of principles is received by all but a few pupils as dogma.
+They do not and cannot in any adequate sense realize the reasoning
+process by which scientific conclusions are reached. They are taught
+not only facts but classifications and laws, and causes in relation to
+their effect. These are not, in the majority of cases, elaborated by
+the pupil. The teaching of them accordingly degenerates into a
+statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of memory."
+
+To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize its effects
+somewhat, is one of the principal reasons for introducing Domestic
+Science into the Public School curriculum; a science which relates so
+closely to the daily life that it cannot be left to an act of memory;
+where cause and effect are so palpable that the pupil may readily
+arrive at an individual conclusion.
+
+The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring a
+knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to
+co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to make a practical use
+of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an important part in
+the arranging of weights and measures, in the study of the analysis
+and relative value of various kinds of food, in estimating the cost of
+manufactured products in proportion to their market value, in the
+purchase of food material, etc. History and geography are closely
+allied to the study of the diet and customs of the different
+countries, with their variety of climate and products. Physiology and
+temperance principles permeate the whole course of study. In addition
+to these are the direct lessons, provided by the practice work, in
+neatness, promptness and cleanliness. It will therefore be necessary
+to have a wide general knowledge before entering upon a course in
+Domestic Science.
+
+Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the Public
+Schools, it will be impossible to teach more than a few of the first
+principles governing each department of the work, viz., a knowledge of
+the constituent parts of the human body; the classification of food
+and the relation of each class to the sustenance and repair of the
+body; simple recipes illustrating the most wholesome and economical
+methods of preparing the various kinds of food; the science of
+nutrition, economy and hygiene; general hints on household management,
+laundry work, and care of the sick.
+
+To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, bacteriology, etc.,
+would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the average school girl,
+and possibly create a distaste for knowledge containing so much
+abstract matter.
+
+This book is not a teacher's manual, nor is it intended to take the
+place of the teacher in any way. The normal training prescribed for
+teachers will enable them to supplement the information contained
+herein, by a much more general and comprehensive treatment of the
+various questions, than would be possible or judicious in a primary
+text-book. It has been found difficult for pupils to copy the recipes
+given with each lesson, or to write out the instructions carefully
+without infringing upon the time which should be devoted to practice
+work.[2] In order to meet this difficulty, also to enable the pupil to
+work at home under the same rules which govern the class work, simple
+recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a knowledge of
+heat and its effect, going on to those requiring hand dexterity,
+before attempting the more difficult subjects. After the pupils have
+acquired a knowledge of the "why and wherefore" of the different
+processes required in cooking, they will have little difficulty in
+following the more elaborate recipes given in the numberless
+cook-books provided for household use. Once the art--and it is a fine
+art--of cookery is mastered, it becomes not only a pleasant occupation
+but provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing the
+reaction which frequently follows school life.
+
+The tables given are to be used for reference, and _not to be
+memorized_ by the pupil.
+
+The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his kindly
+interest and assistance in providing much valuable information, which
+in some instances is given verbatim; also to Dr. Gilman Thompson for
+permission to give extracts from his valuable book, "Practical
+Dietetics"; to Prof. Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science
+Dept.), for review and suggestions; to Miss Watson, Principal Hamilton
+School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule for
+school work. The Boston Cook Book (with Normal Instruction), by Mrs.
+M.J. Lincoln; and the Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen H.
+Richards (Prof. of Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology),
+and Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further
+information on practical household matters. The publications of the
+U.S. Experiment Stations, by Prof. Atwater and other eminent chemists,
+contain much valuable information.
+
+To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, this book is
+respectfully dedicated.
+
+ADELAIDE HOODLESS.
+
+    "EASTCOURT,"
+    Hamilton, June, 1898.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] S.S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and History of
+Education, Edinburgh University.
+
+[2] Where time is allowed, much benefit may be derived from writing
+notes, as a study in composition, spelling, etc.
+
+
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER.
+
+
+Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for the
+teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the various
+questions; to explain the underlying principles so thoroughly that
+"the why and the wherefore" of every action in the preparation of food
+will be clearly understood. She should endeavor to impress upon the
+pupils the value of thoroughly understanding the relation of food to
+the body. In practice lessons frequent _reference_ should be made to
+the analysis of the various foods, as given in the tables and charts.
+
+The first practice lesson should be given on the making and care of a
+fire, regulating dampers, cleaning stove, etc. The pupils should then
+be taught the name and place of all the utensils. Special attention
+should be given to the explanation of weights and measures; the table
+of abbreviations should be memorized. Arrange the class work so that
+each pupil may in alternation share the duties of both kitchen work
+and cooking.
+
+Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should
+be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned
+back or confined in some way, and covered by a cap. A large clean
+apron and a holder should be worn while at work. Never allow the
+pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in place of a holder.
+Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-room. Set an example of
+perfect order and neatness, and insist upon pupils following that
+example. Teach the pupils that cooking may be done without soiling
+either hands or clothes. The pupils should do all the work of the
+class-room, except scrubbing the floor. Everything must be left in
+perfect order at the close of each lesson.
+
+Frequent _reviews_ are absolutely necessary. Urge the pupils to think
+for themselves, and not to rely upon the text-book. Where pupils are
+backward, or have not had previous practice in kitchen work, give
+special attention to their manner of holding a knife or spoon in
+preparing articles for use, and in beating or stirring mixtures.
+Encourage deftness and light handling of kitchen ware. Insist upon
+promptness and keeping within the time limit, both in preparing the
+food and in the cooking.
+
+Owing to the variety of climate and markets, it would be impossible to
+arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A few sample
+menus are given at the back of the book, but each teacher must be
+governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons for her class. For
+instance, recipes without eggs should be given in mid-winter, when
+eggs are dear. Fruits and vegetables must be given in season.
+
+The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work; in
+some cases it may be necessary to divide them, as the quantities given
+are intended for home practice. The teacher should consider herself at
+liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider valuable. The
+digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants--especially of tea and
+coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be carefully impressed
+upon the pupil.
+
+The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly before
+her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arithmetic,
+history, geography, physiology and temperance; (2) to develop the
+mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the children; (3) to
+enable pupils to understand the reason for doing certain things in a
+certain way; in other words, to work with an intelligent conception
+of the value, both physically and hygienically, of knowing how the
+daily duties should be performed.
+
+In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each class of
+food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For instance,
+before giving a lesson in the preparation of starches, each pupil
+should be given an opportunity to learn how to mix and stir the
+mixture over the fire, so as to prevent it from burning or becoming
+lumpy; this may be done by using water and common laundry starch, or
+flour. The same test applies to sauces, etc. A few cheap apples and
+potatoes may be used in learning to pare these articles. The effect of
+cold and hot water on albumen and tissues may be illustrated by the
+cheaper pieces of meat.
+
+Although the more scientific studies are grouped together, it does not
+follow that they are to be studied in the order given. The teacher
+must arrange her lessons--from the beginning--so as to include a
+certain amount of the theory with the practice work. Frequent
+reference should be made during practice lessons to the various
+chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking, so as to
+interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food question.
+
+The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes while
+she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not be entirely
+dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations must simply
+serve as the key-note for further study.
+
+Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion," page
+58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be
+studied--especially pages 71-75--in conjunction with "Food
+Classifications" (Chap. 2); also in dealing with the digestibility of
+starches, etc.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS--(_Atwater_)
+
+_Nutritive Ingredients, Refuse, and Food Value._
+
+  Nutrients:
+    P--Protein.
+    F--Fats.
+    C--Carbohydrates.
+    M--Mineral Matters.
+
+  Non-nutrients:
+    W--Water.
+    R--Refuse.
+
+  Fuel Value:
+    X--Calories.
+
+  _Protein_ Compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)
+  of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.
+
+  _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, \
+                                             \ serve as fuel to yield
+                                             / heat and muscular power.
+  _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar,    /
+
+
+  Nutrients, etc., p.c |   10   20   30   40   50   60   70   80   90  100
+  ---------------------+-------------------------------------------------|
+  Fuel value of 1 lb.  |  400  800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRR|
+  Beef, round          |XXXXXXXXX|                                       |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPPP|FFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Beef, round[A]       |XXXXXXXXXX|                                      |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRR|
+  Beef, sirloin        |XXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                   |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Beef, sirloin[A]     |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                 |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRR|
+  Beef, rib            |XXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                   |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Beef, rib[A]         |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                              |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPP|FFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRR|
+  Mutton, leg          |XXXXXXXXXXX|                                     |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR|
+  Pork, spare rib      |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWW|RRR|
+  Pork, salt           |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|           |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR|
+  Ham, smoked          |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPP|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRRRR|
+  Codfish, fresh       |XXX|                                             |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPP|MMMMMMM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRR|
+  Codfish, salt        |XXXX|                                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PP|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Oysters              |XXX|                                             |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |P|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Milk                 |XXXX|                                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |P|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|M|WWWW|
+  Butter               |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|   |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Cheese               |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                       |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRR|
+  Eggs                 |XXXXXXXX|                                        |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Wheat bread          |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW|
+  Wheat flour          |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWW|
+  Cornmeal             |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPP|FFF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WW|
+  Oatmeal              |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                          |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|MM|WWWWW|
+  Beans, dried         |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW|
+  Rice                 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |P|CCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR|
+  Potatoes             |XXX|                                             |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|
+  Sugar                |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                          |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+
+  [A] Without bone.
+
+
+
+
+PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD--(_Atwater_).
+
+_Amounts of actually Nutritive Ingredients obtained in different Food
+Materials for 10 cents._
+
+  P--Protein.
+  F--Fats.
+  C--Carbohydrates.
+  X--Fuel Value.
+
+  _Protein_ compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)
+    of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.
+
+  _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter and oil, \
+                                              \ serve as fuel to yield
+                                              / heat and muscular power.
+  _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar,   /
+
+  --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------|
+                | Price | Ten  |                                            |
+                | per   | cents|     Pounds of Nutrients and Calories of    |
+                | pound.| will |        Fuel Value in 10 cents worth.       |
+                |       | buy--|                                            |
+  --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------|
+                | Cents.| Lbs. |       1 Lb.     2 Lbs.    3 Lbs.    4 Lbs. |
+                |       |      |     2000 Cal. 4000 Cal. 6000 Cal. 8000 Cal.|
+                |       |      |         |         |         |         |    |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|F|                                       |
+  Beef, round   | 12    |  .83 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|F|                                        |
+  Beef, sirloin | 18    |  .55 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|F|                                        |
+  Beef, rib     | 16    |  .63 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|F|                                       |
+  Mutton, leg   | 12    |  .83 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Pork,         |       |      |PP|FF|                                      |
+    spare rib   | 12    |  .83 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Pork,         |       |      |P|FFFF|                                     |
+    salt, fat   | 14    |  .71 |XXXXXXXXXX|                                 |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|FFF|                                      |
+  Ham, smoked   | 16    |  .63 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Codfish,      |       |      |PP|                                         |
+    fresh       |  8    | 1.25 |XX|                                         |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Codfish,      |       |      |PPP|                                        |
+    salt        |  6    | 1.67 |XXX|                                        |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Oysters, 40   |       |      |P|                                          |
+    cents quart | 20    |  .50 |X|                                          |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Milk, 6 cents |       |      |P|F|C|                                      |
+     quart      |  3    | 3.33 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |FFFF|                                       |
+  Butter        | 24    |  .42 |XXXXXXX|                                    |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|FF|                                      |
+  Cheese        | 16    |  .63 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Eggs, 25      |       |      |P|F|                                        |
+    cents dozen | 16-3/4|  .60 |XXX|                                        |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCC|                          |
+  Wheat bread   |  4    | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                           |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|              |
+  Wheat flour   |  2-1/2| 4.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|           |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|  |
+  Cornmeal      |  2    | 5.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|   |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                      |
+  Oatmeal       |  4    | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Beans, white, |       |      |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                      |
+     dried      |  4    | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                        |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                           |
+  Rice          |  5    | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Potatoes, 60  |       |      |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                           |
+    cents bushel|  1    |10.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                        |
+  Sugar         |  5    | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                         |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE.
+    Preface                                              v
+    Suggestions to Teachers                             ix
+    Composition of Food Materials (_Atwater_)          xii
+    Pecuniary Economy of Food (_Atwater_)             xiii
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+    The Relation of Food to the Body                     1
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+    Food Classification                                  6
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+    Nutrition                                           10
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+    Food and Economy                                    12
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+    Foods containing Protein or Nitrogenous Matter      22
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+    Fats and Oils                                       34
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+    Carbohydrate Foods                                  37
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+    Fruits                                              50
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+    Preparing Food                                      54
+
+    RECIPES:
+      Batters, Biscuits and Bread                       60
+      Bread                                             65
+      Sauces and Milk Soups                             66
+      Eggs                                              69
+      Fruit                                             72
+      Vegetables                                        74
+      Salads                                            80
+      Macaroni                                          85
+      Cheese                                            86
+      Beverages                                         87
+      Soups                                             89
+      Fish                                              94
+      Meat                                              96
+      Poultry                                          104
+      Hot Puddings                                     109
+      Plain Sauces                                     115
+      Pastry                                           121
+      Miscellaneous                                    122
+
+    General Hints                                      126
+
+    Suggestions for Young Housekeepers                 128
+
+    Caring for Invalids                                142
+
+    General Hints for School Children                  150
+
+    Suggestions for School Children's Diet             153
+
+    Infants' Diet                                      156
+
+    Planning and Serving Meals                         170
+
+    Consideration of Menus                             173
+
+    Suggestive Questions                               188
+
+    Schedule of Lessons for Public School Classes      191
+
+    Appendix                                           193
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+The Relation of Food to the Body.
+
+
+In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and
+repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what
+the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the
+food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The
+following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148
+pounds:--
+
+    Oxygen                 92.1 pounds.
+    Hydrogen               14.6    "
+    Carbon                 31.6    "
+    Nitrogen                4.6    "
+    Phosphorus              1.4    "
+    Calcium                 2.8    "
+    Sulphur                 0.24   "
+    Chlorine                0.12   "
+    Sodium                  0.12   "
+    Iron                    0.02   "
+    Potassium               0.34   "
+    Magnesium               0.04   "
+    Silica                    ?    "
+    Fluorine                0.02   "
+                          ------
+    Total                 148.00 pounds.
+
+As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing
+and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary
+some knowledge of the relation of food to the body is, in order to
+preserve health.
+
+Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we find from the above
+calculation that about three-fifths of the body is composed of water.
+Carbon is a solid: diamonds are nearly pure carbon; "lead" of lead
+pencils, anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon. Carbon
+combined with other elements in the body makes about one-fifth of the
+whole weight. Carbon with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon
+taken into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen of the
+inhaled air, yields heat to keep the body warm, and force--muscular
+strength--for work. The carbonic acid (or carbon dioxide) is given out
+through the lungs and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous
+foods, their relation to the body as fuel will be more clearly
+understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element. Phosphorus
+is a solid. According to the table, about one pound six ounces would
+be found in a body weighing 148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus
+forms what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes
+phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones and teeth;
+it is found also in the brain and nerves, flesh and blood. Hydrogen is
+a gas, and like carbon unites with the oxygen of the inhaled air in
+the body, thus serving as fuel. The water produced is given off in the
+respiration through the lungs and as perspiration through the skin.[3]
+Calcium is a metal. The table given allows three pounds of calcium;
+united with oxygen, calcium forms lime. This with phosphoric acid
+makes phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in which
+nearly all the calcium of the body is found.
+
+The elements which bear no direct relation to the force production of
+the body, but which enter into tissue formation, are chlorine,
+sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium.
+Bone tissue contains about 50 per cent. of lime phosphate, hence the
+need of this substance in the food of a growing infant, in order that
+the bones may become firm and strong. Lack of iron salts in the food
+impoverishes the coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles on which
+they depend for their power of carrying oxygen to the tissues; anĉmia
+and other disorders of deficient oxidation result. The lack of
+sufficient potash salts is a factor in producing scurvy, a condition
+aggravated by the use of common salt. A diet of salt meat and starches
+may cause it, with absence of fresh fruit and vegetables. Such
+illustrations show the need of a well-balanced diet.
+
+In order to understand the value of the various classes of food and
+their relation to the body as force producers, tissue builders, etc.,
+the following table may prove helpful:--
+
+                                               |           |     C.H.
+                                               |           | Combustibles
+                                               | Nitrogen. | Calculated as
+                                               |           |    Carbon.
+  ---------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------
+  Beef, uncooked                               |    3.00   |     11.00
+  Roast beef                                   |    3.53   |     17.76
+  Calf's liver                                 |    3.09   |     15.68
+  Foie-gras                                    |    2.12   |     65.58
+  Sheep's kidneys                              |    2.66   |     12.13
+  Skate                                        |    3.83   |     12.25
+  Cod, salted                                  |    5.02   |     16.00
+  Herring, salted                              |    3.11   |     23.00
+  Herring, fresh                               |    1.83   |     21.00
+  Whiting                                      |    2.41   |      9.00
+  Mackerel                                     |    3.74   |     19.26
+  Sole                                         |    1.91   |     12.25
+  Salmon                                       |    2.09   |     16.00
+  Carp                                         |    3.49   |     12.10
+  Oysters                                      |    2.13   |      7.18
+  Lobster, uncooked                            |    2.93   |     10.96
+  Eggs                                         |    1.90   |     13.50
+  Milk (cows')                                 |    0.66   |      8.00
+  Cheese (Brie)                                |    2.93   |     35.00
+  Cheese (Gruyere)                             |    5.00   |     38.00
+  Cheese (Roquefort)                           |    4.21   |     44.44
+  Chocolate                                    |    1.52   |     58.00
+  Wheat (hard Southern, variable average)      |    3.00   |     41.00
+  Wheat (soft Southern, variable average)      |    1.81   |     39.00
+  Flour, white (Paris)                         |    1.64   |     38.50
+  Rye flour                                    |    1.75   |     41.00
+  Winter barley                                |    1.90   |     40.00
+  Maize                                        |    1.70   |     44.00
+  Buckwheat                                    |    2.20   |     42.50
+  Rice                                         |    1.80   |     41.00
+  Oatmeal                                      |    1.95   |     44.00
+  Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water)     |    1.08   |     29.50
+  Bread, brown (soldiers' rations formerly)    |    1.07   |     28.00
+  Bread, brown (soldiers' rations at present)  |    1.20   |     30.00
+  Bread, from flour of hard wheat              |    2.20   |     31.00
+  Potatoes                                     |    0.33   |     11.00
+  Beans                                        |    4.50   |     42.00
+  Lentils, dry                                 |    3.87   |     43.00
+  Peas, dry                                    |    3.66   |     44.00
+  Carrots                                      |    0.31   |      5.50
+  Mushrooms                                    |    0.60   |      4.52
+  Figs, fresh                                  |    0.41   |     15.50
+  Figs, dry                                    |    0.92   |     34.00
+  Coffee (infusion of 100 grams)               |    1.10   |      9.00
+  Tea (infusion of 100 grams)                  |    1.00   |     10.50
+  Bacon                                        |    1.29   |     71.14
+  Butter                                       |    0.64   |     83.00
+  Olive oil                                    |   Trace   |     98.00
+  Beer, strong                                 |    0.05   |      4.50
+  Wine                                         |    0.15   |      4.00
+  ---------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------
+
+"The hydrogen existing in the compound in excess of what is required
+to form water with the oxygen present is calculated as carbon. It is
+only necessary to multiply the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount
+of dry proteids in 100 grams of the fresh food substance."
+(Dujardin-Beauretz.) The following simple rules are given by
+Parks:--"1st. To obtain the amount of nitrogen in proteid of foods,
+divide the quantity of food by 6.30. 2nd. To obtain the carbon in fat
+multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To obtain the carbon in carbohydrate food
+multiply by 0.444. 4. To obtain the carbon in proteid food multiply by
+0.535."
+
+Finding that our food and our bodies contain essentially the same
+elements, we must also bear in mind that the body cannot create
+anything for itself, neither material nor energy; all must be supplied
+by the food we eat, which is transformed into repair material for the
+body. Therefore, the object of a course of study dealing with the
+science of this question, as it relates to the daily life, should be
+to learn something of how food builds the body, repairs the waste,
+yields heat and energy, and to teach the principles of food economy in
+its relation to health and income. This, with the development of
+executive ability, is all that can be attempted in a primary course.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[3] An illustration of vapor rising may be given by breathing upon a
+mirror.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Food Classification.
+
+
+The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four
+principal classes of nutrients:
+
+    PROTEIN:
+
+      _Proteids._
+
+        _Albuminoids_, _e.g._, albumen of eggs; myosin,
+            the basis of muscle (lean meat); the albuminoids
+            which make up the gluten of wheat, etc.
+
+        _Gelatinoids_, constituents of connective tissue which
+            yield gelatin and allied substances, _e.g._, collagen
+            of tendon; ossein of bone.
+
+      "Nitrogenous extractives" of flesh, _i.e._, of meats and fish.
+         These include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the
+         chief ingredients of beef tea and most meat extracts.
+         Amids: this term is frequently applied to the nitrogenous
+         non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable foods and feeding
+         stuffs, among which are amido acids, such as aspartic acid
+         and asparagin. Some of them are more or less allied in
+         chemical constitution to the nitrogenous extractives of
+         flesh.
+
+    _Fats._
+
+      Fat of meat: fat of milk; oil of corn, wheat, etc. The
+      ingredients of the "ether extract" of animal and vegetable
+      foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary to group
+      together roughly as fats, include, with the true fats,
+      various other substances, as lecithians, and chlorophylls.
+
+    _Carbohydrates_, sugars, starches, celluloses, gums, woody fibre, etc.
+
+    _Mineral matter._
+
+      Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorids, sulphates
+      and phosphates. (Atwater).
+
+The terms (_a_) "nitrogenous" and (_b_) "carbonaceous" are frequently
+used to designate the two distinct classes of food, viz.: (_a_) the
+tissue builders and flesh formers; (_b_) fuel and force producers.
+
+Each of these classes contains food material derived from both the
+animal and vegetable kingdom, although the majority of the animal
+substances belong to the nitrogenous, and the majority of the
+vegetable substances to the carbonaceous group.
+
+Therefore, for practical purposes, we will confine ourselves to the
+more general terms used in Atwater's table.
+
+
+Uses of Food.
+
+First, food is used to form the materials of the body and repair its
+waste; second, to yield energy in the form of (1) heat to keep the
+body warm, (2) to provide muscular and other power for the work it has
+to do. In forming the tissues and fluids of the body the food serves
+for building and repair. In yielding energy, it serves as fuel for
+heat and power. The principal tissue formers are the albuminoids;
+these form the frame-work of the body. They build and repair the
+nitrogenous materials, as those of muscle, tendon and bone, and supply
+the albuminoids of blood, milk and other fluids. The chief fuel
+ingredients of food are the carbohydrates and fats. These are either
+consumed in the body or are stored as fat to be used as occasion
+demands.
+
+
+Water.
+
+By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water composes
+three-fifths of the entire body. The elasticity of muscles, cartilage,
+tendons, and even of bones is due in great part to the water which
+these tissues contain. The amount of water required by a healthy man
+in twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the average
+between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25 ounces taken as an
+ingredient of solid food, thus making a total of from 75 to 85 ounces.
+One of the most universal dietetic failings is neglect to take enough
+water into the system. Dr. Gilman Thompson gives the following uses of
+water in the body:--
+
+(1) It enters into the chemical composition of the tissues; (2) it
+forms the chief ingredient of all the fluids of the body and maintains
+their proper degree of dilution; (3) by moistening various surfaces of
+the body, such as the mucous and serous membranes, it prevents
+friction and the uncomfortable symptoms which might result from
+drying; (4) it furnishes in the blood and lymph a fluid medium by
+which food may be taken to remote parts of the body and the waste
+matter removed, thus promoting rapid tissue changes; (5) it serves as
+a distributer of body heat; (6) it regulates the body temperature by
+the physical processes of absorption and evaporation.
+
+
+Salts (Mineral Matter).--Use of Salts in Food.
+
+(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and other fluids of
+the body; (2) to preserve the tissues from disorganization and
+putrefaction; (3) to enter into the composition of the teeth and
+bones. These are only a few of the uses of salts in the body, but are
+sufficient for our purpose. Fruits and nuts contain the least quantity
+of salts, meat ranks next, then vegetables and pulses, cereals contain
+most of all (Chambers). Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most
+important and valuable salt. It must not however be used in excess.
+Potassium salts rank next in importance.[4] Calcium, phosphorus,
+sulphur and iron are included in this class.
+
+The quantity of salts or mineral matter contained in some important
+articles of vegetable and animal food is shown in this table (Church):
+
+_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 14 Vegetable Products._
+
+                             Lbs.
+    Apples                    4
+    Rice                      5
+    Wheaten flour             7
+    Turnips                   8
+    Potatoes                 10
+    Barley                   11
+    Cabbage                  12
+    Bread                    12
+    Watercress               13
+    Maize                    20
+    Oatmeal                  21
+    Peas                     30
+    Cocoa nibs               36
+    Wheaten bran             60
+
+_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 8 Animal Products._
+
+                             Lbs.
+    Fat Pork                  5
+    Cow's milk                7
+    Eggs (without shells)    13
+    Lean of mutton           17
+    Flesh of common fowl     16
+    Bacon                    44
+    Gloucester cheese        49
+    Salted herrings         158
+
+"In most seeds and fruits there is much phosphate in the mineral
+matter, and in most green vegetables much potash. One important kind
+of mineral matter alone is deficient in vegetable food, and that is
+common salt."
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] See Vegetables, Chap. VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Nutrition.
+
+
+It is not within the scope of this book to deal with the science of
+nutrition; but a few general principles may be given which concern the
+effect upon the system of the different classes of food. Animal food
+requires a considerable quantity of oxygen for its complete
+combustion. Meat in general has a more stimulating effect upon the
+system and is more strengthening than vegetable food. There is,
+however, a tendency to eat too much meat, and when its effects are not
+counter-balanced by free outdoor exercise, it causes biliousness and
+sometimes gout and other troubles. Albuminous foods can be eaten
+longer alone without exciting loathing than can fats, sugars or
+starches. A carbonaceous diet taxes the excretory organs less than
+animal food. Meat is not necessary to life. Nitrogenous food man must
+have, but it need not be in the form of meat. The estimate commonly
+given is, that meat should occupy one-fourth and vegetable food
+three-fourths of a mixed diet, but in many cases the meat eaten is
+much in excess of this allowance. The proper association of different
+foods always keeps healthy people in better condition; there are
+times, however, when it may be necessary to abstain from certain
+articles of diet. It may be well to bear in mind, that the protein
+compounds can do the work of the carbohydrates and fats in being
+consumed for fuel, but the carbohydrates and fats cannot do the work
+of protein in building and repairing the tissues of the body. As
+already stated, a mixed diet is the only rational one for man. An
+exclusively vegetable diet, while it may maintain a condition of
+health for a time, eventually results in a loss of strength and power
+to resist disease. Therefore it is necessary to understand the
+approximate value of each class of food in arranging the daily
+dietary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Food and Economy.
+
+
+It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of
+moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the
+same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for
+them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes
+nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds
+of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat
+flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for
+nourishment, but not in the proportion best adapted for ordinary use.
+A man might live on beef alone, but it would be a very one-sided and
+imperfect diet. Meat and bread together make the essentials of a
+healthful diet. In order to give a general idea of food economy, it
+will be necessary to deal briefly with the functions of the various
+food principles. As our bodies contain a great deal of muscle, the
+waste of which is repaired by protein found in such food as lean meat,
+eggs, cheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish, etc., a supply of these
+articles must be considered in purchasing the daily supply. Fatty
+tissue (not muscle) serves as fuel, therefore the value of such foods
+as butter, cream, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates form fat and
+serve as fuel and force producers; these come in the form of starches,
+sugars,--vegetables and grains being the most important. In being
+themselves burned to yield energy, the nutrients protect each other
+from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like
+those of foods. An important use of the carbohydrates and fats is to
+protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. "The most healthful
+food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user: the
+cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment
+at the least cost: the best food is that which is both healthful and
+cheap." By referring to the various charts a fair estimate of food
+values may be obtained.
+
+As will be noticed, the animal foods contain the most protein and
+fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. A pound of
+cheese may have 0.28 pound of protein, as much as a man at ordinary
+work needs for a day's sustenance, while a pound of milk would have
+only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02 pound of protein. The
+materials which have the most fats and carbohydrates have the highest
+fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2.995
+calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only .315
+calories. On the other hand, the nutritive material of the codfish
+would consist almost entirely of protein, while the pork contains very
+little. Among the vegetable foods, peas and beans have a high
+proportion of protein. Oatmeal contains a large proportion also.
+Potatoes are low in fuel value as well as in protein, because they are
+three-fourths water. For the same reason milk, which is seven-eights
+water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value, hence the
+reason why it is not so valuable as food for an adult as many of the
+other food materials.
+
+These few illustrations will help to show the need of an intelligent
+idea of food values before attempting to purchase the supplies for
+family use. As one-half a laboring man's income goes towards
+providing food, it must follow that such knowledge will help the
+housewife very materially in securing the best results from the amount
+expended.
+
+The _average daily diet_ of an adult should contain (Church):--
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  NUTRIENTS.                      |  IN 100 PARTS.  |   EACH 24 HOURS.
+  --------------------------------|-----------------|--------------------
+                                  |                 |  lb.  oz.      gr.
+  Water                           |       81.5      |   5    8      .320
+  Albuminoids                     |        3.9      |   0    4      .178
+  Fat                             |        3.0      |   0    3      .337
+  Common salt                     |        3.7      |   0    0      .325
+  Phosphates, potash, salts, etc. |        0.3      |   0    0     0.170
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+Quantity of Food Required.
+
+The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous
+condition depends upon the following conditions:--(1) Climate and
+season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized
+countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain
+health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of
+food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts
+one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence
+the need for more or less food. Abundant clothing in cold weather
+conserves the body heat; less food is therefore required to maintain
+life. Exercise and muscular work cause greater oxidation in the
+tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must be replaced by
+proper food. Outdoor work requires more food than indoor, and physical
+labor more than mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten
+years requires half as much food as a grown woman, and one of fourteen
+an equal amount. The rapidly growing active boy often eats as much as
+a man, and the middle-aged man requires more than the aged. A man of
+seventy years may preserve health on a quantity which would soon
+starve his grandson."
+
+Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain
+and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which have not
+yet been solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and
+phosphorus, which are found in protein compounds but not in the true
+fats, sugars, and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen and
+oxygen. We naturally infer that the protein compounds must be
+especially concerned in building up brain and nerve, and keeping them
+in repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question
+which has not yet been decided. In general it appears that a man or a
+woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without
+vigorous exercise and does but little hard muscular work, needs much
+less than the man at hard manual labor, and that the brain worker
+needs comparatively little of carbohydrates or fats. Many physicians,
+physiologists and students of hygiene have become convinced that
+well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too
+much; that the diet of people of this class as a whole is one-sided as
+well as excessive, and that the principal evil is the use of too much
+fat, starch and sugar. It is well to remember that it is the quantity
+of food digested which builds the body, and more injury is likely to
+result from over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value
+of having food cooked so as to aid digestion. The following dietary
+standards may be interesting to the more advanced pupils, housewives,
+etc.:--
+
+STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIET OF LABORING MAN AT MODERATE MUSCULAR
+WORK.
+
+  ========================+==========+=======+============================
+                          |          |       |  Nutrients in Daily Food.
+       Author.            | Protein. | Fats. |---------------+------------
+                          |          |       | Carbohydrates.| Fuel Value.
+  ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------
+                          |    lb.   |   lb. |      lb.      | Calories.
+   Playfair, England      |   .26    |   .11 |     1.17      |   3.140
+   Moleschotte, Italy     |   .29    |   .09 |     1.21      |   3.160
+   Wolff, Germany         |   .28    |   .08 |     1.19      |   3.030
+   Voit, Germany          |   .26    |   .12 |     1.10      |   3.055
+   Atwater, United States |   .28    | 17.33 |    88.1.21    |   3.500
+  ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------
+
+
+Quality of Food.
+
+It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard
+to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter,
+etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. _Poor
+cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment._ No doubt a well
+broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of
+the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in
+nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the
+cheaper pieces of beef equally palatable. That expensive food is not
+necessary to maintain life has been clearly demonstrated by the
+traditional diet of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and herring;
+the Irish, potatoes and buttermilk; New England, codfish and potatoes,
+and pork and beans; the Chinese, rice, etc. Monotony of diet, however,
+is not recommended, for reasons given in a previous chapter, and in
+the countries where a special diet prevails owing to the climate,
+nature of soil and markets, the results have not warranted us in
+believing that it is as good as a mixed diet. From this necessarily
+brief outline of the food question we have learned (1) that a
+knowledge of the requirements of the body are absolutely necessary in
+regulating a proper diet; (2) to furnish the food principles in a
+cheap rather than a dear form; (3) to understand the art of cookery so
+as to secure the full nutritive value and at the same time stimulate
+the appetite; (4) the value of economy in regard to food principles.
+When the housekeeper has acquired this knowledge she will have covered
+the field of food economy. Prof. Atwater says: "When we know what are
+the kinds and amount of nutritive substances our bodies need and our
+food materials contain, then and not till then shall we be able to
+adjust our diet to the demands of health and purse."
+
+
+Cooking of Food.
+
+It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities
+will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the
+customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of
+civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the
+definition of the term as it concerns ourselves.
+
+Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for
+the conversion of food material."
+
+As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to
+render it more palatable, more digestible, and with the greatest
+economy of time, fuel and money, is an object deserving the most
+careful attention. The art of cooking lies in the power to develop
+certain flavors which are agreeable to the palate, or in other words,
+which "make the mouth water," without interfering with the nutritive
+qualities of the food prepared, to understand by what method certain
+foods may be rendered more digestible, and to provide variety.
+Monotony of diet and of flavor lessens the appetite and fails to
+stimulate the digestive organs.
+
+The chemical changes, produced by cooking food properly, aid
+digestion, beside destroying any germs which may be contained in the
+food. Nearly all foods--except fruit--require cooking. The
+digestibility of starch depends almost entirely upon the manner in
+which it is cooked, especially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are
+sure to follow the use of improperly cooked grains or starches. (See
+Chap. VII.)
+
+
+Methods.
+
+The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1)
+boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6)
+braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming.
+
+BOILING.
+
+Water boils at a temperature of 212° F. Simmering should be at a
+temperature of from 175° F. to 180° F. When water has reached the
+boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted
+into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has
+already reached the boiling point.
+
+STEWING.
+
+Stewing allows the juices of the meat to become dissolved in water
+heated to the simmering point. The juices thus dissolved are eaten
+with the meat. If not injured by the addition of rich sauces or fats,
+this is usually a very digestible method of preparing certain kinds of
+meat.
+
+BROILING.
+
+Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coals. A coating of
+coagulated albumen is formed upon the outer surface. This coating
+prevents the evaporation of the juices, which with the extractive
+materials are retained and improve the flavor. Meat cooked in this way
+has a decided advantage, in both flavor and nutritive value, over that
+which has been boiled or stewed. There are, however, only certain
+kinds of meat that are suitable for broiling.
+
+FRYING.
+
+Frying is cooking in hot fat. The boiling point of fat is far above
+that of water. Fat should not be heated above 400° F., as it will then
+turn dark and emit a disagreeable odor. Fried food, unless very
+carefully prepared, is considered unwholesome. The only proper method
+for frying is to immerse the food completely in a bath of hot fat.
+
+BRAISING.
+
+Braising is cooking meat in a covered vessel surrounded by a solution
+of vegetable and animal juices in a strong but not boiling
+temperature. Tough meat may be rendered very palatable and nutritious
+by cooking in this way. The cover of the pan or kettle must fit
+closely enough to prevent evaporation. It requires long, steady
+cooking. The flavor is improved by browning the meat in either hot
+fat or in a very hot oven before braising.
+
+BAKING.
+
+Baking is cooking in confined heat. Meat properly cooked in an oven is
+considered by many authorities as quite equal in delicacy of flavor to
+that roasted before a fire, and is equally digestible.
+
+STEAMING.
+
+Steaming is cooking food over condensed steam, and is an excellent
+method for preparing food which requires long, slow cooking. Puddings,
+cereals, and other glutinous mixtures are often cooked in this way. It
+is an economical method, and has the advantage of developing flavor
+without loss of substance.
+
+
+Food Preservation.
+
+Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking,
+(3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7)
+addition of antiseptic and preservative substances.
+
+DRYING.
+
+Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by
+housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by
+drying, the latter with the addition of salt.
+
+SMOKING.
+
+Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish,
+which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a
+long time until they absorb a certain percentage of antiseptic
+material, which prevents the fat from becoming rancid, and the albumen
+from putrefying. Well smoked bacon cut thin and properly cooked is a
+digestible form of fatty food, especially for tubercular patients.
+Smoking improves the digestibility of ham.
+
+SALTING.
+
+Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. The addition
+of a little saltpetre helps to preserve the color of the meat. Brine
+is frequently used to temporarily preserve meat and other substances.
+Corned beef is a popular form of salt preservation. All salted meats
+require long, slow cooking. They should always be placed in cold water
+and heated gradually in order to extract the salt. Salt meats are less
+digestible and not quite so nutritious as fresh meats.
+
+FREEZING.
+
+Food may be kept in a frozen condition almost indefinitely, but will
+decompose very quickly when thawed, hence the necessity for cooking
+immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of its nutritive value in
+cooking.
+
+REFRIGERATING.
+
+This process does not involve actual freezing, but implies
+preservation in chambers at a temperature maintained a few degrees
+above freezing point. This method does not affect the flavor or
+nutritive value of food so much as freezing.
+
+SEALING.
+
+Sealing is accomplished not only in the process of canning but by
+covering with substances which are impermeable. Beef has been
+preserved for considerable time by immersing in hot fat in which it
+was allowed to remain after cooling.
+
+CHEMICALS.
+
+Chemicals are sometimes used in the preservation of food, but the
+other methods are safer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter.
+
+
+Animal foods contain nutritive matter in a concentrated form, and
+being chemically similar to the composition of the body is doubtless
+the reason why they assimilate more readily than vegetable foods,
+although the latter are richer in mineral matter. The most valuable
+animal foods in common use are meat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin and
+fats.
+
+MEAT.
+
+Meat is composed of muscular tissue, connective tissue or gristle,
+fatty tissue, blood-vessels, nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as
+food is due chiefly to the nitrogenous compound it contains, the most
+valuable being the albuminoids: the gelatinoid of meat is easily
+changed into gelatin by the action of hot water. Gelatin when combined
+with the albuminoids and extractives has considerable nutritive value.
+Extractives are meat bases, or rather meat which has been dissolved by
+water, such as soup stock and beef tea. The object in cooking meat is
+to soften and loosen the tissue, which renders it more easily
+digested. Another object is to sterilize or kill any germs which may
+exist and to make it more palatable. The digestibility of meat is
+influenced by the age of the animal killed and the feeding. The
+following table is given as an average of the digestibility of animal
+foods:--
+
+
+TABLE OF COMPARATIVE DIGESTIBILITY.
+
+_Commencing with the most digestible and ending with the least
+digestible of meats and other animal foods._ (Thompson.)
+
+    Oysters.
+    Soft cooked eggs.
+    Sweetbread.
+    Whitefish, etc.
+    Chicken, boiled or broiled.
+    Lean roast beef or beefsteak.
+    Eggs, scrambled, omelette.
+    Mutton.
+    Bacon.
+    Roast fowl, chicken, turkey, etc.
+    Tripe, brains, liver.
+    Roast lamb.
+    Chops, mutton or lamb.
+    Corn beef.
+    Veal.
+    Duck and other game.
+    Salmon, mackerel, herring.
+    Roast goose.
+    Lobster and crabs.
+    Pork.
+    Fish, smoked, dried, pickled.
+
+Cooking affects the digestibility of meat, which is evident from the
+figures given in the following table (Church):--
+
+
+TIME OF DIGESTION.
+
+  --------------------+----------------
+                      |      Hours.
+  --------------------+----------------
+   Beef, raw          |          2
+   Beef, half boiled  |          2-1/2
+   Beef, well boiled  | 2-3/4 to 3
+   Beef, half roasted | 2-3/4 to 3
+   Beef, well roasted | 2-1/4 to 4
+   Mutton, raw        |          2
+   Mutton, boiled     |          3
+   Mutton, roasted    |          3-1/4
+   Veal, raw          |          2-1/2
+   Pork, raw          |          3
+   Pork, roasted      |          5-1/4
+   Fowl, boiled       |          4
+   Turkey, boiled     |          2-1/2
+   Venison, broiled   |          1-1/2
+  --------------------+----------------
+
+It may be well to add here that animal food is more digestible when
+cooked between 160° and 180° F. than at a higher temperature.
+
+
+Cooking of Meat.
+
+_(For more general information, see Recipes.)_
+
+In boiling meat two principles must be considered, the softening of
+the fibre and preserving of the juices. If the meat alone is to be
+used it should be placed in sufficient boiling water to completely
+cover, and kept at boiling point (212° F.) for at least ten minutes,
+so as to harden the albumen and prevent the escape of the juices. The
+temperature should then be allowed to fall to simmering point (175°
+F.). If the water is kept boiling it will render the meat tough and
+dry. If the juice is to be extracted and the broth used, the meat
+should be placed in cold water; if bones are added they should be cut
+or broken into small pieces in order that the gelatin may be
+dissolved. If the water is heated gradually the soluble materials are
+more easily dissolved. The albumen will rise as a scum to the top, but
+should not be skimmed off, as it contains the most nutriment and will
+settle to the bottom as sediment.
+
+STEWING.
+
+If both meat and broth are to be used the process of cooking should be
+quite different. In stewing, the meat should be cut into small pieces,
+put into cold water in order that the juices, flavoring material and
+fibre may be dissolved. The temperature should be gradually raised to
+simmering point and remain at that heat for at least three or four
+hours, the vessel being kept closely covered. Cooked in this way the
+broth will be rich, and the meat tender and juicy. Any suitable
+flavoring may be added. This is a good method for cooking meat
+containing gristle.
+
+ROASTING AND BROILING.
+
+When the meat alone is to be eaten, either roasting, broiling or
+frying in deep fat is a more economical method, as the juices are
+saved. The shrinkage in a roast of meat during cooking is chiefly due
+to a loss of water. A small roast will require a hotter fire than a
+larger one, in order to harden the exterior and prevent the juices
+from escaping. Meat is a poor conductor of heat, consequently a large
+roast exposed to this intense heat would become burned before the
+interior could be heated. The large roast should be exposed to intense
+heat for a few minutes, but the temperature should then be reduced,
+and long steady cooking allowed.
+
+Broiling (see broiling in previous chapter, p. 19.)
+
+
+Varieties of Meat.
+
+BEEF TONGUE.
+
+Beef tongue is a tender form of meat, but contains too much fat to
+agree well with people of delicate digestion.
+
+VEAL.
+
+Veal, when obtained from animals killed too young, is apt to be tough,
+pale and indigestible, but good veal is considered fairly nutritious.
+It contains more gelatin than beef, and in broth is considered
+valuable, especially for the sick.
+
+MUTTON.
+
+Mutton is considered to be more digestible than beef, that is well fed
+mutton from sheep at least three years old; but as it is more
+difficult to obtain tender mutton than beef, the latter is more
+generally preferred. Mutton broth is wholesome and valuable in
+sickness.
+
+LAMB.
+
+Lamb, when tender and of the right age, is quite as digestible as beef
+or mutton, but the flesh contains too large a proportion of fat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of cuts of beef.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of cuts of veal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of cuts of pork.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of cuts of mutton.]
+
+VENISON.
+
+Venison is a tender meat with short fibres, which is very digestible
+when obtained from young deer, but is considered to be rather too
+stimulating. Its chemical composition is similar to lean beef.
+
+PORK.
+
+Pork is a tender-fibred meat, but is very indigestible owing to the
+high percentage of fat, which is considerably more than the
+nitrogenous material it contains. Pork ribs may have as much as 42 per
+cent. of fat.
+
+HAM AND BACON.
+
+Ham is more digestible when well boiled and eaten cold. Bacon is more
+easily digested than either ham or pork; when cut thin and cooked
+quickly--until transparent and crisp--it can often be eaten by
+dyspeptics, and forms an excellent food for consumptives.
+
+FOWL.
+
+Chicken is one of the most digestible of meats, contains considerable
+phosphorus and is particularly valuable as food for invalids. Turkey
+is somewhat less digestible than chicken. Ducks and geese are
+difficult of digestion, unless quite young, on account of the fat they
+contain.
+
+GAME.
+
+Game, if well cooked, is fairly digestible.
+
+SWEETBREAD.
+
+Sweetbread, which is thymus gland of the calf, is a delicate and
+agreeable article of diet, particularly for invalids. Tripe, heart,
+liver and kidneys are other forms of animal viscera used as
+food--valuable chiefly as affording variety.
+
+FISH.
+
+The chief difference in fish is the coarseness of fibre and the
+quantity of fat present. Fish which are highly flavored and fat, while
+they may be nutritious, are much less easy of digestion than
+flounder, sole, whitefish, and the lighter varieties. The following
+fish contain the largest percentage of albuminoids:--Red snapper,
+whitefish, brook trout, salmon, bluefish, shad, eels, mackerel,
+halibut, haddock, lake trout, bass, cod and flounder. The old theory
+that fish constituted "brain food," on account of the phosphorus it
+contained, has proved to be entirely without foundation, as in reality
+many fish contain less of this element than meat. The tribes which
+live largely on fish are not noted for intellectuality. Fish having
+white meat when broiled or boiled--not fried--are excellent food for
+invalids or people of weak digestion. Fish should be well cooked.
+
+OYSTERS.
+
+Oysters are a nutritious food, and may be eaten either raw or cooked.
+Lobsters, crabs and shrimps are called "sea scavengers," and unless
+absolutely fresh are not a desirable food.
+
+MILK.
+
+Milk contains all the elements which are necessary to maintain life;
+and constitutes a complete diet for infants. It will sustain life in
+an adult for several months. Although milk furnishes a useful food, it
+is not essential to a diet required for active bodily exercise. It is
+seldom given to athletes while in active training. Adults who are able
+to eat any kind of food are kept in better health by abstaining from
+milk, except as used for cooking purposes. An occasional glass of hot
+milk taken as a stimulant for tired brain and nerves is sometimes
+beneficial. Milk is composed of water, salts, fat, milk sugar or
+lactose, albumen and casein. Average milk has from 8 to 10 per cent.
+of cream. Good milk should form a layer of cream about 2-1/2 in. thick
+as it stands in a quart bottle. Lactose (milk sugar) is an important
+ingredient in milk. It is less liable to ferment in the stomach than
+cane sugar. In the presence of fermenting nitrogenous material it is
+converted into lactic acid, making the milk sour. Casein is present in
+milk chiefly in its alkaline form, and in conjunction with calcium
+phosphate. Milk absorbs germs from the air and from unclean vessels
+very readily. Good, clean, uncontaminated milk ought to keep fresh,
+exposed in a clean room at a temperature of 68° F., for 48 hours
+without souring. If the milk is tainted in any way it will sour in a
+few hours. Boiled milk will keep fresh half as long again as fresh
+milk. Milk absorbs odors very quickly, therefore should never be left
+in a refrigerator with stale cheese, ham, vegetables, etc., unless in
+an air-tight jar. It should never be left exposed in a sick room or
+near waste pipes. Absolute cleanliness is necessary for the
+preservation of milk; vessels in which it is to be kept must be
+thoroughly scalded with boiling water, not merely washed out with warm
+water.
+
+
+_Methods of Preserving Milk._
+
+STERILIZED MILK.
+
+Milk to be thoroughly sterilized and germ free must be heated to the
+boiling point (212° F.). This may be done by putting the milk into
+perfectly clean bottles and placing in a rack, in a kettle of boiling
+water, remaining until it reaches the necessary degree of heat. The
+bottle should be closely covered _immediately_ after with absorbent
+cotton or cotton batting in order to prevent other germs getting into
+the milk.
+
+PASTEURIZED MILK.
+
+The difference between pasteurizing and sterilizing is only in the
+degree of heat to which the milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the
+milk is kept at a temperature of 170° F. from 10 to 20 minutes. This
+is considered a better method for treating milk which is to be given
+to young children, as it is more easily digested than sterilized milk.
+All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in warm weather,
+especially for children.
+
+CHEESE.
+
+Cheese is one of the most nutritious of foods, and when meat is scarce
+makes an excellent substitute, as it contains more protein than meat.
+Cheese is the separated casein of milk, which includes some of the
+fats and salts.
+
+EGGS.
+
+Eggs contain all the ingredients necessary to support life. Out of an
+egg the entire structure of the bird--bones, nerves, muscles, viscera,
+and feathers--is developed. The inner portion of the shell is
+dissolved to furnish phosphate for the bones. The composition of a
+hen's egg is about as follows (Church):--
+
+  ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------
+                        | White--In  ||                     | Yolk--In
+                        | 100 parts. ||                     | 100 parts.
+  ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------
+   Water                |   84.8     || Water               |   51.5
+   Albumen              |   12.0     || Casein and albumen  |   15.0
+   Fat, sugar,          |            || Oil and fat         |   30.0
+     extractives, etc.  |    2.0     || Pigment             |
+   Mineral matter       |    1.2     ||   extractives, etc. |    2.1
+                        |            || Mineral matter      |    1.4
+  ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------
+
+The albumen--or the "white"--of an egg is greatly altered by cooking.
+When heated beyond boiling point it becomes a very indigestible
+substance. Eggs cooked at a temperature of about 170° F., leaving the
+whites soft, are easily digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in
+1-1/2 hour, while a baked egg requires from 2 to 3 hours. Eggs _baked_
+in puddings, or in any other manner, form one of the most insoluble
+varieties of albumen.
+
+GELATIN.
+
+Gelatin is obtained from bones, ligaments, and other connective
+tissues. In combinations with other foods it has considerable
+nutritive value. The place given to it by scientists is to save the
+albumen of the body; as it does not help to form tissue or repair
+waste it cannot replace albumen entirely. Gelatin will not sustain
+life, but when used in the form of soup stock, etc., is considered
+valuable as a stimulant.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LEGUMES--PEAS, BEANS AND LENTILS.
+
+These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being
+inferior in quality to that contained in meat, they can scarcely be
+given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an
+intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the
+standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value,
+especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Fats and Oils.
+
+
+Fats and oils contain three elements--carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
+About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results
+from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed.
+
+USES OF FAT.
+
+(1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply
+force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to
+lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the
+tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose,
+and come before the carbohydrates in fuel and force value; in
+combination with proteids, they form valuable foods for those engaged
+in severe muscular exercise, such as army marching, mining
+expeditions, etc.
+
+Fats and oils are but little changed during digestion. The fat is
+divided into little globules by the action of the pancreatic juice and
+other digestive elements, and is absorbed by the system. Fat forms the
+chief material in adipose tissue, a fatty layer lying beneath the
+skin, which keeps the warmth in the body, and is re-absorbed into the
+blood, keeping up heat and activity, and preserving other tissues
+during abstinence from food. Fat sometimes aids the digestion of
+starchy foods by preventing them from forming lumpy masses in the
+mouth and stomach, hence the value of using butter with bread,
+potatoes, etc. The animal fats are more nutritive than the vegetable,
+butter and cream heading the list. Cooking fats at a very high
+temperature, such as frying, causes a reaction or decomposition, which
+irritates the mucous membrane and interferes with digestion.
+
+The principal animal fats are butter, cream, lard, suet, the fat of
+mutton, pork, bacon, beef, fish and cod liver oil. The vegetable fats
+and oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds, olives, and
+nuts. The most important fats and oils for household purposes are:
+
+BUTTER.
+
+Butter, which contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of water, 11.7 per cent.
+fat, 0.5 per cent. casein, 0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The
+addition of salt to butter prevents fermentation. Butter will not
+support life when taken alone, but with other foods is highly
+nutritious and digestible.
+
+CREAM.
+
+Cream is one of the most wholesome and agreeable forms of fat. It is
+an excellent substitute for cod liver oil in tuberculosis. Ice cream
+when eaten slowly is very nutritious.
+
+LARD.
+
+Lard is hog fat, separated by melting.
+
+SUET.
+
+Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys.
+
+COTTOLENE.
+
+Cottolene is a preparation of cotton-seed oil.
+
+OLEOMARGARINE.
+
+Oleomargarine is a preparation of beef fat provided as a substitute
+for butter.
+
+OLIVE OIL.
+
+Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is considered to be very
+wholesome; in some cases being preferred to either cod-liver oil or
+cream for consumptives.
+
+COTTON SEED OIL.
+
+Cotton seed oil is frequently substituted for olive oil.
+
+NUTS.
+
+Nuts contain a good deal of oil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Carbohydrate Foods.
+
+
+The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as
+laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course,
+more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many
+starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich
+in proteids.
+
+The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):--
+
+
+PERCENTAGE OF STARCH IN VEGETABLE FOODS.
+
+  -----------------+-----------
+                   | Per Cent.
+  -----------------+-----------
+   Wheat bread     |   55.5
+   Wheat flour     |   75.6
+   Graham flour    |   71.8
+   Rye flour       |   78.7
+   Buckwheat flour |   77.6
+   Beans           |   57.4
+   Oatmeal         |   68.1
+   Cornmeal        |   71.0
+   Rice            |   79.4
+   Potatoes        |   21.3
+   Sweet Potatoes  |   21.1
+   Turnips         |    6.9
+   Carrots         |   10.1
+   Cabbage         |    6.2
+   Melons          |    2.5
+   Apples          |   14.3
+   Pears           |   16.3
+   Bananas         |   23.3
+  -----------------+-----------
+
+It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat,
+oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes.
+Vegetable proteids, as already stated, are less easily digested than
+those belonging to the animal kingdom, therefore it must be remembered
+that a purely vegetable diet, even though it may be so arranged as to
+provide the necessary protein, is apt to over-tax the digestive
+organs more than a mixed diet from both the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms. Much depends upon the cooking of the starchy foods in order
+to render them digestible. (Study chapter on Digestion in the Public
+School Physiology.)
+
+STARCH.
+
+The digestion of starch--which is insoluble in cold water--really
+begins with the cooking, which by softening the outer coating or fibre
+of the grains, causes them to swell and burst, thereby preparing them
+for the chemical change which is caused by the action of the saliva in
+converting the starch into a species of sugar before it enters the
+stomach. Substances which are insoluble in cold water cannot be
+absorbed into the blood, therefore are not of any value as food until
+they have become changed, and made soluble, which overtaxes the
+digestive organs and causes trouble. The temperature of the saliva is
+too low to dissolve the starch fibre unaided. Each of the digestive
+juices has its own work to do, and the saliva acts directly upon the
+starchy food; hence the importance of thoroughly masticating such food
+as bread, potatoes, rice, cereals, etc. The action of heat, in baking,
+which causes the vapor to rise, and forms the crust of starchy food,
+produces what is called dextrine, or partially digested starch.
+Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence the ease with which crust and
+toast--when properly made--are digested. It is more important to
+thoroughly chew starchy food than meat, as it is mixed with another
+digestive juice, which acts upon it in the stomach.
+
+
+Sugars.
+
+SUGAR.
+
+There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar,
+grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars
+have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its
+solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in
+sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and
+nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and
+can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular
+work. Cane sugar is the clarified and crystallized juice of the sugar
+cane. Nearly half the sugar used in the world comes from sugar cane,
+the other half from beet roots. The latter is not quite so sweet as
+the cane sugar. Sugar is also made from the sap of the maple tree, but
+this is considered more of a luxury; consequently, not generally used
+for cooking purposes.
+
+MOLASSES AND TREACLE.
+
+Molasses and treacle are formed in the process of crystallizing and
+refining sugar. Treacle is the waste drained from moulds used in
+refining sugar, and usually contains more or less dirt.
+
+GLUCOSE.
+
+Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufactured from starch. It is
+found in almost all the sweeter varieties of fruit. It is not so
+desirable for general use as cane sugar.
+
+HONEY.
+
+Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees from the nectar of flowering
+plants, and stored by them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13,
+fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous matter 1.29, mineral
+matter 0.12 per cent. (Konig.)
+
+
+Grains.
+
+While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more
+valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them,
+and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They,
+however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and
+render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place:
+
+WHEAT.
+
+A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer
+one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the
+starch. Some of the mineral matter for which wheat is so valuable is
+contained in the bran, hence the value of at least a portion of that
+part of the wheat being included in bread flour--not by the addition
+of coarse bran (which is indigestible) to the ordinary flour, but by
+the refining process employed in producing whole wheat flour. While
+wheat is used in other forms, its principal use as food is in the form
+of flour.
+
+The following table, giving the composition of bread from wheat and
+maize, will be of interest (Stone):--
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF BREAD FROM WHEAT AND MAIZE.
+
+  -------------------------+--------------------------------------------
+                           |            In Air-Dry Material.
+                           +------+-----+-----+-------+--------+--------
+                           |      |     |     |       |        |Nitrogen
+                           |Water.| Ash.| Fat.| Fibre.|Protein.|  free
+                           |      |     |     |       |        |extract.
+  -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+--------
+                           |P.ct. |P.ct.|P.ct.| P.ct. | P.ct.  |  P.ct.
+   Bread from whole winter |      |     |     |       |        |
+     wheat                 | 3.07 | 2.33| 1.22| 2.86  | 15.70  |  74.82
+   Bread from whole spring |      |     |     |       |        |
+     wheat                 | 7.46 | 1.69| 1.24| 2.80  | 15.26  |  71.55
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |     |     |       |        |
+     winter wheat          |10.39 |  .59|  .32|  .44  | 11.94  |  76.32
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |     |     |       |        |
+     spring wheat          | 8.00 |  .43|  .47|  .39  | 14.41  |  76.30
+   Corn bread from whole   |      |     |     |       |        |
+     maize                 | 3.40 | 1.88| 4.14| 2.53  | 12.88  |  75.17
+  -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+--------
+
+
+  -------------------------+------------------------------------------
+                           |              In Dry Matter
+                           +------+------+--------+---------+---------
+                           |      |      |        |         | Nitrogen
+                           | Ash. | Fat. | Fibre. | Protein.|   free
+                           |      |      |        |         | extract.
+  -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+---------
+                           |P.ct. |P.ct. | P.ct.  | P.ct.   |  P.ct.
+   Bread from whole winter |      |      |        |         |
+     wheat                 | 2.40 | 1.25 | 2.95   | 16.20   |  77.20
+   Bread from whole spring |      |      |        |         |
+     wheat                 | 1.82 | 1.34 | 3.02   | 16.49   |  77.33
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |      |        |         |
+     winter wheat          |  .66 |  .35 |  .49   | 13.33   |  85.17
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |      |        |         |
+     spring wheat          |  .47 |  .51 |  .42   | 15.66   |  82.94
+   Corn bread from whole   |      |      |        |         |
+     maize                 | 1.95 | 4.29 | 2.62   | 13.33   |  77.81
+  -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+---------
+
+
+BREAD.
+
+The most valuable food product manufactured from flour is bread.
+
+Bread contains so many of the ingredients required to nourish the
+body, viz.: fat, proteid, salts, sugar and starch, that it may well be
+termed the "staff of life." As it does not contain enough fat for a
+perfect food the addition of butter to it renders it more valuable as
+an article of diet. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives the following
+explanation of what constitutes ideal bread: "(1) It should retain as
+much as possible of the nutritive principles of the grain from which
+it is made; (2) it should be prepared in such a manner as to secure
+the complete assimilation of these nutritive principles; (3) it should
+be light and porous, so as to allow the digestive juices to penetrate
+it quickly and thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free from
+coarse bran, which causes too rapid muscular action to allow of
+complete digestion. This effect is also produced when the bread is
+sour." Bread is made from a combination of flour, liquid (either milk
+or water), and a vegetable ferment called yeast (see yeast recipes).
+The yeast acts slowly or rapidly according to the temperature to which
+it is exposed. The starch has to be changed by the ferment called
+diastase (diastase is a vegetable ferment which converts starchy foods
+into a soluble material called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into
+alcohol and carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), when it makes itself
+known by the bubbles which appear and the gradual swelling of the
+whole mass. It is the effect of the carbonic acid gas upon the gluten,
+which, when checked at the proper time before the ferment becomes
+acetic (sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome bread which is
+the pride of all good housekeepers. The kneading of bread is to break
+up the gas bubbles into small portions in order that there may be no
+large holes and the fermentation be equal throughout. The loaf is
+baked in order to kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, to
+expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the alcohol, to stiffen the
+gluten and to form a crust which shall have a pleasant flavor. Much of
+the indigestibility of bread is owing to the imperfect baking; unless
+the interior of the loaf has reached the sterilizing point, 212° F.,
+the bacteria contained in the yeast will not be killed, and some of
+the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf. The scientific method
+of baking bread is to fix the air cells as quickly as possible at
+first. This can be done better by baking the bread in small loaves in
+separate pans, thereby securing a uniform heat and more crust, which
+is considered to be the most easily digested part of the bread. Some
+cooks consider that long, slow baking produces a more desirable flavor
+and renders bread more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour will
+make an average of one hundred and thirty-five pounds of bread. This
+increase of weight is due to the addition of water.
+
+MACARONI.
+
+Macaroni is a flour preparation of great food value. It contains about
+six per cent. more gluten than bread, and is regarded by Sir Henry
+Thompson as equal to meat for flesh-forming purposes. Dieticians say
+that macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli are not used so extensively as
+their value deserves.
+
+BUCKWHEAT.
+
+Buckwheat is the least important of the cereals.
+
+RYE.
+
+Rye is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. Its treatment in
+regard to bread making is similar to that of wheat.
+
+CORN.
+
+Corn contains fat, proteid and starch, and produces heat and energy.
+It is very fattening, and when eaten as a vegetable is considered
+difficult of digestion. Cornmeal is a wholesome food; it contains more
+fat than wheat flour, and less mineral matter.
+
+RICE.
+
+Rice constitutes a staple food of a great many of the world's
+inhabitants. It contains more starch than any other cereal, but when
+properly cooked is very easily digested. It should be combined with
+some animal food, as it contains too little nitrogen to satisfy the
+demands of the system. It forms a wholesome combination with fruit,
+such as apples, peaches, prunes, berries, etc.
+
+BARLEY.
+
+Barley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. It contains more
+fat, mineral matter and cellulose (cellulose is often called
+indigestible fibre, as it resists the solvent action of the digestive
+juices, and is of no value as a nutrient), and less proteid and
+digestible carbohydrates.
+
+OATMEAL.
+
+Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods. Oats contain fat, proteid,
+salts and cellulose, in addition to a large percentage of starch. The
+nutritive value of oatmeal is great, but much depends upon the manner
+of cooking. (See recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should lead a
+vigorous outdoor life. The following analysis of oatmeal is given
+(Letheby):--
+
+  Nitrogenous matter            12.6 per cent.
+  Carbohydrates, starch, etc.   63.8    "
+  Fatty matter                   5.6    "
+  Mineral matter                 3.0    "
+  Water                         15.0    "
+                                ----
+  Total                        100.0
+
+
+Vegetables.
+
+Legumes--peas, beans and lentils--have an exceedingly leathery
+envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water--in
+order to soften the woody fibre--and are then cooked slowly for some
+hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very
+nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which
+form they are used in soups.
+
+POTATOES.
+
+Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet
+they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourths water.
+They contain some mineral matter, hence the reason why they are better
+boiled and baked in their skins, so as to prevent the escape of the
+salts into the water. Potatoes are more easily digested when baked
+than cooked in any other form.
+
+BEETS.
+
+Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of starch and sugar, some
+salts, and a little over one per cent. of proteid matter. Young beets,
+either in the form of a vegetable or a salad, are considered to be
+very wholesome.
+
+CARROTS, TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, OYSTER PLANT.
+
+Carrots, turnips, parsnips and oyster plant, although containing a
+large percentage of water, are considered valuable as nutrients, the
+turnip being the least nutritious.
+
+GREEN VEGETABLES.
+
+Green vegetables do not contain much nutriment, and are chiefly
+valuable as affording a pleasing variety in diet; also for supplying
+mineral matter and some acids. In this class we may include cabbage,
+cauliflower, spinach, lettuce and celery.
+
+TOMATOES.
+
+Tomatoes are wholesome vegetables; on account of the oxalic acid they
+contain they do not always agree with people of delicate digestion.
+
+CUCUMBERS.
+
+Cucumbers are neither wholesome nor digestible.
+
+ASPARAGUS.
+
+Asparagus is a much prized vegetable. The substance called asparagin
+which it contains is supposed to possess some value.
+
+RHUBARB.
+
+Rhubarb is a wholesome vegetable.
+
+ONIONS, GARLIC, SHALLOTS.
+
+Onions, garlic, and shallots are valuable both as condiments and eaten
+separately. They contain more nutrients than the last vegetables
+considered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+Fruits.
+
+
+Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable
+jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids
+in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in
+lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in
+apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the
+least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries
+are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid
+of all.
+
+
+Uses of Fruit.
+
+(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and
+relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and
+acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics;
+(5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite,
+improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and
+oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and
+magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is
+highly beneficial, and should be used freely in season. Cooked fruit
+is more easily digested than raw, and when over-ripe should always be
+cooked in order to prevent fruit poisoning.
+
+NUTS.
+
+Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and sugar, but are not
+considered valuable as nutrients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English
+walnuts are the most nutritious.
+
+
+Beverages.
+
+TEA.
+
+Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is
+also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a
+preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The
+difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of
+preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains
+more tannin than black. The following table will show the
+difference:--
+
+  =======================+===================+===================
+                         |    GREEN TEA.     |    BLACK TEA.
+  -----------------------+-------------------+-------------------
+   Crude protein         |       37.43       |       38.90
+   Fibre                 |       10.06       |       10.07
+   Ash  (mineral matter) |        4.92       |        4.93
+   Theine                |        3.20       |        3.30
+   Tannin                |       10.64       |        4.89
+   Total nitrogen        |        5.99       |        6.22
+  -----------------------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color
+and flavor, depend upon the season of the year at which the leaves are
+gathered, the variety of the plant, the age of the leaves, which
+become tough as they grow older, and the care exercised in their
+preparation. Much depends upon the manner in which tea is infused. (1)
+Use freshly boiled water; (2) allow it to infuse only three or four
+minutes, in order to avoid extracting the tannin. When carefully
+prepared as above, tea is not considered unwholesome for people in
+good health.
+
+COFFEE.
+
+Coffee is made from the berries of coffee-arabica, which are dried,
+roasted and browned. The following table gives an approximate idea of
+the composition of coffee beans (Konig):--
+
+    Water                       1.15
+    Fat                        14.48
+    Crude fibre                19.89
+    Ash (mineral matter)        4.75
+    Caffeine                    1.24
+    Albuminoids                13.98
+    Other nitrogenous matter   45.09
+    Sugar, gum and dextrin      1.66
+
+Coffee is frequently adulterated with chicory, which is harmless.
+Coffee should not be allowed to boil long or stand in the coffee pot
+over a fire, as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more
+indigestible. Much controversy has been indulged in over the effect of
+coffee upon the system, but like many other similar questions it has
+not reached a practical solution. The general opinion seems to be that
+when properly made and used in moderation it is a valuable stimulant
+and not harmful to adults.
+
+COCOA.
+
+Cocoa and chocolate contain more food substances than tea or coffee,
+although their use in this respect is not of much value. The following
+table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):--
+
+    Theobromine                           1.73
+    Total nitrogenous substance          19.28
+    Fat                                  30.51
+    Water                                 3.83
+    Ash (mineral matter)                  8.30
+    Fibre and non-nitrogenous extract    37.48
+
+ALCOHOL.
+
+The use of alcohol is wholly unnecessary for the health of the human
+organism. (See Public School Physiology and Temperance.)
+
+
+Condiments.
+
+Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little
+nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very
+injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve
+monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry,
+pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is
+the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on
+mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more
+palatable without being injured is one of the fine arts in cookery.
+Some flavors, such as lemon juice, vinegar, etc., increase the solvent
+properties of the gastric juice, making certain foods more
+digestible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+Preparing Food.
+
+
+The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of
+little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge
+of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in
+whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first
+requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of
+fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal,
+kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for
+kindling and for a quick fire. Hard woods, oak, ash, etc., burn more
+slowly, retain the heat longer, and are better adapted for cooking
+purposes.
+
+COAL.
+
+Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon. It kindles slowly,
+gives a steady heat, and burns for a longer time without attention
+than wood. Stoves for burning oil and gas have become popular, and are
+very convenient and satisfactory for cooking purposes.
+
+OIL.
+
+Oil is considered to be the cheapest fuel.
+
+GAS.
+
+Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking purposes, but can only be
+used in certain localities.
+
+
+Making and Care of a Fire.
+
+CARE OF A FIRE.
+
+Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range.
+The plainer the range the easier it will be to keep it clean. There
+should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to
+check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before
+beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the
+soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate
+(saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper,
+then kindling arranged crosswise, allowing plenty of air space between
+the pieces, a little hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on the
+covers, open the direct draft and oven damper, then light the paper.
+When the wood is thoroughly kindled and the first layer of coal
+heated, fill the fire-box with coal even with the top of the oven.
+When the blue flame becomes white, close the oven damper, and when the
+coal is burning freely, shut the direct draft. When coal becomes
+bright red all through it has lost most of its heat. A great deal of
+coal is wasted by filling the fire-box too full and leaving the drafts
+open till the coal is red. To keep a steady fire it is better to add a
+little coal often rather than to add a large quantity and allow it to
+burn out. Never allow dust or cinders to accumulate around a range,
+either inside or out. Learn to open and shut the oven door quietly and
+quickly. Study the amount of fire required to heat the oven to the
+desired temperature. Learn which is the hotter or cooler side of the
+oven, and move the article which is being baked as required, being
+very careful to move it gently.
+
+Measurements.
+
+Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As
+there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping
+spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level
+spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and
+the cup is one holding 1/2 pint.
+
+The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:--
+
+    4 cups of flour                        = 1 pound or 1 quart.
+    2 cups of solid butter                 = 1   "
+    1/2 cup butter                         = 1/4 "
+    2 cups granulated sugar                = 1   "
+    2-1/2 cups powdered sugar              = 1   "
+    3 cups meal                            = 1   "
+    1 pint of milk or water                = 1   "
+    1 pint chopped meat, packed solidly    = 1   "
+    9 large eggs, 10 medium eggs           = 1   "
+    2 level tablespoonfuls butter          = 1 ounce.
+    4   "          "         "             = 2 ounces or 1/4 cup.
+    Butter the size of an egg              = 2   "    "      "
+    2 level tablespoonfuls sugar           = 1   "
+    4   "          "       flour           = 1   "
+    4   "          "       coffee          = 1   "
+    4   "          "       powdered sugar  = 1   "
+
+
+Table of Abbreviations.
+
+    Saltspoon                   ssp.
+    Tablespoon                 tbsp.
+    Pint                         pt.
+    Gallon                      gal.
+    Teaspoon                    tsp.
+    Cupful                       cf.
+    Quart                        qt.
+    Peck                         pk.
+
+A speck (spk.) is what you can put on a quarter inch square surface.
+
+
+Time-table for Cooking.
+
+BAKING BREAD, CAKES AND PUDDINGS.
+
+    Loaf bread           40 to 60 m.
+    Graham gems          25 to 30 m.
+    Sponge cake          45 to 60 m.
+    Cookies              10 to 15 m.
+    Rice and tapioca      1 hr.
+    Custards             15 to 20 m.
+    Pastry (thin puff)   10 to 15 m.
+    Pie crust            25 to 30 m.
+    Baked beans           6 to 8 hrs.
+    Scalloped dishes     15 to 20 m.
+    Rolls, biscuit       10 to 20 m.
+    Gingerbread          25 to 30 m.
+    Fruit cake            2 to 3 hrs.
+    Bread pudding         1 hr.
+    Indian pudding        2 to 3 hrs.
+    Steamed pudding       1 to 3 hrs.
+    Pastry (thick)       30 to 50 m.
+    Potatoes             30 to 45 m.
+    Braised meat          3 to 4 hrs.
+
+
+BAKING MEATS.
+
+    Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb.          8 to 10 m.
+    Beef, well done, per lb.             12 to 15 m.
+    Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb.    12 to 15 m.
+    Beef, fillet, per lb.                20 to 30 m.
+    Mutton, rare, per lb.                10 m.
+    Mutton, well done, per lb.           15 m.
+    Lamb, well done, per lb.             15 m.
+    Veal, well done, per lb.             20 m.
+    Pork, well done, per lb.             30 m.
+    Turkey, 10 lbs. weight               2-1/2 hrs.
+    Chicken, 3 to 4 lbs. weight          1 to 1-1/2 hr.
+    Goose, 8 lbs.                        2 hrs.
+    Tame duck                            1 to 1-1/2 hr.
+    Game                                 40 to 60 m.
+    Grouse                               30 to 40 m.
+    Small birds                          20 to 25 m.
+    Venison, per lb.                     15 m.
+    Fish, 6 to 8 lbs.                    1 hr.
+    Fish, small                          30 to 40 m.
+
+
+VEGETABLES (BOILING).
+
+    Rice, green corn, peas, tomatoes, asparagus
+      (hard boiled eggs)                                    20 to 25 m.
+    Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach             25 to 30 m.
+    Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips,
+      cauliflower                                           30 to 45 m.
+    Young cabbage, string beans, shell beans, oyster plant  45 to 60 m.
+    Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy and wheat             1 to 2  hrs.
+
+
+FRYING (DEEP).
+
+    Smelts, croquettes, fish balls                   1 to  2 m.
+    Muffins, fritters, doughnuts                     4 to  6 m.
+    Fish, breaded chops                              5 to  7 m.
+
+
+BROILING.
+
+    Steak, 1 inch thick                              6 to  8 m.
+    Steak, 1-1/2 inch thick                          8 to 10 m.
+    Fish, small                                      6 to  8 m.
+    Fish, thick                                     12 to 15 m.
+    Chops                                            8 to 10 m.
+    Chicken                                         20 m.
+
+
+Table of Proportions.
+
+    1 qt. of liquid to 3 qts. of flour for bread.
+    1 qt. of liquid to 2 qts. of flour for muffins.
+    1 qt. of liquid to 1 qt. of flour for batters.
+    1 cup of yeast (1 yeast cake) to 1 qt. of liquid.
+    1 tsp. of soda (level), 3 of cream tartar to 1 qt. of flour.
+    1 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of sour milk.
+    1 tsp. of soda to 1 cup of molasses.
+    4 tsps. of baking powder to 1 qt. of flour.
+    1 tsp. of salt to 1 qt. of soup stock.
+    1 ssp. of salt to 1 loaf of cake.
+    1 tbsp. of each vegetable, chopped, to 1 qt. of stock.
+    1-1/2 tbsp. of flour to 1 qt. of stock for thickening soup.
+    1 tbsp. of flour to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.
+    1 tsp. of salt to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.
+    4 tbsps. (level) cornstarch to 1 pt. of milk (to mould).
+    1 tsp. of salt to 2 qts. of flour for biscuits, etc.
+
+
+Methods for Flour Mixtures.
+
+STIRRING.
+
+Stirring is simply blending two or more materials by moving the spoon
+round and round until smooth and of the proper consistency.
+
+BEATING.
+
+Beating is bringing the spoon up through the mixture with a quick
+movement so as to entangle as much air as possible.
+
+CUTTING OR FOLDING.
+
+Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white of egg to a mixture
+without breaking the air bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture
+over and over as in folding. Do not stir or beat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+RECIPES.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD.
+
+
+POPOVERS.
+
+    2 cups of flour.
+    3 eggs.
+    2 cups of milk.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Beat the eggs (without separating) until very light, then add the milk
+and salt; pour this mixture on the flour (slowly), beating all the
+while. Beat until smooth and light, about five minutes. Grease gem
+pans or small cups, and bake in a moderately hot oven about
+thirty-five minutes. They should increase to four times their original
+size. (This recipe may be divided for class work.)
+
+
+PANCAKES.
+
+    1 pint of flour.
+    1 tbsp. of melted butter.
+    1 pint of milk.
+    2 eggs.
+    2 tsps. baking powder.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately; add the yolks to the
+milk, then the melted butter; salt. Sift the baking powder and flour
+together, add slowly to the liquid, stir until smooth. Lastly, add the
+whites of the eggs. These may be cooked in waffle irons or on a
+griddle.
+
+
+PANCAKES WITH BUTTERMILK.
+
+    1 pint of buttermilk.
+    Flour to make a medium batter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+
+Crush the soda, add it and the salt to the buttermilk, add the flour
+gradually, beat until the batter is smooth, and bake on a hot griddle.
+An egg may be added.
+
+
+CORNMEAL GRIDDLE CAKES.
+
+    1 pint of Indian meal.
+    1 cup of flour.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    3 eggs.
+    4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    1 pint of milk.
+
+Put the meal into a bowl, and pour over it just enough boiling water
+to scald it; do not make it soft; let stand until cool. Then add the
+milk; beat the eggs until very light, add them to the batter, add the
+flour and salt in which the baking powder has been sifted. Mix well,
+beat vigorously for a minute or two, and bake on a hot griddle.
+
+
+BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    1/2 tsp. of salt.
+    1/2 tsp. of soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    1/2 pt. stale bread crumbs.
+    2 eggs.
+    Flour to make a thin batter.
+
+Soak the bread in the milk for one hour, then beat it smooth. Beat the
+eggs separately till very light, add first the yolks, then the flour
+and salt and baking powder. Beat again, add the whites, and bake
+quickly on a hot griddle.
+
+
+BUCKWHEAT CAKES.
+
+    1 pt. boiling water.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 cup white flour.
+    1 ssp. soda.
+    1/2 cup corn or Graham meal.
+    1/4 yeast cake.
+    1 cup buckwheat flour.
+
+Pour the boiling water on the corn or Graham meal, add the salt, and
+when lukewarm add the flour, beat until smooth, then add the yeast.
+Let it rise over night. In the morning add the soda just before baking
+(milk may be used instead of water). A tablespoonful of molasses is
+sometimes added in order to make the cakes a darker brown.
+
+
+FRITTERS.
+
+Beat two eggs together until light, add to them 1 cup of milk, 1/2
+tsp. salt and sufficient flour to make a batter that will drop from
+the spoon. Beat until smooth. Have ready a deep pan of hot fat; add 3
+(l.) tsps. of baking powder to the batter, mix thoroughly and drop by
+spoonfuls into the hot fat. When brown on one side turn and brown on
+the other; take out with a skimmer and serve very hot. Do not pierce
+with a fork as it allows the steam to escape and makes the fritter
+heavy.
+
+
+GEMS--WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM GEMS.
+
+    2 cups of whole wheat flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    2 eggs, beaten separately.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 cup water.
+
+Mix flour, salt and sugar. Beat the eggs until light, add the milk and
+water, stir this into the dry mixture. Bake in hot gem pans for 30
+minutes.
+
+
+CORN MUFFINS.
+
+    1 cup cornmeal.
+    1 cup flour.
+    1-1/4 cups milk.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.
+    1 egg.
+
+Mix all the dry ingredients together. Melt the butter in a hot cup.
+Beat the egg till light. Add the milk to it and turn this mixture into
+the bowl containing the dry ingredients. Add the melted butter and
+beat vigorously and quickly. Pour into buttered muffin or gem pans,
+and bake for one-half hour in a moderate oven.
+
+
+QUICK MUFFINS OR GEMS.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    1 oz. butter.
+    3 cups of flour.
+    4 tsps. baking powder.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    3 eggs.
+
+Beat the eggs separately till light, add the yolks to the milk, then
+the flour, which must be more or less, according to the quality. The
+batter must be thin and pour from the spoon. Now add the melted butter
+and salt; give the whole a vigorous beating. Now add the baking powder
+and the well beaten whites, stir till thoroughly mixed. Bake in muffin
+rings in a quick oven or on the griddle.
+
+
+TEA BISCUIT.
+
+    1 pt. of flour.
+    1 cup milk.
+    2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. lard or butter.
+    1/2 tsp. sugar.
+
+Mix thoroughly in a sieve the flour, sugar, salt and baking powder,
+and rub through the sieve. Rub the butter or lard into this mixture.
+Now add the milk, stirring quickly with a strong spoon. Sprinkle the
+board with flour, turn out the dough upon it. Roll to the thickness of
+about 1/2 inch, cut with a small cutter. Bake in a quick oven. Do not
+crowd the biscuit in the pan. They should bake from 10 to 15 minutes.
+(All biscuit doughs should be mixed as soft as it is possible to
+handle. Sour milk may be used in this recipe by substituting soda for
+the baking powder.)
+
+
+HOT CORN BREAD.
+
+    1 qt. of cornmeal.
+    1 tsp. of salt.
+    1 pt. sour milk or buttermilk.
+    1 oz. of butter.
+    2 eggs.
+    1 tsp. of soda.
+
+Put the cornmeal in a large bowl and pour over it just enough boiling
+water to scald it through. Let it stand until cold, then add the eggs
+well beaten, the milk or buttermilk, salt, and butter (melted); beat
+thoroughly. Dissolve the soda in two tbsps. of boiling water, stir
+into the mixture, turn quickly into a greased square, shallow pan,
+put into a hot oven and bake 40 minutes.
+
+
+SHORTCAKES.
+
+(_Suitable for strawberries or any sweetened fruit._)
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1 cup sweet or sour milk.
+    1/4 cup butter.
+    2-1/2 tsps. baking powder, or 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Mix the salt, soda, cream tartar or baking powder with the flour,
+sift; rub in the butter until fine like meal. Add the liquid
+gradually, mixing with a knife, and use just enough to make it of a
+light spongy consistency. Turn the dough out on a well floured board,
+pat lightly into a flat cake and roll gently till half inch thick.
+Bake either in a spider or pie plate in the oven; split, butter, and
+spread with the fruit.
+
+
+DOUGHNUTS.
+
+    1 egg
+    1 tbsp. melted butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    Flour enough to make into a soft dough.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    1 ssp. cinnamon.
+
+Mix all the dry ingredients, beat the egg until light, add to this the
+milk, sugar and melted butter. Pour into the flour, mixing carefully
+into a soft dough. Have the board well floured. Roll only a large
+spoonful at a time. Cut into the desired shape and drop into hot fat.
+The fat should be hot enough for the dough to rise to the top
+instantly.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BREAD.
+
+As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it
+naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject
+upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A
+knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII)
+must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained.
+The first element to consider is the _yeast_, and the generating of
+carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous.
+
+Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth produced from grain which has
+commenced to bud or sprout, and which forms the substance called
+diastase. This substance has the power to convert starch into sugar.
+(See Chap. VII for effect of yeast upon flour.)
+
+The temperature at which fermentation takes place, and when to check
+it, are important features of bread-making.
+
+The liquid (milk or water) should be tepid when mixed, as too great
+heat destroys the growth of the yeast. The dough should rise in a
+temperature of 75°. After fermentation has become active the
+temperature may be gradually lowered--as in setting bread over
+night--without injury.
+
+Avoid a cold draft or sudden change of temperature, as it checks
+fermentation and affects the flavor.
+
+Never allow bread to rise until it "settles," or runs over the side of
+the bowl. The usual rule is to let it rise until it is double in bulk,
+both in the bowl and after it is put into the pans. If it is not
+convenient to bake the bread when ready, it may be kneaded again and
+kept in a cool place, to prevent souring. Bread should be mixed in a
+stone or granite bowl.
+
+The only necessary ingredients for bread are water, flour, salt, and
+yeast. Sugar may be added to restore the natural sweetness of the
+flour which has been lost during fermentation, but it is not
+necessary. If milk is used, and the bread well kneaded, no other
+shortening is required; but with water, the addition of a little
+butter or dripping makes the bread more tender, therefore it is more
+easily penetrated by the digestive fluids. Tough, leathery bread is
+not easily digested, no matter how light it may be. As already stated,
+by the action of heat the ferment is killed, the starch-grains
+ruptured, the gas carried off, and the crust formed. In order that
+bread may be thoroughly cooked, and plenty of crust formed, each loaf
+should be baked in a pan about 4 inches deep, 4 to 6 inches wide, and
+from 8 to 12 inches long. Smaller loaves are even more desirable. It
+is very difficult to bake a large loaf so as to insure the escape of
+all the carbonic acid gas, and to cook the starch sufficiently without
+injuring the crust, besides entailing an unnecessary waste of fuel.
+The custom of baking several loaves together in one large pan is
+contrary to all scientific rules of bread-making. The oven should be
+hot enough to brown a spoonful of flour in five minutes, for bread.
+The dough should rise during the first fifteen minutes, then begin to
+brown; keep the heat steady for the next fifteen or twenty minutes,
+then decrease it. If the oven is too hot a hard crust will form and
+prevent the dough from rising, which will not only cause the bread to
+be heavy, but will prevent the gas from escaping. If, on the other
+hand, the oven is not hot enough, the bread will go on rising until
+it becomes sour. A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from
+fifty-five to sixty minutes to bake, and should give a hollow sound,
+if tapped, when removed from the oven. Better take too long than not
+long enough, as doughy bread is most objectionable and unwholesome. If
+the crust is beginning to burn, cover the loaf with brown paper, and
+reduce the heat, but have a brown crust, not a whity-brown, which is
+usually hard and without flavor. Upon removing the loaves from the
+pans, place them on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never
+leave warm bread on a pine table, or where it will absorb odors.
+
+
+BREAD MADE WITH WATER.
+
+    2 quarts flour.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    1 pint lukewarm water.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. butter, dripping or lard.
+    1/2 cake compressed yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup water.
+
+(This recipe is for Manitoba flour. A little more fine flour would be
+necessary.)
+
+Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a large bowl, pour
+on the warm water, stir until they are dissolved. Add the flour
+gradually until it forms a thin batter, then add the yeast; beat
+vigorously for at least five minutes. Add more flour until the dough
+is stiff enough to knead. Turn out on the board and knead for half
+hour. Cover and let rise until double its bulk. Form into separate
+loaves, put into the pans, cover, and let rise again till double its
+bulk. Bake in a hot oven about an hour. (Milk or half milk may be
+substituted in this recipe.)
+
+
+BREAD (WITH A SPONGE).
+
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    1/2 cup yeast or 1/2 yeast cake.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 pt. water.
+    About 2 qts. flour.
+
+Put the butter, sugar and salt in the mixing bowl, add 1/4 cup boiling
+water to dissolve them; then add enough lukewarm water to make a pint,
+3 cups of flour, then the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in 1/4
+cup tepid water). Give it a vigorous beating, cover, and let it rise
+over night. In the morning add flour to make it stiff enough to knead.
+Knead for 1/2 hour. Cover closely, let it rise till it doubles its
+bulk; shape into loaves; let it rise again in the pans; bake as
+directed in previous recipe.
+
+
+WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM BREAD.
+
+    1 pt. milk, scalded and cooled.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    2 cups white flour.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour.
+    1/2 yeast cake or 1/2 cup yeast.
+
+Mix in the same order as given in previous recipes. Whole wheat flour
+makes a softer dough, consequently does not require so much kneading,
+otherwise it should be treated the same as other bread, allowing it a
+little longer time for baking; if too moist, a cupful of white flour
+may be added.
+
+
+YEAST.
+
+Steep 1/2 cup of loose hops in 1 quart of boiling water, in a granite
+kettle, 5 minutes. Mix 1 cup of flour, 1/4 of a cup sugar and 1 tbsp.
+salt. Strain the hop liquor and pour it boiling into the flour
+mixture. Boil 1 minute, or till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast.
+Cover and set in a warm place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5
+hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more than half full,
+and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled potatoes may be mashed
+smoothly and added to this yeast if desired.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS.
+
+
+WHITE SAUCE.
+
+(_For Vegetables, Eggs, etc._)
+
+    1 pt. milk.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 ssp. white pepper.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Heat the milk over hot water. Put the butter in a granite saucepan and
+stir till it melts, being careful not to brown. Add the dry flour, and
+stir quickly till well mixed. Add the milk gradually, stirring
+carefully (especially from the sides) until perfectly smooth. Let it
+boil until it thickens, then add salt and pepper.
+
+In using this sauce for creamed oysters, add 1/2 tsp. of celery salt,
+a few grains of cayenne pepper, and a tsp. of lemon juice.
+
+
+DRAWN BUTTER SAUCE.
+
+    1 pt. hot water or stock.
+    1/2 cup butter.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted add the dry flour, and mix
+well. Add the hot water or stock a little at a time, and stir rapidly
+till it thickens; when smooth add the salt and pepper. Be careful to
+have all sauces free from lumps. (Hard boiled eggs may be added to
+this sauce for baked or boiled fish. Two tbsps. of chopped parsley may
+be added if parsley sauce is desired.)
+
+
+BROWN SAUCE.
+
+    1 pt. hot stock.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. lemon juice.
+    2 tbsps. minced onions.
+    4 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+    Caramel enough to color.
+
+Mince the onion and fry it in the butter 5 minutes. Be careful not to
+burn it. When the butter is browned add the dry flour, and stir well.
+Add the hot stock a little at a time; stir rapidly until it thickens
+and is perfectly smooth. Add the salt and pepper. Simmer 5 minutes,
+and strain to remove the onion.
+
+
+CARAMEL FOR COLORING SOUPS AND SAUCES.
+
+Melt 1 cup of sugar with 1 tbsp. of water in a frying-pan. Stir until
+it becomes of a dark brown color. Add 1 cup of boiling water, simmer
+10 minutes, and bottle when cool. This coloring is useful for many
+purposes, and is more wholesome than browned butter.
+
+
+MOCK BISQUE SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. stewed tomatoes.
+    2 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 pt. milk.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1/4 tsp. pepper.
+
+Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, put the remainder on to cook in a
+stew-pan. Mix the flour with the cold milk, and stir into the boiling
+milk. Cook for 10 minutes, then add the salt, pepper and butter. Stir
+the soda into the hot tomatoes and stir 1/2 minute, then rub through a
+strainer. Add the strained tomatoes to the thickened milk, and serve
+at once.
+
+
+POTATO SOUP.
+
+    4 potatoes, medium size.
+    2 tbsps. minced celery.
+    2 tbsps. of flour.
+    1/4 tsp. of pepper.
+    1/2 tsp. minced parsley.
+    1-1/2 pints of milk.
+    4 tbsps. minced onions.
+    1 tsp. of salt.
+    1 tbsp. of butter.
+
+Pare the potatoes, place on the fire in enough boiling water to cover,
+and cook for 30 minutes. Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder in
+the double boiler with the onion and celery and place on the fire. Mix
+the cold milk with the flour and stir into the boiling milk. When the
+potatoes are cooked pour off the water, mash them until fine and
+light. Gradually beat into them the milk; now add salt, pepper and
+butter, and rub the soup through a sieve. Return to the fire and add
+the minced parsley; simmer for 5 minutes and serve immediately. (The
+parsley may be omitted and celery salt substituted for the minced
+celery.)
+
+
+CELERY SOUP.
+
+    1 head celery.
+    1 pint milk.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 pint water.
+    1 tbsp. chopped onion.
+    2 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+
+Wash and scrape the celery, cut into 1/2 inch pieces, put it into the
+pint of boiling salted water and cook until very soft. Mash in the
+water in which it was boiled. Cook the onion with the milk in a double
+boiler 10 minutes and add it to the celery. Rub all through a strainer
+and put on to boil again. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the
+flour and cook until smooth, but not brown, then stir it into the
+boiling soup. Add the salt and pepper; simmer 5 minutes and strain
+into the tureen. Serve very hot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+EGGS.
+
+While eggs are nutritious and valuable as food they should not be used
+too freely, as they are a highly concentrated form of food. The
+albumen (white) of egg is one of the most valuable tissue builders.
+Much depends upon the manner in which they are cooked. Eggs fried in
+fat or hard boiled are very indigestible. Do not use an egg until it
+has been laid some hours, as the white does not become thick till then
+and cannot be beaten stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place,
+and handled carefully in order to avoid mixing the white and yolk,
+which causes the egg to spoil quickly.
+
+
+BOILED EGGS.
+
+Have the water boiling in a saucepan. Put in the eggs and move to the
+back of the stove where the water will keep hot, about 175 or 180 F.,
+for from 8 to 10 minutes. If the back of the stove is too hot, move to
+the hearth. The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, the
+yolks soft but not liquid. An egg to be cooked soft should never be
+cooked in boiling water.
+
+
+HARD BOILED EGGS.
+
+Cook eggs for 20 minutes in water just below the boiling point. The
+yolk of an egg cooked 10 minutes is tough and indigestible; 20 minutes
+will make it dry and mealy, when it is more easily penetrated by the
+gastric fluid.
+
+
+POACHED EGGS.
+
+Have a clean, shallow pan nearly full of salted and boiling water.
+Remove the scum and let the water just simmer. Break each egg
+carefully into a saucer and slip it gently into the water. Dip the
+water over it with the end of the spoon, and when a film has formed
+over the yolk and the white is like a soft jelly, take up with a
+skimmer and place on a piece of neatly trimmed toast. This is the most
+wholesome way of cooking eggs for serving with ham or bacon.
+
+
+OMELET.
+
+Beat the yolks of two eggs, add two tbsps. of milk, 1 ssp. of salt and
+1/4 of a ssp. of pepper. Beat the whites till stiff and dry. Cut and
+fold them into the yolks till just covered. Have a clean, smooth
+omelet pan (or spider). When hot, rub well with a teaspoonful of
+butter; see that the butter is all over the pan, turn in the omelet
+and spread evenly on the pan. Cook until slightly browned underneath,
+being careful not to let it burn; set in a hot oven until dry on top.
+When dry throughout, run a knife round the edge, tip the pan to one
+side, fold the omelet and turn out on a hot platter. This may be made
+by beating the whites and yolks together for a plain omelet. A little
+chopped parsley, a little fine grated onion, a tbsp. or two of chopped
+ham, veal or chicken may be spread on the omelet before folding.
+
+
+CUP CUSTARDS.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    1/4 cup of sugar.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.
+
+Beat the eggs until light, then add the sugar; beat again, add the
+milk and nutmeg, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into custard
+cups, stand the cups in a pan of boiling water and then put the pan in
+the oven. Bake until the custards are set, or until a knife may be
+slipped into the centre without anything adhering to it. When done,
+take them out of the water and stand away to cool. (This custard may
+be poured into a baking dish and baked in a quick oven until firm in
+the centre.)
+
+
+BOILED CUSTARD.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+
+Put the milk on in the double boiler, beat the sugar and yolks of eggs
+together until light, then stir them into the boiling milk; stir until
+it begins to thicken, then take it from the fire; add the vanilla and
+stand aside to cool. When cool, pour into a glass dish. Beat the
+whites until stiff, add three tbsps. of powdered sugar gradually. Heap
+them on a dinner plate and stand in the oven a moment until slightly
+brown, then loosen from the plate, slip off gently on top of the
+custard; serve very cold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FRUIT.
+
+If people would only realize the value of fruit in its natural state,
+much of the time devoted to the preparation of pies, puddings, etc.,
+would be saved. All uncooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and
+served fresh and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when
+the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when in its natural
+state, therefore a few simple recipes for cooking fruit are given.
+
+
+APPLESAUCE.
+
+Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. Make a syrup with 1/2 cup
+of sugar, 1/2 cup of water, and a little grated lemon peel. When
+boiling, add the apples and cook carefully till they are just tender,
+but not broken. Remove them carefully, boil the syrup down a little
+and pour it over the apples. (For serving with roast goose, etc., cook
+the apples in a little water, mash until smooth, add sugar to taste.)
+
+
+CODDLED APPLES.
+
+Pare tart apples of uniform size; remove the cores without breaking
+the apples. Stand them in the bottom of a granite kettle, sprinkle
+thickly with sugar, cover the bottom of the kettle with boiling water,
+cover closely and allow the apples to steam on the back part of the
+stove till tender. Lift carefully without breaking, pour the syrup
+over them and stand away to cool (delicious served with whipped
+cream).
+
+
+STEWED PRUNES.
+
+Wash carefully and soak in water an hour before cooking, put them into
+a porcelain or granite kettle, cover with boiling water and let them
+simmer until tender. Add a tbsp. of sugar for each pint of prunes, and
+boil a few moments longer.
+
+
+CRANBERRIES.
+
+Put 1 pint of cranberries in a granite saucepan, 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup
+of water. After they begin to boil cook 10 minutes, closely covered.
+(This may be pressed through a sieve while hot, removing the skins, if
+desired for a mould.)
+
+
+STEWED RHUBARB.
+
+Wash the rhubarb (if young and tender it will not be necessary to
+remove the skin), cut into pieces about 1 inch long. To every lb. of
+rhubarb allow 1 lb. of sugar. Put the rhubarb into a porcelain or
+granite kettle, cover with the sugar, and stand on the back part of
+the fire until the sugar melts. Move forward, let simmer for a few
+minutes without stirring, turn it out carefully to cool.
+
+
+BAKED PEARS.
+
+Take large, sweet pears, wipe them but do not remove the stems. Stand
+them in an earthen baking dish, pour around them a cup of boiling
+water, add 2 tbsps. sugar, cover with another dish and bake slowly
+until the pears are tender, basting occasionally with the liquor. When
+done, stand away to cool in the dish in which they were baked. When
+cold put them into a glass dish, pour the liquor over them and serve.
+
+
+BAKED APPLES.
+
+Pare and core, without breaking, tart apples. Put them into a shallow
+earthen dish, fill the cavities with sugar, add water to cover the
+bottom of the dish. Bake in a quick oven till soft, basting often with
+the syrup. (Quinces may be baked in the same way.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+VEGETABLES.
+
+Vegetables should be used very freely, as they contain saline
+substances which counteract the effect of too much meat, and are the
+chief source of mineral supply for the body. In cooking vegetables, a
+common rule is to add salt, while cooking, to all classes growing
+above ground (including onions), and to omit salt in the cooking of
+vegetables growing underground. In cooking vegetables care must be
+taken to preserve the flavor, and to prevent the waste of mineral
+matter.
+
+
+CABBAGE.
+
+Cut a small head of cabbage in quarters, soak in cold water 1 hour,
+drain and shake dry. Remove the stalk, or hard part, and chop the
+remainder rather fine. Put it into a stew-pan with enough boiling
+water to cover, and boil 20 minutes. Drain in a colander. Turn into a
+hot dish, and pour over it cream sauce or a little melted butter,
+pepper and salt.
+
+
+CAULIFLOWER.
+
+Pick off the outside leaves, soak in cold salted water, top downwards,
+for 1 hour. Tie it round with a piece of twine to prevent breaking.
+Cook in boiling salted water until tender, remove the string, turn
+into a hot dish with the top up, cover with cream sauce or drawn
+butter sauce. (When cold, it may be picked to pieces and served in a
+salad.)
+
+
+CELERY.
+
+Scrape clean and cut the stalks into 2-inch pieces: cook in salted
+water until tender, drain and cover with a white sauce. The sauce
+should be made with the water in which the celery has been stewed.
+
+
+BOILED BEETS.
+
+Wash, but do not cut them, as that injures the color. Cook in boiling
+water until tender. When cooked put them into a pan of cold water and
+rub off the skins. They may be cut in slices and served hot with
+pepper, butter and salt, or sliced, covered with vinegar, and served
+cold. They may be cut into dice and served as a salad, either alone or
+mixed with potatoes and other vegetables.
+
+
+BEANS (DRIED).
+
+Lima beans should be soaked in warm water over night. In the morning
+drain off this water and cover with fresh warm water. Two hours before
+needed drain, cover with boiling water and boil 30 minutes; drain
+again, cover with fresh boiling water, and boil until tender. Add a
+teaspoonful of salt while they are boiling. When cooked drain them,
+add a little butter, pepper and salt, or a cream sauce.
+
+
+ASPARAGUS.
+
+Wash the asparagus well in cold water, reject the tough parts, tie in
+a bunch or cut into pieces 1 inch long. Put it in a kettle, cover with
+boiling water, and boil until tender. Put it in a colander to drain.
+Serve with melted butter, pepper and salt, or with a cream or drawn
+butter sauce.
+
+
+ONIONS.
+
+Scald in boiling water, then remove the skins. Put them in boiling
+salted water; when they have boiled 10 minutes, change the water. Boil
+until tender but not until broken. Drain and serve with either cream
+sauce or butter, pepper and salt.
+
+
+POTATOES.
+
+Wash and scrub with a brush. If old, soak in cold water after paring.
+Put them in boiling water, when about half cooked add a tbsp. of salt.
+Cook until soft but not broken. Drain carefully. Expose the potatoes
+for a minute to a current of air, then cover and place on the back of
+the stove to keep hot, allowing the steam to escape.
+
+
+RICE POTATOES.
+
+Press the cooked potatoes through a coarse strainer into the dish in
+which they are to be served.
+
+
+MASHED POTATOES.
+
+To 1 pint of hot boiled potatoes, add 1 tbsp. butter, 1/2 tsp. of
+salt, 1/2 ssp. of white pepper and hot milk or cream to moisten. Mash
+in the kettle in which they were boiled, beat with a fork until they
+are light and creamy. Turn lightly into a dish.
+
+
+POTATO PUFFS.
+
+Prepare as for mashed potatoes, adding a little chopped parsley or
+celery salt if the flavor is liked. Beat 2 eggs, yolks and whites
+separately. Stir the beaten whites in carefully, shape into smooth
+balls or cones, brush lightly with the beaten yolks, and bake in a
+moderately hot oven until brown.
+
+
+CREAMED POTATOES.
+
+Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in a shallow pan,
+cover with milk and cook until the potatoes have absorbed nearly all
+the milk. To 1 pint of potatoes, add 1 tbsp. of butter, 1/2 tsp. of
+salt, 1/2 ssp. of pepper and a little chopped parsley or onion.
+
+
+BAKED POTATOES.
+
+Select smooth potatoes of uniform size, wash and scrub well. Bake in a
+hot oven about 45 minutes or until soft. Break the skin or puncture
+with a fork to let the steam escape and serve at once. This is the
+most wholesome method of cooking potatoes, as the mineral matter is
+retained.
+
+
+FRIED POTATOES.
+
+Pare, wash and cut into slices or quarters. Soak in cold salted water,
+drain and dry between towels. Have sufficient fat in a kettle to more
+than cover the potatoes. When it is very hot drop the potatoes in, a
+few at a time, so as not to reduce the heat of the fat too quickly.
+When brown, which should be in about 4 or 5 minutes for quarters and
+about 2 minutes if sliced, drain and sprinkle with salt.
+
+
+TOMATOES (RAW).
+
+Scald and peel sometime before using, place on ice, and serve with
+salt, sugar and vinegar, or with a salad dressing.
+
+
+SCALLOPED TOMATOES.
+
+Scald and peel as many tomatoes as required. Butter a deep dish and
+sprinkle with fine bread or cracker crumbs, then a layer of sliced
+tomato, over this sprinkle a little salt, pepper and sugar; then add a
+layer of bread crumbs, another of tomatoes, sprinkle again with salt,
+pepper and sugar: put bread crumbs on the top, moisten with a little
+melted butter, and bake until brown.
+
+
+STEWED TOMATOES.
+
+Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, remove the skins and the hard
+green stem, cut into quarters or slices and stew in a granite kettle
+until the pulp is soft, add salt, pepper, butter and a little sugar if
+desired. If too thin the tomato may be thickened with crumbs or
+cornstarch wet in a little cold water.
+
+
+SPINACH.
+
+Pick over carefully, discarding all decayed leaves. Wash thoroughly,
+then place in a pan of cold water, let stand for a few minutes. Drain
+and put in a large kettle with just enough water to keep it from
+burning. Cook very slowly until tender. Drain and chop fine, add 1
+tbsp. of butter, a tsp. of salt, a ssp. of pepper. It may be served on
+toast (hot) or garnished with hard boiled eggs.
+
+
+CARROTS AND TURNIPS.
+
+Carrots as a vegetable for the table are more palatable when young and
+tender. They should be washed and scraped, boiled until tender, and
+served with butter, pepper and salt or a white sauce. Turnips contain
+little nutriment; having no starch, they are very suitable for eating
+with potatoes. They require more salt than any other vegetable, and
+should be served with fat meat, corned beef, roast pork or mutton.
+Turnips should be washed, pared, cut into slices or strips, boiled
+until tender. Drain, mash and season with pepper and salt.
+
+
+PEAS (GREEN).
+
+Wash the pods, which should be green, crisp and plump, before
+shelling, then the peas will not require washing. Put the peas into a
+strainer or colander and shake out all the fine particles. Boil until
+tender. When nearly done add the salt. Use little water in cooking,
+when they may be served without draining; season with a little butter,
+pepper and salt. If drained, serve either dry with butter, pepper and
+salt, or with a white sauce.
+
+
+GREEN SWEET CORN.
+
+Remove the husk and silky fibre, cover with boiling water (the flavor
+is improved by adding a few of the clean inner husks) and cook, if
+young and tender, from 10 to 15 minutes. Try a kernel and take up the
+corn as soon as the milk has thickened and the raw taste is
+destroyed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SALADS.
+
+
+FRENCH DRESSING.
+
+    3 tbsps. of olive oil.
+    1/4 tsp. of salt.
+    1 tbsp. vinegar.
+    1/2 ssp. of pepper or speck of cayenne.
+
+Mix these ingredients together and serve. This makes a particularly
+good dressing for lettuce or vegetable salads.
+
+
+SALAD DRESSING.
+
+    1/2 cup vinegar.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 cup cream.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. mustard.
+    A speck of cayenne pepper.
+
+Beat the eggs well, mix the sugar, salt, mustard and pepper together,
+add to the beaten eggs, then add the vinegar. Place the saucepan on
+the range in a pan of boiling water. Stir constantly until the
+dressing becomes thick and light. Take from the fire and turn into a
+cold bowl at once to prevent curdling. Beat the cream to a thick froth
+and stir it into the cold dressing. (When cream is not available use
+the same quantity of milk, previously thickened to the consistency of
+cream with a little cornstarch, add a tsp. of butter; when cold, add
+to the dressing.)
+
+
+MAYONNAISE DRESSING.
+
+    1/2 pt. of olive oil.
+    1 tsp. mustard.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    Yolks of 2 uncooked eggs.
+    1 tbsp. lemon juice.
+    1 tbsp. vinegar.
+    1/2 tsp. sugar.
+    A speck of cayenne.
+
+Put the yolks of the eggs into a cold bowl, stir in the dry
+ingredients, beat well, using a silver or small wooden spoon. Then add
+the oil, drop by drop. When the mixture gets so thick that it is
+difficult to stir, add a few drops of the vinegar to thin it. Continue
+stirring in the oil and vinegar alternately until all are used, when
+it should be very thick; add the lemon juice last and beat for a few
+minutes longer; a cupful of whipped cream may be stirred into this
+dressing before using. (The following rules must be observed in order
+to insure success: (1) to beat the yolks and dry ingredients until
+thick; (2) to add the oil only in drops at first; (3) always beat or
+stir in one direction, reversing the motion is apt to curdle the
+dressing.)
+
+
+LETTUCE SALAD.
+
+Choose crisp, fresh lettuce, wash clean, let it remain for a little
+time in cold or ice water, drain thoroughly, break or tear the leaves
+into convenient pieces, dress with a French or cooked dressing; serve
+at once, cold.
+
+
+POTATO SALAD.
+
+    1 pt. cold boiled potatoes.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 cup cooked dressing. Or the French dressing, as given.
+    1 tsp. finely chopped onion.
+    1 sp. pepper.
+
+Cut the potatoes into pieces about the size of dice, mix the
+seasonings with the potatoes, turn into a dish in alternate layers of
+potatoes and dressing, having a little dressing on top. Garnish with
+parsley, and allow to stand at least an hour in a cold place before
+serving, so that the potatoes may absorb the seasoning. (Cold boiled
+beets cut into cubes may be added in alternate layers with the
+potatoes in this recipe, using a little more dressing.)
+
+
+TOMATO SALAD.
+
+Peel the tomatoes (without scalding) and put them on ice until very
+cold, have crisp leaves of lettuce which have been washed and dried.
+When ready to serve, cut the tomatoes in halves, place one-half on a
+leaf of lettuce (the curly leaves being the best), on this put a tbsp.
+of mayonnaise or cooked dressing, and serve immediately.
+
+
+CABBAGE SALAD.
+
+Cabbage or celery may be used as a salad by cutting rather fine,
+allowing it to get cold and crisp, and serving with a cooked or French
+dressing. Indeed almost any vegetable may be used for a salad. String
+beans, asparagus, cauliflower, which have been cooked, are suitable
+for salad, either alone or in combination with nasturtium, cress, hard
+boiled eggs, etc.
+
+
+CHICKEN SALAD.
+
+One pint each of cold boiled or roasted chicken and celery. Cut the
+chicken into 1/4-inch dice, scrape, wash and cut the celery into dice,
+put the celery in a napkin and lay on the ice for 10 or 12 minutes;
+season the chicken with vinegar, salt, pepper and oil (or the French
+dressing-oil may be omitted if the flavor is not agreeable,
+substituting cream or melted butter). Add the celery to the seasoned
+chicken, add half the dressing (using either a cooked or mayonnaise),
+heap in a dish, add the remainder of the dressing, garnish with the
+tiny bleached celery leaves or small curly lettuce leaves. (A few
+capers and a hard boiled egg may be used as a garnish if desired.)
+
+In summer the chicken may be served on a tender lettuce leaf, adding a
+spoonful of dressing, and serving very cold.
+
+
+FRUIT SALAD.
+
+    4 oranges.
+    1 cup water.
+    1/4 package gelatine.
+    4 bananas.
+    Juice of 2 lemons.
+    1-1/2 cup sugar.
+
+Dissolve the gelatine in the water, add the sugar and lemon juice,
+strain and pour over the oranges and bananas, which have been peeled
+and sliced and placed in alternate layers in a mould. Set away to
+cool. When needed, turn out and serve. Garnish with Malaga grapes,
+cherries, currants, or any suitable fruit.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CEREALS.
+
+All cereals require thorough cooking, because of the starch in them,
+also to soften the woody fibre. No matter what the cereal product may
+be, it should be cooked not less than three-quarters of an hour, and
+better if cooked longer.
+
+
+OATMEAL PORRIDGE.
+
+    1 pt. of boiling water.
+    1/2 cup of oatmeal.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Be sure to have the water boiling. Sprinkle in the oatmeal slowly,
+stirring all the time. Add the salt, and move back or set in a vessel
+of boiling water where it will cook gently for 1 hour. Do not stir the
+porridge after the first 5 minutes.
+
+All porridge (or mush) is made on the same principle.
+
+
+CRACKED WHEAT
+
+Should be cooked at least 4 or 5 hours.
+
+
+CORNMEAL
+
+Should be cooked an hour or more.
+
+
+RICE.
+
+Wash 1 cup of rice. Have 2 quarts of water, with 1 tbsp. salt, boiling
+rapidly. Sprinkle in the rice gradually, when you have it all in cover
+the kettle and boil 20 minutes. If too thick add a little boiling
+water. Test the grains, and the moment they are soft, and before the
+starch begins to cloud the water, pour into a colander to drain. Stand
+it in the oven a few minutes to dry, leaving the door open. Turn
+carefully into a heated dish and serve without a cover. (Do not stir
+the rice while cooking.)
+
+
+RICE CROQUETTES.
+
+    1 pint of milk.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. of sugar.
+    1/2 cup raisins.
+    1/2 cup of rice.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+    Yolks of two eggs.
+
+Wash the rice and put it into the boiling milk in a double boiler.
+Cook until very thick; add the yolks of the eggs and the sugar, beat
+thoroughly. Take from the fire, add the vanilla and the fruit, which
+has been well floured. Turn out on a dish to cool, when cold form in
+pyramids or cylinders; dip first in beaten egg, then in fine bread
+crumbs and fry in deep, boiling fat. Put a little jelly on the top of
+each croquette, dust the whole with powdered sugar, and serve with
+vanilla sauce or cream and sugar.
+
+
+BAKED RICE.
+
+Wash 1/2 cup of rice, turn into a buttered pudding dish, add 2 tbsps.
+sugar, grate 1/4 of a small nutmeg, add 1 qt. of milk, bake slowly for
+at least 1-1/2 hour.
+
+
+FARINA.
+
+    1 pint of milk.
+    3 level tbsps. of farina.
+
+Put the milk in the double boiler, when the milk boils add the salt,
+then sprinkle in the farina, stirring all the while; beat the mixture
+well and cook for 30 minutes. Serve with cream and sugar. (This may be
+made into a pudding by adding an egg, 2 tbsps. sugar, 1/2 tsp.
+vanilla, baking in the oven until brown.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MACARONI.
+
+Macaroni is quite as valuable as bread for food, and should be used
+very freely.
+
+
+BOILED MACARONI.
+
+Break the macaroni in pieces about 2 inches long. Have boiling water,
+add a tsp. of salt; throw in the macaroni and boil rapidly 30 minutes,
+put it into a colander to drain, return to the kettle, rub a tbsp. of
+butter and flour together until smooth, add either milk or water until
+the sauce is as thick as rich cream. Cook it a few minutes before
+pouring over the macaroni, and serve (add salt to taste).
+
+
+MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE.
+
+    1/4 lb. macaroni.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+    1 tbsp. flour.
+    1 cup stewed tomatoes.
+
+Hold the long sticks of macaroni in the hand; put the end into boiling
+salted water, as it softens bend and coil in the water without
+breaking. Boil rapidly 20 minutes. When done put it in a colander to
+drain. Put the butter in a saucepan to melt, add to it the flour, mix
+until smooth, then add the tomatoes (which have been strained), stir
+carefully until it boils. Pour over the hot macaroni and serve at
+once.
+
+
+MACARONI AND CHEESE.
+
+    1/4 lb. of macaroni.
+    1/4 lb. grated cheese.
+    Salt and white pepper to taste.
+    1/2 pt. milk.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+
+Break the macaroni in pieces about 3 inches long. Put it into plenty
+of boiling water. Add 1 tsp. salt and boil rapidly 25 minutes; drain,
+throw into cold water to blanch for 10 minutes. Put the milk into the
+double boiler, add to it the butter, then the macaroni which has been
+drained, and cheese; stir until heated, add the salt and pepper, and
+serve. (The macaroni may be placed in a baking dish in alternate
+layers with the cheese, sprinkling each layer with pepper and salt,
+pouring the milk over the top, cutting the butter in small bits
+distributed over the top, and bake until brown in a moderately quick
+oven.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHEESE.
+
+
+CHEESE SOUFFLE.
+
+    1/4 lb. of cheese.
+    1 ssp. of soda.
+    A speck of cayenne.
+    2 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 cup of milk.
+    1 tsp. mustard.
+    2 eggs.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+
+Put the butter in a saucepan, when melted stir in the flour, add the
+milk slowly, then the salt, mustard and cayenne, which have been mixed
+together. Add the yolks of the eggs which have been well beaten, then
+the grated cheese; stir all together, lift from the fire and set away
+to cool. When cold, add the stiff beaten whites, turn into a buttered
+dish and bake 25 or 30 minutes. Serve immediately.
+
+
+WELSH RAREBIT.
+
+    1/4 lb. cheese.
+    1 tsp. mustard.
+    A speck of cayenne.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1/4 cup cream or milk.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 egg.
+
+Grate the cheese, put it with the milk in the double boiler. While
+this is heating, make some toast. Mix the mustard, salt and pepper,
+add the egg and beat well. When the cheese has melted, stir in the egg
+and butter, and cook about two minutes, or until it thickens a little,
+but do not let it curdle. Pour it over the hot toast and serve at
+once.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BEVERAGES.
+
+
+TEA.
+
+In making tea, the following rules should be observed. The water
+should be freshly boiled. The teapot, which should be of earthen or
+china (never of tin), should be scalded and heated before putting in
+the tea. Pour on the boiling water and cover closely, and let stand
+for 3 or 4 minutes before using. Never, under any circumstances,
+allow tea to boil. The usual proportion is a small teaspoonful of tea
+to 1 cup of boiling water, but this is too strong for general use.
+
+
+COFFEE.
+
+Coffee may be made in various ways; by filtering, clarifying with an
+egg, or made with cold water. A common rule for making coffee is as
+follows: 1 heaping tbsp. ground coffee to 2 cups of freshly boiling
+water, 1 egg shell. Scald the coffee-pot, put in the coffee and the
+egg shell, add the boiling water, cover and boil just 3 minutes.
+Before serving, add a tbsp. of cold water; let stand for a few minutes
+before using.
+
+
+COFFEE MADE WITH AN EGG.
+
+1 egg is sufficient to clear 1 cup of ground coffee; if a smaller
+quantity be desired, half the egg may be used. Add 1/2 cup cold water
+to the portion of egg to be used, and 1/2 cup of ground coffee. Beat
+well, put it in the coffee-pot, add 1 qt. of boiling water, and boil 3
+minutes. Move back where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 10
+minutes. Pour out a little and pour it back again to clear the spout
+before serving.
+
+
+COCOA.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    3 tbsps. of water.
+    2 (l.) tsps. of cocoa.
+
+Put the milk in the double boiler and set on the fire, mix the cocoa
+to a smooth paste with the cold water. When the milk boils, add the
+cocoa and boil for 1 minute. Serve very hot. If more water and less
+milk be used, allow a little more cocoa.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SOUPS.
+
+Soups may be divided into two classes, soup made with stock, and with
+milk. As soup should form part of the regular daily diet, and may be
+made from the cheaper materials, it is absolutely necessary that every
+housekeeper should understand the art of making it properly.
+
+In the first place it is well to know what may be used in the process
+of soup making. The first and most important step is to prepare the
+stock. For this purpose have a large earthen bowl or "catch all," as
+some teachers call it. Into this put all the bones, trimmings, bits of
+steak or chop and gravy which has been left over. Keep in a cold
+place. When needed, cover with cold water and simmer 4 or 5 hours;
+strain and set away to cool. When cold, remove the fat which will have
+formed a solid coating on the top. The stock is now ready for use. By
+saving the remains of vegetables cooked for the table, the outer
+stocks of celery, a hard boiled egg, etc., a very palatable and
+nutritious soup may be made at a trifling cost. In families where
+large quantities of meat are used, there should be sufficient material
+without buying meat for soup. It is not necessary to have all the
+ingredients mentioned in some recipes in order to secure satisfactory
+results. It will, however, be necessary to understand soup flavorings,
+so as to know which ones may be left out. Stock made from the shin of
+beef, or from the cheaper pieces which contain the coarser fibre and
+gristle, require long, slow cooking (see Methods).
+
+Never soak meat in water before cooking in any form. Wipe carefully
+with a damp cloth before cutting or preparing for use. For soup break
+or saw the bones into small pieces, and for each pound of meat and
+bone allow 1 qt. of cold water. Cover the kettle closely and let it
+heat slowly until it reaches the simmering point, when it should be
+moved back and kept at that degree for several hours. Soup should
+never be allowed to boil hard. The scum which rises to the surface is
+the albumen and juices of the meat, and should not be skimmed off. If
+the kettle is clean, and all impurities removed from the meat, there
+will not be anything objectionable in the scum. Stock must always be
+allowed to remain until cold, so that the fat may be removed before
+using. A strong, greasy soup is rarely relished, and is one of the
+principal reasons why so many people dislike this valuable article of
+diet. Do not add salt to the meat which is being prepared for stock
+until a few minutes before removing from the fire. Salt hardens the
+water if added at first and makes the tissues more difficult to
+dissolve. Stock may be kept for several days by occasionally bringing
+it to the boiling point. This is not necessary in winter if it is kept
+in a cold place.
+
+
+VEGETABLE SOUP.
+
+    1 qt. stock.
+    1/2 cup each chopped turnip and cabbage.
+    1 tsp. sugar.
+    1 ssp. pepper.
+    1/2 cup each of onion, carrot, celery (chopped).
+    1-1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+If all these vegetables are not available, a little macaroni, rice or
+barley may be added. Chop all the vegetables very fine, cabbage or
+onions should be parboiled 5 minutes, drain carefully. Put all the
+vegetables together, cover with 1 qt. of water and simmer until
+tender, then add the stock, the seasoning, and allow it to simmer
+about 10 minutes. Serve without straining.
+
+
+TOMATO SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. of canned or stewed tomatoes.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. sugar.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    2 whole cloves or 1/2 bay leaf.
+    1 pt. of stock.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+    1 tbsp. minced onion.
+    1 tbsp. flour or cornstarch.
+    A speck of cayenne may be added if desired.
+
+Put the tomato and stock in a saucepan and set on the fire. Cook the
+vegetables in the butter for 15 minutes; then press out the butter and
+put the vegetables in the soup. Into the butter remaining in the pan
+put the flour and stir until smooth, then add to the soup. Allow all
+to simmer for 20 minutes; strain and serve.
+
+
+SPLIT PEA SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. of split peas.
+    1-1/2 qt. of boiling water.
+    1 qt. of stock.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Wash the peas in cold water (rejecting those which float) and soak
+them over night. In the morning drain the water off and cover them
+again with 1 qt. of the boiling water. Boil until tender, about 1-1/2
+hour. Now add the stock and 1 pt. of the boiling water. Press the
+whole through a sieve; wash the soup kettle, return the soup, boil up
+once, add salt and pepper and serve with croutons. Dried pea soup may
+be made in exactly the same manner, using 1 pt. of dried peas instead
+of the split ones.
+
+
+ONION SOUP.
+
+    1 large Spanish onion.
+    1 qt. stock.
+    1 tbsp. flour.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Peel and chop the onion. Put the butter in a frying-pan, add the
+onion, and stir until a nice brown. Put the stock on to boil. Skim the
+onions out of the butter and add them to the stock. Stir 1 tbsp. of
+flour into the remaining butter, thin with a little of the stock, put
+all together, and simmer for 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and it
+is ready to serve.
+
+
+MACARONI SOUP.
+
+    1 qt. clear soup.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    5 sticks macaroni.
+
+Break the macaroni into small pieces and throw it into 1 quart of
+boiling water containing the tsp. of salt. Let it boil uncovered 25
+minutes. Drain off the water and add the macaroni to the hot stock,
+cover and cook slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. A little more seasoning
+may be added if desired.
+
+
+OYSTER SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. oysters.
+    1/2 pt. cold water.
+    1/4 tsp. pepper.
+    Salt to taste.
+    1 pt. milk.
+    2 (l.) tbsps. flour.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+
+Put a strainer over a bowl and turn the oysters into it. Pour the
+water over the oysters and stir with a spoon until all the liquid has
+passed through the strainer. Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, pouring the
+remainder into the double boiler, set it on the fire. Put the oyster
+liquor in a stew-pan, and heat slowly. Mix the cold milk with the
+flour, and stirring into the boiling milk; cook for 10 minutes. When
+the oyster liquor boils, skim it. When the flour and milk have cooked
+for 10 minutes, add the oysters, butter, salt, pepper and oyster
+liquor. Cook until the oysters curl on the edge and are plump. Serve
+at once.
+
+
+BEAN SOUP (WITHOUT STOCK).
+
+    1 qt. dried white beans.
+    1 large tbsp. butter.
+    2 qts. water.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Wash the beans, cover them with water, and soak over night. Next
+morning drain, put them on to boil with 2 quarts of fresh cold water.
+As soon as they come to a boil drain this water off and throw it away.
+Cover again with 2 quarts of fresh boiling water, add 1 ssp. of soda,
+and boil until soft. Press the beans through a sieve, return to the
+kettle, and if too thick add enough boiling water to make the soup
+about the consistency of cream. Add the salt, pepper and butter, and
+serve. (Minced onion, carrot, or celery fried in a little butter or
+dripping, and added to this soup before straining, improves the
+flavor.)
+
+
+BOUILLON.
+
+    2 lbs. lean beef.
+    1 small onion.
+    A sprig of parsley.
+    1 qt. cold water.
+    1 stalk celery, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed.
+    1 bay leaf.
+
+Remove all the fat and chop the meat very fine. Put it into the soup
+kettle with the water, bay leaf, parsley, onion and celery. Cover the
+kettle closely and place it in the back part of the range for 2 hours.
+Then move it over and let it come to a boil; skim at the first boil.
+Move back and simmer gently for 4 hours. Strain, return to the kettle,
+add salt and pepper. Beat the white of one egg with 1/2 cup of cold
+water until thoroughly mixed. Wash the egg shell, mash it and add to
+the white. Now add the white, shell and water to the boiling bouillon;
+let it boil hard for 10 minutes, then throw in 1/2 cup of cold water
+and boil 5 minutes longer. Take the kettle off the fire, strain
+through a flannel bag, add salt to taste, and color with caramel. (See
+recipe for caramel.) This is an excellent preparation for invalids.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FISH.
+
+Fish is an invaluable article of food. It provides variety in diet,
+and while less stimulating than meat, is usually more easily digested.
+Fish should be perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked. The most
+wholesome as well as the most palatable methods for cooking fish are
+broiling and baking. The flesh of fresh fish is firm and will not
+retain the impress of the finger if pressed into it. The eyes should
+be bright and glassy, the gills red and full of blood. Fish should be
+cleaned as soon as possible and thoroughly wiped with a cloth wet in
+salt water, and should be kept in a cool place. Do not put it near
+other food such as milk, butter, etc., as they will absorb the odor.
+
+
+BROILED FISH.
+
+Rub a double broiler well with a piece of suet before putting in the
+fish. Lay the fish flat so that the flesh side will be exposed on one
+side of the broiler and the skin on the other. Broil carefully, as the
+skin side burns very quickly. A fish weighing 3 lbs. will take about
+25 or 30 minutes to broil. When cooked sprinkle with salt and pepper,
+and serve very hot.
+
+
+BAKED FISH.
+
+    1 cup cracker or bread crumbs.
+    1 ssp. salt.
+    1 tsp. chopped onion.
+    1 tsp. chopped parsley.
+    1 ssp. pepper.
+    1/4 cup melted butter or dripping.
+
+Clean, wipe and dry the fish, rub with salt; fill with stuffing and
+sew or tie carefully. Rub all over with butter (or dripping), salt and
+pepper, dredge with flour, put it into a hot oven; baste when the
+flour is brown, and often afterwards. Remove carefully from the pan
+and place upon a hot platter.
+
+
+SCALLOPED FISH.
+
+Pick over carefully any remnants of cold boiled or baked fish, put
+into a shallow dish in alternate layers with bread crumbs and cream
+sauce. Cover with crumbs and bake till brown.
+
+
+SALT FISH BALLS.
+
+    1 cup salt fish.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1/4 ssp. pepper.
+    1 pint potatoes.
+    1 egg, well beaten.
+    More salt if needed.
+
+Wash the fish, pick in pieces and free from bones. Pare the potatoes
+and cut in quarters. Put the potatoes and fish in a stew-pan and cover
+with boiling water. Boil until the potatoes are tender. Drain off all
+the water; mash and beat the fish and potatoes till very light. Add
+the butter and pepper, and when slightly cooled add the egg. Lift in a
+tbsp. and drop into smoking hot fat 1 minute, drain on brown paper;
+they may be formed into balls and browned in a very hot oven.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MEAT.
+
+(_See Analysis, Chap. V._)
+
+As meat is composed of several substances, fibrine, albumen, gelatin,
+fat and the juices, it is necessary to understand the various methods
+of cooking in order to secure the best results. Meat has its season as
+well as many other foods. Pork is better in autumn and winter; veal in
+the spring and summer; fowl in autumn and winter; lamb in the summer
+and autumn; mutton and beef may be used any time. Meat should not be
+allowed to remain in the paper in which it comes from market, as it
+absorbs the juices and injures the flavor. Wipe all over with a clean
+wet cloth. Examine carefully, remove any tainted or unclean portions
+and keep in a clean, cool place until required. Good beef should be a
+bright red color, well mixed with fat, and a layer of fat on the
+outside; the suet should be dry and crumble easily. (See meat diagrams
+for different cuts.) Mutton should have an abundance of clear, white
+fat, the flesh fine grained and a bright red color. The fat of veal
+should be clear and white, the lean pink, and should always be
+thoroughly cooked. Pork is more indigestible when fresh than when
+cured, as in bacon and ham. Fresh pork should be firm, the fat white,
+the lean a pale red.
+
+
+ROAST OF BEEF.
+
+Wipe, trim, and tie or skewer into shape the cut for roasting. If
+there be a large piece of the flank, cut it off and use for soups or
+stews. If you wish to roast it, turn it underneath and fasten with a
+skewer. Lay the meat on a rack in a pan, and dredge all over with
+flour. Put on the top of a roast 2 or 3 tbsps. of dripping or pieces
+of the fat; put it in a very hot oven at first. After the outside has
+become seared, check off the heat and allow to cook slowly, basting
+frequently. (See time table for baking.)
+
+
+BROILED STEAK.
+
+Trim the steak free from all suet (save all trimmings for stews or the
+stock pot). Put the meat plate to warm, grease the broiler with a
+little of the fat. See that the fire is clear. Put the steak on the
+hot broiler and place it over the fire, turning every 10 seconds. It
+will take about 8 minutes if the steak is 1 inch thick. When done,
+place it on the hot plate, dredge it with salt and pepper; turn over
+and season the other side. Serve immediately.
+
+
+PAN-BROILED STEAK.
+
+When the fire is not suitable for broiling, heat the frying pan until
+smoking hot; trim the steak as for broiling, place firmly on the hot
+pan, turn frequently as in broiling, with a broad knife or pancake
+turner; never insert a fork, as it allows the juice to escape. It will
+cook in 10 minutes. Season, and serve the same as broiled steak. If a
+gravy is desired, fry a little of the suet and trimmings in the
+pan--after the steak has been removed--until brown, lift out the meat
+or suet, add 1 tbsp. of flour, stir until brown, add pepper and salt
+to taste, then add 1 teacup of boiling water. Cook for 2 or 3 minutes
+and strain over the steak.
+
+
+HAMBURG STEAK.
+
+1 lb. of steak from the upper side of the round, or any piece of lean
+beef free from gristle; chop very fine, add 1 tbsp. of onion juice
+(or finely minced onion), 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. black pepper, mix
+well together; dip the hands in cold water, take 2 tbsps. of the
+mixture and form with the hands into small round cakes. Have the
+frying pan very hot, put in 2 tbsps. of dripping; when hot, put in the
+steaks, brown on both sides--or they may be pan-broiled. Place them on
+a hot dish, add a tbsp. of flour to the fat remaining in the pan, mix
+until smooth and brown; add a cupful of boiling water, stir until it
+boils, add pepper and salt to taste, and pour over the steak.
+
+
+BEEF STEW WITH DUMPLINGS.
+
+2 lbs. of lean beef (cheaper cuts). Cut into pieces about 1 inch
+square, dredge with flour. Put 2 tbsps. of dripping into a frying pan;
+as soon as it is very hot put in the meat and shake or stir until
+nicely browned. Skim out the meat and put it in a saucepan. Add 1
+tbsp. of flour to the dripping remaining in the pan, mix and add 1
+quart of boiling water; stir over the fire until it boils, then strain
+it over the meat; add one small onion, pepper and salt to taste. Cover
+the saucepan closely and let it simmer for 2 hours. Make the dumplings
+by sifting 1 pint of flour, to which has been added 2 tsps. baking
+powder. Add 1/4 tsp. salt and enough milk to make a soft dough. Lift
+the dough in spoonfuls, placing them over the meat, cover quickly and
+let boil 10 minutes. Do not uncover the saucepan while the dumplings
+are cooking or they will fall immediately. Be careful not to allow the
+stew to burn while the dumplings are cooking.
+
+
+POT ROAST.
+
+Trim off the rough parts of a brisket of beef or any of the cheaper
+cuts. Place it in a kettle over a good fire; brown on one side, then
+turn and brown on the other; add 1 pint of boiling water, cover
+closely and simmer, allowing 20 minutes to every pound. Add pepper and
+salt when the meat is nearly done.
+
+
+BRAISED BEEF.
+
+From 4 to 6 lbs. of beef from the lower part of the round or rump.
+Trim and rub well with salt, pepper and flour. Chop 2 small onions and
+fry until light brown in pork fat or dripping; skim them out and put
+them into the pan in which the meat is to be braised, then brown the
+meat all over, adding more fat if needed (this may be done in a very
+hot oven). Put the meat into the pan, on skewers to keep it from
+sticking, with the onions around it. Add 1 qt. of boiling water, cover
+closely, putting a brick or heavy weight on the cover to keep it down,
+and cook in a moderate oven 4 hours, basting occasionally. Turn once
+and add more water as it evaporates, so as to have 1 pt. left for
+gravy. When tender take up the meat, remove the fat, add more salt and
+pepper, and if liked, a little lemon juice or tomato may be added.
+Thicken with 2 tbsps. of flour wet in a little cold water. Cook 10
+minutes and pour the gravy over the meat. Any tough meat may be cooked
+in this way.
+
+
+HASH.
+
+Take any pieces left of a cold roast, steaks or stews, chop very fine;
+take 1 tbsp. butter or dripping, 1 tbsp. of flour, stir together in a
+hot frying pan, when brown add 1 cup boiling water; add 1 tbsp.
+chopped onion, pepper and salt to taste, let simmer for 10 minutes,
+then add the meat, stir until heated thoroughly and serve on toast.
+
+
+CORNED BEEF OR SAUSAGE HASH.
+
+    1 pt. hashed corn beef or sausage.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. butter or dripping.
+    1 pt. of hashed potatoes.
+    1/4 tsp. pepper.
+    1/2 cup of milk.
+    (Omit the milk if sausage is used).
+
+Mix the potato and meat, season with the pepper and salt, add the milk
+and stir lightly. Put the butter or dripping into a hot frying pan,
+when melted put in the hash, spread it lightly and evenly, but do not
+stir it. Cover the pan and set where the hash will cook slowly for 10
+or 15 minutes. Move over to a hotter part of the stove and let it
+remain until a rich, brown crust has formed on the bottom. Fold over
+and serve on a hot dish.
+
+
+MUTTON--BOILED LEG OF MUTTON.
+
+Wipe the leg with a damp towel. Dust a cloth with flour and wrap the
+leg up with it. Put it into a kettle of boiling water and simmer
+gently 20 minutes to every pound; add salt when the leg is nearly
+done. When cooked remove the cloth carefully, garnish with parsley and
+serve with caper sauce. Save the liquor in which it was boiled for
+broth, stews, etc.
+
+
+IRISH STEW.
+
+    3 lbs. of the neck of mutton.
+    4 good sized onions.
+    4 potatoes cut into dice.
+    2 qts. of water.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Cut the meat into small pieces, cover with the water, which should be
+boiling, add the onions sliced, and simmer gently for 3 hours. About
+1/2 hour before the meat is done add the potatoes, season with pepper
+and salt, and serve.
+
+
+TO BAKE OR ROAST A QUARTER OF LAMB.
+
+Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, place in a baking pan, dredge with
+pepper, put 1 tsp. of salt in the pan, add just enough water to keep
+the pan from burning until enough of its own fat has fried out to use
+for basting. Baste at least every 10 minutes; allow 15 minutes to
+every pound in a very hot oven. Serve with mint sauce.
+
+
+LAMB CHOPS
+
+Are broiled or pan-broiled the same as beefsteak.
+
+
+VEAL--VEAL CUTLETS.
+
+Have the cutlets about 1/4 of an inch thick, dredge with salt, pepper
+and flour. Put a tbsp. of dripping in a frying pan, and when very hot
+put in the cutlets; when brown on one side turn and brown on the
+other, take out and place on a hot dish. Add a tbsp. of flour to the
+fat remaining in the pan, mix and stir until brown; add a cupful of
+boiling water, pepper and salt to taste, stir until it boils, pour
+over the cutlets, and serve.
+
+
+STEWED KNUCKLE OF VEAL.
+
+Wipe the knuckle well with a damp cloth. Cut it into pieces. Put into
+a kettle with 2 quarts of boiling water, add 1 onion chopped, 1/4 lb.
+of chopped ham, and 1 bay leaf, pepper and salt to taste. Cover and
+stew slowly for 2-1/2 hours (a half cup of rice may be added to this
+stew).
+
+
+JELLIED VEAL.
+
+    1 knuckle of veal.
+    1 blade of mace.
+    12 whole cloves.
+    1/2 cup of vinegar.
+    1 onion.
+    1 bay leaf.
+    6 pepper corns.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Wipe the knuckle and cut it into pieces. Put into a kettle with 2
+quarts of cold water; bring slowly to simmering point; skim and simmer
+gently for 2 hours; then add the onion, mace, bay leaf, cloves, pepper
+corns, and simmer 1 hour longer. Take out the knuckle, carefully
+remove the bones and put the meat into a mould or square pan. Boil the
+liquor until reduced to 1 quart, add the vinegar, pepper and salt to
+taste, strain and pour over the meat. Stand away until cold, when it
+may be turned out and garnished with parsley and lemon.
+
+
+FILLET OF VEAL (STUFFED).
+
+    1 cup of bread crumbs.
+    1 tsp. of summer savory.
+    1 ssp. of pepper.
+    1/2 cup of chopped salt pork or ham.
+    1 tsp. of salt.
+
+Have the bone removed from the shoulder, fill the space from which the
+bone was taken with the stuffing, fasten the meat together with a
+skewer to prevent the stuffing from coming out, put into the pan with
+3 or 4 tbsps. of dripping, allowing 20 minutes to each pound, basting
+frequently in a moderately hot oven.
+
+
+PORK AND BEANS.
+
+Soak the beans over night in cold water. In the morning wash them well
+in a colander, put them on to boil in cold water, at the first boil
+drain this water off and cover with fresh boiling water. Score the
+rind of the pork and put it in with the beans. Simmer gently until you
+can blow off the skin of the beans. To do this, take 3 or 4 beans in
+your hand, blow hard on them, and if the skin cracks they are done.
+Take out the pork and drain. Put the beans into an earthen pot or
+granite kettle with a cover; almost bury the pork in the centre of the
+beans. Add 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pint of the water in which the beans
+were boiled, pour this into the pot, sprinkle with pepper, pour over
+the beans 1 large spoonful of molasses, put on the lid, bake in a
+moderate oven for 6 or 8 hours. If baked in an ordinary iron baking
+pan they must be covered with another on which has been placed a
+weight, carefully watched, and baked only 3 hours.
+
+
+ROAST SPARE RIBS.
+
+Put the spare ribs in a baking pan, sprinkle lightly with pepper, add
+1/2 tsp. of salt to 1/2 cup of boiling water, and pour in the bottom
+of the pan. Roast 20 minutes to every lb., basting often. When done,
+make a gravy and serve as for any other roast. (Spare ribs may be
+stuffed, the ribs cracked crosswise, the stuffing placed in the
+centre, the two ends folded over, roast as above.)
+
+
+BROILED HAM.
+
+Have the ham cut into slices about 1/4 inch thick, trim off the rind
+and rusty edge. Broil the same as steak or chops. (This is a very nice
+way to serve ham with poached eggs.)
+
+Ham may be pan-broiled as directed in former recipes.
+
+
+FRIED BACON.
+
+Cut into very thin slices, put into a very hot frying pan, and cook
+until clear and crisp.
+
+
+SAUSAGE.
+
+Prick the skins with a sharp fork so as to prevent bursting; place
+them in a frying pan over a moderate fire and fry in their own fat
+until a nice brown. After taking the sausage from the pan, add 1 tbsp.
+of flour to the fat in the pan, add 1 cup of boiling water, stir until
+it boils, pour over the sausage and serve.
+
+
+LIVER AND BACON.
+
+Have the bacon cut in thin slices and keep it cold until the time to
+cook it. Have the liver cut into slices about 1/3 of an inch thick. If
+it be calf or sheep's liver, wash it in cold water and let it drain;
+but if it be beef liver, after washing it, cover with boiling water
+and let it stand for 5 minutes, then drain it. Cook the bacon as
+directed, then take it up. Lay the slices of liver in the hot fat,
+cook them for 8 or 10 minutes, turning often; season with pepper and
+salt. Arrange the liver on a warm platter, make a gravy as directed in
+other recipes, pour over the liver, placing the bacon round the
+outside. (Always cook bacon quickly and liver slowly.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+POULTRY.
+
+The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, smooth,
+moist skin and plump breast; the cartilage on the end of the breast
+bone is soft and pliable. Pin feathers always indicate a young bird
+and long hairs an older one. All poultry should be dressed as soon as
+killed. Cut off the head, and if the fowl is to be roasted, slip the
+skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close to the body,
+leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. Remove the windpipe,
+pull the crop away from the skin on the neck and breast, and cut off
+close to the opening in the body. Cut through the skin about 2 inches
+below the leg joint, bend the leg at the cut by pressing it on the
+edge of the table and break off the bone. Then pull out the tendon. If
+care be taken to cut only through the skin, these cords may be pulled
+out easily, one at a time, with the fingers; or by putting the foot of
+the fowl against the casing of a door, then shut the door tightly and
+pull on the leg. The drum stick of a roast chicken or turkey is
+greatly improved by removing the tendons. Cut out the oil bag in the
+tail, make an incision near the vent, insert two fingers, keeping the
+fingers up close to the breast bone until you can reach in beyond the
+liver and heart, and loosen on either side down toward the back. Draw
+everything out carefully. See that the kidneys and lungs are not left
+in, and be very careful not to break any of the intestines. When the
+fowl has been cleaned carefully it will not require much washing.
+Rinse out the inside quickly and wipe dry. In stuffing and trussing a
+fowl, place the fowl in a bowl and put the stuffing in at the neck,
+fill out the breast until plump. Then draw the neck skin together at
+the ends and sew it over on the back. Put the remainder of the
+stuffing into the body at the other opening and sew with coarse thread
+or fine twine. Draw the thighs up close to the body and tie the legs
+over the tail firmly with twine. Put a long skewer through the thigh
+into the body and out through the opposite thigh, turn the tips of
+the wings under the back of the fowl, put a long skewer through from
+one wing to the other. Wind a string from the tail to the skewer in
+the thigh, then up to the one in the wing across the back to the other
+wing, then down to the opposite side and tie firmly round the tail. If
+you have no skewers, the fowl may be kept in shape by tying carefully
+with twine. Clean all the giblets, cut away all that looks green near
+the gall bladder, open the gizzard and remove the inner lining without
+breaking. Put the gizzard, heart, liver, and the piece of neck which
+has been cut off, into cold water, wash carefully, put in a saucepan,
+cover with cold water, place on the back of the stove and simmer till
+tender. Use the liquid for making the gravy; the meat may be chopped
+and used for giblet soup.
+
+
+ROAST CHICKEN (OR TURKEY).
+
+Singe carefully, remove the pin feathers, draw as directed above.
+Wipe, stuff, sew and tie or skewer into shape, dredge with flour,
+cover with plenty of dripping; roast in a hot oven. When the flour is
+brown check the heat, baste frequently with the fat, and when nearly
+cooked dredge with pepper and salt and again with flour. Bake a 4 lb.
+chicken 1-1/2 hour, or until the joints separate easily. If browning
+too fast, cover with paper. (Roast chicken is considered to be more
+wholesome and to have a better flavor when cooked without stuffing.)
+
+
+FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN.
+
+The first attempt of an inexperienced cook in the preparation of a
+chicken should be a fricassee, as it will provide an opportunity for
+her to study the anatomy of a chicken while cutting it in pieces, and
+also show her the position of the intestines, so that when she
+attempts to draw a fowl she will know just where to place her hand so
+as to remove them without breaking.
+
+To prepare a chicken for a fricassee, clean and singe. Cut the chicken
+at the joints in pieces for serving. Place in a kettle, cover with
+boiling water, add 2 level tsps. of salt, a ssp. of pepper (some like
+a small piece of salt pork). Simmer until tender, reducing the water
+to a pint or less, lift the chicken, melt 1 tbsp. of butter in a
+saucepan, add 2 tbsps. of flour, and when well mixed pour on slowly
+the chicken liquor. Add more salt if needed, pepper, 1/2 tsp. of
+celery salt, 1 tsp. of lemon juice (an egg may be used by beating and
+pouring the sauce slowly on the egg, stirring well before adding it to
+the chicken). Pour this gravy over the chicken and serve; dumplings
+may be added if desired, or it may be placed in a deep dish, covered
+with pastry and baked for chicken pie.
+
+(The chicken may be browned in a little hot fat as in braising meat,
+and cooked in the same way.)
+
+
+BROILED CHICKEN.
+
+Singe and split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, clean
+and wipe with a wet cloth, sprinkle with pepper and salt, rub well
+with butter or dripping, place in a double grid-iron and broil 20
+minutes over a clear fire. The chicken may be covered with fine bread
+crumbs or dredged with flour, allowing a plentiful supply of butter or
+dripping, and baked in a hot oven 1/2 hour.
+
+
+MEAT SOUFFLE.
+
+Make 1 cup of white sauce and season with chopped parsley and onion
+juice. Stir 1 cup of chopped meat (chicken, tongue, veal or lamb) into
+the sauce. When hot, add the beaten yolks of two eggs; cook 1 minute
+and set away to cool. When cool, stir in the whites, beat very stiff.
+Bake in a buttered dish about twenty minutes and serve immediately.
+
+
+CROQUETTES.
+
+These may be made with any kind of cooked meat, fish, rice, potatoes,
+etc., or from a mixture of several ingredients, when mixed with a
+thick white sauce, as follows: 1 pint hot milk, 2 tbsps. butter or
+beef dripping, 6 (l.) tbsps. flour, or 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch, 1/2
+tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. white pepper, 1/2 tsp. celery salt, a speck of
+cayenne. Melt the butter or dripping in a saucepan, when hot add the
+dry cornstarch or flour. Stir till well mixed. Add 1/3 of the hot milk
+and stir as it boils and thickens, add the remainder of the hot milk
+gradually. The sauce should be very thick. Add the seasoning, and mix
+it while hot with the meat or fish. It is improved by adding a beaten
+egg just before the sauce is taken from the fire. When cold, shape
+into rolls or like a pear, roll lightly in beaten egg, then in bread
+crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat. Drain on coarse brown paper. If the
+mixture be too soft to handle easily stir in enough fine cracker or
+soft bread crumbs to stiffen it, but never flour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+HOT PUDDINGS.
+
+
+APPLE PUDDING (BAKED).
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/4 cup butter or dripping.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 tsp. cream of tartar.
+    3 tbsps. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 egg.
+    1/2 tsp. soda sifted into the flour.
+    6 tart apples.
+
+Mix the dry ingredients, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, stir
+this into the dry mixture. Core, pare and cut the apples into quarters
+(if large into eighths). Place in the bottom of a pudding dish,
+sprinkle over them the sugar, a little nutmeg or cinnamon may be added
+if desired. Put the mixture over this, lifting the apples with a fork
+or spoon so as to let the mixture penetrate to the bottom of the pan.
+Bake in a moderately hot oven about 30 minutes. Serve with lemon sauce
+or thin custard.
+
+
+COTTAGE PUDDING.
+
+    1/2 pint sifted flour.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1/4 tsp. salt.
+    1 egg.
+    1/2 cup milk.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    2 tsps. baking powder (level).
+
+Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, add the unbeaten egg, beat
+vigorously for 3 or 4 minutes, add the salt, then the flour, with
+which the baking powder should be mixed. Beat for a few seconds, then
+turn the batter into a small, buttered pudding dish, bake about 25
+minutes in a moderate oven; serve with lemon sauce.
+
+
+LEMON PUDDING.
+
+    4 level tbsps. granulated sugar.
+    1 ssp. of salt.
+    2 tbsps. milk.
+    The juice and grated rind of a small lemon.
+    6 (l.) tsps. cornstarch.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/2 cup water.
+    1 egg.
+
+Mix the cornstarch with 3 tbsps. cold water; put the remainder of the
+water in the saucepan and set on to boil. Stir into this the mixed
+cornstarch and cook until clear. Take from the fire, add the salt and
+lemon, reserving 1/2 tsp. of the lemon. Beat the butter to a cream,
+gradually beat into it the sugar, the yolk of the egg, lastly the
+milk. Stir this mixture into the cooked ingredients, and bake in a
+moderate oven for 20 minutes. Beat the white of the egg to a stiff
+froth, beat into it 1 tbsp. of powdered sugar and the 1/2 tsp. of
+lemon juice. Spread this over the hot pudding and leave in the oven
+until slightly browned. (This pudding is better served very cold.)
+
+
+BREAD PUDDING.
+
+    1 pint stale bread crumbs.
+    1 quart of sugar.
+    1 ssp. of nutmeg or cinnamon.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Soak the bread crumbs for 1 hour in 1 quart of milk. Beat the eggs,
+add the sugar and seasoning, stir all into the bread crumbs, bake 1
+hour in a buttered pudding dish. (Raisins or currants may be added if
+desired.)
+
+Another method for making bread pudding is to butter thin slices of
+stale bread, spread with a little jam or sprinkle a few currants (well
+washed) over each layer, lay them in a pudding dish, pour over a quart
+of milk, to which has been added 3 well beaten eggs, 1/2 cup sugar.
+Bake until the custard thickens. This pudding may be served either hot
+or cold.
+
+
+STEAMED APPLE PUDDING.
+
+    3 pints pared and quartered apples.
+    1/2 pint flour.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/4 of a grated nutmeg.
+    1/2 cup milk.
+    1/2 pint water.
+    1/4 tsp. salt.
+    2 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+
+Put the apples, water, sugar, and nutmeg into a porcelain or granite
+saucepan and set on the fire. When the apples begin to boil, set back
+where they will cook gently. Mix the flour, salt and baking powder
+together. Rub the butter into this dry mixture, wet with the milk,
+stir quickly into a soft dough. Press or roll the dough lightly into a
+round piece about the size of the top of the saucepan. Lay this on the
+apples; put on a close cover and continue cooking gently for 30
+minutes. The crust may be lifted to a plate for a moment, the apples
+turned into a pudding dish, then placing the crust over the top. To be
+served with lemon or nutmeg sauce.
+
+
+BOILED RICE PUDDING.
+
+    1/2 cup rice.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 pint milk.
+    1/2 cup raisins.
+
+Wash the rice well. Put it on the fire in 1 pint of cold water and let
+it cook for 10 minutes. Drain off the water, add the salt and milk;
+then cook in the double boiler for 2 hours, add the raisins when about
+half cooked. Do not stir the rice while it is cooking.
+
+
+BROWN BETTY.
+
+Pare, core and slice 6 or 7 tart apples. Put a layer of stale bread
+crumbs in the bottom of the baking dish, then a layer of the apples,
+another layer of bread crumbs and apples, and so on until all are
+used, having the last layer crumbs. Add 1/2 cup of water to 1/2 cup
+molasses, stir in 2 tbsps. of brown sugar; pour it over the crumbs and
+bake in a moderate oven for 1 hour.
+
+
+APPLE SNOW.
+
+    6 apples.
+    Juice of 1 lemon.
+    1 cup white sugar.
+    Whites of 6 eggs.
+
+Pare, core and steam the apples until tender, then press them through
+a sieve and put aside to cool; when cold add the sugar and lemon
+juice. Beat the whites of the eggs to a very stiff froth, add the
+apples to them by spoonfuls, beating all the while. Heap in a glass
+dish and serve immediately. (This is a very delicate and wholesome
+pudding for an invalid.)
+
+
+SCALLOPED APPLES.
+
+Made the same as Brown Betty, omitting the molasses, adding water and
+a little lemon juice instead.
+
+
+SUET PUDDING.
+
+    1 cup suet.
+    1 cup molasses.
+    3 cups flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 cup raisins.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 tsp. cinnamon.
+    2 tsps. baking powder.
+
+Chop the suet very fine. Stone the raisins. Add the molasses to the
+suet, then the milk: mix well and add the salt, flour and cinnamon.
+Beat vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes, then add the raisins. Rub in the
+flour, to which has been added the baking powder; mix thoroughly, turn
+into a buttered mould, steam for 3 hours.
+
+
+TAPIOCA PUDDING.
+
+    1 cup tapioca.
+    4 eggs.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 quart milk.
+    1/4 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. vanilla.
+
+Wash the tapioca carefully, then add it to the milk and soak 2 hours.
+Beat the eggs and sugar together, add the salt, stir into the tapioca
+and milk, and bake in a moderate oven at least 3/4 of an hour. Serve
+hot or cold.
+
+
+CHOCOLATE PUDDING.
+
+    1 egg.
+    2 tbsps. cornstarch.
+    3 tbsps. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+    1 pint milk.
+    1 tbsp. boiling water.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 oz. shaved chocolate.
+
+Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder on the fire in a double
+boiler. Mix the cold milk with the cornstarch and salt. Beat the egg
+well and add to the cornstarch mixture. Stir this into the boiling
+milk and stir well. Put the chocolate, sugar and boiling water into a
+small frying pan or saucepan, and set over a hot fire. Stir until the
+mixture is smooth and glossy; beat this into the pudding and cook for
+2 minutes longer. Take from the fire and add the vanilla. Dip a mould
+into cold water and turn the pudding into it. Set away to cool. When
+cold and stiff, turn out on a flat dish and surround with whipped
+cream; or serve with cream and sugar or a soft custard.
+
+
+SNOW PUDDING.
+
+    1/4 box gelatine.
+    1 cup boiling water.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    2 tbsps. cold water.
+    Juice of one lemon.
+    Whites of 2 eggs.
+
+Soak the gelatine in cold water for 2 hours. Pour upon this the
+boiling water and stir until the gelatine is dissolved; then add the
+sugar and lemon juice, stirring until the sugar is dissolved. Set the
+bowl in a pan of cold water, or broken ice. Stir frequently; when it
+begins to thicken, stir in the beaten whites of the eggs, pour into a
+mould and set away until firm. Serve with boiled custard.
+
+
+CREAM PIE.
+
+Make a plain cup cake, and bake it in a shallow cake pan. When cooked
+and cold, split it carefully. Put 1 pint of milk on to boil in a
+farina boiler. Beat the yolks of 3 eggs and 1/2 cup of sugar together
+until light, then add the well-beaten whites, and stir them into the
+boiling milk; stir over the fire for about 1 minute, then take from
+the fire, add 1 tsp. of vanilla, and stand away to cool. When cold,
+and ready to serve, put a thick layer of this sauce between the layers
+of cake, pour the remaining sauce around the pie, and serve
+immediately.
+
+
+BLANC MANGE.
+
+    1 pint milk.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch.
+    1/2 ssp. salt.
+
+Put the milk on to boil. Moisten the cornstarch with a little cold
+milk, then add it to the boiling milk, and stir until it thickens; let
+it cook slowly for 5 minutes; add the sugar and salt, take from the
+fire, pour into a mould and set away to harden.
+
+
+STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE.
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    1 oz. butter.
+    1 cup milk.
+
+Mix the salt, flour and butter together. Sift, then add the baking
+powder and sift again. Add the liquid gradually, mixing and cutting
+with a knife until the dough is light and spongy; turn it out on a
+well floured board, pat into a flat cake and roll gently till 1/2 an
+inch thick. Bake in a spider or pie plate in a rather hot oven. Split
+and spread with sweetened berries and serve either hot or cold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PUDDING SAUCES.
+
+
+PLAIN SAUCE.
+
+    1 cup water.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.
+    3 tbsps. sugar.
+    2 tsps. flour or cornstarch.
+
+Melt the butter and flour together, stir in the hot water, add the
+sugar and flavoring, cook until smooth and clear.
+
+
+MOLASSES SAUCE.
+
+    1/2 cup molasses.
+    1/2 cup water or 1/2 tbsp. vinegar.
+    2 (l.) tsps. flour.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 tbsp. lemon juice.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/2 ssp. salt.
+
+Mix the flour and sugar together. Pour the boiling water upon it. Add
+the molasses and place on the range. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the
+other ingredients; boil up once and serve. (Omit lemon if vinegar is
+used.)
+
+
+CREAM SAUCE.
+
+    1 egg.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1 tsp. cornstarch.
+    1/2 cup powdered sugar.
+    1 tsp. vanilla.
+    1 cup boiling milk.
+
+Beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth; then gradually beat into
+it the powdered sugar and cornstarch. Next add the yolk of the egg and
+beat well. Pour upon this the cupful of boiling milk and place on the
+fire. Stir until it boils, then add the butter and vanilla.
+
+
+LEMON SAUCE.
+
+    1 tbsp. cornstarch.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 pint boiling water.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1 egg.
+    1 lemon.
+
+Beat the egg, add the cornstarch and sugar, stir them well together;
+add the boiling water gradually and stir over the fire until thick;
+add the butter, juice and grated rind of one lemon. Serve hot.
+
+
+VANILLA SAUCE.
+
+    1 cup milk.
+    2 (l.) tbsps. sugar.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+
+Put the milk on to boil, beat the yolks and sugar till very light; add
+them to the boiling milk; stir over the fire until creamy. Have the
+whites beaten, pour over them the boiling mixture; beat thoroughly and
+serve at once.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CAKE.
+
+There are practically two kinds of cake, that made with butter, and
+cake made without butter. When these two methods are understood, cake
+making becomes easy. A few simple rules must govern all cake making.
+
+1st. Regulate the heat. Cakes without butter require a quick oven;
+with butter, a moderate oven. 2nd. Beat whites and yolks separately.
+3rd. Beat butter and sugar to a cream. 4th. Add the whites last. 5th.
+Currants should be cleaned, washed and dried and floured (to which
+flour some of the baking powder should be added). 6th. Add the milk or
+water gradually. 7th. Sift the flour before measuring. 8th. 2 level
+tsps. of baking powder are equal to 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of
+tartar. 9th. When looking at a cake while baking, do it quickly and
+without jarring the stove. 10th. To find out if it is baked, run a
+broom straw through the centre, if no dough adheres the cake is done.
+11th. If browning too quickly, cover with brown paper and reduce the
+heat gradually. This is usually necessary in baking fruit cake. 12th.
+Mix cake in an earthen bowl, never in tin. 13th. Soda, cream of
+tartar, and baking powder should be crushed and sifted with the flour.
+Always attend to the fire before beginning to make cake. Coarse
+granulated sugar makes a coarse, heavy cake. If cake browns before
+rising the oven is too hot. When it rises in the centre and cracks
+open it is too stiff with flour. It should rise first round the edge,
+then in the middle and remain level.
+
+
+GINGERBREAD.
+
+    1 cup molasses.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1 tsp. ginger.
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/2 cup sour milk.
+    1 tsp. soda.
+    1 egg.
+
+Put the molasses and butter in a pan and set on the stove. When the
+mixture boils up add the soda and ginger, and take from the fire
+immediately. Add the milk, the well-beaten egg and the flour, beat
+well. Bake in a shallow cake pan in a rather quick oven for 20
+minutes.
+
+
+SPICE CAKE.
+
+    1/4 cup butter.
+    1/2 cup molasses.
+    1/2 cup sour milk.
+    1/2 ssp. salt.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    The juice and rind of 1/2 lemon.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    2-1/2 cups flour.
+    1/2 tsp. ginger.
+    1 tsp. cinnamon.
+    1/4 nutmeg, grated.
+    1 egg.
+
+Beat the butter to a cream. Gradually beat into it the sugar, then the
+spice and lemon, next the molasses. Now dissolve the soda in one tbsp.
+cold water and stir it into the sour milk; add this, and the egg well
+beaten, to the other ingredients. Lastly add the flour, and beat
+briskly for 1/2 minute. Pour into a well buttered pan and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 50 minutes.
+
+
+SPONGE CAKE.
+
+    3 eggs.
+    2/3 cup flour.
+    2/3 cup pulverized sugar.
+    The grated rind and juice of 1/2 lemon.
+
+Beat the yolks of the eggs and sugar until very light, now add the
+juice and rind of the lemon and half the flour; beat the whites to a
+very stiff froth, add the remainder of the flour and the whites
+alternately, stirring lightly, pour into a greased cake pan. Bake in a
+quick oven from 25 to 30 minutes.
+
+
+ROLL JELLY CAKE.
+
+    2 eggs.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    1-1/2 cup flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 cup sweet milk.
+    3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+
+Beat the eggs separately till very light, then beat them together, add
+the sugar, then the milk gradually, then the flour in which the salt
+and baking powder have been mixed. Spread very thin on long shallow
+pans. Spread with jelly while warm and roll up.
+
+
+SEED CAKE.
+
+    1 cup butter.
+    1 cup milk.
+    2 tsps. caraway seeds.
+    3 tsps. baking powder.
+    1-1/2 cup sugar.
+    3 eggs.
+    3 cups flour.
+
+Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of the eggs,
+then the seeds; sift the baking powder with the flour; add the flour
+and milk alternately a little at a time, lastly the whites which have
+been beaten stiff and dry; bake from 40 to 50 minutes.
+
+
+COOKIES (PLAIN).
+
+    1/2 cup butter.
+    1/4 cup milk.
+    2 even tsps. baking powder.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    1 egg.
+    Flour to roll out thin.
+
+Cream the butter, add the sugar, milk, egg beaten lightly, and the
+baking powder mixed with two cups of flour, then enough more flour to
+roll out. Roll a little at a time. Cut out. Bake about 10 minutes.
+
+
+LAYER CAKE.
+
+    1/2 cup butter.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    2-1/2 cups flour.
+    3 eggs.
+    2/3 cup milk.
+    4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+
+Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, then add the yolks of the eggs
+gradually; then the flour and milk alternately (sifting the baking
+powder with the flour), add the well-beaten whites last. Bake in 3
+tins in a moderate oven about 15 minutes. (Flavoring has been omitted
+in this recipe as the cake is more delicate by allowing the filling to
+provide the flavor.)
+
+
+PLAIN FRUIT CAKE.
+
+    3 eggs.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 oz. candied lemon.
+    4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    2/3 cup butter.
+    3 (l.) cups flour.
+    1 cup raisins.
+
+Mix as directed in preceding recipe, only mixing the fruit with the
+flour and baking powder.
+
+
+ICING.
+
+    Whites of 2 eggs.
+    1/2 lb. powdered sugar.
+    1 tsp. of lemon juice.
+
+Have the material very cold. Break the eggs carefully, beat the whites
+until frothy (not stiff); sift the sugar in gradually, beating all the
+while; add the lemon juice and continue beating until fine and white,
+and stiff enough to stand alone. Keep in a cool place, when using,
+spread with a knife dipped in cold water. If used for ornamenting
+press through a tube. It may be divided and different colorings added.
+
+
+BOILED ICING.
+
+    1 cup granulated sugar.
+    1/3 cup boiling water.
+    1/4 tsp. cream of tartar.
+    White of 1 egg.
+
+Boil the sugar and water together until it hangs from the spoon. Beat
+the egg to a stiff froth, add the cream of tartar, then pour on the
+syrup, beating all the while. Beat until cold and thick.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PASTRY.
+
+Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it
+should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many
+food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost
+of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary
+place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a
+popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is
+more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light
+crust. In order to secure satisfactory results in pastry
+making--especially puff pastry--three things should be observed: (1)
+have all the materials cold; (2) use as little liquid as possible; (3)
+handle lightly and quickly. Pastry should be very cold when it is put
+into the oven. Have the oven very hot.
+
+
+PUFF PASTE.
+
+    1 lb. flour.
+    1 lb. butter.
+    Enough ice water to make into a very stiff dough.
+
+If the butter is salty, wash it as follows: Scald a large bowl, then
+fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse
+them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to
+the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice
+water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and
+elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard.
+Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife
+or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water
+until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or
+marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until about 1/4 inch
+thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over
+this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times.
+If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold
+plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so
+as to keep it in layers--even when cutting off the roll keep the
+layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For
+patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided
+it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin
+as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a
+cover for chicken pie.
+
+
+PLAIN PASTRY.
+
+    2 cups flour.
+    1 cup butter or lard.
+
+Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water
+to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place
+for at least 1/2 hour before baking.
+
+
+PASTE FOR MEAT PIES, ETC.
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    1 tsp. cream tartar
+    Or 2 level tsps. baking powder.
+    1 egg.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    1/4 cup butter or dripping.
+    1 cup milk.
+
+Mix as for biscuit or shortcake.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+
+SHEPHERD'S PIE.
+
+Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1
+cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock
+thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut the meat in small pieces and put
+in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over
+the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and
+milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and
+bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown.
+
+
+BEEF STEW.
+
+Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove
+all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about
+1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry.
+When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2
+small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the
+fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add
+the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and
+pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water
+and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer
+until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil
+more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for
+dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely
+and cook just 10 minutes.
+
+
+STUFFED TOMATOES.
+
+Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2
+tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread
+crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from
+the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the
+pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp
+and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes with this
+mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the
+tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley,
+and serve.
+
+
+STEWED KIDNEYS.
+
+Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and
+let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a
+saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion
+juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the
+frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and
+smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer
+1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and
+pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be
+prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is
+prepared.
+
+
+CREAMED EGGS.
+
+Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of
+toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then
+part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the
+yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat
+this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for
+about 3 minutes, then serve.
+
+
+BUTTERED TOAST.
+
+Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to
+draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a
+plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving.
+
+
+CROUTONS (FOR SOUP).
+
+Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into
+1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to
+brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt.
+
+
+FRENCH TOAST.
+
+    1 egg.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 ssp. salt.
+    4 to 6 slices of stale bread.
+
+Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and
+milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well
+buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a
+little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the
+other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar.
+
+
+SANDWICHES.
+
+Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the
+fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon
+juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter
+creamed. Cut bread--at least 1 day old--in very thin slices, spread
+with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices
+together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches
+may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little
+of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A FEW GENERAL HINTS.
+
+
+HOW TO BLANCH ALMONDS.
+
+Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in
+the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub
+between the hands.
+
+
+TO CLEAN CURRANTS.
+
+Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the
+flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer
+and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well
+in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and
+dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover
+closely, and they are ready for use at any time.
+
+
+SERVING FOOD.
+
+Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be
+served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced
+lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the
+attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons
+should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets,
+carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with
+a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast
+cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes.
+
+Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light
+puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to
+vary the decoration.
+
+
+CANNING AND PRESERVING.
+
+Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any
+fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general
+rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good
+fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars--test by filling with
+water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and
+are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so
+that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into
+them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer
+for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit
+slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up
+with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to
+cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of
+water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking.
+Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency,
+screw on the top loosely--so as to allow the gas to escape--and place
+in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the
+jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10
+minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils.
+Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at
+once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by
+cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made
+by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order
+to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water
+on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit,
+or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the
+syrup, fruit or jelly. Always see that the tops are screwed on
+tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not
+be done until the fruit has become cold.
+
+
+PRESERVING.
+
+Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise
+the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights
+of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes.
+
+
+JELLIES.
+
+Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar.
+Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for
+jelly. Cook the fruit--currants may be mashed and drained without
+cooking--until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the
+morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar
+in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent
+burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and
+boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a
+spoon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.
+
+Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion
+of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the
+proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats.
+Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and
+money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh
+fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious,
+economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of
+food--different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry--cooked in various
+ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially
+pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to
+use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled)
+is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over
+exertion of any kind.
+
+See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn
+before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for
+porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before
+using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the
+water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have
+it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish
+cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish
+cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to
+dry--if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for
+glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for
+kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid
+burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of
+boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day.
+
+All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept
+scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special
+attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept
+thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the
+end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not
+have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots
+and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be
+filled with cold water if not washed immediately after using. Never
+put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the
+handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all
+refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse
+pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of
+carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put
+pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it
+only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more
+difficult to clean.
+
+
+DISH WASHING.
+
+Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of
+the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of
+china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of
+housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to
+know how everything pertaining to household management should be done,
+and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.
+
+One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules
+may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives,
+forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and
+arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never
+pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires
+separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with
+soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the
+glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways
+so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once, which
+will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much
+brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut,
+use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry
+such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing,
+and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and
+the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have
+contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver
+and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in
+the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often,
+especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the
+water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the
+kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on
+the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with
+bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold
+in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any
+circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash
+the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish
+towels, dish cloth and dish pan.
+
+Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and
+scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place
+them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor
+of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become
+rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours,
+then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub
+the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits
+of turpentine.
+
+
+VENTILATION AND SANITATION.
+
+As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that
+one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family
+supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few
+housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the
+general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book
+prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of
+the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the
+rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1.
+See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either
+natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry.
+Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air,
+and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly
+cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if
+possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4.
+Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause
+unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a
+special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper
+temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the
+housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation
+of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be
+neglected.
+
+One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of
+ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an
+abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts,
+either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and
+odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of
+the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the
+cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be
+thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few
+inches at the bottom, or--as in some double or outside windows--by a
+little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air
+in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling,
+which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for
+foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.
+
+If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open
+a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window
+will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a
+draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room
+quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more
+desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the
+sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two
+chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of
+fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in
+a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.
+
+When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during
+the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the
+bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as
+to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of
+the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been
+occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and
+bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which
+has been occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should
+be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to
+prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the
+night.
+
+Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to
+prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the
+house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near
+the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a
+draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the
+purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen
+chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are
+placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very
+cold weather.
+
+
+LAUNDRY WORK.
+
+As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water,
+a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure
+water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great
+absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found.
+The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air;
+among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and
+creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain
+water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water
+absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking
+into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other
+compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these
+substances, forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such
+water is known as "hard."
+
+Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according
+to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to
+hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the
+fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface
+of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why
+"hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much
+better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or
+sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely
+upon soap for cleansing.
+
+Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing
+soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have
+a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything
+stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly
+than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised.
+Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and
+added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too
+frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual
+cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia
+or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in
+removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing
+silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot
+water.
+
+_Removing Stains._--All spots and stains should be taken out before
+the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap.
+Fruit stains are the most frequent and the most indelible, when
+neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by
+boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour
+boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are
+allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a
+bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains
+should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk
+may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains
+usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.
+
+Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will
+resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin,
+besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water.
+Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains,
+although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in
+cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is
+Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is
+composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2
+quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as
+they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and
+bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions
+to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted
+woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white
+tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with
+a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the
+nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear
+water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid
+water; hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less
+soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used.
+Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood
+is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to
+soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water--2
+tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If
+applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.
+
+The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where
+colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of
+soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some
+hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green
+color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water.
+Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered.
+Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of
+chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth
+be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches
+the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but
+success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils
+may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha,
+chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot
+alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the
+point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene
+before water and soap touch them.
+
+Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored
+fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated
+with oxalic, muriatic or hot tartaric acid, applied in the same
+manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for
+some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some
+will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with
+acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch
+the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in
+one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will
+furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a
+little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower
+the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears.
+Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia
+water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric
+protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight
+stain.
+
+Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron
+rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the
+result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been
+imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes
+thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt,
+and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is
+unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in
+the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year
+is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of
+blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of
+the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching,
+for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer.
+When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available, use a bleaching
+powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can
+in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the
+acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot
+water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot
+water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled
+portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll
+the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover
+the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed,
+and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are
+unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long
+soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.
+
+Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the
+materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional
+disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to
+be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes.
+This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the
+deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of
+the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed.
+The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little
+or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and
+remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot
+than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete
+removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful
+of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a
+bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling water over the
+clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because
+the temperature is so quickly lowered.
+
+The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of
+all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of
+alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while
+the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali
+may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and
+disinfectant.
+
+
+WASHING OF WOOLLENS.
+
+All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different
+waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be
+borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form
+of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good
+white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make
+each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at
+the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the
+original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference
+to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on
+account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be
+used to make the water very soft.
+
+Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly
+brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen
+fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool
+should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through a
+wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become
+twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the
+article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the
+whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly
+before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze,
+for the teeth become knotted and hard.
+
+
+COLORED COTTONS.
+
+Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt
+will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each
+washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time
+renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after
+the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a
+matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware.
+The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth
+of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried
+thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly
+wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water
+and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the
+disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place.
+Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just
+enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap.
+
+Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if
+kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the
+bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer
+may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and a
+few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the
+kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease,
+lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial
+action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire
+house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health.
+
+All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed
+generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The
+kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning
+with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly
+flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for
+cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CARING FOR INVALIDS.
+
+One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the
+ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not
+vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut
+flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to
+avoid a draft--especially when airing the room. If the room is too
+small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to
+raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this
+put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain
+until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn
+the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of
+either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but
+injurious.
+
+One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect
+cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient.
+Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom
+with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and
+prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire
+by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire.
+Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is
+whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not
+consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome
+varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders
+concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or
+cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and
+a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most
+objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow
+fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick
+room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a
+sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as
+the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion.
+
+One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough
+knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best
+methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them
+to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has
+been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is
+necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the
+hunger--neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come
+under the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the
+other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued
+illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to
+supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated
+form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes
+it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate
+digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not
+only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either
+lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing.
+Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly,
+albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together),
+and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry
+toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence,
+any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich
+puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided.
+
+People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily
+digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon
+and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals,
+and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or
+milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of
+gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for
+invalids.
+
+
+BEVERAGES.
+
+_Barley Water._--Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold
+water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of
+water, and allow it to boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain
+and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be
+added while boiling if desired.
+
+_Apple Water._--Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a
+bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to
+taste; serve when cold.
+
+_Flax Seed Tea._--One-half cupful of flax seed--which has been
+carefully washed in cold water--to 1 quart of boiling water; boil
+slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to
+remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon
+juice and sugar.
+
+_Lemonade._--Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the
+lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or
+cold as required.
+
+_Orange Water._--Made the same as lemonade.
+
+
+MEAT EXTRACTIVES.
+
+_Beef Juice_ is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through,
+then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice
+is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little
+salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry
+toast.
+
+_Beef Tea._--Cut juicy pieces of steak--the round steak is the
+best--into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to
+160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press,
+strain, and flavor with salt and pepper.
+
+_Beef Tea_ (_No. 2_).--Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass
+fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour,
+stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of
+water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point.
+Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the
+jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer;
+allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with
+the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef
+stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.)
+
+_Beef Essence._--(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of
+finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of
+soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60
+grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool
+place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat
+slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces
+of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It
+should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred
+warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel
+placed in hot water.
+
+_Chicken Broth._--Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the
+chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a
+fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or
+crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the
+skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the
+meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer
+till the meat is tender. A few minutes before removing from the fire
+add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain,
+and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary
+quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg.
+Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine
+cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may
+be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient
+can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and
+moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared
+with the egg.
+
+_Mutton Broth._--Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour
+over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very
+red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain,
+season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may
+be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with
+cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is
+not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed
+by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by
+passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken
+off with a spoon.
+
+_Oatmeal Gruel._--To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of
+oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without
+milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir
+well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan.
+Then boil the water.
+
+_Egg Soup._--Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double
+boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain through a sieve and add 1/2 pint
+of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir
+gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste,
+and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used.
+
+_Albumen and Milk._--Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk.
+Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well
+for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A
+pinch of salt may be added if desired.
+
+_Egg-Nog._--Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar,
+and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2
+teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk
+of the egg makes it more palatable.
+
+_Orange Soup._--Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind,
+and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the
+liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two
+level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold
+water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the
+boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and
+stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used
+for this soup.)
+
+_Arrowroot Gruel._--Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a
+little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds;
+take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of
+lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until
+very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint
+of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.)
+
+_Rice Water or Jelly._--Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls
+of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and
+sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into
+a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink,
+add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little
+stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot
+or cold.
+
+_Stewed Figs._--Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold
+water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point,
+and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until
+the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down
+the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve
+cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them.
+
+_Jellied Chicken._--Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint
+it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4
+inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then
+put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being
+careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the
+chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the
+meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin
+and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or
+mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the
+meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the
+chicken when cooking.)
+
+_Raw Meat Sandwiches._--Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped
+very fine and rubbed through a hair sieve or scraped from a slice of
+steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of
+sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of
+brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be
+added if the flavor is liked.)
+
+_Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc._ (See
+recipes in preceding chapters.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.
+
+"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school
+children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in
+boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is
+from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are
+undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the
+body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands,
+therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food
+must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to
+yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food
+should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of
+formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of
+dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later
+life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in
+circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the
+accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits,
+which are often a serious obstacle to normal development.
+
+"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by
+the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anĉmia and chlorosis,
+which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a
+faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to
+consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical
+constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember
+that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the
+period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the
+individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage
+success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than
+success in mental attainments." (Thompson.)
+
+An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which
+becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from
+carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of
+habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals
+should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before
+each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably
+without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be
+required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to
+hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or
+game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after
+meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at
+food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite,
+increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion.
+
+The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for
+the reason given in the preceding sentence and for its effect upon
+the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the
+public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more
+often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate
+children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as
+for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the
+following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece
+of whole wheat bread and butter should be given--if they
+awaken--during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor,
+and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be
+given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and
+butter, between meals.
+
+These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two
+years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes
+two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth
+must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of
+vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made
+tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable
+appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and
+vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill
+attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating
+indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking
+for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain
+them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome
+foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET.
+
+If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any
+task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not
+expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the
+child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a
+roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the
+first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of
+wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and
+butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the
+day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some
+form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted,
+should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as
+pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a
+porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice,
+tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of
+preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good
+bowl of nutritious broth--or soup--with bread or crackers, may be
+substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found
+best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this
+case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass
+of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five.
+
+Some of the more important articles of school diet require special
+mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical
+Dietetics may prove helpful:--
+
+_Bread._--"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must
+not be too coarse. The advantage of this bread for children consists
+in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than
+is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served
+with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children
+need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are
+very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however,
+when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them."
+
+_Milk._--"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of
+puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children
+should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass
+of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking.
+Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a
+dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of
+milk.'"
+
+_Meat._--"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may
+sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are
+supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly
+growing children."
+
+_Sweets._--"The greater number of children have a natural craving for
+sweets."
+
+The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption
+of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The
+craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true
+indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be
+admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most
+children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main
+difficulty with such forms of sugar, however, is that children are
+not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and
+the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming
+very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy,
+which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much,
+with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing
+the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely
+excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to
+develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years.
+(Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.)
+
+_Exercise._--As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children
+disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when
+taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the
+romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often,
+though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of
+exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic
+attack.
+
+Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is
+the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated
+appetites.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INFANTS' DIET.
+
+One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science
+course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject
+requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies
+the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the
+foundation upon which the future physical structure is built.
+
+It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and
+attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids,
+have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more
+than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the
+following suggestions may prove helpful.
+
+The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and
+quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as
+well as the comfort of the household.
+
+Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least,
+seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to
+assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the
+child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's
+supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's
+milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than
+human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline,
+this must be corrected by the use of lime water.
+
+There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk,
+therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following
+proportions have been submitted as a digestible form of preparing
+cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):--
+
+    Cream, 2 tbsps.
+    Milk, 1 tbsp.
+    Lime water, 2 tbsps.
+    Milk-sugar water, 3 tbsps.
+
+One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day,
+and once or twice at night.
+
+After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to
+one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be
+given at once.
+
+The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water
+and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should
+be:--
+
+    3 tbsps. milk.
+    1 tbsp. cream.
+    1 tbsp. lime water.
+    3 tbsps. sugar water.
+
+When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be
+increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding.
+
+
+BARLEY WATER.
+
+    2 tbsps. pearl barley.
+    1 pt. boiling water.
+
+Wash the barley carefully. Pour over it the boiling water. Let it
+simmer for two hours. Strain and sweeten with a pinch of sugar of
+milk.
+
+
+MILK-SUGAR WATER.
+
+    1/2 oz. sugar of milk.
+    1/2 pt. boiling water.
+
+Dissolve, and keep closely covered. It will not keep long, so should
+be made when required to use.
+
+
+LIME WATER.
+
+Take a lump of lime weighing about one ounce. Put in a bottle with a
+quart of cold water (which has been boiled). Shake the bottle well
+until the lime is dissolved, and let it stand for 12 hours. Pour the
+clear liquid into another bottle, being careful not to disturb the
+sediment. Keep carefully corked. Water will only absorb a certain
+quantity of lime, so there is no danger of its being too strong.
+
+As cow's milk is more difficult to digest than mother's milk, it is
+sometimes necessary to substitute barley water in place of the lime
+water and milk, using the same amount of cream as given in recipe.
+
+
+MALTED FOOD.
+
+    2 oz. wheat flour or barley meal.
+    1-3/4 qts. water.
+    1 tsp. extract of malt.
+
+Mix the flour to a paste with a little water, gradually add a quart of
+the water; put it in a double boiler and boil 10 minutes. Dissolve the
+malt extract in 4 tbsps. of the water (cold). Lift out the inner
+vessel and add the malt and remainder of the cold water. Let it stand
+15 minutes, replace, and boil again for 15 minutes. Strain through a
+wire gauze strainer. (Half this quantity may be made.)
+
+This preparation is used when both barley water and lime-water
+disagree. It must always be given with milk. It prevents the large
+tough curds forming, which is such an objectionable feature in using
+cow's milk.
+
+
+PEPTONIZED MILK.
+
+In cases of especially weak digestion it may be necessary to peptonize
+the milk, which may be done as follows: Add 5 grains of extract of
+pancreas and 15 grains of baking soda to 1 pint of milk. (Tablets of
+pancreatin and soda may be used.)
+
+After adding the peptonizing material put the milk in a double boiler
+or in a vessel which may be set in a larger one, holding water, as hot
+as the hand can bear being dipped into quickly, or about 115° Fah.
+Leave the milk in the hot water about 20 minutes, then place on the
+ice. If heated too long the milk will taste bitter.
+
+The preparation given in recipe No. 1, or with the barley water added,
+may be peptonized.
+
+
+STERILIZED OR PASTEURIZED MILK.
+
+(_See Milk, Chapter V._)
+
+Put the amount of milk required for a meal into pint or half pint
+bottles, allowing for the number of times the child is to be fed in 24
+hours. Use cotton batting as a stopper. Place a wire frame, or invert
+a perforated tin pie plate, in the bottom of a saucepan; stand the
+bottles on this, pour around them enough water to come well above the
+milk, cover the saucepan or kettle, and when the water boils lift the
+saucepan from the fire and allow the bottles to remain in the hot
+water for 1 hour. Keep in the ice box or stand them in cold water
+until needed. If milk is to be used during a long journey it will be
+necessary to repeat the above operation three times, letting the milk
+cool between each time.
+
+Unless the milk is perfectly fresh, and has been handled with great
+care, it is safer to sterilize or pasteurize it. The former, if any
+doubt is entertained as to the quality of the milk, the latter in
+every case.
+
+
+TEMPERATURE OF FOOD.
+
+Food should be "milk warm," or about 99° Fah., when given to a baby.
+Hot food is very injurious.
+
+
+NURSING BOTTLES AND FEEDING.
+
+Have two plain bottles with rubber tops, _without tubes_. Bottles with
+ounces and tablespoonfuls marked on them can be purchased, and are a
+great convenience in measuring the amount of food required.
+
+After using the bottle, empty the remaining milk; rinse in cold water,
+then in _scalding water_.
+
+If particles of milk adhere to the bottle use coarse salt or raw
+potato cut in small pieces. If the glass looks cloudy, add a little
+ammonia to the water. Turn the rubber tops inside out and scrub with a
+stiff brush; boil them every alternate day for 10 minutes.
+
+_Absolute cleanliness is a necessity_ in the care of a baby's food,
+bottles and rubber tops.
+
+The bottle should be held, while the baby is feeding, in such a
+position that the top is full of milk. If air is sucked in with the
+milk stomach-ache will likely result.
+
+Starchy food should not be given to a child until it is able to
+masticate. (See digestion of starch, Chap. VIII.)
+
+Arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, etc., _must not be given to infants_.
+
+
+FLOUR BALL.
+
+Put a bowlful of flour into a strong cloth, tie it up like a pudding,
+and place it in a kettle of boiling water. Boil for 10 or 12 hours.
+When boiled turn it out of the cloth and cut away the soft outside
+coating. When cool, grate the hard inside portion and use a
+teaspoonful at each feeding, for a baby 8 months old, increasing the
+amount for an older child. This may be prepared in the same manner as
+cornstarch or flour. The long boiling converts the starch into
+dextrine, which is more easily digested than starch. This is
+especially valuable in cases of diarrhoea, and may be used instead
+of barley gruel as a food.
+
+
+OATMEAL GRUEL.
+
+Pound a cupful of oatmeal in a pestle or on a bread board. Put in a
+bowl and pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Stir it up, then let the
+mixture settle for a few minutes. Pour off the milky fluid, repeat
+this process. Boil this water for an hour, adding a pinch of salt, and
+use it to dilute the milk instead of water.
+
+A thicker gruel may be made from oatmeal by allowing 1 tablespoonful
+to a cup of boiling water. Let it boil 1 hour, then strain through a
+wire strainer.
+
+
+FARINA GRUEL.
+
+    1 tbsp. farina.
+    2 cups boiling water.
+    A spk. of salt.
+
+Cook for 20 minutes; use as directed for oatmeal.
+
+
+BEEF JUICE.
+
+(_See page 145._)
+
+_Beef juice_ is sometimes ordered for delicate babies. For a child 9
+months old, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls may be given once a day.
+
+
+ALBUMINIZED FOOD.
+
+When milk cannot be taken, albuminized food proves an excellent
+substitute.
+
+Shake the white of 1 egg with 1/2 a pint of water (filtered or boiled
+and cooled) in a glass jar until they are thoroughly mixed. Add a few
+grains of salt.
+
+Children do not require a great variety in their food. Give one
+article of diet at a time and see how it agrees before trying another.
+
+After a child is a year old the various cereals may be given as
+porridge instead of gruel, with the addition of a little sugar.
+
+Remember, all cereals should be thoroughly cooked (see page 83).
+
+
+BISCUITS.
+
+Gluten, soda, oatmeal or Graham biscuits may be soaked in milk or
+given alone. Do not give the fancy or sweet biscuits to young
+children.
+
+
+EGGS.
+
+A properly boiled egg (see page 69) may be given every alternate day
+to a child 1 year old.
+
+
+JUNKET.
+
+Junket is much better for young children than custards or puddings,
+and sometimes agrees well with babies.
+
+Take 1 pint of milk, heat it to 98° Fah., or milk warm. Add 1
+teaspoonful of rennet and 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Stir all together
+and let it stand in a warm place until it becomes as thick as jelly.
+Remove at once to a cool place or whey will appear.
+
+
+BAKED POTATOES.
+
+Potatoes should not be given to a child under 2 years old in any other
+form than baked. The potash salts are the most valuable constituent,
+and are lost when they are peeled and boiled. They should be dry and
+mealy. A little salt, butter or cream should be added.
+
+
+MACARONI.
+
+(_See page 85._)
+
+Macaroni is an excellent food for young children.
+
+
+FRUIT.
+
+Baked apples and the juice of an orange are the only fruits which
+should be given to children under two years of age.
+
+
+RICE.
+
+Rice is an excellent food for young children, but not for infants.
+
+
+VENTILATION.
+
+Foul air is injurious to grown persons, but it is infinitely more
+dangerous to the sensitive organization of a child. Therefore special
+attention should be given to the ventilation of rooms occupied by a
+baby (see page 132).
+
+Fresh air, wholesome food, regular bathing, and plenty of sleep will
+insure the normal growth of the average baby, and are within reach of
+every one who has the care of young children.
+
+The writer is indebted to Miss Scovil, Superintendent of Newport
+Hospital, and one of the associate editors of the _Ladies' Home
+Journal_, for many of the above hints concerning the diet of infants.
+
+
+EMERGENCIES.
+
+As frequent accidents occur during the performance of household
+duties, a few suggestions as to how slight injuries should be treated
+may prove useful to the young housekeeper.
+
+_Cuts._--A cut should be washed with cold water, covered with a small
+pad of cotton, bound up, and left alone. Should matter form, the
+bandage must be taken off, the wound bathed with carbolized water,
+1-80, and a little carbolized vaseline spread on a bit of linen and
+laid over it. The washing and dressing should be repeated two or three
+times a day if there is much discharge.
+
+_Bruises._--A flannel wrung out of very hot water, and laid on a
+bruise, relieves the soreness.
+
+For bruises on the face, apply ice. Brown paper wet in vinegar is an
+old-fashioned remedy. If the skin is broken, treat as a wound, with
+carbolized water and carbolized vaseline.
+
+_Sprains._--Both hot and cold treatment is recommended. Immerse the
+joint in water as hot as can be borne. Keep up the temperature by
+gradually adding more hot water. Let it soak for an hour or more. Then
+wrap in warm flannel, and surround with hot water bags or bottles.
+
+_Stings._--Bathe the part in ammonia, or baking soda and water; wet a
+cloth in the same, and bind over it.
+
+_Burns._--The best household remedies for burns are baking soda and
+carbolized vaseline. For slight burns mix the soda to a paste with
+water, and spread thickly over the part; cover with linen or old
+cotton. This may be kept wet by squeezing water over it. If shreds of
+clothing adhere to a burn, they should be soaked with oil, and not
+pulled off until softened. If the skin is gone, spread carbolized
+vaseline on linen, and bind on the part until the doctor arrives.
+
+In burns caused by acids, water should not be applied to the parts.
+Cover with dry baking soda.
+
+If caused by an alkali, such as lye, ammonia, or quick-lime, use an
+acid, as vinegar or lemon juice, diluted.
+
+_Poisoning._--For poison ivy, saturate a cloth in a solution of baking
+soda, or ammonia and water, and lay over the part.
+
+When poison has been swallowed, the first thing to do is to get it out
+of the stomach. Secondly, to prevent what remains from doing more
+mischief. Give an emetic at once. One tbsp. of salt in a glass of
+_tepid_ water; 1 tsp. of mustard, or 1 tsp. of powdered alum in a
+glass of tepid water. A tsp. of wine of ipecac, followed by warm
+water. Repeat any of these three or four times if necessary. The
+quantities given are for children; larger doses may be given to
+adults. It is well to give a dose of castor oil after the danger is
+over, to carry off any remnants of the poison that may have lodged in
+the intestines.
+
+After a poison has burned the mouth and throat, plenty of milk may be
+given, also flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch gruel.
+
+For drowning and other serious accidents, see Public School
+Physiology.
+
+
+FURNISHING A CLASS-ROOM.
+
+The furnishing of a class-room should be so complete that each pupil
+should be able to attend to the appointed task without delay. The
+furniture should consist of a stove, or range, gas stove if more
+convenient, a hot water tank or boiler, sink, table (side), towel
+rack, 2 dozen chairs, or seats with tablet arms, a cupboard or kitchen
+"dresser" for table ware, a large cupboard or arrangement for lockers,
+in which caps, aprons, etc., should be kept, a large table--horseshoe
+shape is the most satisfactory--with drawers, and space for rolling
+pin, bread board, etc., underneath. The table should be large enough
+to allow at least 2 ft. 6 in. for each pupil. Twenty pupils is the
+limit of a practice class. On the table should be placed at regular
+intervals, 10 gas burners with frame. The teacher's table should stand
+in the opening at the end of the table so that she may see each pupil
+while at work, and when demonstrating may be seen by each pupil.
+
+The following list of utensils will be found sufficient for practice
+work for a class of 20 pupils.
+
+
+EARTHEN, CHINA AND GLASS WARE.
+
+     1 dinner set.
+     2 quart pitchers.
+     2 pint pitchers.
+     2 small oval baking dishes.
+     2 small round baking dishes.
+     4 4-quart bowls, with lips.
+     6 2-quart bowls, with lips.
+     4 1-quart bowls.
+    12 baking cups.
+     6 kitchen cups.
+     2 small platters.
+     2 medium size platters.
+     2 deep pie plates.
+     6 shallow pie plates.
+     2 jelly moulds.
+     1 teapot.
+     1 dozen quart gem jars.
+     1 dozen pint gem jars.
+     6 4-quart stone jars or crocks.
+     1 dozen fancy plates, and glass dishes for serving.
+
+WOODENWARE.
+
+     1 wash-board.
+    12 small bread boards.
+    12 rolling pins.
+     2 chopping trays.
+     2 potato mashers.
+     1 potato ricer.
+     1 water pail.
+     1 scrubbing pail.
+     1 pail or bucket for refuse.
+     1 flour bucket, with cover.
+     6 wooden spoons--small.
+     1 2-gallon ice cream freezer.
+     1 broom.
+     1 whisk-broom.
+     1 crumb pan and brush.
+     1 floor scrubbing brush.
+     6 small scrubbing brushes.
+     1 stove brush.
+     1 pastry brush.
+     1 small refrigerator.
+     Spice boxes.
+     Dish mops.
+     Lemon squeezers, etc.
+
+AGATE WARE.
+
+    4 double boilers.
+    2 4-quart kettles.
+    2 2-quart saucepans.
+    4 1-quart saucepans.
+    4 pt. saucepans.
+    2 oval pudding dishes.
+    1 4-quart preserving kettle.
+    1 hand basin.
+    1 tea kettle.
+
+IRON WARE.
+
+    1 spider.
+    1 griddle.
+    1 pan for meat.
+    1 pan for fish.
+    1 meat fork.
+    1 can opener.
+    1 meat cleaver.
+    2 wooden-handled spoons.
+    1 braising pan (cover).
+    Scales, etc.
+
+TIN AND WIRE WARE.
+
+     2 large graters.
+     1 nutmeg grater.
+    12 flour dredges.
+    12 measuring cups.
+     1 funnel.
+     1 basting spoon.
+     1 wire broiler, for toast.
+     2 wire broilers, for steak.
+     1 wire soap dish.
+     3 Dover egg beaters.
+     3 small wire strainers.
+     1 large wire strainer.
+     1 flour scoop.
+     2 flour sifters.
+     1 gravy strainer.
+     1 colander.
+     2 dish pans.
+     2 2-qt. milk cans.
+     1 quart measure.
+     1 pint measure.
+     1 steamer.
+     6 small bread pans.
+     6 small jelly moulds.
+     1 set gem pans.
+     1 doz. muffin rings.
+     2 dustpans.
+     2 plain cake cutters.
+     1 doughnut cutter.
+     1 small biscuit cutter.
+     1 frying basket.
+     1 dipper.
+     2 long, shallow cake tins.
+     2 egg whisks.
+     1 round cake tin.
+     1 wire frame.
+     1 vegetable cutter.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+    1 doz. dish towels.
+    2 floor cloths.
+    12 holders.
+    Cheese cloth.
+    Pudding cloth.
+    Needles.
+    Twine.
+    Scissors.
+    Skewers.
+    Screw driver.
+    Corkscrew.
+    1 doz. knives and forks.
+    Hammer.
+    Tacks and Nails.
+    Ironing sheet and holder.
+    Coal scuttle.
+    Fire shovel.
+    Coal sieve.
+    Ash hod.
+    Flat irons.
+    Paper for cake tins.
+    Wrapping paper.
+    Small tub for laundry work.
+    6 tablespoons.
+    2 doz. teaspoons.
+
+While this may seem a formidable list, it will not be found expensive.
+Some of the above articles may be omitted and others substituted. It
+must be remembered that the utensils will be well cared for,
+consequently will last for many years. In country schools, or where
+gas is not available, oil stoves may be used. In some schools, where
+space is limited, one small table is used, two or more pupils
+demonstrating the lesson under the supervision of the teacher, the
+pupils taking this duty in alternation. The remainder of the class
+observe and take notes.
+
+The cost of material is trifling. It should not average more than
+fifty cents per pupil per annum, and for a large number should average
+less than this amount.
+
+The Boston school kitchens are, many of them, furnished at a cost of
+from $200 to $300. A fair average cost for Ontario should be about
+$175.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS.
+
+During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a
+typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain
+number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the
+choice of food for each meal.
+
+State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost.
+Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how
+the meal should be served. _System_, neatness and promptness should be
+especially emphasized. Clean table linen--no matter how coarse--is
+possible for every one. A dish of fruit or flowers, if only a bunch of
+green foliage, improves the appearance of the table.
+
+During the school course a special lesson should be devoted to setting
+the table and serving meals, with and without a waitress, so as to
+give a knowledge of how a meal should be served, no matter what the
+pupil's position in life may be or what part she may have to perform.
+
+
+A FEW GENERAL HINTS ON SETTING THE TABLE.
+
+Although every housekeeper has her own method for serving meals, a few
+general principles govern all properly regulated service. When setting
+the table, cover first with a canton-flannel or felt cloth, in order
+to prevent noise and protect the table. Place each article in its
+proper place and not in a confused "jumble." See that the tablecloth
+is spread smoothly, that the corners are of equal length, that the
+crease--if the cloth has been folded instead of rolled--is exactly in
+the centre. Place the fruit or flowers in the centre of the table.
+
+For each person place knife, spoon and glass on the right, fork and
+napkin on the left. Place the glass at the point of the knife. Turn
+the edge of the knife towards the plate and the fork tines up, the
+spoon with the bowl up. If soup is to be served, place a square of
+bread or a roll on top of the napkin or between the folds. Place the
+pepper and salt at the corners of the table, unless individual salts
+are used, when they should be placed at the head of the plates, where
+the dessert spoon may be placed--the handle towards the right--for
+convenience.
+
+The general rule in serving simple family meals, with or without a
+waitress, is for the hostess to serve the porridge and coffee at
+breakfast; the soup, salad and dessert at dinner, and pour the tea at
+the evening meal. When luncheon is served in the middle of the day the
+hostess usually does the greater part of the serving, as luncheon is
+considered to be the most informal meal of the day.
+
+
+A FEW HINTS FOR WAITRESSES.
+
+Learn to move quickly and quietly. Be scrupulously clean and neat in
+every detail of dress and habit. Before serving a meal see that hands
+and finger nails are clean. Always have a fresh white apron ready to
+put on before the meal is announced. Look over the table and see that
+everything is in its place before announcing a meal. Fill the glasses
+with water either before the family enter the dining room or
+immediately after they are seated. Lift the covers from hot dishes and
+turn them over at once in order to prevent the steam from dropping on
+the cloth. Take the plate from the host or hostess, and place before
+each person from the right side--keep the thumb well under the plate.
+When passing anything from which the persons seated at table help
+themselves, such as vegetables, sauces, etc., always go to the left,
+so as to leave the right hand of the one to be served free. Keep a
+watchful eye over the table and pass anything apparently required.
+
+Learn to receive instructions from the hostess in an undertone. Do not
+get excited and try to do too many things at once. It is an
+accomplishment to be a good waitress, as it requires special
+refinement and deftness, which are scarcely compatible with an untidy
+nature.
+
+When serving meals without a waitress, the daughters of the house
+should consider it their special privilege to save the mother any
+annoyance or discomfort during the meal time. Never allow dishes,
+which have been used, to accumulate on the table or allow the table to
+become disordered. As much of the food as possible should be placed on
+the table before the family are seated, and the plates or dishes
+removed at once after using. No matter how simple the meal may be,
+every housekeeper should see that it is served neatly and on time.
+Teachers may exercise a far-reaching influence in the refining of home
+life by impressing upon the pupils the importance of these--too often
+considered--minor matters, and by giving minute instructions in the
+setting of table and serving the meal. One carefully planned
+_practice_ lesson will convey more knowledge of such matters than any
+number of lectures or pages of theory.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONSIDERATION OF MENUS.
+
+The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74,
+prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so
+as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods
+in combination. _It must be remembered that the prices given are in
+excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less
+than is given in these illustrations._ The more expensive menus have
+been omitted. The writer of the article says:--
+
+"In planning a well balanced diet the following points must be
+considered:--
+
+(1) The use of any considerable amount of fat meat or starchy food
+should be offset by the use of some material rich in protein. Thus, if
+roast pork is to be eaten for dinner, veal, fish, or lean beef might
+well be eaten for breakfast or supper, or both. Bean soup furnishes a
+considerable amount of protein, while bouillon, consommé, and tomato
+soup are practically useless as a source of nutriment. Skim milk also
+furnishes protein, with but very little accompanying fats and
+carbohydrates to increase the fuel value.
+
+(2) The use of lean meats or fish for all three meals would require
+the use of such foods as rice, tapioca, or cornstarch pudding,
+considerable quantities of sugar and butter, and more vegetables, in
+order to furnish sufficient fuel value.
+
+(3) Since flour, sugar, and butter or lard enter very largely into
+pastries and desserts, the larger the quantities of these dishes that
+are consumed the larger does the fuel value tend to become as compared
+with the protein."
+
+The principal classes of food materials may be roughly grouped as
+follows as regards the proportion of protein to fuel value, beginning
+with those which have the largest proportion of protein and ending
+with those which contain little or no protein:--
+
+  Foods containing a large amount of protein as
+  compared with the fuel value.
+
+    Fish;
+    veal;
+    lean beef, such as shank, shoulder, canned corned,
+      round, neck, and chuck;
+    skim milk.
+
+
+  Foods containing a medium amount of protein.
+
+    Fowl;
+    eggs;
+    mutton leg and shoulder;
+    beef, fatter cuts, such as rib, loin, rump, flank, and brisket;
+    whole milk;
+    beans and peas;
+    mutton chuck and loin;
+    cheese;
+    lean pork;
+    oatmeal and other breakfast foods;
+    flour;
+    bread, etc.
+
+
+  Foods containing little or no protein.
+
+    Vegetables and fruit;
+    fat pork;
+    rice;
+    tapioca;
+    starch;
+    butter and other fats and oils;
+    sugar, syrups.
+
+
+THE MENUS.
+
+To illustrate the ways in which milk may be combined with other food
+materials, to form daily dietaries with about the amount of protein
+and the fuel value called for by the standard for men at moderate
+muscular work, a few menus are given in the following pages. These
+menus are intended to show how approximately the same nutritive value
+may be obtained by food combinations differing widely as regards the
+number, kind, and price of the food materials used to make up three
+daily meals. They also illustrate how the cost of the daily menu may
+vary greatly with the kind and variety of materials purchased, though
+the nutritive value remains the same. These sample menus should not,
+however, be regarded as in any sense "models" to be followed in actual
+practice. The daily menus for any family will necessarily vary with
+the market supply, the season, and the relative expensiveness of
+different food materials, as well as with the tastes and purse of the
+consumers. The point to which we wish here to draw especial attention
+is that the prudent buyer of foods for family consumption can not
+afford to wholly neglect their nutritive value in making such
+purchases.
+
+With reference to the following daily menus, several points must be
+definitely borne in mind. (1) The amounts given represent about what
+would be called for in a family equivalent to four full-grown men at
+ordinary manual labor, such as machinists, carpenters, mill-workers,
+farmers, truckmen, etc., according to the usually accepted standards.
+Sedentary people would require somewhat less than the amounts here
+given. (2) Children as a rule may be considered as having "moderate
+muscular exercise," and it may easily be understood that the
+14-year-old boy eats as much as his father who is engaged in business
+or professional occupation, both requiring, according to the tentative
+standard, 0.8 of the food needed by a man with moderate muscular work.
+(3) It is not assumed that any housewife will find it convenient to
+follow exactly the proportions suggested in the menus. The purpose is
+to show her about what amounts and proportions of food materials would
+give the required nutrients.
+
+A family equivalent to four men having little muscular
+exercise--_i.e._, men with sedentary occupation--would require but
+about 0.8 the quantities indicated in the following menus. It would be
+very doubtful, however, if they would eat proportionally less of every
+food material. It would, in fact, be more probable that the amounts of
+meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, and bread eaten would be reduced in a much
+greater proportion than fruit, pastry, coffee, etc.
+
+
+PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF MILK AND OTHER FOODS.
+
+_Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials for
+10 cts._
+
+    _Food Material._                       _Lbs. Oz._
+
+    Whole Milk, 10 cts. per qt.              2    0
+      "     "    8       "                   2    8
+      "     "    7       "                   2   14
+      "     "    6       "                   3    5
+      "     "    5       "                   4    0
+      "     "    4       "                   5    0
+    Skim    "    3       "                   6   11
+    Skim    "    2       "                  10    0
+    Butter, 24 cts. per lb.                  0    7
+    Cheese, 16       "                       0   10
+    Beef, round,  12 cts. per lb.            0   13
+     "  sirloin,  18      "                  0    9
+    Mutton, loin, 16      "                  0   10
+    Pork, salt    12      "                  0   13
+    Cod, salt     6       "                  1    9
+    Eggs, 22 cts. per doz.                   0   11
+    Oysters, 30 cts. per qt.                 0   11
+    Potatoes, 60 cts. per bushel            10    0
+    Beans, dried, 8 cts. per qt.             2    8
+    Wheat flour, 3 cts. per lb.              3    5
+
+
+MENU I.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Bananas, 4 (or grapes,      |           |          |         |
+    1 pound)                  |  1  4     |    6-1/2 |    .009 |      362
+  Breakfast cereal            |     4     |\         | /  .031 |      421
+  Milk                        |     8     | >  3     |<   .016 |      162
+  Sugar                       |     1-1/ 2|/         | \   ... |      175
+  Veal cutlets                |  1  0     |   20     |    .200 |      775
+  Potatoes                    |  1  0     |    1-1/2 |    .018 |      325
+  Butter                      |     3     |    6     |     ... |      653
+  Rolls                       |    12     |    4     |    .077 |    1,148
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |    .010 |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+---------
+      Total                   |           |   44-1/2 |    .361 |    4,431
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Pea soup:                   |           |          |         |
+    Split peas                |     8     |\         | /  .121 |      820
+    Butter                    |     1     | >  5     |<    ... |      217
+    Flour                     |     1     |/         | \  .007 |      103
+  Roast beef, chuck rib       |  1 12     |   21     |    .275 |    1,260
+  Potatoes                    |  1  4     |    1-1/3 |    .022 |      406
+  Turnips                     |     8     |    1     |    .005 |       67
+  Cottage pudding with        |           |          |         |
+    lemon sauce:              |           |          |         |
+    1 cup flour               |     4     |\         | / .028  |      410
+    Sugar                     |     3     | \        |/   ...  |      350
+    Butter                    |     1-1/2 | /  6-1/2 |\   ...  |      325
+    1 cup milk                |     8     |/         | \ .016  |      162
+    Sugar                     |     4     |\         | /  ...  |      465
+    Cornstarch                |     1-1/2 | >  2-1/2 |<   ...  |      172
+    Butter                    |       1/2 |/         | \  ...  |      108
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   41     |   .484  |    5,275
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Milk toast:                 |           |          |         |
+    Milk                      |  2  0     |\         | / .066  |      650
+    Bread                     |  1  2     | \ 18     |/  .107  |    1,356
+    Butter                    |     4     | /        |\   ...  |      869
+    Cornstarch                |     2     |/         | \  ...  |      228
+  Canned salmon               |     8     |    8     |   .098  |      340
+  Fried potatoes:             |           |          |         |
+    Potatoes                  |     8     |\   1     |/  .009  |      162
+    Lard                      |       1/2 |/         |\   ...  |      132
+  Cake                        |     6     |    4     |   .026  |      619
+  Coffee or tea               |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   34-1/2 |   .316  |    4,766
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |  120     |  1.161  |   14,472
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one Man       |           |   30     |   .290  |    3,618
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU II.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Oatmeal                     |  0  2     |\         | / .019  |      232
+  Milk                        |     6-1/2 | >  2     |<  .012  |      122
+  Sugar                       |     1     |/         | \  ...  |      175
+  Fresh pork sausage          |  1  8     |   18     |   .192  |    3,255
+  Potatoes                    |    12     |    1     |   .013  |      244
+  Bread                       |    12     |    3     |   .071  |      904
+  Butter                      |     2     |    4     |    ...  |      434
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   31-1/2 |   .317  |    5,776
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef, for stew              |  2  8     |   15     |   .347  |    1,900
+  Potatoes                    |  1  8     |    2     |   .027  |      487
+  Turnips                     |     8     |    1     |   .005  |       67
+  Bread                       |     8     |    2     |   .048  |      603
+  Butter                      |     1     |    2     |    ...  |      217
+  Indian pudding:             |           |          |         |
+    Cornmeal                  |     4     |\         | / .022  |      414
+    Molasses                  |     4     | \  6     |/  .007  |      329
+    Butter                    |       1/2 | /        |\   ...  |      108
+    Skim milk                 |  2  0     |/         | \ .068  |      340
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   31-1/2 |   .534  |    4,875
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+   Corned beef hash:          |           |          |         |
+    Corned beef, canned       |     8     |    6     |   .142  |      560
+    Potatoes                  |     8     |    1     |   .009  |      162
+  Bread                       |    12     |    3     |   .071  |      904
+  Butter                      |     2     |    4     |    ...  |      434
+  Apples                      |    12     |    1     |   .003  |      191
+  Milk                        |  2  0     |    6     |   .066  |      725
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   21     |   .291  |    2,976
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total per day           |           |   84     |  1.142  |   13,627
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   21     |   .285  |    3,407
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+In these menus the amount of milk has, as a rule, been taken as
+representing somewhere near the average consumption. The amount of
+milk can be increased in any of the menus given above either by
+substituting it to some extent for coffee or tea, or by using more
+milk and smaller quantities of meats, butter or eggs. Roughly
+speaking, 1 quart of whole milk could be substituted for half a pound
+of meat or eggs and the amount of nutrients would be the same, while a
+pint of milk would give as large a fuel value as 1-1/2 ounces of
+butter, and in addition considerable protein not furnished by the
+latter.
+
+This replacement of meats by milk is illustrated in the following
+menu, in which a diet with a rather small quantity of milk is so
+changed as to include a much larger amount. Thus for breakfast in the
+modified ration a pint and a half of milk is made to take the place of
+half a pound of broiled steak. For dinner a quart of skim milk (or
+buttermilk) is called for, or a glass for each person unless some of
+it is used in the cooking. At the same time, 4 ounces less roast pork
+is required. In the same way a glass of whole milk is allowed each
+person for supper, or the bread can be made into milk toast and the
+most of the extra milk used in this way. This allows the canned salmon
+to be reduced 6 ounces.
+
+
+MENU III.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate exercise._
+
+  --------------------------+----------------------------------
+                            |          Weight of food.
+                            |-----------------+----------------
+      Food materials.       |      With       |      With
+                            |     small       |     large
+                            |     amount      |     amount
+                            |    of milk.     |    of milk.
+  --------------------------+-----------------+----------------
+                            |                 |
+  _Breakfast._              |   Lbs. Oz.      |   Lbs. Oz.
+                            |                 |
+  Bananas, apples, or pears |     0   12      |     0   12
+  Wheat preparation         |          4      |          4
+  Milk                      |          8      |          8
+  Sugar                     |          2      |          2
+  Broiled sirloin steak     |     1    4      |         12
+  Baked potatoes            |     1    8      |     1    8
+  Hot rolls                 |     1    0      |     1    0
+  Butter                    |          2-1/2  |          2-1/2
+  Extra milk                |                 |     1    8
+                            |                 |
+  _Dinner._                 |                 |
+                            |                 |
+  Tomato soup               |     1   12      |     1   12
+  Roast pork                |     1   12      |     1    8
+  Mashed potatoes           |     1    4      |     1    4
+  Turnips                   |          8      |          8
+  Apple fritters:           |                 |
+    Apples                  |          8      |          8
+    Flour                   |          2      |          2
+    1 egg                   |          2      |          2
+    Lard                    |          1-1/2  |          1-1/2
+  Bread                     |          8      |          8
+  Butter                    |          2      |          2
+  Extra skim milk           |                 |     2    0
+                            |                 |
+  _Supper._                 |                 |
+                            |                 |
+  Canned salmon             |     1    6      |     1    0
+  Potatoes                  |         12      |         12
+  Bread                     |          8      |          8
+  Butter                    |          2      |          2
+  Berries, canned or fresh  |          8      |          8
+  Extra milk                |                 |     2    0
+  --------------------------+-----------------+-----------------
+
+  _Cost, protein, and fuel value of the above._
+
+  -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+                               |    Cost.    |   Protein.   |    Fuel
+                               |             |              |   Value.
+  -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+                               |             |              |
+  _With small amount of milk._ |   Cents.    |    Pounds.   |  Calories.
+                               |             |              |
+                               |             |              |
+  Breakfast                    |     48      |      .39     |    5,300
+  Dinner                       |     51      |      .39     |    5,800
+  Supper or lunch              |     33-1/2  |      .34     |    3,200
+                               |-------------+--------------+------------
+  Total per day                |    132-1/2  |     1.12     |   14,300
+                               |=============|==============|============
+  Total for one man            |     33      |      .28     |    3,575
+                               |=============|==============|============
+                               |             |              |
+  _With large amount of milk._ |             |              |
+                               |             |              |
+  Breakfast                    |     43      |      .36     |    5,270
+  Dinner                       |     47-1/2  |      .41     |    5,400
+  Supper or lunch              |     34-1/2  |      .34     |    3,600
+                               |-------------|--------------|------------
+  Total per day                |    125      |     1.11     |   14,270
+                               |=============|==============|============
+  Total for one man            |     31      |      .28     |    3,567
+  -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+
+Menus VI and VII, following, are intended to illustrate how nourishing
+food can be procured in sufficient quantities and moderate variety at
+a cost of not over 16 cents per day. The cost to the farmer would be
+much less, since these menus call for considerable amounts of milk,
+which is hardly worth more than one-half or one-third as much on the
+farm as it costs in the towns and cities. Coffee has not always been
+indicated, but can be introduced for any meal at a cost of from 1/2 to
+1-1/2 cents per cup, according to how much coffee is used in making
+the infusion, and how much sugar, milk, and cream are added.
+
+It is, of course, not important that each meal, or the total food of
+each individual day, should have just the right amount of nutrients,
+or that the proportions of protein and fuel ingredients should be
+exactly correct so as to make the meal or day's diet well balanced.
+The body is continually storing nutritive materials and using them. It
+is not dependent any day upon the food eaten that particular day.
+Hence an excess one day may be made up by a deficiency the next or
+_vice versa_. Healthful nourishment requires simply that the nutrients
+as a whole, during longer or shorter periods, should be fitted to the
+actual needs of the body for use.
+
+
+MENU IV.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Bananas, 4 (or grapes,      |           |          |         |
+    1 pound)                  |  1  4     |    6-1/2 |   .009  |    362
+  Breakfast cereal            |     4     |\         | / .031  |    421
+  Milk                        |     6     | >  3     |<  .012  |    122
+  Sugar                       |     2     |/         | \  ...  |    232
+  Mutton chops                |  1  4     |   20     |   .165  |  1,812
+  Potatoes                    |  1  0     |    1-1/2 |   .018  |    325
+  Butter                      |     3     |    6     |    ...  |    653
+  Rolls                       |    12     |    4     |   .077  |  1,148
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+---------
+      Total                   |           |   44-1/2 |   .322  |  5,485
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Tomato Soup                 |  2  0     |   12     |   .036  |    370
+  Roast pork                  |  2  8     |   32     |   .353  |  3,350
+  Potatoes                    |  1  4     |    1-1/2 |   .022  |    406
+  Turnips                     |     8     |    1     |   .005  |     67
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Tapioca pudding:            |           |          |         |
+    Tapioca                   |     3     |\         | / .001  |    310
+    Apples                    |  1  0     | \        |/  .004  |    255
+  Sugar                       |     2     | /  7     |\   ...  |    232
+  Cream                       |     4     |/         | \ .006  |    228
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |  57      |   .437  |  5,628
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Milk toast:                 |           |          |         |
+    Milk                      |  2  0     |\         | / .066  |    650
+    Bread                     |  1  2     | \ 18     |/  .107  |  1,356
+    Butter                    |     4     | /        |\   ...  |    869
+    Cornstarch                |     2     |/         | \  ...  |    238
+  Sliced cold pork            |     8     |    6     |   .071  |    670
+  Fried potatoes:             |           |          |         |
+    Potatoes                  |     8     |\   1     |/  .009  |    162
+    Lard                      |       1/2 |/         |\   ...  |    132
+  Cake                        |     6     |    4     |   .026  |    619
+  Coffee or tea               |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   32-1/2 |   .289  |  5,096
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |  134     |  1.048  | 16,209
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   33-1/2 |   .262  |  4,052
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU V.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Baked apples                |  2  0     |    2     |   .008  |    510
+  Boiled hominy               |     8     |\         | / .041  |    823
+  Milk                        |    10     | >  4-1/2 |<  .020  |    202
+  Sugar                       |     3     |/         | \  ...  |    350
+  Broiled sirloin             |    10     |   11     |   .099  |    650
+  Potatoes                    |     8     |    1     |   .009  |    162
+  Muffins:                    |           |          |         |
+    1 egg                     |     4     |\   5     |/  .032  |    162
+    2 cups flour              |     8     |/         |\  .057  |    820
+  Butter                      |     2     |    4     |    ...  |    435
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   31     |   .276  |  4,524
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Tomato soup                 |  2  0     |    6     |   .036  |    370
+  Veal stew, shoulder         |  2  0     |   20     |   .332  |  1,350
+  Potatoes                    |  3  0     |    4-1/2 |   .054  |    975
+  Apple dumpling:             |           |          |         |
+    1 egg                     |     2     |\         | / .016  |     81
+    4 apples                  |  1  8     | \  8     |/  .006  |    382
+    1/2 cup lard              |     4     | /        |\   ...  |  1,055
+    1 cup flour               |     4     |/         | \ .028  |    410
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Sauce for dumpling:         |           |          |         |
+    Butter                    |     1     |\   3     |/   ...  |    217
+    Sugar                     |     4     |/         |\   ...  |    465
+  Bread                       |    12     |    3     |   .071  |    904
+  Butter                      |     1     |    2     |    ...  |    217
+  Coffee or tea               |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+---------
+      Total                   |           |   50     |   .553  |  6,836
+                              |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper or lunch._          |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Dried canned corned beef    |     8     |    6     |   .142  |    560
+  Potato croquette            |     8     |    1     |   .009  |    162
+  Biscuit                     |    12     |    4     |   .070  |  1,297
+  Butter                      |     1-1/2 |    3     |    ...  |    325
+  Oranges, 4                  |  1  4     |    7     |   .007  |    400
+  Skim milk                   |  1  6     |    2     |   .046  |    234
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   23     |   .274  |  2,978
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |  104     |  1.103  | 14,338
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   26     |   .275  |  3,585
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU VI.--_For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate
+muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Cornmeal, in mush or cake   |  0  5     |    1     |   .022  |    414
+  Milk                        |     6     |    1     |   .012  |     64
+  Sugar                       |     2     |      1/2 |    ...  |    232
+  Toast                       |    10     |    2-1/2 |   .059  |    753
+  Butter (24 cents per pound) |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |    8     |   .093  |  1,897
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef roll (for roasting)    |  3  0     |   15     |   .417  |  2,280
+  Potatoes                    |  1  8     |    2     |   .026  |    488
+  Beets                       |     8     |    1     |   .007  |     85
+  Bread                       |    10     |    2-1/2 |   .059  |    753
+  Butter                      |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   23-1/2 |   .509  |  4,040
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beans, baked                |  2  0     |    6     |   .446  |  3,180
+    Pork                      |    12     |    6     |   .012  |  2,556
+  Potatoes, fried             |  1  8     |    2     |   .026  |    488
+    Lard                      |     2     |    1     |    ...  |    537
+  Bread                       |    10     |    2-1/2 |   .059  |    753
+  Butter                      |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   20-1/2 |   .543  |  7,948
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |   20-1/2 |  1.145  | 13,885
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   13     |   .285  |  3,471
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU VII.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Oatmeal                     |  0  6     |    2     |   .059  |    697
+  Skim milk, 1 pint           |  1  0     |    1-1/2 |   .034  |    170
+  Sugar                       |     2     |      1/2 |    ...  |    232
+  Bread (homemade)            |  1  0     |    3     |   .095  |  1,205
+  Sausage                     |    10     |    6     |   .080  |  1,358
+  Butter (24 cents per pound) |     1     |    1-1/2 |    ...  |    217
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   14-1/2 |   .268  |  3,879
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef flank, stew            | 2   8     |   15     |   .430  |  2,988
+  Potatoes (60 cents per      |           |          |         |
+    bushel)                   | 3   0     |    3     |   .054  |    975
+  Cabbage                     |    12     |    1     |   .013  |    105
+  Cornmeal pudding:           |           |          |         |
+    Cornmeal                  |     4     |      1/2 |   .022  |    414
+    Skim milk, 1 quart        | 2   0     |    3     |   .068  |    340
+    Molasses                  |    12     |    1     |   .020  |    987
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   22-1/2 |   .604  |  5,889
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef, warmed in gravy       | 1   8     |    3     |   .086  |    598
+  Hot biscuit                 | 2   0     |    6     |   .340  |  2,600
+  Butter                      |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+  Milk, 1 quart               | 2   0     |    6     |   .033  |    325
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   18     |   .259  |  3,957
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total per day           |           |   55     |  1.134  |  3,645
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   14     |   .285  |  3,411
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+DISCUSSION OF THE MENUS.
+
+These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of
+food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in
+the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied
+and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the
+use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided.
+The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is
+believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course
+they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials,
+oatmeal and other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these
+substances as purchased.
+
+The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the
+different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of
+these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used
+simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of
+protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest.
+
+The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or
+less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the
+character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the
+more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as
+follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14
+cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents;
+bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart);
+skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese,
+16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2
+to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other
+vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents
+(20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per
+dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel).
+
+It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the
+average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of
+the country than in the central and western portions, where meats,
+cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to
+be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can
+be purchased much cheaper than here indicated, while on the other
+hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The
+choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their
+abundance and cost.
+
+Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and
+consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is
+to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course,
+different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These
+figures express only general averages and are based upon the best
+information accessible.
+
+
+A FEW POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLANNING MEALS.
+
+Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular
+work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day,
+leaving such articles of food as soup--which is a valuable stimulant
+after a day of hard work--fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal,
+when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated
+foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the
+day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the
+necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish
+sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and
+beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk or
+_strained_ tea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc.
+
+Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building
+requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words,
+food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work.
+Supper in such cases should consist of a good broth or well made
+soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more
+substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for
+the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less
+expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings,
+fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day.
+
+On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such
+as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the
+day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much
+slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room,
+and where little exercise is taken.[5] Care should be taken in
+planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much
+oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry,
+griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man
+should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and
+butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable
+for luncheon.
+
+Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See
+p. 153.)
+
+Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a
+rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece
+of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient.
+
+Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently
+hurry away to their work in the morning without taking a substantial
+breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be
+followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten
+and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute
+for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active
+exercise for any length of time.
+
+Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel.
+The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long,
+slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done
+by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick
+fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in
+both food and fuel may be exercised.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[5] The teacher may make this clear by comparing the digestion of the
+two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a range with the
+drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, effect of oxygen,
+etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.
+
+In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful
+to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be
+likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility,
+etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as
+fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to
+keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent
+illustrations and comparisons should be made.
+
+Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as
+every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few
+suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful.
+
+
+Why do we eat food?
+
+What is nitrogenous food?
+
+What is its chief office?
+
+Where is it to be found?
+
+In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant?
+
+What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs?
+
+Of what is it composed?
+
+Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous?
+
+Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh?
+
+Which are the most important heat-giving compounds?
+
+What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming
+compounds?
+
+What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food?
+
+Give their use?
+
+Where are they to be found?
+
+What is common salt?
+
+Where is it found?
+
+Why do we use it?
+
+Give the three digestive juices.
+
+What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables?
+
+Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in
+the dust bin or garbage pail?
+
+What should be done with them?
+
+Which are the most important warmth-giving foods?
+
+Give another name for these foods?
+
+Why are they so called?
+
+What is combustion?
+
+How do these foods produce force, etc.?
+
+What other elements do these foods contain?
+
+Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or
+sugar?
+
+What elements unite and form water?
+
+What is the proportion of water in the body?
+
+Give its use?
+
+Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat?
+
+Why does starch need cooking?
+
+To what kingdom does it belong?
+
+Which section is of most value?
+
+How is starch changed into sugar?
+
+What changes food into blood?
+
+What gives the red color to blood?
+
+What mineral helps digestion most?
+
+What is sugar?
+
+What causes sugar to ferment?
+
+What is the result?
+
+Where is it to be found?
+
+What are food adjuncts?
+
+Of what value are they?
+
+Give the names of combustible nutrients.
+
+Give the names of incombustible nutrients.
+
+For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain?
+
+What supports combustion?
+
+What is chemically pure water?
+
+What causes the hardness of water?
+
+What is gluten?
+
+What is dextrine?
+
+Where is it found?
+
+In what way does dextrine differ from starch?
+
+What is decomposition?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES.
+
+LESSON.
+
+I. Information regarding the conduct of classes. Practice in
+measuring. Practice in lighting gas-burners and oven. Practice in
+lighting and regulating a range.
+
+II. Fruit--Applesauce. Coddled apples. Stewed prunes.
+
+III. Starch--Boiled rice. Potatoes, boiled and mashed.
+
+IV. Starch--Thickening liquids with flour.
+
+V. Starch--Practice in No. 4.
+
+VI. Vegetables--Onions, cabbage, parsnips, etc.
+
+VII. Eggs--Boiled eggs. Poached eggs. Toast.
+
+VIII. Eggs and milk--Boiled and baked custard.
+
+IX. Flour mixtures--Popovers, griddle cake.
+
+X. Flour mixtures--Milk biscuits. Corn bread. Apple pudding.
+
+XI. Bread--Making sponge, kneading, and setting to rise.
+
+XII. Bread--Moulding and baking.
+
+XIII. Fish--Boiled and baked fish. Creamed fish and sauce.
+
+XIV. Review of theory and recipes.
+
+XV. Meat--Roasting meat. Soup stock.
+
+XVI. Meat--Stewed meat.
+
+XVII. Meat--Cold meat and broiling.
+
+XVIII. Salads.
+
+XIX. Beans.
+
+XX. Plain puddings.
+
+NOTE.--After this each teacher must arrange lessons according
+to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with
+lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary
+matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof.
+Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City.
+
+
+OUTLINE I.
+
+The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an
+average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school.
+The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and
+interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate
+a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season
+of the year.
+
+It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are
+four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking
+of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and
+introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this
+arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food
+principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so
+that there is a constant review of principles already established; and
+to give practical work of increasing difficulty.
+
+The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in
+house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken
+for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food
+values, the cost of food, marketing, etc.
+
+1. Simple experiments in combustion--to illustrate the structure of
+stoves and the care of such stoves. Study of the fuel and apparatus
+to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus;
+comparison with other apparatus.
+
+2. Utensils--what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to
+have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing.
+
+Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in
+tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double
+boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough
+for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter,
+croutons may be made.
+
+3. Measuring--experiment with the cooking of starch in water;
+cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the
+effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting
+of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking.
+
+4. A cereal and a fruit,--say, baked apples. In the cereal, in
+addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in
+both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being
+a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process.
+
+5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and
+cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and
+vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of
+peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar
+with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances.
+
+If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this
+may be given in the next lesson.
+
+6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review
+lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions,
+several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to
+how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of
+soup.
+
+7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and
+yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain
+omelet.
+
+8. Eggs and milk.
+
+9. Oysters.
+
+10. Fish.
+
+11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially
+proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters
+is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder
+biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given
+for sake of variety.
+
+14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling.
+
+15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy.
+
+18. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
+
+19. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
+
+Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also.
+
+20. Beverages.
+
+21. Salads.
+
+22. Desserts.
+
+23. A breakfast.
+
+24. A luncheon.
+
+25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper.
+
+Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them;
+bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving;
+dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes.
+
+
+OUTLINE II.
+
+This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was
+advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals.
+The plan can be followed in a longer course.
+
+_Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc._
+
+1. A cereal and fruit.
+
+2. Eggs.
+
+3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat.
+
+4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee.
+
+5. A breakfast.
+
+6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup.
+
+7. A made dish of meat or fish.
+
+8. Salad and dressing.
+
+9. Muffins or biscuit.
+
+10. A luncheon or supper.
+
+11. Vegetables. Macaroni.
+
+12. Meat.
+
+13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert.
+
+14. Bread or rolls.
+
+15. A dinner.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
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+
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+Title: Public School Domestic Science
+
+Author: Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2006 [EBook #18097]
+
+Language: English
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE ***
+
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+
+
+<h2>PUBLIC SCHOOL</h2>
+
+<h1>DOMESTIC SCIENCE</h1>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h2>MRS. J. HOODLESS,</h2>
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">President School of Domestic Science, Hamilton.</span></div>
+
+<hr style='width: 25%;' />
+
+<div class="center">This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if
+so ordered by<br />
+a resolution of the Trustees.
+<br />
+</div>
+
+<hr style='width: 25%;' />
+
+<div class="center">
+TORONTO:<br />
+THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED,<br />
+1898.<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year
+one thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by <span class="smcap">The Copp,
+Clark Company, Limited</span>, Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of
+the Minister of Agriculture.</p></div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<img src="images/illus001.jpg" width="650" height="436" alt="A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER." title="" />
+<span class="caption">A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.</span>
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+<p>"I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which
+embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet,
+and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired
+vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and
+throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from
+the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil
+to be."&mdash;<i>Sir Henry Thompson.</i></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing loss of
+health is of primary importance. We do not contend that possession of
+such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. But we do
+contend that the right knowledge impressed in the right way would
+effect much; and we further contend that as the laws of health must be
+recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of
+such knowledge must precede a more rational living."&mdash;<i>Herbert
+Spencer.</i></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of Calypso and
+Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the
+knowledge of all fruits, and herbs, and balms, and spices, and of all
+that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, and savory in meats;
+it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and
+willingness, and readiness of appliance; it means much tasting and no
+wasting; it means English thoroughness, and French art, and Arabian
+hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfect and always
+'ladies'&mdash;'loaf-givers.'"&mdash;<i>Ruskin.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>An eminent authority<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> says: "Up to the age of sixteen even a lucid
+statement of principles is received by all but a few pupils as dogma.
+They do not and cannot in any adequate sense realize the reasoning
+process by which scientific conclusions are reached. They are taught
+not only facts but classifications and laws, and causes in relation to
+their effect. These are not, in the majority of cases, elaborated by
+the pupil. The teaching of them accordingly degenerates into a
+statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of memory."</p>
+
+<p>To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize its effects
+somewhat, is one of the principal reasons for introducing Domestic
+Science into the Public School curriculum; a science which relates so
+closely to the daily life that it cannot be left to an act of memory;
+where cause and effect are so palpable that the pupil may readily
+arrive at an individual conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring a
+knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to
+co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to make a practical use
+of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span> important part in
+the arranging of weights and measures, in the study of the analysis
+and relative value of various kinds of food, in estimating the cost of
+manufactured products in proportion to their market value, in the
+purchase of food material, etc. History and geography are closely
+allied to the study of the diet and customs of the different
+countries, with their variety of climate and products. Physiology and
+temperance principles permeate the whole course of study. In addition
+to these are the direct lessons, provided by the practice work, in
+neatness, promptness and cleanliness. It will therefore be necessary
+to have a wide general knowledge before entering upon a course in
+Domestic Science.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the Public
+Schools, it will be impossible to teach more than a few of the first
+principles governing each department of the work, viz., a knowledge of
+the constituent parts of the human body; the classification of food
+and the relation of each class to the sustenance and repair of the
+body; simple recipes illustrating the most wholesome and economical
+methods of preparing the various kinds of food; the science of
+nutrition, economy and hygiene; general hints on household management,
+laundry work, and care of the sick.</p>
+
+<p>To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, bacteriology, etc.,
+would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the average school girl,
+and possibly create a distaste for knowledge containing so much
+abstract matter.</p>
+
+<p>This book is not a teacher's manual, nor is it intended to take the
+place of the teacher in any way. The normal training prescribed for
+teachers will enable them to supplement the information contained
+herein, by a much more general and comprehensive treatment of the
+various questions, than would be possible or judicious in a primary
+text-book. It has been found difficult for pupils to copy the recipes
+given with each lesson,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[vii]</a></span> or to write out the instructions carefully
+without infringing upon the time which should be devoted to practice
+work.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> In order to meet this difficulty, also to enable the pupil to
+work at home under the same rules which govern the class work, simple
+recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a knowledge of
+heat and its effect, going on to those requiring hand dexterity,
+before attempting the more difficult subjects. After the pupils have
+acquired a knowledge of the "why and wherefore" of the different
+processes required in cooking, they will have little difficulty in
+following the more elaborate recipes given in the numberless
+cook-books provided for household use. Once the art&mdash;and it is a fine
+art&mdash;of cookery is mastered, it becomes not only a pleasant occupation
+but provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing the
+reaction which frequently follows school life.</p>
+
+<p>The tables given are to be used for reference, and <i>not to be
+memorized</i> by the pupil.</p>
+
+<p>The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his kindly
+interest and assistance in providing much valuable information, which
+in some instances is given verbatim; also to Dr. Gilman Thompson for
+permission to give extracts from his valuable book, "Practical
+Dietetics"; to Prof. Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science
+Dept.), for review and suggestions; to Miss Watson, Principal Hamilton
+School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule for
+school work. The Boston Cook Book (with Normal Instruction), by Mrs.
+M.J. Lincoln; and the Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen H.
+Richards (Prof. of Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology),
+and Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span>information on practical household matters. The publications of the
+U.S. Experiment Stations, by Prof. Atwater and other eminent chemists,
+contain much valuable information.</p>
+
+<p>To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, this book is
+respectfully dedicated.</p>
+
+<div class="right">ADELAIDE HOODLESS.</div>
+
+
+<div style="margin-left: 2em;">"<span class="smcap">Eastcourt</span>,"</div>
+<div style="margin-left: 4em;">Hamilton, June, 1898.<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1">[1]</a> S.S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and
+History of Education, Edinburgh University.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2">[2]</a> Where time is allowed, much benefit may be derived from
+writing notes, as a study in composition, spelling, etc.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SUGGESTIONS_TO_TEACHER" id="SUGGESTIONS_TO_TEACHER"></a>SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for the
+teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the various
+questions; to explain the underlying principles so thoroughly that
+"the why and the wherefore" of every action in the preparation of food
+will be clearly understood. She should endeavor to impress upon the
+pupils the value of thoroughly understanding the relation of food to
+the body. In practice lessons frequent <i>reference</i> should be made to
+the analysis of the various foods, as given in the tables and charts.</p>
+
+<p>The first practice lesson should be given on the making and care of a
+fire, regulating dampers, cleaning stove, etc. The pupils should then
+be taught the name and place of all the utensils. Special attention
+should be given to the explanation of weights and measures; the table
+of abbreviations should be memorized. Arrange the class work so that
+each pupil may in alternation share the duties of both kitchen work
+and cooking.</p>
+
+<p>Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should
+be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned
+back or confined in some way, and covered by a cap. A large clean
+apron and a holder should be worn while at work. Never allow the
+pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in place of a holder.
+Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-room. Set an example of
+perfect order and neatness, and insist upon pupils following that
+example. Teach the pupils that cooking may be done without soiling
+either hands or clothes. The pupils should do all the work of the
+class-room, except scrubbing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[x]</a></span> floor. Everything must be left in
+perfect order at the close of each lesson.</p>
+
+<p>Frequent <i>reviews</i> are absolutely necessary. Urge the pupils to think
+for themselves, and not to rely upon the text-book. Where pupils are
+backward, or have not had previous practice in kitchen work, give
+special attention to their manner of holding a knife or spoon in
+preparing articles for use, and in beating or stirring mixtures.
+Encourage deftness and light handling of kitchen ware. Insist upon
+promptness and keeping within the time limit, both in preparing the
+food and in the cooking.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to the variety of climate and markets, it would be impossible to
+arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A few sample
+menus are given at the back of the book, but each teacher must be
+governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons for her class. For
+instance, recipes without eggs should be given in mid-winter, when
+eggs are dear. Fruits and vegetables must be given in season.</p>
+
+<p>The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work; in
+some cases it may be necessary to divide them, as the quantities given
+are intended for home practice. The teacher should consider herself at
+liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider valuable. The
+digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants&mdash;especially of tea and
+coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be carefully impressed
+upon the pupil.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly before
+her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arithmetic,
+history, geography, physiology and temperance; (2) to develop the
+mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the children; (3) to
+enable pupils to understand the reason for doing certain things in a
+certain way; in other words, to work with an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[xi]</a></span> intelligent conception
+of the value, both physically and hygienically, of knowing how the
+daily duties should be performed.</p>
+
+<p>In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each class of
+food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For instance,
+before giving a lesson in the preparation of starches, each pupil
+should be given an opportunity to learn how to mix and stir the
+mixture over the fire, so as to prevent it from burning or becoming
+lumpy; this may be done by using water and common laundry starch, or
+flour. The same test applies to sauces, etc. A few cheap apples and
+potatoes may be used in learning to pare these articles. The effect of
+cold and hot water on albumen and tissues may be illustrated by the
+cheaper pieces of meat.</p>
+
+<p>Although the more scientific studies are grouped together, it does not
+follow that they are to be studied in the order given. The teacher
+must arrange her lessons&mdash;from the beginning&mdash;so as to include a
+certain amount of the theory with the practice work. Frequent
+reference should be made during practice lessons to the various
+chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking, so as to
+interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food question.</p>
+
+<p>The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes while
+she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not be entirely
+dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations must simply
+serve as the key-note for further study.</p>
+
+<p>Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion," page
+58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be
+studied&mdash;especially pages 71-75&mdash;in conjunction with "Food
+Classifications" (Chap. 2); also in dealing with the digestibility of
+starches, etc.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[xii]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="COMPOSITION_OF_FOOD_MATERIALS" id="COMPOSITION_OF_FOOD_MATERIALS"></a>COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS&mdash;(<i>Atwater</i>)</h3>
+<div class="center"><i>Nutritive Ingredients, Refuse, and Food Value.</i><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="85%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Description of items on bar graph">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" align='left'><i>Protein</i> Compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)
+  of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.<br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>Fats</i>, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil,<br />
+    <i>Carbohydrates</i>, e.g., starch and sugar,
+  </td>
+  <td>\<br />
+      /
+  </td>
+  <td align="left">serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/table1.jpg" width="600" height="875" alt="Bar Graph: Composition of Food Materials" title="Composition of Food Materials" />
+</div>
+<div class="center">* Without bone.</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="PECUNIARY_ECONOMY_OF_FOOD" id="PECUNIARY_ECONOMY_OF_FOOD"></a>PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD&mdash;(<i>Atwater</i>).</h3>
+<div class="center"><i>Amounts of actually Nutritive Ingredients obtained in different
+Food Materials for 10 cents.</i><br /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="85%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Description of items on bar graph">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="3" align='left'><i>Protein</i> compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)
+of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.<br /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'><i>Fats</i>, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil,<br />
+    <i>Carbohydrates</i>, e.g., starch and sugar,
+  </td>
+  <td>\<br />
+      /
+  </td>
+  <td align="left">serve as fuel to yield heat and muscular power.
+  </td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/table2.jpg" width="600" height="837" alt="" title="Table of food values" />
+</div>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[xv]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td align="right">PAGE.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#PREFACE">Preface</a></td><td align="right">v</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIONS_TO_TEACHER">Suggestions to Teachers</a></td><td align="right">ix</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#COMPOSITION_OF_FOOD_MATERIALS">Composition of Food Materials (<i>Atwater</i>)</a></td><td align="right">xii</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#PECUNIARY_ECONOMY_OF_FOOD">Pecuniary Economy of Food (<i>Atwater</i>)</a></td><td align="right">xiii</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">The Relation of Food to the Body</td><td align="right">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Food Classification</td><td align="right">6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Nutrition</td><td align="right">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Food and Economy</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Foods containing Protein or Nitrogenous Matter</td><td align="right"> 22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Fats and Oils</td><td align="right">34</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Carbohydrate Foods</td><td align="right">37</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Fruits</td><td align="right">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">Preparing Food</td><td align="right">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#RECIPES"><span class="smcap">Recipes</span>:</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#BATTERS_BISCUITS_AND_BREAD">Batters, Biscuits and Bread</a></td><td align="right">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#BREAD">Bread</a></td><td align="right">65</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#SAUCES_AND_MILK_SOUPS">Sauces and Milk Soups</a></td><td align="right">66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#EGGS">Eggs</a></td><td align="right">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#FRUIT">Fruit</a></td><td align="right">72</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#VEGETABLES">Vegetables</a></td><td align="right"> 74</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#SALADS">Salads</a></td><td align="right"> 80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#MACARONI">Macaroni</a></td><td align="right"> 85<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[xvi]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#CHEESE">Cheese</a></td><td align="right">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#BEVERAGES">Beverages</a></td><td align="right">87</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#SOUPS">Soups</a></td><td align="right">89</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#FISH">Fish</a></td><td align="right"> 94</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#MEAT">Meat</a></td><td align="right"> 96</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#POULTRY">Poultry</a></td><td align="right"> 104</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#HOT_PUDDINGS">Hot Puddings</a></td><td align="right">109</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#PUDDING_SAUCES">Plain Sauces </a></td><td align="right">115</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#PASTRY">Pastry </a></td><td align="right">121</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#MISCELLANEOUS">Miscellaneous</a></td><td align="right"> 122</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS">General Hints</a></td><td align="right"> 126</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIONS_FOR_YOUNG_HOUSEKEEPERS">Suggestions for Young Housekeepers</a></td><td align="right">128</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#CARING_FOR_INVALIDS">Caring for Invalids</a></td><td align="right"> 142</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDREN">General Hints for School Children</a></td><td align="right"> 150</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIONS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDRENS_DIET">Suggestions for School Children's Diet</a></td><td align="right">153</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#INFANTS_DIET">Infants' Diet</a></td><td align="right"> 156</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#PLANNING_AND_SERVING_MEALS">Planning and Serving Meals </a></td><td align="right">170</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#CONSIDERATION_OF_MENUS">Consideration of Menus </a></td><td align="right">173</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SUGGESTIVE_QUESTIONS">Suggestive Questions</a></td><td align="right">188</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#SCHEDULE_OF_LESSONS_FOR_PUBLIC_SCHOOL_CLASSES">Schedule of Lessons for Public School Classes</a></td><td align="right">191</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" colspan="2"><a href="#APPENDIX">Appendix</a></td><td align="right">193</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PUBLIC_SCHOOL_DOMESTIC_SCIENCE" id="PUBLIC_SCHOOL_DOMESTIC_SCIENCE"></a>PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>The Relation of Food to the Body.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and
+repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what
+the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the
+food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The
+following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148
+pounds:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Analysis of man weighing 148 pounds">
+<tr><td align="left">Oxygen</td><td align="right">92.1</td><td>pounds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hydrogen</td><td align="right">14.6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carbon</td><td align="right">31.6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Nitrogen</td><td align="right"> 4.6</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Phosphorus</td><td align="right">1.4</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Calcium</td><td align="right">2.8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sulphur</td><td align="right">0.24</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chlorine</td><td align="right"> 0.12</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sodium</td><td align="right"> 0.12</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iron</td><td align="right">0.02</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Potassium</td><td align="right">0.34</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Magnesium</td><td align="right">0.04</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silica </td><td align="right">?&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fluorine</td><td align="right">0.02</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="right">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Total</td><td align="right">148.00</td><td>pounds.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing
+and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary
+some knowledge of the relation of food to the body is, in order to
+preserve health.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p><p>Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we find from the above
+calculation that about three-fifths of the body is composed of water.
+Carbon is a solid: diamonds are nearly pure carbon; "lead" of lead
+pencils, anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon. Carbon
+combined with other elements in the body makes about one-fifth of the
+whole weight. Carbon with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon
+taken into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen of the
+inhaled air, yields heat to keep the body warm, and force&mdash;muscular
+strength&mdash;for work. The carbonic acid (or carbon dioxide) is given out
+through the lungs and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous
+foods, their relation to the body as fuel will be more clearly
+understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element. Phosphorus
+is a solid. According to the table, about one pound six ounces would
+be found in a body weighing 148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus
+forms what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes
+phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones and teeth;
+it is found also in the brain and nerves, flesh and blood. Hydrogen is
+a gas, and like carbon unites with the oxygen of the inhaled air in
+the body, thus serving as fuel. The water produced is given off in the
+respiration through the lungs and as perspiration through the skin.<a name="FNanchor_3_4" id="FNanchor_3_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_4" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+Calcium is a metal. The table given allows three pounds of calcium;
+united with oxygen, calcium forms lime. This with phosphoric acid
+makes phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in which
+nearly all the calcium of the body is found.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p><p>The elements which bear no direct relation to the force production of
+the body, but which enter into tissue formation, are chlorine,
+sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium.
+Bone tissue contains about 50 per cent. of lime phosphate, hence the
+need of this substance in the food of a growing infant, in order that
+the bones may become firm and strong. Lack of iron salts in the food
+impoverishes the coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles on which
+they depend for their power of carrying oxygen to the tissues; an&aelig;mia
+and other disorders of deficient oxidation result. The lack of
+sufficient potash salts is a factor in producing scurvy, a condition
+aggravated by the use of common salt. A diet of salt meat and starches
+may cause it, with absence of fresh fruit and vegetables. Such
+illustrations show the need of a well-balanced diet.</p>
+
+<p>In order to understand the value of the various classes of food and
+their relation to the body as force producers, tissue builders, etc.,
+the following table may prove helpful:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Value of various classes of food">
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;" align="center">Nitrogen.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;">C.H.<br /> Combustibles<br />Calculated as <br />Carbon</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Beef, uncooked</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">3.00</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">11.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Roast beef</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.53</td>
+   <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">17.76</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Calf's liver</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.09</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 15.68</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Foie-gras</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 65.58</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Sheep's kidneys</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.66</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Skate</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.83</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cod, salted</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 5.02</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 16.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Herring, salted</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.11</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 23.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Herring, fresh</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.83</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 21.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Whiting</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.41</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 9.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Mackerel</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.74</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 19.26</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Sole</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.91</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.25</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span>Salmon</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.09</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 16.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Carp</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.49</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 12.10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Oysters</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.13</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> &nbsp; 7.18</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Lobster, uncooked</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.93</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 10.96</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Eggs </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.90</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 13.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Milk (cows')</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.66</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> &nbsp; 8.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cheese (Brie)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.93</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 35.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cheese (Gruyere)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 5.00</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 38.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Cheese (Roquefort)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 4.21</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.44</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Chocolate</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.52</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 58.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Wheat (hard Southern, variable average)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.00</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 41.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Wheat (soft Southern, variable average)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.81</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 39.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Flour, white (Paris)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.64</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 38.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Rye flour</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.75</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 41.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Winter barley </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.90</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 40.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Maize </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.70</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Buckwheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.20</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 42.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Rice </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.80</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 41.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.95</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.08</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 29.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, brown (soldiers' rations formerly)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.07</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 28.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, brown (soldiers' rations at present)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.20</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 30.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bread, from flour of hard wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 2.20</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 31.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.33</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 11.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Beans </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 4.50</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 42.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Lentils, dry </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.87</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 43.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Peas, dry</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 3.66</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 44.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Carrots</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.31</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> &nbsp; 5.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Mushrooms</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.60</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> &nbsp; 4.52</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Figs, fresh</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.41</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 15.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Figs, dry</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.92</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 34.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Coffee (infusion of 100 grams)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.10</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> &nbsp; 9.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Tea (infusion of 100 grams)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.00</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 10.50</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Bacon&nbsp; </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 1.29</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 71.14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.64</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 83.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Olive oil</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> Trace</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> 98.00</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Beer, strong </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.05</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> &nbsp; 4.50</td>
+  </tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">Wine </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"> 0.15</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> &nbsp; 4.00</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>"The hydrogen existing in the compound in excess of what is required
+to form water with the oxygen present is calculated as carbon. It is
+only necessary to multiply<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount
+of dry proteids in 100 grams of the fresh food substance."
+(Dujardin-Beauretz.) The following simple rules are given by
+Parks:&mdash;"1st. To obtain the amount of nitrogen in proteid of foods,
+divide the quantity of food by 6.30. 2nd. To obtain the carbon in fat
+multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To obtain the carbon in carbohydrate food
+multiply by 0.444. 4. To obtain the carbon in proteid food multiply by
+0.535."</p>
+
+<p>Finding that our food and our bodies contain essentially the same
+elements, we must also bear in mind that the body cannot create
+anything for itself, neither material nor energy; all must be supplied
+by the food we eat, which is transformed into repair material for the
+body. Therefore, the object of a course of study dealing with the
+science of this question, as it relates to the daily life, should be
+to learn something of how food builds the body, repairs the waste,
+yields heat and energy, and to teach the principles of food economy in
+its relation to health and income. This, with the development of
+executive ability, is all that can be attempted in a primary course.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTE:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p><a name="Footnote_3_4" id="Footnote_3_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_4">[3]</a> An illustration of vapor rising may be given by breathing
+upon a mirror.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>Food Classification.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four
+principal classes of nutrients:</p>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Protein</span>:<br /></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><i>Proteids.</i><br /></div>
+
+<div class="narrow">
+<i>Albuminoids</i>, <i>e.g.</i>, albumen of eggs; myosin,
+the basis of muscle (lean meat); the albuminoids
+which make up the gluten of wheat, etc.
+<br /></div>
+
+<div class="narrow"><i>Gelatinoids</i>, constituents of connective tissue which
+yield gelatin and allied substances, <i>e.g.</i>, collagen
+of tendon; ossein of bone.
+<br /></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">"Nitrogenous extractives" of flesh, <i>i.e.</i>, of meats and fish.
+These include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the
+chief ingredients of beef tea and most meat extracts.
+Amids: this term is frequently applied to the nitrogenous
+non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable foods and feeding
+stuffs, among which are amido acids, such as aspartic acid
+and asparagin. Some of them are more or less allied in
+chemical constitution to the nitrogenous extractives of
+flesh.
+<br /></div>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Fats.</i><br /></div>
+
+<div class="blockquot">Fat of meat: fat of milk; oil of corn, wheat, etc. The
+ingredients of the "ether extract" of animal and vegetable
+foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary to group
+together roughly as fats, include, with the true fats,
+various other substances, as lecithians, and chlorophylls.
+<br /></div>
+
+<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Carbohydrates</i>, sugars, starches, celluloses, gums, woody fibre, etc.
+<br /><br /></div>
+<div style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Mineral matter.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+<div class="blockquot">Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorids, sulphates
+and phosphates. (Atwater).
+<br /></div>
+
+<p>The terms (<i>a</i>) "nitrogenous" and (<i>b</i>) "carbonaceous" are frequently
+used to designate the two distinct classes of food, viz.: (<i>a</i>) the
+tissue builders and flesh formers; (<i>b</i>) fuel and force producers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p><p>Each of these classes contains food material derived from both the
+animal and vegetable kingdom, although the majority of the animal
+substances belong to the nitrogenous, and the majority of the
+vegetable substances to the carbonaceous group.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, for practical purposes, we will confine ourselves to the
+more general terms used in Atwater's table.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Uses of Food.</h3>
+
+<p>First, food is used to form the materials of the body and repair its
+waste; second, to yield energy in the form of (1) heat to keep the
+body warm, (2) to provide muscular and other power for the work it has
+to do. In forming the tissues and fluids of the body the food serves
+for building and repair. In yielding energy, it serves as fuel for
+heat and power. The principal tissue formers are the albuminoids;
+these form the frame-work of the body. They build and repair the
+nitrogenous materials, as those of muscle, tendon and bone, and supply
+the albuminoids of blood, milk and other fluids. The chief fuel
+ingredients of food are the carbohydrates and fats. These are either
+consumed in the body or are stored as fat to be used as occasion
+demands.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Water.</h3>
+
+<p>By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water composes
+three-fifths of the entire body. The elasticity of muscles, cartilage,
+tendons, and even of bones is due in great part to the water which
+these tissues contain. The amount of water required by a healthy man
+in twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> average
+between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25 ounces taken as an
+ingredient of solid food, thus making a total of from 75 to 85 ounces.
+One of the most universal dietetic failings is neglect to take enough
+water into the system. Dr. Gilman Thompson gives the following uses of
+water in the body:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) It enters into the chemical composition of the tissues; (2) it
+forms the chief ingredient of all the fluids of the body and maintains
+their proper degree of dilution; (3) by moistening various surfaces of
+the body, such as the mucous and serous membranes, it prevents
+friction and the uncomfortable symptoms which might result from
+drying; (4) it furnishes in the blood and lymph a fluid medium by
+which food may be taken to remote parts of the body and the waste
+matter removed, thus promoting rapid tissue changes; (5) it serves as
+a distributer of body heat; (6) it regulates the body temperature by
+the physical processes of absorption and evaporation.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Salts (Mineral Matter).&mdash;Use of Salts in Food.</h3>
+
+<p>(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and other fluids of
+the body; (2) to preserve the tissues from disorganization and
+putrefaction; (3) to enter into the composition of the teeth and
+bones. These are only a few of the uses of salts in the body, but are
+sufficient for our purpose. Fruits and nuts contain the least quantity
+of salts, meat ranks next, then vegetables and pulses, cereals contain
+most of all (Chambers). Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most
+important and valuable salt. It must not however be used in excess.
+Potassium salts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span> rank next in importance.<a name="FNanchor_4_5" id="FNanchor_4_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_5" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> Calcium, phosphorus,
+sulphur and iron are included in this class.</p>
+
+<p>The quantity of salts or mineral matter contained in some important
+articles of vegetable and animal food is shown in this table (Church):</p>
+
+<div class="center"><i>Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 14 Vegetable Products.</i></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="40%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Mineral Matter in Vegetable Products">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='right'>Lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td width="60%" align='left'>Apples</td><td align="right">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rice</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheaten flour</td><td align='right'>7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Turnips</td><td align='right'>8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Barley</td><td align='right'>11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cabbage</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread</td><td align="right">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Watercress</td><td align='right'>13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Maize</td><td align="right">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Oatmeal</td><td align="right">21</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peas</td><td align='right'>30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cocoa nibs</td><td align='right'>36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Wheaten bran</td><td align='right'>60</td></tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="center"><i>Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 8 Animal Products.</i></div>
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="40%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Mineral Matter in Animal Products">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='right'>Lbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td width="60%" align='left'>Fat Pork</td><td align="right">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cow's milk</td><td align="right">7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Eggs (without shells)</td><td align="right"> 13</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lean of mutton</td><td align="right">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Flesh of common fowl</td><td align="right">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bacon</td><td align="right"> 44</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gloucester cheese</td><td align="right"> 49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Salted herrings</td><td align="right">158</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>"In most seeds and fruits there is much phosphate in the mineral
+matter, and in most green vegetables much potash. One important kind
+of mineral matter alone is deficient in vegetable food, and that is
+common salt."</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTE:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_5" id="Footnote_4_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_5">[4]</a> See Vegetables, Chap. VII.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>Nutrition.</h3>
+
+
+<p>It is not within the scope of this book to deal with the science of
+nutrition; but a few general principles may be given which concern the
+effect upon the system of the different classes of food. Animal food
+requires a considerable quantity of oxygen for its complete
+combustion. Meat in general has a more stimulating effect upon the
+system and is more strengthening than vegetable food. There is,
+however, a tendency to eat too much meat, and when its effects are not
+counter-balanced by free outdoor exercise, it causes biliousness and
+sometimes gout and other troubles. Albuminous foods can be eaten
+longer alone without exciting loathing than can fats, sugars or
+starches. A carbonaceous diet taxes the excretory organs less than
+animal food. Meat is not necessary to life. Nitrogenous food man must
+have, but it need not be in the form of meat. The estimate commonly
+given is, that meat should occupy one-fourth and vegetable food
+three-fourths of a mixed diet, but in many cases the meat eaten is
+much in excess of this allowance. The proper association of different
+foods always keeps healthy people in better condition; there are
+times, however, when it may be necessary to abstain from certain
+articles of diet. It may be well to bear in mind, that the protein
+compounds can do the work of the carbohydrates and fats in being
+consumed for fuel, but the carbohydrates and fats cannot do the work
+of protein in building and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> repairing the tissues of the body. As
+already stated, a mixed diet is the only rational one for man. An
+exclusively vegetable diet, while it may maintain a condition of
+health for a time, eventually results in a loss of strength and power
+to resist disease. Therefore it is necessary to understand the
+approximate value of each class of food in arranging the daily
+dietary.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>Food and Economy.</h3>
+
+
+<p>It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of
+moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the
+same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for
+them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes
+nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds
+of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat
+flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for
+nourishment, but not in the proportion best adapted for ordinary use.
+A man might live on beef alone, but it would be a very one-sided and
+imperfect diet. Meat and bread together make the essentials of a
+healthful diet. In order to give a general idea of food economy, it
+will be necessary to deal briefly with the functions of the various
+food principles. As our bodies contain a great deal of muscle, the
+waste of which is repaired by protein found in such food as lean meat,
+eggs, cheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish, etc., a supply of these
+articles must be considered in purchasing the daily supply. Fatty
+tissue (not muscle) serves as fuel, therefore the value of such foods
+as butter, cream, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates form fat and
+serve as fuel and force producers; these come in the form of starches,
+sugars,&mdash;vegetables and grains being the most important. In being
+themselves burned to yield energy, the nutrients protect each other
+from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like
+those<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> of foods. An important use of the carbohydrates and fats is to
+protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. "The most healthful
+food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user: the
+cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment
+at the least cost: the best food is that which is both healthful and
+cheap." By referring to the various charts a fair estimate of food
+values may be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>As will be noticed, the animal foods contain the most protein and
+fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. A pound of
+cheese may have 0.28 pound of protein, as much as a man at ordinary
+work needs for a day's sustenance, while a pound of milk would have
+only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02 pound of protein. The
+materials which have the most fats and carbohydrates have the highest
+fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2.995
+calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only .315
+calories. On the other hand, the nutritive material of the codfish
+would consist almost entirely of protein, while the pork contains very
+little. Among the vegetable foods, peas and beans have a high
+proportion of protein. Oatmeal contains a large proportion also.
+Potatoes are low in fuel value as well as in protein, because they are
+three-fourths water. For the same reason milk, which is seven-eights
+water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value, hence the
+reason why it is not so valuable as food for an adult as many of the
+other food materials.</p>
+
+<p>These few illustrations will help to show the need of an intelligent
+idea of food values before attempting to purchase the supplies for
+family use. As one-half a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> laboring man's income goes towards
+providing food, it must follow that such knowledge will help the
+housewife very materially in securing the best results from the amount
+expended.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>average daily diet</i> of an adult should contain (Church):&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Average daily diet of an adult">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">Nutrients.</span></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">In 100 Parts.</span></td>
+  <td colspan="3" align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">Each 24 Hours.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right:solid 2px;border-top:solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">lb.</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">oz.</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;">gr.&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Water</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">81.5</td>
+  <td align='right'>5</td>
+  <td align='right'>8</td>
+  <td align='right'>.320</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Albuminoids</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">&nbsp;3.9</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>4</td>
+  <td align='right'>.178</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Fat</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">&nbsp;3.0</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>3</td>
+  <td align='right'>.337</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Common salt</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">&nbsp;3.7</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>.325</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-bottom:solid 2px;">Phosphates, potash, salts, etc.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;border-bottom:solid 2px;">&nbsp;0.3</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom:solid 2px;">0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom:solid 2px;">0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom:solid 2px;">0.170</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>Quantity of Food Required.</h3>
+
+<p>The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous
+condition depends upon the following conditions:&mdash;(1) Climate and
+season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized
+countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain
+health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of
+food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts
+one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence
+the need for more or less food. Abundant clothing in cold weather
+conserves the body heat; less food is therefore required to maintain
+life. Exercise and muscular work cause greater oxidation in the
+tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must be replaced by
+proper food. Outdoor work requires more food than indoor, and physical
+labor more than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten
+years requires half as much food as a grown woman, and one of fourteen
+an equal amount. The rapidly growing active boy often eats as much as
+a man, and the middle-aged man requires more than the aged. A man of
+seventy years may preserve health on a quantity which would soon
+starve his grandson."</p>
+
+<p>Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain
+and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which have not
+yet been solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and
+phosphorus, which are found in protein compounds but not in the true
+fats, sugars, and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen and
+oxygen. We naturally infer that the protein compounds must be
+especially concerned in building up brain and nerve, and keeping them
+in repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question
+which has not yet been decided. In general it appears that a man or a
+woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without
+vigorous exercise and does but little hard muscular work, needs much
+less than the man at hard manual labor, and that the brain worker
+needs comparatively little of carbohydrates or fats. Many physicians,
+physiologists and students of hygiene have become convinced that
+well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too
+much; that the diet of people of this class as a whole is one-sided as
+well as excessive, and that the principal evil is the use of too much
+fat, starch and sugar. It is well to remember that it is the quantity
+of food digested which builds the body, and more injury is likely to
+result from over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>of having food cooked so as to aid digestion. The following dietary
+standards may be interesting to the more advanced pupils, housewives,
+etc.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Standards for Daily Diet of Laboring Man at Moderate Muscular
+Work.</span>
+<br /><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Standards for Daily Diet of Laboring Man at Moderate Muscular
+Work.">
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' colspan="2" style="border-top:solid 2px;;">Nutrients in Daily Food.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Author.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> Fats.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;"> Carbohydrates.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;"> Fuel Value.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">lb.</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">lb.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;border-right:solid 2px;">lb.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top:solid 2px;">Calories.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Playfair, England</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.26</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.11</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.17&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center'>3.140</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Moleschotte, Italy</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.29</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.09</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.21&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center'>3.160</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Wolff, Germany</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.28</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.08</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.19&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center'>3.030</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Voit, Germany</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.26</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">1.10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center'>3.055</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right:solid 2px;">Atwater, United States</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right:solid 2px;">.28</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;"> 17.33</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right:solid 2px;">88.1.21&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center'>3.500</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>Quality of Food.</h3>
+
+<p>It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard
+to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter,
+etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. <i>Poor
+cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment.</i> No doubt a well
+broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of
+the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in
+nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the
+cheaper pieces of beef equally palatable. That expensive food is not
+necessary to maintain life has been clearly demonstrated by the
+traditional diet of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and herring;
+the Irish, potatoes and buttermilk; New England, codfish and potatoes,
+and pork and beans; the Chinese, rice, etc. Monotony of diet, however,
+is not recommended, for reasons<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> given in a previous chapter, and in
+the countries where a special diet prevails owing to the climate,
+nature of soil and markets, the results have not warranted us in
+believing that it is as good as a mixed diet. From this necessarily
+brief outline of the food question we have learned (1) that a
+knowledge of the requirements of the body are absolutely necessary in
+regulating a proper diet; (2) to furnish the food principles in a
+cheap rather than a dear form; (3) to understand the art of cookery so
+as to secure the full nutritive value and at the same time stimulate
+the appetite; (4) the value of economy in regard to food principles.
+When the housekeeper has acquired this knowledge she will have covered
+the field of food economy. Prof. Atwater says: "When we know what are
+the kinds and amount of nutritive substances our bodies need and our
+food materials contain, then and not till then shall we be able to
+adjust our diet to the demands of health and purse."</p>
+
+
+<h3>Cooking of Food.</h3>
+
+<p>It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities
+will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the
+customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of
+civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the
+definition of the term as it concerns ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for
+the conversion of food material."</p>
+
+<p>As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to
+render it more palatable, more digestible, and with the greatest
+economy of time, fuel and money,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> is an object deserving the most
+careful attention. The art of cooking lies in the power to develop
+certain flavors which are agreeable to the palate, or in other words,
+which "make the mouth water," without interfering with the nutritive
+qualities of the food prepared, to understand by what method certain
+foods may be rendered more digestible, and to provide variety.
+Monotony of diet and of flavor lessens the appetite and fails to
+stimulate the digestive organs.</p>
+
+<p>The chemical changes, produced by cooking food properly, aid
+digestion, beside destroying any germs which may be contained in the
+food. Nearly all foods&mdash;except fruit&mdash;require cooking. The
+digestibility of starch depends almost entirely upon the manner in
+which it is cooked, especially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are
+sure to follow the use of improperly cooked grains or starches. (See
+Chap. VII.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>Methods.</h3>
+
+<p>The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1)
+boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6)
+braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BOILING.</div>
+
+<p>Water boils at a temperature of 212&deg; F. Simmering should be at a
+temperature of from 175&deg; F. to 180&deg; F. When water has reached the
+boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted
+into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has
+already reached the boiling point.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">STEWING.</div>
+
+<p>Stewing allows the juices of the meat to become dissolved in water
+heated to the simmering <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span>point. The juices thus dissolved are eaten
+with the meat. If not injured by the addition of rich sauces or fats,
+this is usually a very digestible method of preparing certain kinds of
+meat.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BROILING.</div>
+
+<p>Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coals. A coating of
+coagulated albumen is formed upon the outer surface. This coating
+prevents the evaporation of the juices, which with the extractive
+materials are retained and improve the flavor. Meat cooked in this way
+has a decided advantage, in both flavor and nutritive value, over that
+which has been boiled or stewed. There are, however, only certain
+kinds of meat that are suitable for broiling.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">FRYING.</div>
+
+<p>Frying is cooking in hot fat. The boiling point of fat is far above
+that of water. Fat should not be heated above 400&deg; F., as it will then
+turn dark and emit a disagreeable odor. Fried food, unless very
+carefully prepared, is considered unwholesome. The only proper method
+for frying is to immerse the food completely in a bath of hot fat.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BRAISING.</div>
+
+<p>Braising is cooking meat in a covered vessel surrounded by a solution
+of vegetable and animal juices in a strong but not boiling
+temperature. Tough meat may be rendered very palatable and nutritious
+by cooking in this way. The cover of the pan or kettle must fit
+closely enough to prevent evaporation. It requires long, steady
+cooking. The flavor is improved by browning the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> meat in either hot
+fat or in a very hot oven before braising.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BAKING.</div>
+
+<p>Baking is cooking in confined heat. Meat properly cooked in an oven is
+considered by many authorities as quite equal in delicacy of flavor to
+that roasted before a fire, and is equally digestible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">STEAMING.</div>
+
+<p>Steaming is cooking food over condensed steam, and is an excellent
+method for preparing food which requires long, slow cooking. Puddings,
+cereals, and other glutinous mixtures are often cooked in this way. It
+is an economical method, and has the advantage of developing flavor
+without loss of substance.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Food Preservation.</h3>
+
+<p>Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking,
+(3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7)
+addition of antiseptic and preservative substances.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">DRYING.</div>
+
+<p>Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by
+housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by
+drying, the latter with the addition of salt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">SMOKING.</div>
+
+<p>Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish,
+which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a
+long time until they absorb a certain percentage of antiseptic
+material, which prevents the fat from becoming rancid, and the albumen
+from putrefying. Well smoked bacon cut thin and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> properly cooked is a
+digestible form of fatty food, especially for tubercular patients.
+Smoking improves the digestibility of ham.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">SALTING.</div>
+
+<p>Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. The addition
+of a little saltpetre helps to preserve the color of the meat. Brine
+is frequently used to temporarily preserve meat and other substances.
+Corned beef is a popular form of salt preservation. All salted meats
+require long, slow cooking. They should always be placed in cold water
+and heated gradually in order to extract the salt. Salt meats are less
+digestible and not quite so nutritious as fresh meats.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">FREEZING.</div>
+
+<p>Food may be kept in a frozen condition almost indefinitely, but will
+decompose very quickly when thawed, hence the necessity for cooking
+immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of its nutritive value in
+cooking.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">REFRIGERATING.</div>
+
+<p>This process does not involve actual freezing, but implies
+preservation in chambers at a temperature maintained a few degrees
+above freezing point. This method does not affect the flavor or
+nutritive value of food so much as freezing.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">SEALING.</div>
+
+<p>Sealing is accomplished not only in the process of canning but by
+covering with substances which are impermeable. Beef has been
+preserved for considerable time by immersing in hot fat in which it
+was allowed to remain after cooling.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CHEMICALS.</div>
+
+<p>Chemicals are sometimes used in the preservation of food, but the
+other methods are safer.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Animal foods contain nutritive matter in a concentrated form, and
+being chemically similar to the composition of the body is doubtless
+the reason why they assimilate more readily than vegetable foods,
+although the latter are richer in mineral matter. The most valuable
+animal foods in common use are meat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin and
+fats.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">MEAT.</div>
+
+<p>Meat is composed of muscular tissue, connective tissue or gristle,
+fatty tissue, blood-vessels, nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as
+food is due chiefly to the nitrogenous compound it contains, the most
+valuable being the albuminoids: the gelatinoid of meat is easily
+changed into gelatin by the action of hot water. Gelatin when combined
+with the albuminoids and extractives has considerable nutritive value.
+Extractives are meat bases, or rather meat which has been dissolved by
+water, such as soup stock and beef tea. The object in cooking meat is
+to soften and loosen the tissue, which renders it more easily
+digested. Another object is to sterilize or kill any germs which may
+exist and to make it more palatable. The digestibility of meat is
+influenced by the age of the animal killed and the feeding. The
+following table is given as an average of the digestibility of animal
+foods:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Table of Comparative Digestibility</span>.
+<br />
+<i>Commencing with the most digestible and ending with the least<br />
+digestible of meats and other animal foods.</i> (Thompson.)
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Oysters.</li>
+<li>Soft cooked eggs.</li>
+<li>Sweetbread.</li>
+<li>Whitefish, etc.</li>
+<li>Chicken, boiled or broiled.</li>
+<li>Lean roast beef or beefsteak.</li>
+<li>Eggs, scrambled, omelette.</li>
+<li>Mutton.</li>
+<li>Bacon.</li>
+<li>Roast fowl, chicken, turkey, etc.</li>
+<li>Tripe, brains, liver.</li>
+<li>Roast lamb.</li>
+<li>Chops, mutton or lamb.</li>
+<li>Corn beef.</li>
+<li>Veal.</li>
+<li>Duck and other game.</li>
+<li>Salmon, mackerel, herring.</li>
+<li>Roast goose.</li>
+<li>Lobster and crabs.</li>
+<li>Pork.</li>
+<li>Fish, smoked, dried, pickled.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<div class="center">Cooking affects the digestibility of meat, which is evident from the
+figures given in the following table (Church):&mdash;
+<br /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Time of Digestion</span>.
+<br />
+<br />
+</div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time of Digestion">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Hours.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, raw</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, half boiled</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">21/2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, well boiled</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> 23/4 to 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, half roasted</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> 23/4 to 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, well roasted&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;21/4 to 4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton, raw</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton, boiled</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton, roasted</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">31/4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Veal, raw</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">21/2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Pork, raw</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Pork, roasted</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">51/4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fowl, boiled</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Turkey, boiled</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">21/2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Venison, broiled</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">11/2</td>
+</tr>
+
+</table></div>
+
+<p>It may be well to add here that animal food is more digestible when
+cooked between 160&deg; and 180&deg; F. than at a higher temperature.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Cooking of Meat.</h3>
+
+<div class="center"><i>(For more general information, see Recipes.)</i><br /></div>
+
+<p>In boiling meat two principles must be considered, the softening of
+the fibre and preserving<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> of the juices. If the meat alone is to be
+used it should be placed in sufficient boiling water to completely
+cover, and kept at boiling point (212&deg; F.) for at least ten minutes,
+so as to harden the albumen and prevent the escape of the juices. The
+temperature should then be allowed to fall to simmering point (175&deg;
+F.). If the water is kept boiling it will render the meat tough and
+dry. If the juice is to be extracted and the broth used, the meat
+should be placed in cold water; if bones are added they should be cut
+or broken into small pieces in order that the gelatin may be
+dissolved. If the water is heated gradually the soluble materials are
+more easily dissolved. The albumen will rise as a scum to the top, but
+should not be skimmed off, as it contains the most nutriment and will
+settle to the bottom as sediment.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">STEWING.</div>
+
+<p>If both meat and broth are to be used the process of cooking should be
+quite different. In stewing, the meat should be cut into small pieces,
+put into cold water in order that the juices, flavoring material and
+fibre may be dissolved. The temperature should be gradually raised to
+simmering point and remain at that heat for at least three or four
+hours, the vessel being kept closely covered. Cooked in this way the
+broth will be rich, and the meat tender and juicy. Any suitable
+flavoring may be added. This is a good method for cooking meat
+containing gristle.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">ROASTING <span class="smcap">and</span> BROILING.</div>
+
+<p>When the meat alone is to be eaten, either roasting, broiling or
+frying in deep fat is a more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> economical method, as the juices are
+saved. The shrinkage in a roast of meat during cooking is chiefly due
+to a loss of water. A small roast will require a hotter fire than a
+larger one, in order to harden the exterior and prevent the juices
+from escaping. Meat is a poor conductor of heat, consequently a large
+roast exposed to this intense heat would become burned before the
+interior could be heated. The large roast should be exposed to intense
+heat for a few minutes, but the temperature should then be reduced,
+and long steady cooking allowed.</p>
+
+<p>Broiling (see broiling in previous chapter, p. 19.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>Varieties of Meat.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BEEF TONGUE.</div>
+
+<p>Beef tongue is a tender form of meat, but contains too much fat to
+agree well with people of delicate digestion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">VEAL.</div>
+
+<p>Veal, when obtained from animals killed too young, is apt to be tough,
+pale and indigestible, but good veal is considered fairly nutritious.
+It contains more gelatin than beef, and in broth is considered
+valuable, especially for the sick.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">MUTTON.</div>
+
+<p>Mutton is considered to be more digestible than beef, that is well fed
+mutton from sheep at least three years old; but as it is more
+difficult to obtain tender mutton than beef, the latter is more
+generally preferred. Mutton broth is wholesome and valuable in
+sickness.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">LAMB.</div>
+
+<p>Lamb, when tender and of the right age, is quite as digestible as beef
+or mutton, but the flesh contains too large a proportion of fat.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 557px;">
+<img src="images/fig1.jpg" width="557" height="363" alt="Fig. 1.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of beef." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of beef.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 504px;">
+<img src="images/fig2.jpg" width="504" height="363" alt="Fig. 2.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of veal." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of veal.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 521px;">
+<img src="images/fig3.jpg" width="521" height="329" alt="Fig. 3.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of pork." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of pork.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 543px;">
+<img src="images/fig4.jpg" width="543" height="379" alt="Fig. 4.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of mutton." title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Diagram of cuts of mutton.</span>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sidenote">VENISON.</div>
+
+<p>Venison is a tender meat with short fibres, which is very digestible
+when obtained from young deer, but is considered to be rather too
+stimulating. Its chemical composition is similar to lean beef.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">PORK.</div>
+
+<p>Pork is a tender-fibred meat, but is very indigestible owing to the
+high percentage of fat, which is considerably more than the
+nitrogenous material it contains. Pork ribs may have as much as 42 per
+cent. of fat.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">HAM AND BACON.</div>
+
+<p>Ham is more digestible when well boiled and eaten cold. Bacon is more
+easily digested than either ham or pork; when cut thin and cooked
+quickly&mdash;until transparent and crisp&mdash;it can often be eaten by
+dyspeptics, and forms an excellent food for consumptives.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">FOWL.</div>
+
+<p>Chicken is one of the most digestible of meats, contains considerable
+phosphorus and is particularly valuable as food for invalids. Turkey
+is somewhat less digestible than chicken. Ducks and geese are
+difficult of digestion, unless quite young, on account of the fat they
+contain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">GAME.</div>
+
+<p>Game, if well cooked, is fairly digestible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">SWEETBREAD.</div>
+
+<p>Sweetbread, which is thymus gland of the calf, is a delicate and
+agreeable article of diet, particularly for invalids. Tripe, heart,
+liver and kidneys are other forms of animal viscera used as
+food&mdash;valuable chiefly as affording variety.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">FISH.</div>
+
+<p>The chief difference in fish is the coarseness of fibre and the
+quantity of fat present. Fish which are highly flavored and fat, while
+they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span> may be nutritious, are much less easy of digestion than
+flounder, sole, whitefish, and the lighter varieties. The following
+fish contain the largest percentage of albuminoids:&mdash;Red snapper,
+whitefish, brook trout, salmon, bluefish, shad, eels, mackerel,
+halibut, haddock, lake trout, bass, cod and flounder. The old theory
+that fish constituted "brain food," on account of the phosphorus it
+contained, has proved to be entirely without foundation, as in reality
+many fish contain less of this element than meat. The tribes which
+live largely on fish are not noted for intellectuality. Fish having
+white meat when broiled or boiled&mdash;not fried&mdash;are excellent food for
+invalids or people of weak digestion. Fish should be well cooked.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">OYSTERS.</div>
+
+<p>Oysters are a nutritious food, and may be eaten either raw or cooked.
+Lobsters, crabs and shrimps are called "sea scavengers," and unless
+absolutely fresh are not a desirable food.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">MILK.</div>
+
+<p>Milk contains all the elements which are necessary to maintain life;
+and constitutes a complete diet for infants. It will sustain life in
+an adult for several months. Although milk furnishes a useful food, it
+is not essential to a diet required for active bodily exercise. It is
+seldom given to athletes while in active training. Adults who are able
+to eat any kind of food are kept in better health by abstaining from
+milk, except as used for cooking purposes. An occasional glass of hot
+milk taken as a stimulant for tired brain and nerves is sometimes
+beneficial.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> Milk is composed of water, salts, fat, milk sugar or
+lactose, albumen and casein. Average milk has from 8 to 10 per cent.
+of cream. Good milk should form a layer of cream about 2-1/2 in. thick
+as it stands in a quart bottle. Lactose (milk sugar) is an important
+ingredient in milk. It is less liable to ferment in the stomach than
+cane sugar. In the presence of fermenting nitrogenous material it is
+converted into lactic acid, making the milk sour. Casein is present in
+milk chiefly in its alkaline form, and in conjunction with calcium
+phosphate. Milk absorbs germs from the air and from unclean vessels
+very readily. Good, clean, uncontaminated milk ought to keep fresh,
+exposed in a clean room at a temperature of 68&deg; F., for 48 hours
+without souring. If the milk is tainted in any way it will sour in a
+few hours. Boiled milk will keep fresh half as long again as fresh
+milk. Milk absorbs odors very quickly, therefore should never be left
+in a refrigerator with stale cheese, ham, vegetables, etc., unless in
+an air-tight jar. It should never be left exposed in a sick room or
+near waste pipes. Absolute cleanliness is necessary for the
+preservation of milk; vessels in which it is to be kept must be
+thoroughly scalded with boiling water, not merely washed out with warm
+water.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Methods of Preserving Milk.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">STERILIZED MILK.</div>
+
+<p>Milk to be thoroughly sterilized and germ free must be heated to the
+boiling point (212&deg; F.).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> This may be done by putting the milk into
+perfectly clean bottles and placing in a rack, in a kettle of boiling
+water, remaining until it reaches the necessary degree of heat. The
+bottle should be closely covered <i>immediately</i> after with absorbent
+cotton or cotton batting in order to prevent other germs getting into
+the milk.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">PASTEURIZED MILK.</div>
+
+<p>The difference between pasteurizing and sterilizing is only in the
+degree of heat to which the milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the
+milk is kept at a temperature of 170&deg; F. from 10 to 20 minutes. This
+is considered a better method for treating milk which is to be given
+to young children, as it is more easily digested than sterilized milk.
+All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in warm weather,
+especially for children.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CHEESE.</div>
+
+<p>Cheese is one of the most nutritious of foods, and when meat is scarce
+makes an excellent substitute, as it contains more protein than meat.
+Cheese is the separated casein of milk, which includes some of the
+fats and salts.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">EGGS.</div>
+
+<p>Eggs contain all the ingredients necessary to support life. Out of an
+egg the entire structure of the bird&mdash;bones, nerves, muscles, viscera,
+and feathers&mdash;is developed. The inner portion of the shell is
+dissolved to furnish phosphate for the bones. The composition of a
+hen's egg is about as follows (Church):&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of a hen's egg">
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">White&mdash;In <br />100 parts.</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Yolk&mdash;In <br />100 parts.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Water</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">84.8</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Water</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">51.5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Albumen</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12.0</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Casein and albumen</td>
+  <td align='right'>15.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Fat, sugar, extractives, etc.</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2.0</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oil and fat</td>
+  <td align='right'>30.0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Mineral matter</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.2</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pigment extractives, etc.</td>
+  <td align='right'>2.1</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> Mineral matter</td>
+  <td align='right'>1.4</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The albumen&mdash;or the "white"&mdash;of an egg is greatly altered by cooking.
+When heated beyond boiling point it becomes a very indigestible
+substance. Eggs cooked at a temperature of about 170&deg; F., leaving the
+whites soft, are easily digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in
+1-1/2 hour, while a baked egg requires from 2 to 3 hours. Eggs <i>baked</i>
+in puddings, or in any other manner, form one of the most insoluble
+varieties of albumen.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">GELATIN.</div>
+
+<p>Gelatin is obtained from bones, ligaments, and other connective
+tissues. In combinations with other foods it has considerable
+nutritive value. The place given to it by scientists is to save the
+albumen of the body; as it does not help to form tissue or repair
+waste it cannot replace albumen entirely. Gelatin will not sustain
+life, but when used in the form of soup stock, etc., is considered
+valuable as a stimulant.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Legumes&mdash;Peas, Beans and Lentils.</span></h3>
+
+<p>These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being
+inferior in quality to that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> contained in meat, they can scarcely be
+given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an
+intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the
+standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value,
+especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.)</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>Fats and Oils.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Fats and oils contain three elements&mdash;carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
+About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results
+from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">USES OF FAT.</div>
+
+<p>(1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply
+force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to
+lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the
+tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose,
+and come before the carbohydrates in fuel and force value; in
+combination with proteids, they form valuable foods for those engaged
+in severe muscular exercise, such as army marching, mining
+expeditions, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Fats and oils are but little changed during digestion. The fat is
+divided into little globules by the action of the pancreatic juice and
+other digestive elements, and is absorbed by the system. Fat forms the
+chief material in adipose tissue, a fatty layer lying beneath the
+skin, which keeps the warmth in the body, and is re-absorbed into the
+blood, keeping up heat and activity, and preserving other tissues
+during abstinence from food. Fat sometimes aids the digestion of
+starchy foods by preventing them from forming<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> lumpy masses in the
+mouth and stomach, hence the value of using butter with bread,
+potatoes, etc. The animal fats are more nutritive than the vegetable,
+butter and cream heading the list. Cooking fats at a very high
+temperature, such as frying, causes a reaction or decomposition, which
+irritates the mucous membrane and interferes with digestion.</p>
+
+<p>The principal animal fats are butter, cream, lard, suet, the fat of
+mutton, pork, bacon, beef, fish and cod liver oil. The vegetable fats
+and oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds, olives, and
+nuts. The most important fats and oils for household purposes are:</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BUTTER.</div>
+
+<p>Butter, which contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of water, 11.7 per cent.
+fat, 0.5 per cent. casein, 0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The
+addition of salt to butter prevents fermentation. Butter will not
+support life when taken alone, but with other foods is highly
+nutritious and digestible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CREAM.</div>
+
+<p>Cream is one of the most wholesome and agreeable forms of fat. It is
+an excellent substitute for cod liver oil in tuberculosis. Ice cream
+when eaten slowly is very nutritious.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">LARD.</div>
+
+<p>Lard is hog fat, separated by melting.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">SUET.</div>
+
+<p>Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">COTTOLENE.</div>
+
+<p>Cottolene is a preparation of cotton-seed oil.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">OLEOMARGARINE.</div>
+
+<p>Oleomargarine is a preparation of beef fat provided as a substitute
+for butter.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p>
+<div class="sidenote">OLIVE OIL.</div>
+
+<p>Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is considered to be very
+wholesome; in some cases being preferred to either cod-liver oil or
+cream for consumptives.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">COTTON SEED OIL.</div>
+
+<p>Cotton seed oil is frequently substituted for olive oil.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">NUTS.</div>
+
+<p>Nuts contain a good deal of oil.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>Carbohydrate Foods.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as
+laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course,
+more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many
+starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich
+in proteids.</p>
+
+<p>The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Percentage of Starch in Vegetable Foods</span>.<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Percentage of Starch in Vegetable Foods">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px; border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Per Cent.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px; border-top: solid 2px;">Wheat bread</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-top: solid 2px;">55.5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Wheat flour</td>
+  <td align="right">75.6</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Graham flour</td>
+  <td align="right">71.8</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rye flour</td>
+<td align="right">78.7</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Buckwheat flour&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">77.6</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beans</td>
+  <td align="right">57.4</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td>
+  <td align="right">68.1</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cornmeal</td>
+  <td align="right">71.0</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rice&nbsp; </td>
+  <td align="right">79.4</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align="right">21.3</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sweet Potatoes&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">21.1</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td>
+  <td align="right">6.9</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Carrots</td>
+  <td align="right">10.1</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cabbage</td>
+  <td align="right">6.2</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Melons</td>
+  <td align="right">2.5</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apples</td>
+  <td align="right">14.3</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pears</td>
+  <td align="right">16.3</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Bananas</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">23.3</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat,
+oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes.
+Vegetable proteids, as already stated, are less easily digested than
+those belonging to the animal kingdom, therefore it must be remembered
+that a purely vegetable diet, even though it may be so arranged as to
+provide the necessary protein, is apt to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> over-tax the digestive
+organs more than a mixed diet from both the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms. Much depends upon the cooking of the starchy foods in order
+to render them digestible. (Study chapter on Digestion in the Public
+School Physiology.)</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">STARCH.</div>
+
+<p>The digestion of starch&mdash;which is insoluble in cold water&mdash;really
+begins with the cooking, which by softening the outer coating or fibre
+of the grains, causes them to swell and burst, thereby preparing them
+for the chemical change which is caused by the action of the saliva in
+converting the starch into a species of sugar before it enters the
+stomach. Substances which are insoluble in cold water cannot be
+absorbed into the blood, therefore are not of any value as food until
+they have become changed, and made soluble, which overtaxes the
+digestive organs and causes trouble. The temperature of the saliva is
+too low to dissolve the starch fibre unaided. Each of the digestive
+juices has its own work to do, and the saliva acts directly upon the
+starchy food; hence the importance of thoroughly masticating such food
+as bread, potatoes, rice, cereals, etc. The action of heat, in baking,
+which causes the vapor to rise, and forms the crust of starchy food,
+produces what is called dextrine, or partially digested starch.
+Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence the ease with which crust and
+toast&mdash;when properly made&mdash;are digested. It is more important to
+thoroughly chew starchy food than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> meat, as it is mixed with another
+digestive juice, which acts upon it in the stomach.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Sugars.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">SUGAR.</div>
+
+<p>There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar,
+grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars
+have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its
+solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in
+sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and
+nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and
+can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular
+work. Cane sugar is the clarified and crystallized juice of the sugar
+cane. Nearly half the sugar used in the world comes from sugar cane,
+the other half from beet roots. The latter is not quite so sweet as
+the cane sugar. Sugar is also made from the sap of the maple tree, but
+this is considered more of a luxury; consequently, not generally used
+for cooking purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">MOLASSES <span class="smcap">and</span> TREACLE.</div>
+
+<p>Molasses and treacle are formed in the process of crystallizing and
+refining sugar. Treacle is the waste drained from moulds used in
+refining sugar, and usually contains more or less dirt.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">GLUCOSE.</div>
+
+<p>Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufactured from starch. It is
+found in almost all the sweeter varieties of fruit. It is not so
+desirable for general use as cane sugar.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">HONEY.</div>
+
+<p>Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees from the nectar of flowering
+plants, and stored<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> by them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13,
+fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous matter 1.29, mineral
+matter 0.12 per cent. (Konig.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>Grains.</h3>
+
+<p>While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more
+valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them,
+and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They,
+however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and
+render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place:</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">WHEAT.</div>
+
+<p>A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer
+one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the
+starch. Some of the mineral matter for which wheat is so valuable is
+contained in the bran, hence the value of at least a portion of that
+part of the wheat being included in bread flour&mdash;not by the addition
+of coarse bran (which is indigestible) to the ordinary flour, but by
+the refining process employed in producing whole wheat flour. While
+wheat is used in other forms, its principal use as food is in the form
+of flour.</p>
+
+<p>The following table, giving the composition of bread from wheat and
+maize, will be of interest (Stone):&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Composition of Bread from Wheat and Maize</span>.<br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of Bread from Wheat and Maize">
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="6" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">In Air-Dry Material.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Water.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Ash.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fat.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fibre.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Nitrogen<br />free<br />extract.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole winter wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3.07</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.33</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.22</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.86</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 15.70</td>
+  <td align='right'>74.82</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole spring wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 7.46</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.69</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.24</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.80</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15.26</td>
+  <td align='right'> 71.55</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, winter wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10.39</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .59</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .32</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .44</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">11.94</td>
+  <td align='right'> 76.32</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, spring wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8.00</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .43</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .47</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .39</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">14.41</td>
+  <td align='right'> 76.30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Corn bread from whole maize</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 3.40</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 1.88</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 4.14</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 2.53</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">12.88</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 75.17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="5" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">In Dry Matter.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Ash.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fat.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Fibre.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Nitrogen<br />free<br />extract.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>P.ct.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole winter wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.40</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.25</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2.95</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 16.20</td>
+  <td align='right'> 77.20</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from whole spring wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.82</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.34</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3.02</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 16.49</td>
+  <td align='right'> 77.33</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, winter wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.66</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.35</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.49</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 13.33</td>
+  <td align='right'> 85.17</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;">Bread from fine flour, spring wheat</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.47</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.51</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.42</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 15.66</td>
+  <td align='right'> 82.94</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align="left" style="border-top: solid 2px; border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Corn bread from whole maize</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 1.95</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 4.29</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 2.62</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 13.33</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 77.81&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br /></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">BREAD.</div>
+
+<p>The most valuable food product manufactured from flour is bread.</p>
+
+<p>Bread contains so many of the ingredients required to nourish the
+body, viz.: fat, proteid, salts, sugar and starch, that it may well be
+termed the "staff of life." As it does not contain enough fat for a
+perfect food the addition of butter to it renders it more valuable as
+an article of diet. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives the following
+explanation of what constitutes ideal bread: "(1) It should retain as
+much as possible of the nutritive principles of the grain from which
+it is made; (2) it should be prepared in such a manner as to secure
+the complete assimilation of these nutritive principles; (3) it should
+be light and porous, so as to allow the digestive juices to penetrate
+it quickly and thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free from
+coarse bran, which causes too rapid muscular action to allow of
+complete digestion. This effect is also produced when the bread is
+sour." Bread is made from a combination of flour, liquid (either milk
+or water), and a vegetable ferment called yeast (see yeast recipes).
+The yeast acts slowly or rapidly according to the temperature to which
+it is exposed. The starch has to be changed by the ferment called
+diastase (diastase is a vegetable ferment which converts starchy foods
+into a soluble material called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into
+alcohol and carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), when it makes itself
+known by the bubbles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> which appear and the gradual swelling of the
+whole mass. It is the effect of the carbonic acid gas upon the gluten,
+which, when checked at the proper time before the ferment becomes
+acetic (sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome bread which is
+the pride of all good housekeepers. The kneading of bread is to break
+up the gas bubbles into small portions in order that there may be no
+large holes and the fermentation be equal throughout. The loaf is
+baked in order to kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, to
+expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the alcohol, to stiffen the
+gluten and to form a crust which shall have a pleasant flavor. Much of
+the indigestibility of bread is owing to the imperfect baking; unless
+the interior of the loaf has reached the sterilizing point, 212&deg; F.,
+the bacteria contained in the yeast will not be killed, and some of
+the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf. The scientific method
+of baking bread is to fix the air cells as quickly as possible at
+first. This can be done better by baking the bread in small loaves in
+separate pans, thereby securing a uniform heat and more crust, which
+is considered to be the most easily digested part of the bread. Some
+cooks consider that long, slow baking produces a more desirable flavor
+and renders bread more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour will
+make an average of one hundred and thirty-five pounds of bread. This
+increase of weight is due to the addition of water.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">MACARONI.</div>
+
+<p>Macaroni is a flour preparation of great food value. It contains about
+six per cent. more gluten than bread, and is regarded by Sir Henry
+Thompson as equal to meat for flesh-forming purposes. Dieticians say
+that macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli are not used so extensively as
+their value deserves.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BUCKWHEAT.</div>
+
+<p>Buckwheat is the least important of the cereals.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">RYE.</div>
+
+<p>Rye is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. Its treatment in
+regard to bread making is similar to that of wheat.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CORN.</div>
+
+<p>Corn contains fat, proteid and starch, and produces heat and energy.
+It is very fattening, and when eaten as a vegetable is considered
+difficult of digestion. Cornmeal is a wholesome food; it contains more
+fat than wheat flour, and less mineral matter.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">RICE.</div>
+
+<p>Rice constitutes a staple food of a great many of the world's
+inhabitants. It contains more starch than any other cereal, but when
+properly cooked is very easily digested. It should be combined with
+some animal food, as it contains too little nitrogen to satisfy the
+demands of the system. It forms a wholesome combination with fruit,
+such as apples, peaches, prunes, berries, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BARLEY.</div>
+
+<p>Barley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. It contains more
+fat, mineral matter and cellulose (cellulose is often called
+indigestible fibre, as it resists the solvent action of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> digestive
+juices, and is of no value as a nutrient), and less proteid and
+digestible carbohydrates.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">OATMEAL.</div>
+
+<p>Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods. Oats contain fat, proteid,
+salts and cellulose, in addition to a large percentage of starch. The
+nutritive value of oatmeal is great, but much depends upon the manner
+of cooking. (See recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should lead a
+vigorous outdoor life. The following analysis of oatmeal is given
+(Letheby):&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Analysis of oatmeal">
+<tr><td align='left'>Nitrogenous matter</td><td align="right">12.6</td><td align="center"> per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Carbohydrates, starch, etc.</td><td align="right">63.8</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fatty matter</td><td align="right">5.6</td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mineral matter</td><td align="right">3.0</td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align="right">15.0</td><td align="center"> "</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Total</td><td align="right">100.0</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>Vegetables.</h3>
+
+<p>Legumes&mdash;peas, beans and lentils&mdash;have an exceedingly leathery
+envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water&mdash;in
+order to soften the woody fibre&mdash;and are then cooked slowly for some
+hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very
+nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which
+form they are used in soups.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">POTATOES.</div>
+
+<p>Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet
+they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourths water.
+They contain some mineral matter, hence the reason why they are better
+boiled and baked in their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> skins, so as to prevent the escape of the
+salts into the water. Potatoes are more easily digested when baked
+than cooked in any other form.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BEETS.</div>
+
+<p>Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of starch and sugar, some
+salts, and a little over one per cent. of proteid matter. Young beets,
+either in the form of a vegetable or a salad, are considered to be
+very wholesome.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CARROTS, TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, OYSTER PLANT.</div>
+
+<p>Carrots, turnips, parsnips and oyster plant, although containing a
+large percentage of water, are considered valuable as nutrients, the
+turnip being the least nutritious.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">GREEN VEGETABLES.</div>
+
+<p>Green vegetables do not contain much nutriment, and are chiefly
+valuable as affording a pleasing variety in diet; also for supplying
+mineral matter and some acids. In this class we may include cabbage,
+cauliflower, spinach, lettuce and celery.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">TOMATOES.</div>
+
+<p>Tomatoes are wholesome vegetables; on account of the oxalic acid they
+contain they do not always agree with people of delicate digestion.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CUCUMBERS.</div>
+
+<p>Cucumbers are neither wholesome nor digestible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">ASPARAGUS.</div>
+
+<p>Asparagus is a much prized vegetable. The substance called asparagin
+which it contains is supposed to possess some value.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">RHUBARB.</div>
+
+<p>Rhubarb is a wholesome vegetable.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">ONIONS, GARLIC, SHALLOTS.</div>
+
+<p>Onions, garlic, and shallots are valuable both as condiments and eaten
+separately. They contain more nutrients than the last vegetables
+considered.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>Fruits.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable
+jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids
+in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in
+lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in
+apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the
+least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries
+are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid
+of all.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Uses of Fruit.</h3>
+
+<p>(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and
+relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and
+acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics;
+(5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite,
+improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and
+oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and
+magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is
+highly beneficial, and should be used freely in season. Cooked fruit
+is more easily digested than raw, and when over-ripe should always be
+cooked in order to prevent fruit poisoning.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p><div class="sidenote">NUTS.</div>
+
+<p>Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and sugar, but are not
+considered valuable as nutrients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English
+walnuts are the most nutritious.</p>
+
+
+<h3>Beverages.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">TEA.</div>
+
+<p>Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is
+also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a
+preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The
+difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of
+preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains
+more tannin than black. The following table will show the
+difference:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Black and green tea">
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><span class="smcap">Green Tea.</span></td>
+  <td align='center'><span class="smcap">Black Tea.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Crude protein</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">37.43</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;">38.90</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fibre</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10.06</td>
+  <td align='right'>10.07</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Ash (mineral matter)</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4.92</td>
+  <td align="right">4.93</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Theine</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3.20</td>
+  <td align="right">3.30</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tannin</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10.64</td>
+  <td align="right">4.89</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total nitrogen</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">5.99</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">6.22</td>
+</tr>
+</table><br /></div>
+
+<p>The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color
+and flavor, depend upon the season of the year at which the leaves are
+gathered, the variety of the plant, the age of the leaves, which
+become tough as they grow older, and the care exercised in their
+preparation. Much depends upon the manner in which tea is infused. (1)
+Use freshly boiled water; (2) allow<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> it to infuse only three or four
+minutes, in order to avoid extracting the tannin. When carefully
+prepared as above, tea is not considered unwholesome for people in
+good health.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">COFFEE.</div>
+
+<p>Coffee is made from the berries of coffee-arabica, which are dried,
+roasted and browned. The following table gives an approximate idea of
+the composition of coffee beans (Konig):&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Composition of coffee beans">
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>1.15</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'> 14.48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Crude fibre</td><td align='right'>19.89</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash (mineral matter)</td><td align='right'> 4.75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Caffeine</td><td align='right'> 1.24</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Albuminoids</td><td align='right'>13.98</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Other nitrogenous matter&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>45.09</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sugar, gum and dextrin</td><td align='right'>1.66</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Coffee is frequently adulterated with chicory, which is harmless.
+Coffee should not be allowed to boil long or stand in the coffee pot
+over a fire, as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more
+indigestible. Much controversy has been indulged in over the effect of
+coffee upon the system, but like many other similar questions it has
+not reached a practical solution. The general opinion seems to be that
+when properly made and used in moderation it is a valuable stimulant
+and not harmful to adults.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">COCOA.</div>
+
+<p>Cocoa and chocolate contain more food substances than tea or coffee,
+although their use in this respect is not of much value. The following
+table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):&mdash;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Analysis of cocoa">
+<tr><td align='left'>Theobromine</td><td align='right'>1.73</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Total nitrogenous substance</td><td align='right'>19.28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fat</td><td align='right'>30.51</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Water</td><td align='right'>3.83</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Ash (mineral matter)</td><td align='right'> 8.30</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fibre and non-nitrogenous extract</td><td align='right'> 37.48</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">ALCOHOL.</div>
+
+<p>The use of alcohol is wholly unnecessary for the health of the human
+organism. (See Public School Physiology and Temperance.)</p>
+
+
+<h3>Condiments.</h3>
+
+<p>Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little
+nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very
+injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve
+monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry,
+pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is
+the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on
+mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more
+palatable without being injured is one of the fine arts in cookery.
+Some flavors, such as lemon juice, vinegar, etc., increase the solvent
+properties of the gastric juice, making certain foods more
+digestible.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>Preparing Food.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of
+little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge
+of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in
+whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first
+requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of
+fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal,
+kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for
+kindling and for a quick fire. Hard woods, oak, ash, etc., burn more
+slowly, retain the heat longer, and are better adapted for cooking
+purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">COAL.</div>
+
+<p>Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon. It kindles slowly,
+gives a steady heat, and burns for a longer time without attention
+than wood. Stoves for burning oil and gas have become popular, and are
+very convenient and satisfactory for cooking purposes.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">OIL.</div>
+
+<p>Oil is considered to be the cheapest fuel.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">GAS.</div>
+
+<p>Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking purposes, but can only be
+used in certain localities.</p>
+
+<h3>Making and Care of a Fire.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CARE OF A FIRE.</div>
+<p>Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range.
+The plainer the range the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> easier it will be to keep it clean. There
+should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to
+check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before
+beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the
+soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate
+(saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper,
+then kindling arranged crosswise, allowing plenty of air space between
+the pieces, a little hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on the
+covers, open the direct draft and oven damper, then light the paper.
+When the wood is thoroughly kindled and the first layer of coal
+heated, fill the fire-box with coal even with the top of the oven.
+When the blue flame becomes white, close the oven damper, and when the
+coal is burning freely, shut the direct draft. When coal becomes
+bright red all through it has lost most of its heat. A great deal of
+coal is wasted by filling the fire-box too full and leaving the drafts
+open till the coal is red. To keep a steady fire it is better to add a
+little coal often rather than to add a large quantity and allow it to
+burn out. Never allow dust or cinders to accumulate around a range,
+either inside or out. Learn to open and shut the oven door quietly and
+quickly. Study the amount of fire required to heat the oven to the
+desired temperature. Learn which is the hotter or cooler side of the
+oven, and move the article which is being baked as required, being
+very careful to move it gently.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span></p><h3>Measurements.</h3>
+
+<p>Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As
+there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping
+spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level
+spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and
+the cup is one holding 1/2 pint.</p>
+
+<p>The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Measurements">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>4 cups of flour</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="left">pound</td>
+  <td align="left">or 1 quart.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>2 cups of solid butter</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1/2 cup butter</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1/4</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>2 cups granulated sugar</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>21/2 cups powdered sugar</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>3 cups meal</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 pint of milk or water</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>1 pint chopped meat, packed solidly</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>9 large eggs, 10 medium eggs</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>2 level tablespoonfuls butter</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">ounce.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>4 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align="center">ounces</td>
+  <td align="left">or 1/4 cup.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Butter the size of an egg</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>2 level tablespoonfuls sugar</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>4 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; flour</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>4 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; coffee</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>4 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; powdered sugar</td>
+  <td align="center">=</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align="center">"</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>Table of Abbreviations.</h3>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Abbreviations.">
+<tr><td align='left'>Saltspoon</td><td align='right'>ssp.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tablespoon</td><td align='right'>tbsp.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pint</td><td align='right'>pt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gallon</td><td align='right'> gal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Teaspoon</td><td align='right'> tsp.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cupful</td><td align='right'>cf.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Quart</td><td align='right'> qt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Peck</td><td align='right'>pk.</td></tr>
+</table><br /></div>
+
+<div class="center">A speck (spk.) is what you can put on a quarter inch square surface.</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span></p><h3>Time-table for Cooking.</h3>
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baking Bread, Cakes and Puddings</span>.<br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="70%"  border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Time-table for Baking Bread, Cakes and Puddings">
+<tr><td align='left'>Loaf bread</td><td align='right'>40 to 60 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Graham gems</td><td align='right'>25 to 30 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Sponge cake</td><td align='right'>45 to 60 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cookies</td><td align='right'>10 to 15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rice and tapioca</td><td align='right'>1 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Custards</td><td align='right'>15 to 20 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pastry (thin puff)</td><td align='right'>10 to 15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pie crust</td><td align='right'>25 to 30 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Baked beans</td><td align='right'>6 to 8 hrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Scalloped dishes</td><td align='right'>15 to 20 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Rolls, biscuit</td><td align='right'>10 to 20 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gingerbread</td><td align='right'>25 to 30 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fruit cake</td><td align='right'>2 to 3 hrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Bread pudding</td><td align='right'>1 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Indian pudding</td><td align='right'>2 to 3 hrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Steamed pudding</td><td align='right'>1 to 3 hrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pastry (thick)</td><td align='right'>30 to 50 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes</td><td align='right'>30 to 45 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Braised meat</td><td align='right'>3 to 4 hrs.</td></tr>
+</table><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baking Meats</span>.<br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="70%"  border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Baking meat timetable">
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb.</td><td align='right'>8 to 10 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>12 to 15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb.</td><td align='right'>12 to 15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Beef, fillet, per lb.</td><td align='right'>20 to 30 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mutton, rare, per lb.</td><td align='right'> 10 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mutton, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Lamb, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Veal, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>20 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Pork, well done, per lb.</td><td align='right'>30 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Turkey, 10 lbs. weight</td><td align='right'>2-1/2 hrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chicken, 3 to 4 lbs. weight</td><td align='right'>1 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Goose, 8 lbs.</td><td align='right'>2 hrs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Tame duck</td><td align='right'>1 to 1-1/2 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Game</td><td align='right'>40 to 60 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Grouse</td><td align='right'>30 to 40 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Small birds</td><td align='right'>20 to 25 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Venison, per lb.</td><td align='right'>15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fish, 6 to 8 lbs.</td><td align='right'>1 hr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fish, small</td><td align='right'>30 to 40 m.</td></tr>
+</table><br /></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Vegetables</span> (<span class="smcap">Boiling</span>).<br /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="70%"  border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Boling timetable">
+<tr><td align='left'>Rice, green corn, peas, tomatoes, asparagus (hard boiled eggs)</td><td align='right'>20 to 25 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach2</td><td align='right'>5 to 30 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips, cauliflower</td><td align='right'>30 to 45 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Young cabbage, string beans, shell beans, oyster plant</td><td align='right'>45 to 60 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy and wheat</td><td align='right'> 1 to 2 hrs.</td></tr>
+</table><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Frying</span> (<span class="smcap">Deep</span>).<br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="70%"  border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Deep frying timetable">
+<tr><td align='left'>Smelts, croquettes, fish balls</td><td align='right'>1 to&nbsp; 2 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Muffins, fritters, doughnuts</td><td align='right'>4 to&nbsp; 6 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fish, breaded chops</td><td align='right'> 5 to&nbsp; 7 m.</td></tr>
+</table><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiling</span>.<br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Broiling timetable">
+<tr><td align='left'>Steak, 1 inch thick</td><td align='right'> 6 to&nbsp; 8 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Steak, 1-1/2 inch thick</td><td align='right'> 8 to 10 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fish, small</td><td align='right'> 6 to&nbsp; 8 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fish, thick</td><td align='right'>12 to 15 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chops</td><td align='right'> 8 to 10 m.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Chicken</td><td align='right'>20 m.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<h3>Table of Proportions.</h3>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 qt. of liquid to 3 qts. of flour for bread.</li>
+<li>1 qt. of liquid to 2 qts. of flour for muffins.</li>
+<li>1 qt. of liquid to 1 qt. of flour for batters.</li>
+<li>1 cup of yeast (1 yeast cake) to 1 qt. of liquid.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of soda (level), 3 of cream tartar to 1 qt. of flour.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of sour milk.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of soda to 1 cup of molasses.</li>
+<li>4 tsps. of baking powder to 1 qt. of flour.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of salt to 1 qt. of soup stock.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. of salt to 1 loaf of cake.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. of each vegetable, chopped, to 1 qt. of stock.</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tbsp. of flour to 1 qt. of stock for thickening soup.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. of flour to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of salt to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.</li>
+<li>4 tbsps. (level) cornstarch to 1 pt. of milk (to mould).</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of salt to 2 qts. of flour for biscuits, etc.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p><h3>Methods for Flour Mixtures.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">STIRRING.</div>
+
+<p>Stirring is simply blending two or more materials by moving the spoon
+round and round until smooth and of the proper consistency.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">BEATING.</div>
+
+<p>Beating is bringing the spoon up through the mixture with a quick
+movement so as to entangle as much air as possible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">CUTTING <span class="smcap">or</span> FOLDING.</div>
+
+<p>Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white of egg to a mixture
+without breaking the air bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture
+over and over as in folding. Do not stir or beat.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="RECIPES" id="RECIPES"></a>RECIPES.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="BATTERS_BISCUITS_AND_BREAD" id="BATTERS_BISCUITS_AND_BREAD"></a>BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Popovers</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>2 cups of flour.</li>
+<li>3 eggs.</li>
+<li>2 cups of milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p>Beat the eggs (without separating) until very light, then add the milk
+and salt; pour this mixture on the flour (slowly), beating all the
+while. Beat until smooth and light, about five minutes. Grease gem
+pans or small cups, and bake in a moderately hot oven about
+thirty-five minutes. They should increase to four times their original
+size. (This recipe may be divided for class work.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pancakes</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint of flour.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. of melted butter.</li>
+<li>1 pint of milk.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>2 tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p>Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately; add the yolks to the
+milk, then the melted butter; salt. Sift the baking powder and flour
+together, add slowly to the liquid, stir until smooth. Lastly, add the
+whites of the eggs. These may be cooked in waffle irons or on a
+griddle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pancakes with Buttermilk</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint of buttermilk.</li>
+<li>Flour to make a medium batter.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p>Crush the soda, add it and the salt to the buttermilk, add the flour
+gradually, beat until the batter is smooth, and bake on a hot griddle.
+An egg may be added.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cornmeal Griddle Cakes</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint of Indian meal.</li>
+<li>1 cup of flour.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>3 eggs.</li>
+<li>4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1 pint of milk.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p>Put the meal into a bowl, and pour over it just enough boiling water
+to scald it; do not make it soft; let stand until cool. Then add the
+milk; beat the eggs until very light, add them to the batter, add the
+flour and salt in which the baking powder has been sifted. Mix well,
+beat vigorously for a minute or two, and bake on a hot griddle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread Griddle Cakes</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. of salt.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. of soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.</li>
+<li>3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1/2 pt. stale bread crumbs.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>Flour to make a thin batter.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p>Soak the bread in the milk for one hour, then beat it smooth. Beat the
+eggs separately till very light, add first the yolks, then the flour
+and salt and baking powder. Beat again, add the whites, and bake
+quickly on a hot griddle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Buckwheat Cakes</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. boiling water.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup white flour.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. soda.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup corn or Graham meal.</li>
+<li>1/4 yeast cake.</li>
+<li>1 cup buckwheat flour.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p>Pour the boiling water on the corn or Graham meal, add the salt, and
+when lukewarm add the flour, beat until smooth, then add the yeast.
+Let it rise over night. In the morning add the soda just before baking
+(milk may be used instead of water). A tablespoonful of molasses is
+sometimes added in order to make the cakes a darker brown.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fritters</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Beat two eggs together until light, add to them 1 cup of milk, 1/2
+tsp. salt and sufficient flour to make a batter that will drop from
+the spoon. Beat until smooth. Have ready a deep pan of hot fat; add 3
+(l.) tsps. of baking powder to the batter, mix thoroughly and drop by
+spoonfuls into the hot fat. When brown on one side turn and brown on
+the other; take out with a skimmer and serve very hot. Do not pierce
+with a fork as it allows the steam to escape and makes the fritter
+heavy.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Gems&mdash;Whole Wheat or Graham Gems</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>2 cups of whole wheat flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li>
+<li>2 eggs, beaten separately.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1 cup water.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix flour, salt and sugar. Beat the eggs until light, add the milk and
+water, stir this into the dry mixture. Bake in hot gem pans for 30
+minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Corn Muffins</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup cornmeal.</li>
+<li>1 cup flour.</li>
+<li>1-1/4 cups milk.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix all the dry ingredients together. Melt the butter in a hot cup.
+Beat the egg till light. Add the milk to it and turn this mixture into
+the bowl containing the dry ingredients. Add the melted butter and
+beat vigorously and quickly. Pour into buttered muffin or gem pans,
+and bake for one-half hour in a moderate oven.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Quick Muffins or Gems</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li>
+<li>1 oz. butter.</li>
+<li>3 cups of flour.</li>
+<li>4 tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>3 eggs.</li></ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p><p>Beat the eggs separately till light, add the yolks to the milk, then
+the flour, which must be more or less, according to the quality. The
+batter must be thin and pour from the spoon. Now add the melted butter
+and salt; give the whole a vigorous beating. Now add the baking powder
+and the well beaten whites, stir till thoroughly mixed. Bake in muffin
+rings in a quick oven or on the griddle.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tea Biscuit.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of flour.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. lard or butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. sugar.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix thoroughly in a sieve the flour, sugar, salt and baking powder,
+and rub through the sieve. Rub the butter or lard into this mixture.
+Now add the milk, stirring quickly with a strong spoon. Sprinkle the
+board with flour, turn out the dough upon it. Roll to the thickness of
+about 1/2 inch, cut with a small cutter. Bake in a quick oven. Do not
+crowd the biscuit in the pan. They should bake from 10 to 15 minutes.
+(All biscuit doughs should be mixed as soft as it is possible to
+handle. Sour milk may be used in this recipe by substituting soda for
+the baking powder.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hot Corn Bread.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 qt. of cornmeal.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of salt.</li>
+<li>1 pt. sour milk or buttermilk.</li>
+<li>1 oz. of butter.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of soda.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the cornmeal in a large bowl and pour over it just enough boiling
+water to scald it through. Let it stand until cold, then add the eggs
+well beaten, the milk or buttermilk, salt, and butter (melted); beat
+thoroughly. Dissolve the soda in two tbsps. of boiling water, stir
+into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> the mixture, turn quickly into a greased square, shallow pan,
+put into a hot oven and bake 40 minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Shortcakes.</span></div>
+
+<div class="center">(<i>Suitable for strawberries or any sweetened fruit.</i>)</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li>
+<li>1 cup sweet or sour milk.</li>
+<li>1/4 cup butter.</li>
+<li>2-1/2 tsps. baking powder, or 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix the salt, soda, cream tartar or baking powder with the flour,
+sift; rub in the butter until fine like meal. Add the liquid
+gradually, mixing with a knife, and use just enough to make it of a
+light spongy consistency. Turn the dough out on a well floured board,
+pat lightly into a flat cake and roll gently till half inch thick.
+Bake either in a spider or pie plate in the oven; split, butter, and
+spread with the fruit.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Doughnuts.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 egg</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. melted butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cream tartar.</li>
+<li>Flour enough to make into a soft dough.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. cinnamon.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix all the dry ingredients, beat the egg until light, add to this the
+milk, sugar and melted butter. Pour into the flour, mixing carefully
+into a soft dough. Have the board well floured. Roll only a large
+spoonful at a time. Cut into the desired shape and drop into hot fat.
+The fat should be hot enough for the dough to rise to the top
+instantly.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="BREAD" id="BREAD"></a>BREAD.</h2>
+
+<p>As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it
+naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject
+upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A
+knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII)
+must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained.
+The first element to consider is the <i>yeast</i>, and the generating of
+carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous.</p>
+
+<p>Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth produced from grain which has
+commenced to bud or sprout, and which forms the substance called
+diastase. This substance has the power to convert starch into sugar.
+(See Chap. VII for effect of yeast upon flour.)</p>
+
+<p>The temperature at which fermentation takes place, and when to check
+it, are important features of bread-making.</p>
+
+<p>The liquid (milk or water) should be tepid when mixed, as too great
+heat destroys the growth of the yeast. The dough should rise in a
+temperature of 75&deg;. After fermentation has become active the
+temperature may be gradually lowered&mdash;as in setting bread over
+night&mdash;without injury.</p>
+
+<p>Avoid a cold draft or sudden change of temperature, as it checks
+fermentation and affects the flavor.</p>
+
+<p>Never allow bread to rise until it "settles," or runs over the side of
+the bowl. The usual rule is to let it rise until it is double in bulk,
+both in the bowl and after it is put into the pans. If it is not
+convenient to bake the bread when ready, it may be kneaded again and
+kept<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> in a cool place, to prevent souring. Bread should be mixed in a
+stone or granite bowl.</p>
+
+<p>The only necessary ingredients for bread are water, flour, salt, and
+yeast. Sugar may be added to restore the natural sweetness of the
+flour which has been lost during fermentation, but it is not
+necessary. If milk is used, and the bread well kneaded, no other
+shortening is required; but with water, the addition of a little
+butter or dripping makes the bread more tender, therefore it is more
+easily penetrated by the digestive fluids. Tough, leathery bread is
+not easily digested, no matter how light it may be. As already stated,
+by the action of heat the ferment is killed, the starch-grains
+ruptured, the gas carried off, and the crust formed. In order that
+bread may be thoroughly cooked, and plenty of crust formed, each loaf
+should be baked in a pan about 4 inches deep, 4 to 6 inches wide, and
+from 8 to 12 inches long. Smaller loaves are even more desirable. It
+is very difficult to bake a large loaf so as to insure the escape of
+all the carbonic acid gas, and to cook the starch sufficiently without
+injuring the crust, besides entailing an unnecessary waste of fuel.
+The custom of baking several loaves together in one large pan is
+contrary to all scientific rules of bread-making. The oven should be
+hot enough to brown a spoonful of flour in five minutes, for bread.
+The dough should rise during the first fifteen minutes, then begin to
+brown; keep the heat steady for the next fifteen or twenty minutes,
+then decrease it. If the oven is too hot a hard crust will form and
+prevent the dough from rising, which will not only cause the bread to
+be heavy, but will prevent the gas from escaping. If, on the other
+hand, the oven is not hot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> enough, the bread will go on rising until
+it becomes sour. A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from
+fifty-five to sixty minutes to bake, and should give a hollow sound,
+if tapped, when removed from the oven. Better take too long than not
+long enough, as doughy bread is most objectionable and unwholesome. If
+the crust is beginning to burn, cover the loaf with brown paper, and
+reduce the heat, but have a brown crust, not a whity-brown, which is
+usually hard and without flavor. Upon removing the loaves from the
+pans, place them on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never
+leave warm bread on a pine table, or where it will absorb odors.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread Made with Water</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>2 quarts flour.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li>
+<li>1 pint lukewarm water.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter, dripping or lard.</li>
+<li>1/2 cake compressed yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup water.</li></ul>
+
+<div class="center">(This recipe is for Manitoba flour. A little more fine flour would be
+necessary.)</div>
+
+<p>Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a large bowl, pour
+on the warm water, stir until they are dissolved. Add the flour
+gradually until it forms a thin batter, then add the yeast; beat
+vigorously for at least five minutes. Add more flour until the dough
+is stiff enough to knead. Turn out on the board and knead for half
+hour. Cover and let rise until double its bulk. Form into separate
+loaves, put into the pans, cover, and let rise again till double its
+bulk. Bake in a hot oven about an hour. (Milk or half milk may be
+substituted in this recipe.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread (with a sponge).</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup yeast or 1/2 yeast cake.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 pt. water.</li>
+<li>About 2 qts. flour.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the butter, sugar and salt in the mixing bowl, add 1/4 cup boiling
+water to dissolve them; then add enough lukewarm water to make a pint,
+3 cups of flour, then the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in 1/4
+cup tepid water). Give it a vigorous beating, cover, and let it rise
+over night. In the morning add flour to make it stiff enough to knead.
+Knead for 1/2 hour. Cover closely, let it rise till it doubles its
+bulk; shape into loaves; let it rise again in the pans; bake as
+directed in previous recipe.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Whole Wheat or Graham Bread.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. milk, scalded and cooled.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>2 cups white flour.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 yeast cake or 1/2 cup yeast.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix in the same order as given in previous recipes. Whole wheat flour
+makes a softer dough, consequently does not require so much kneading,
+otherwise it should be treated the same as other bread, allowing it a
+little longer time for baking; if too moist, a cupful of white flour
+may be added.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Yeast.</span></div>
+
+<p>Steep 1/2 cup of loose hops in 1 quart of boiling water, in a granite
+kettle, 5 minutes. Mix 1 cup of flour, 1/4 of a cup sugar and 1 tbsp.
+salt. Strain the hop liquor and pour it boiling into the flour
+mixture. Boil 1 minute, or till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast.
+Cover and set in a warm place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>
+hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more than half full,
+and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled potatoes may be mashed
+smoothly and added to this yeast if desired.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SAUCES_AND_MILK_SOUPS" id="SAUCES_AND_MILK_SOUPS"></a>SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">White Sauce.</span></div>
+
+<div class="center">(<i>For Vegetables, Eggs, etc.</i>)</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. milk.</li>
+<li>4 (l.) tbsps. flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. white pepper.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Heat the milk over hot water. Put the butter in a granite saucepan and
+stir till it melts, being careful not to brown. Add the dry flour, and
+stir quickly till well mixed. Add the milk gradually, stirring
+carefully (especially from the sides) until perfectly smooth. Let it
+boil until it thickens, then add salt and pepper.</p>
+
+<p>In using this sauce for creamed oysters, add 1/2 tsp. of celery salt,
+a few grains of cayenne pepper, and a tsp. of lemon juice.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Drawn Butter Sauce.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. hot water or stock.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li>
+<li>4 (l.) tbsps. flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted add the dry flour, and mix
+well. Add the hot water or stock a little at a time, and stir rapidly
+till it thickens; when smooth add the salt and pepper. Be careful to
+have all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> sauces free from lumps. (Hard boiled eggs may be added to
+this sauce for baked or boiled fish. Two tbsps. of chopped parsley may
+be added if parsley sauce is desired.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Brown Sauce</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. hot stock.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. lemon juice.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. minced onions.</li>
+<li>4 tbsps. flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li>
+<li>Caramel enough to color.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mince the onion and fry it in the butter 5 minutes. Be careful not to
+burn it. When the butter is browned add the dry flour, and stir well.
+Add the hot stock a little at a time; stir rapidly until it thickens
+and is perfectly smooth. Add the salt and pepper. Simmer 5 minutes,
+and strain to remove the onion.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Caramel for Coloring Soups and Sauces</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Melt 1 cup of sugar with 1 tbsp. of water in a frying-pan. Stir until
+it becomes of a dark brown color. Add 1 cup of boiling water, simmer
+10 minutes, and bottle when cool. This coloring is useful for many
+purposes, and is more wholesome than browned butter.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mock Bisque Soup</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. stewed tomatoes.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 pt. milk.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, put the remainder on to cook in a
+stew-pan. Mix the flour with the cold milk,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> and stir into the boiling
+milk. Cook for 10 minutes, then add the salt, pepper and butter. Stir
+the soda into the hot tomatoes and stir 1/2 minute, then rub through a
+strainer. Add the strained tomatoes to the thickened milk, and serve
+at once.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potato Soup</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>4 potatoes, medium size.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. minced celery.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. of flour.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. of pepper.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. minced parsley.</li>
+<li>1-1/2 pints of milk.</li>
+<li>4 tbsps. minced onions.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of salt.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. of butter.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Pare the potatoes, place on the fire in enough boiling water to cover,
+and cook for 30 minutes. Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder in
+the double boiler with the onion and celery and place on the fire. Mix
+the cold milk with the flour and stir into the boiling milk. When the
+potatoes are cooked pour off the water, mash them until fine and
+light. Gradually beat into them the milk; now add salt, pepper and
+butter, and rub the soup through a sieve. Return to the fire and add
+the minced parsley; simmer for 5 minutes and serve immediately. (The
+parsley may be omitted and celery salt substituted for the minced
+celery.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Celery Soup</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 head celery.</li>
+<li>1 pint milk.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 pint water.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. chopped onion.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash and scrape the celery, cut into 1/2 inch pieces, put it into the
+pint of boiling salted water and cook until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> very soft. Mash in the
+water in which it was boiled. Cook the onion with the milk in a double
+boiler 10 minutes and add it to the celery. Rub all through a strainer
+and put on to boil again. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the
+flour and cook until smooth, but not brown, then stir it into the
+boiling soup. Add the salt and pepper; simmer 5 minutes and strain
+into the tureen. Serve very hot.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="EGGS" id="EGGS"></a>EGGS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>While eggs are nutritious and valuable as food they should not be used
+too freely, as they are a highly concentrated form of food. The
+albumen (white) of egg is one of the most valuable tissue builders.
+Much depends upon the manner in which they are cooked. Eggs fried in
+fat or hard boiled are very indigestible. Do not use an egg until it
+has been laid some hours, as the white does not become thick till then
+and cannot be beaten stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place,
+and handled carefully in order to avoid mixing the white and yolk,
+which causes the egg to spoil quickly.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Eggs</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Have the water boiling in a saucepan. Put in the eggs and move to the
+back of the stove where the water will keep hot, about 175 or 180 F.,
+for from 8 to 10 minutes. If the back of the stove is too hot, move to
+the hearth. The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, the
+yolks soft but not liquid. An egg to be cooked soft should never be
+cooked in boiling water.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hard Boiled Eggs.</span></div>
+
+<p>Cook eggs for 20 minutes in water just below the boiling point. The
+yolk of an egg cooked 10 minutes is tough and indigestible; 20 minutes
+will make it dry and mealy, when it is more easily penetrated by the
+gastric fluid.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Poached Eggs</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Have a clean, shallow pan nearly full of salted and boiling water.
+Remove the scum and let the water just simmer. Break each egg
+carefully into a saucer and slip it gently into the water. Dip the
+water over it with the end of the spoon, and when a film has formed
+over the yolk and the white is like a soft jelly, take up with a
+skimmer and place on a piece of neatly trimmed toast. This is the most
+wholesome way of cooking eggs for serving with ham or bacon.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Omelet</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Beat the yolks of two eggs, add two tbsps. of milk, 1 ssp. of salt and
+1/4 of a ssp. of pepper. Beat the whites till stiff and dry. Cut and
+fold them into the yolks till just covered. Have a clean, smooth
+omelet pan (or spider). When hot, rub well with a teaspoonful of
+butter; see that the butter is all over the pan, turn in the omelet
+and spread evenly on the pan. Cook until slightly browned underneath,
+being careful not to let it burn; set in a hot oven until dry on top.
+When dry throughout, run a knife round the edge, tip the pan to one
+side, fold the omelet and turn out on a hot platter. This may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> made
+by beating the whites and yolks together for a plain omelet. A little
+chopped parsley, a little fine grated onion, a tbsp. or two of chopped
+ham, veal or chicken may be spread on the omelet before folding.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cup Custards</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li>
+<li>1/4 cup of sugar.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the eggs until light, then add the sugar; beat again, add the
+milk and nutmeg, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into custard
+cups, stand the cups in a pan of boiling water and then put the pan in
+the oven. Bake until the custards are set, or until a knife may be
+slipped into the centre without anything adhering to it. When done,
+take them out of the water and stand away to cool. (This custard may
+be poured into a baking dish and baked in a quick oven until firm in
+the centre.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Custard</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the milk on in the double boiler, beat the sugar and yolks of eggs
+together until light, then stir them into the boiling milk; stir until
+it begins to thicken, then take it from the fire; add the vanilla and
+stand aside to cool. When cool, pour into a glass dish. Beat the
+whites until stiff, add three tbsps. of powdered sugar gradually. Heap
+them on a dinner plate and stand in the oven a moment until slightly
+brown, then loosen from the plate, slip off gently on top of the
+custard; serve very cold.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="FRUIT" id="FRUIT"></a>FRUIT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>If people would only realize the value of fruit in its natural state,
+much of the time devoted to the preparation of pies, puddings, etc.,
+would be saved. All uncooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and
+served fresh and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when
+the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when in its natural
+state, therefore a few simple recipes for cooking fruit are given.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Applesauce</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. Make a syrup with 1/2 cup
+of sugar, 1/2 cup of water, and a little grated lemon peel. When
+boiling, add the apples and cook carefully till they are just tender,
+but not broken. Remove them carefully, boil the syrup down a little
+and pour it over the apples. (For serving with roast goose, etc., cook
+the apples in a little water, mash until smooth, add sugar to taste.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Coddled Apples</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Pare tart apples of uniform size; remove the cores without breaking
+the apples. Stand them in the bottom of a granite kettle, sprinkle
+thickly with sugar, cover the bottom of the kettle with boiling water,
+cover closely and allow the apples to steam on the back part of the
+stove till tender. Lift carefully without breaking, pour the syrup
+over them and stand away to cool (delicious served with whipped
+cream).</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Prunes</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wash carefully and soak in water an hour before cooking, put them into
+a porcelain or granite kettle, cover with boiling water and let them
+simmer until tender. Add a tbsp. of sugar for each pint of prunes, and
+boil a few moments longer.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cranberries</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Put 1 pint of cranberries in a granite saucepan, 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup
+of water. After they begin to boil cook 10 minutes, closely covered.
+(This may be pressed through a sieve while hot, removing the skins, if
+desired for a mould.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Rhubarb</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wash the rhubarb (if young and tender it will not be necessary to
+remove the skin), cut into pieces about 1 inch long. To every lb. of
+rhubarb allow 1 lb. of sugar. Put the rhubarb into a porcelain or
+granite kettle, cover with the sugar, and stand on the back part of
+the fire until the sugar melts. Move forward, let simmer for a few
+minutes without stirring, turn it out carefully to cool.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Pears</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Take large, sweet pears, wipe them but do not remove the stems. Stand
+them in an earthen baking dish, pour around them a cup of boiling
+water, add 2 tbsps. sugar, cover with another dish and bake slowly
+until the pears are tender, basting occasionally with the liquor. When
+done, stand away to cool in the dish in which they were baked. When
+cold put them into a glass dish, pour the liquor over them and serve.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Apples.</span></div>
+
+<p>Pare and core, without breaking, tart apples. Put them into a shallow
+earthen dish, fill the cavities with sugar, add water to cover the
+bottom of the dish. Bake in a quick oven till soft, basting often with
+the syrup. (Quinces may be baked in the same way.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="VEGETABLES" id="VEGETABLES"></a>VEGETABLES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Vegetables should be used very freely, as they contain saline
+substances which counteract the effect of too much meat, and are the
+chief source of mineral supply for the body. In cooking vegetables, a
+common rule is to add salt, while cooking, to all classes growing
+above ground (including onions), and to omit salt in the cooking of
+vegetables growing underground. In cooking vegetables care must be
+taken to preserve the flavor, and to prevent the waste of mineral
+matter.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cabbage.</span></div>
+
+<p>Cut a small head of cabbage in quarters, soak in cold water 1 hour,
+drain and shake dry. Remove the stalk, or hard part, and chop the
+remainder rather fine. Put it into a stew-pan with enough boiling
+water to cover, and boil 20 minutes. Drain in a colander. Turn into a
+hot dish, and pour over it cream sauce or a little melted butter,
+pepper and salt.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cauliflower.</span></div>
+
+<p>Pick off the outside leaves, soak in cold salted water, top downwards,
+for 1 hour. Tie it round with a piece of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> twine to prevent breaking.
+Cook in boiling salted water until tender, remove the string, turn
+into a hot dish with the top up, cover with cream sauce or drawn
+butter sauce. (When cold, it may be picked to pieces and served in a
+salad.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Celery.</span></div>
+
+<p>Scrape clean and cut the stalks into 2-inch pieces: cook in salted
+water until tender, drain and cover with a white sauce. The sauce
+should be made with the water in which the celery has been stewed.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Beets.</span></div>
+
+<p>Wash, but do not cut them, as that injures the color. Cook in boiling
+water until tender. When cooked put them into a pan of cold water and
+rub off the skins. They may be cut in slices and served hot with
+pepper, butter and salt, or sliced, covered with vinegar, and served
+cold. They may be cut into dice and served as a salad, either alone or
+mixed with potatoes and other vegetables.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beans (Dried).</span></div>
+
+<p>Lima beans should be soaked in warm water over night. In the morning
+drain off this water and cover with fresh warm water. Two hours before
+needed drain, cover with boiling water and boil 30 minutes; drain
+again, cover with fresh boiling water, and boil until tender. Add a
+teaspoonful of salt while they are boiling. When cooked drain them,
+add a little butter, pepper and salt, or a cream sauce.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Asparagus.</span></div>
+
+<p>Wash the asparagus well in cold water, reject the tough parts, tie in
+a bunch or cut into pieces 1 inch long. Put it in a kettle, cover with
+boiling water, and boil until tender. Put it in a colander to drain.
+Serve with melted butter, pepper and salt, or with a cream or drawn
+butter sauce.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Onions.</span></div>
+
+<p>Scald in boiling water, then remove the skins. Put them in boiling
+salted water; when they have boiled 10 minutes, change the water. Boil
+until tender but not until broken. Drain and serve with either cream
+sauce or butter, pepper and salt.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Wash and scrub with a brush. If old, soak in cold water after paring.
+Put them in boiling water, when about half cooked add a tbsp. of salt.
+Cook until soft but not broken. Drain carefully. Expose the potatoes
+for a minute to a current of air, then cover and place on the back of
+the stove to keep hot, allowing the steam to escape.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice Potatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Press the cooked potatoes through a coarse strainer into the dish in
+which they are to be served.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mashed Potatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>To 1 pint of hot boiled potatoes, add 1 tbsp. butter, 1/2 tsp. of
+salt, 1/2 ssp. of white pepper and hot milk or cream to moisten. Mash
+in the kettle in which they were boiled, beat with a fork until they
+are light and creamy. Turn lightly into a dish.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potato Puffs.</span></div>
+
+<p>Prepare as for mashed potatoes, adding a little chopped parsley or
+celery salt if the flavor is liked. Beat 2 eggs, yolks and whites
+separately. Stir the beaten whites in carefully, shape into smooth
+balls or cones, brush lightly with the beaten yolks, and bake in a
+moderately hot oven until brown.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Creamed Potatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in a shallow pan,
+cover with milk and cook until the potatoes have absorbed nearly all
+the milk. To 1 pint of potatoes, add 1 tbsp. of butter, 1/2 tsp. of
+salt, 1/2 ssp. of pepper and a little chopped parsley or onion.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Potatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Select smooth potatoes of uniform size, wash and scrub well. Bake in a
+hot oven about 45 minutes or until soft. Break the skin or puncture
+with a fork to let the steam escape and serve at once. This is the
+most wholesome method of cooking potatoes, as the mineral matter is
+retained.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fried Potatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Pare, wash and cut into slices or quarters. Soak in cold salted water,
+drain and dry between towels. Have sufficient fat in a kettle to more
+than cover the potatoes. When it is very hot drop the potatoes in, a
+few at a time, so as not to reduce the heat of the fat too quickly.
+When brown, which should be in about 4 or 5 minutes for quarters and
+about 2 minutes if sliced, drain and sprinkle with salt.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tomatoes (Raw).</span></div>
+
+<p>Scald and peel sometime before using, place on ice, and serve with
+salt, sugar and vinegar, or with a salad dressing.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Scalloped Tomatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Scald and peel as many tomatoes as required. Butter a deep dish and
+sprinkle with fine bread or cracker crumbs, then a layer of sliced
+tomato, over this sprinkle a little salt, pepper and sugar; then add a
+layer of bread crumbs, another of tomatoes, sprinkle again with salt,
+pepper and sugar: put bread crumbs on the top, moisten with a little
+melted butter, and bake until brown.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Tomatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, remove the skins and the hard
+green stem, cut into quarters or slices and stew in a granite kettle
+until the pulp is soft, add salt, pepper, butter and a little sugar if
+desired. If too thin the tomato may be thickened with crumbs or
+cornstarch wet in a little cold water.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Spinach.</span></div>
+
+<p>Pick over carefully, discarding all decayed leaves. Wash thoroughly,
+then place in a pan of cold water, let stand for a few minutes. Drain
+and put in a large kettle with just enough water to keep it from
+burning. Cook very slowly until tender. Drain and chop fine, add 1
+tbsp. of butter, a tsp. of salt, a ssp. of pepper. It may be served on
+toast (hot) or garnished with hard boiled eggs.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Carrots and Turnips.</span></div>
+
+<p>Carrots as a vegetable for the table are more palatable when young and
+tender. They should be washed and scraped, boiled until tender, and
+served with butter, pepper and salt or a white sauce. Turnips contain
+little nutriment; having no starch, they are very suitable for eating
+with potatoes. They require more salt than any other vegetable, and
+should be served with fat meat, corned beef, roast pork or mutton.
+Turnips should be washed, pared, cut into slices or strips, boiled
+until tender. Drain, mash and season with pepper and salt.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Peas (Green).</span></div>
+
+<p>Wash the pods, which should be green, crisp and plump, before
+shelling, then the peas will not require washing. Put the peas into a
+strainer or colander and shake out all the fine particles. Boil until
+tender. When nearly done add the salt. Use little water in cooking,
+when they may be served without draining; season with a little butter,
+pepper and salt. If drained, serve either dry with butter, pepper and
+salt, or with a white sauce.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Green Sweet Corn.</span></div>
+
+<p>Remove the husk and silky fibre, cover with boiling water (the flavor
+is improved by adding a few of the clean inner husks) and cook, if
+young and tender, from 10 to 15 minutes. Try a kernel and take up the
+corn as soon as the milk has thickened and the raw taste is
+destroyed.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SALADS" id="SALADS"></a>SALADS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">French Dressing.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>3 tbsps. of olive oil.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. of salt.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. vinegar.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. of pepper or speck of cayenne.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix these ingredients together and serve. This makes a particularly
+good dressing for lettuce or vegetable salads.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Salad Dressing.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 cup vinegar.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. sugar.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup cream.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. mustard.</li>
+<li>A speck of cayenne pepper.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the eggs well, mix the sugar, salt, mustard and pepper together,
+add to the beaten eggs, then add the vinegar. Place the saucepan on
+the range in a pan of boiling water. Stir constantly until the
+dressing becomes thick and light. Take from the fire and turn into a
+cold bowl at once to prevent curdling. Beat the cream to a thick froth
+and stir it into the cold dressing. (When cream is not available use
+the same quantity of milk, previously thickened to the consistency of
+cream with a little cornstarch, add a tsp. of butter; when cold, add
+to the dressing.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mayonnaise Dressing.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 pt. of olive oil.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. mustard.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>Yolks of 2 uncooked eggs.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. lemon juice.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. vinegar.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. sugar.</li>
+<li>A speck of cayenne.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the yolks of the eggs into a cold bowl, stir in the dry
+ingredients, beat well, using a silver or small wooden spoon. Then add
+the oil, drop by drop. When the mixture<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> gets so thick that it is
+difficult to stir, add a few drops of the vinegar to thin it. Continue
+stirring in the oil and vinegar alternately until all are used, when
+it should be very thick; add the lemon juice last and beat for a few
+minutes longer; a cupful of whipped cream may be stirred into this
+dressing before using. (The following rules must be observed in order
+to insure success: (1) to beat the yolks and dry ingredients until
+thick; (2) to add the oil only in drops at first; (3) always beat or
+stir in one direction, reversing the motion is apt to curdle the
+dressing.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lettuce Salad.</span></div>
+
+<p>Choose crisp, fresh lettuce, wash clean, let it remain for a little
+time in cold or ice water, drain thoroughly, break or tear the leaves
+into convenient pieces, dress with a French or cooked dressing; serve
+at once, cold.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Potato Salad.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. cold boiled potatoes.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup cooked dressing. Or the French dressing, as given.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. finely chopped onion.</li>
+<li>1 sp. pepper.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Cut the potatoes into pieces about the size of dice, mix the
+seasonings with the potatoes, turn into a dish in alternate layers of
+potatoes and dressing, having a little dressing on top. Garnish with
+parsley, and allow to stand at least an hour in a cold place before
+serving, so that the potatoes may absorb the seasoning. (Cold boiled
+beets cut into cubes may be added in alternate layers with the
+potatoes in this recipe, using a little more dressing.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tomato Salad.</span></div>
+
+<p>Peel the tomatoes (without scalding) and put them on ice until very
+cold, have crisp leaves of lettuce which have been washed and dried.
+When ready to serve, cut the tomatoes in halves, place one-half on a
+leaf of lettuce (the curly leaves being the best), on this put a tbsp.
+of mayonnaise or cooked dressing, and serve immediately.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cabbage Salad.</span></div>
+
+<p>Cabbage or celery may be used as a salad by cutting rather fine,
+allowing it to get cold and crisp, and serving with a cooked or French
+dressing. Indeed almost any vegetable may be used for a salad. String
+beans, asparagus, cauliflower, which have been cooked, are suitable
+for salad, either alone or in combination with nasturtium, cress, hard
+boiled eggs, etc.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Chicken Salad.</span></div>
+
+<p>One pint each of cold boiled or roasted chicken and celery. Cut the
+chicken into 1/4-inch dice, scrape, wash and cut the celery into dice,
+put the celery in a napkin and lay on the ice for 10 or 12 minutes;
+season the chicken with vinegar, salt, pepper and oil (or the French
+dressing-oil may be omitted if the flavor is not agreeable,
+substituting cream or melted butter). Add the celery to the seasoned
+chicken, add half the dressing (using either a cooked or mayonnaise),
+heap in a dish, add the remainder of the dressing, garnish with the
+tiny bleached celery leaves or small curly lettuce leaves. (A few
+capers and a hard boiled egg may be used as a garnish if desired.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p><p>In summer the chicken may be served on a tender lettuce leaf, adding a
+spoonful of dressing, and serving very cold.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fruit Salad.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>4 oranges.</li>
+<li>1 cup water.</li>
+<li>1/4 package gelatine.</li>
+<li>4 bananas.</li>
+<li>Juice of 2 lemons.</li>
+<li>1-1/2 cup sugar.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve the gelatine in the water, add the sugar and lemon juice,
+strain and pour over the oranges and bananas, which have been peeled
+and sliced and placed in alternate layers in a mould. Set away to
+cool. When needed, turn out and serve. Garnish with Malaga grapes,
+cherries, currants, or any suitable fruit.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CEREALS" id="CEREALS"></a>CEREALS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>All cereals require thorough cooking, because of the starch in them,
+also to soften the woody fibre. No matter what the cereal product may
+be, it should be cooked not less than three-quarters of an hour, and
+better if cooked longer.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Oatmeal Porridge.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of boiling water.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup of oatmeal.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Be sure to have the water boiling. Sprinkle in the oatmeal slowly,
+stirring all the time. Add the salt, and move back or set in a vessel
+of boiling water where it will cook gently for 1 hour. Do not stir the
+porridge after the first 5 minutes.</p>
+
+<p>All porridge (or mush) is made on the same principle.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cracked Wheat</span></div>
+
+<p>Should be cooked at least 4 or 5 hours.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cornmeal</span></div>
+
+<p>Should be cooked an hour or more.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wash 1 cup of rice. Have 2 quarts of water, with 1 tbsp. salt, boiling
+rapidly. Sprinkle in the rice gradually, when you have it all in cover
+the kettle and boil 20 minutes. If too thick add a little boiling
+water. Test the grains, and the moment they are soft, and before the
+starch begins to cloud the water, pour into a colander to drain. Stand
+it in the oven a few minutes to dry, leaving the door open. Turn
+carefully into a heated dish and serve without a cover. (Do not stir
+the rice while cooking.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice Croquettes</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint of milk.</li>
+<li>4 (l.) tbsps. of sugar.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup raisins.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup of rice.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li>
+<li>Yolks of two eggs.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice and put it into the boiling milk in a double boiler.
+Cook until very thick; add the yolks of the eggs and the sugar, beat
+thoroughly. Take from the fire, add the vanilla and the fruit, which
+has been well floured. Turn out on a dish to cool, when cold form in
+pyramids or cylinders; dip first in beaten egg, then in fine bread
+crumbs and fry in deep, boiling fat. Put a little jelly on the top of
+each croquette, dust the whole with powdered sugar, and serve with
+vanilla sauce or cream and sugar.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Rice</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wash 1/2 cup of rice, turn into a buttered pudding dish, add 2 tbsps.
+sugar, grate 1/4 of a small nutmeg, add 1 qt. of milk, bake slowly for
+at least 1-1/2 hour.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Farina</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint of milk.</li>
+<li>3 level tbsps. of farina.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the milk in the double boiler, when the milk boils add the salt,
+then sprinkle in the farina, stirring all the while; beat the mixture
+well and cook for 30 minutes. Serve with cream and sugar. (This may be
+made into a pudding by adding an egg, 2 tbsps. sugar, 1/2 tsp.
+vanilla, baking in the oven until brown.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="MACARONI" id="MACARONI"></a>MACARONI.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Macaroni is quite as valuable as bread for food, and should be used
+very freely.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Macaroni</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni in pieces about 2 inches long. Have boiling water,
+add a tsp. of salt; throw in the macaroni and boil rapidly 30 minutes,
+put it into a colander to drain, return to the kettle, rub a tbsp. of
+butter and flour together until smooth, add either milk or water until
+the sauce is as thick as rich cream. Cook it a few minutes before
+pouring over the macaroni, and serve (add salt to taste).</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni with Tomato Sauce</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/4 lb. macaroni.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. flour.</li>
+<li>1 cup stewed tomatoes.</li></ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p><p>Hold the long sticks of macaroni in the hand; put the end into boiling
+salted water, as it softens bend and coil in the water without
+breaking. Boil rapidly 20 minutes. When done put it in a colander to
+drain. Put the butter in a saucepan to melt, add to it the flour, mix
+until smooth, then add the tomatoes (which have been strained), stir
+carefully until it boils. Pour over the hot macaroni and serve at
+once.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni and Cheese</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/4 lb. of macaroni.</li>
+<li>1/4 lb. grated cheese.</li>
+<li>Salt and white pepper to taste.</li>
+<li>1/2 pt. milk.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. butter.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni in pieces about 3 inches long. Put it into plenty
+of boiling water. Add 1 tsp. salt and boil rapidly 25 minutes; drain,
+throw into cold water to blanch for 10 minutes. Put the milk into the
+double boiler, add to it the butter, then the macaroni which has been
+drained, and cheese; stir until heated, add the salt and pepper, and
+serve. (The macaroni may be placed in a baking dish in alternate
+layers with the cheese, sprinkling each layer with pepper and salt,
+pouring the milk over the top, cutting the butter in small bits
+distributed over the top, and bake until brown in a moderately quick
+oven.)</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHEESE" id="CHEESE"></a>CHEESE.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cheese Souffle</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/4 lb. of cheese.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. of soda.</li>
+<li>A speck of cayenne.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup of milk.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. mustard.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li></ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p><p>Put the butter in a saucepan, when melted stir in the flour, add the
+milk slowly, then the salt, mustard and cayenne, which have been mixed
+together. Add the yolks of the eggs which have been well beaten, then
+the grated cheese; stir all together, lift from the fire and set away
+to cool. When cold, add the stiff beaten whites, turn into a buttered
+dish and bake 25 or 30 minutes. Serve immediately.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Welsh Rarebit</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/4 lb. cheese.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. mustard.</li>
+<li>A speck of cayenne.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1/4 cup cream or milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Grate the cheese, put it with the milk in the double boiler. While
+this is heating, make some toast. Mix the mustard, salt and pepper,
+add the egg and beat well. When the cheese has melted, stir in the egg
+and butter, and cook about two minutes, or until it thickens a little,
+but do not let it curdle. Pour it over the hot toast and serve at
+once.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="BEVERAGES" id="BEVERAGES"></a>BEVERAGES.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tea</span>.</div>
+
+<p>In making tea, the following rules should be observed. The water
+should be freshly boiled. The teapot, which should be of earthen or
+china (never of tin), should be scalded and heated before putting in
+the tea. Pour on the boiling water and cover closely, and let stand
+for 3 or 4 minutes before using. Never, under any circumstances,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>allow tea to boil. The usual proportion is a small teaspoonful of tea
+to 1 cup of boiling water, but this is too strong for general use.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Coffee.</span></div>
+
+<p>Coffee may be made in various ways; by filtering, clarifying with an
+egg, or made with cold water. A common rule for making coffee is as
+follows: 1 heaping tbsp. ground coffee to 2 cups of freshly boiling
+water, 1 egg shell. Scald the coffee-pot, put in the coffee and the
+egg shell, add the boiling water, cover and boil just 3 minutes.
+Before serving, add a tbsp. of cold water; let stand for a few minutes
+before using.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Coffee Made with an Egg.</span></div>
+
+<p>1 egg is sufficient to clear 1 cup of ground coffee; if a smaller
+quantity be desired, half the egg may be used. Add 1/2 cup cold water
+to the portion of egg to be used, and 1/2 cup of ground coffee. Beat
+well, put it in the coffee-pot, add 1 qt. of boiling water, and boil 3
+minutes. Move back where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 10
+minutes. Pour out a little and pour it back again to clear the spout
+before serving.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cocoa.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of milk.</li>
+<li>3 tbsps. of water.</li>
+<li>2 (l.) tsps. of cocoa.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the milk in the double boiler and set on the fire, mix the cocoa
+to a smooth paste with the cold water. When the milk boils, add the
+cocoa and boil for 1 minute. Serve very hot. If more water and less
+milk be used, allow a little more cocoa.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SOUPS" id="SOUPS"></a>SOUPS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Soups may be divided into two classes, soup made with stock, and with
+milk. As soup should form part of the regular daily diet, and may be
+made from the cheaper materials, it is absolutely necessary that every
+housekeeper should understand the art of making it properly.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place it is well to know what may be used in the process
+of soup making. The first and most important step is to prepare the
+stock. For this purpose have a large earthen bowl or "catch all," as
+some teachers call it. Into this put all the bones, trimmings, bits of
+steak or chop and gravy which has been left over. Keep in a cold
+place. When needed, cover with cold water and simmer 4 or 5 hours;
+strain and set away to cool. When cold, remove the fat which will have
+formed a solid coating on the top. The stock is now ready for use. By
+saving the remains of vegetables cooked for the table, the outer
+stocks of celery, a hard boiled egg, etc., a very palatable and
+nutritious soup may be made at a trifling cost. In families where
+large quantities of meat are used, there should be sufficient material
+without buying meat for soup. It is not necessary to have all the
+ingredients mentioned in some recipes in order to secure satisfactory
+results. It will, however, be necessary to understand soup flavorings,
+so as to know which ones may be left out. Stock made from the shin of
+beef, or from the cheaper pieces which contain the coarser fibre and
+gristle, require long, slow cooking (see Methods).</p>
+
+<p>Never soak meat in water before cooking in any form. Wipe carefully
+with a damp cloth before cutting or preparing <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>for use. For soup break
+or saw the bones into small pieces, and for each pound of meat and
+bone allow 1 qt. of cold water. Cover the kettle closely and let it
+heat slowly until it reaches the simmering point, when it should be
+moved back and kept at that degree for several hours. Soup should
+never be allowed to boil hard. The scum which rises to the surface is
+the albumen and juices of the meat, and should not be skimmed off. If
+the kettle is clean, and all impurities removed from the meat, there
+will not be anything objectionable in the scum. Stock must always be
+allowed to remain until cold, so that the fat may be removed before
+using. A strong, greasy soup is rarely relished, and is one of the
+principal reasons why so many people dislike this valuable article of
+diet. Do not add salt to the meat which is being prepared for stock
+until a few minutes before removing from the fire. Salt hardens the
+water if added at first and makes the tissues more difficult to
+dissolve. Stock may be kept for several days by occasionally bringing
+it to the boiling point. This is not necessary in winter if it is kept
+in a cold place.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Vegetable Soup.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 qt. stock.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup each chopped turnip and cabbage.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. sugar.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. pepper.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup each of onion, carrot, celery (chopped).</li>
+<li>1-1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>If all these vegetables are not available, a little macaroni, rice or
+barley may be added. Chop all the vegetables very fine, cabbage or
+onions should be parboiled 5 minutes, drain carefully. Put all the
+vegetables together, cover with 1 qt. of water and simmer until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+tender, then add the stock, the seasoning, and allow it to simmer
+about 10 minutes. Serve without straining.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tomato Soup.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of canned or stewed tomatoes.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. sugar.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>2 whole cloves or 1/2 bay leaf.</li>
+<li>1 pt. of stock.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. pepper.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. minced onion.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. flour or cornstarch.</li>
+<li>A speck of cayenne may be added if desired.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the tomato and stock in a saucepan and set on the fire. Cook the
+vegetables in the butter for 15 minutes; then press out the butter and
+put the vegetables in the soup. Into the butter remaining in the pan
+put the flour and stir until smooth, then add to the soup. Allow all
+to simmer for 20 minutes; strain and serve.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Split Pea Soup.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. of split peas.</li>
+<li>1-1/2 qt. of boiling water.</li>
+<li>1 qt. of stock.</li>
+<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash the peas in cold water (rejecting those which float) and soak
+them over night. In the morning drain the water off and cover them
+again with 1 qt. of the boiling water. Boil until tender, about 1-1/2
+hour. Now add the stock and 1 pt. of the boiling water. Press the
+whole through a sieve; wash the soup kettle, return the soup, boil up
+once, add salt and pepper and serve with croutons. Dried pea soup may
+be made in exactly the same manner, using 1 pt. of dried peas instead
+of the split ones.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Onion Soup.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 large Spanish onion.</li>
+<li>1 qt. stock.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. flour.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li>
+<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p><p>Peel and chop the onion. Put the butter in a frying-pan, add the
+onion, and stir until a nice brown. Put the stock on to boil. Skim the
+onions out of the butter and add them to the stock. Stir 1 tbsp. of
+flour into the remaining butter, thin with a little of the stock, put
+all together, and simmer for 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and it
+is ready to serve.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni Soup</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 qt. clear soup.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>5 sticks macaroni.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Break the macaroni into small pieces and throw it into 1 quart of
+boiling water containing the tsp. of salt. Let it boil uncovered 25
+minutes. Drain off the water and add the macaroni to the hot stock,
+cover and cook slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. A little more seasoning
+may be added if desired.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Oyster Soup</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. oysters.</li>
+<li>1/2 pt. cold water.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper.</li>
+<li>Salt to taste.</li>
+<li>1 pt. milk.</li>
+<li>2 (l.) tbsps. flour.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put a strainer over a bowl and turn the oysters into it. Pour the
+water over the oysters and stir with a spoon until all the liquid has
+passed through the strainer. Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, pouring the
+remainder into the double boiler, set it on the fire. Put the oyster
+liquor in a stew-pan, and heat slowly. Mix the cold milk with the
+flour, and stirring into the boiling milk; cook for 10 minutes. When
+the oyster liquor boils, skim it. When the flour and milk have cooked
+for 10 minutes, add the oysters, butter, salt, pepper and oyster
+liquor.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> Cook until the oysters curl on the edge and are plump. Serve
+at once.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bean Soup (Without Stock)</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 qt. dried white beans.</li>
+<li>1 large tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>2 qts. water.</li>
+<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash the beans, cover them with water, and soak over night. Next
+morning drain, put them on to boil with 2 quarts of fresh cold water.
+As soon as they come to a boil drain this water off and throw it away.
+Cover again with 2 quarts of fresh boiling water, add 1 ssp. of soda,
+and boil until soft. Press the beans through a sieve, return to the
+kettle, and if too thick add enough boiling water to make the soup
+about the consistency of cream. Add the salt, pepper and butter, and
+serve. (Minced onion, carrot, or celery fried in a little butter or
+dripping, and added to this soup before straining, improves the
+flavor.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bouillon</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>2 lbs. lean beef.</li>
+<li>1 small onion.</li>
+<li>A sprig of parsley.</li>
+<li>1 qt. cold water.</li>
+<li>1 stalk celery, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed.</li>
+<li>1 bay leaf.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Remove all the fat and chop the meat very fine. Put it into the soup
+kettle with the water, bay leaf, parsley, onion and celery. Cover the
+kettle closely and place it in the back part of the range for 2 hours.
+Then move it over and let it come to a boil; skim at the first boil.
+Move back and simmer gently for 4 hours. Strain, return to the kettle,
+add salt and pepper. Beat the white of one egg with 1/2 cup of cold
+water until thoroughly mixed. Wash the egg shell, mash it and add<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> to
+the white. Now add the white, shell and water to the boiling bouillon;
+let it boil hard for 10 minutes, then throw in 1/2 cup of cold water
+and boil 5 minutes longer. Take the kettle off the fire, strain
+through a flannel bag, add salt to taste, and color with caramel. (See
+recipe for caramel.) This is an excellent preparation for invalids.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="FISH" id="FISH"></a>FISH.</h2>
+
+<p>Fish is an invaluable article of food. It provides variety in diet,
+and while less stimulating than meat, is usually more easily digested.
+Fish should be perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked. The most
+wholesome as well as the most palatable methods for cooking fish are
+broiling and baking. The flesh of fresh fish is firm and will not
+retain the impress of the finger if pressed into it. The eyes should
+be bright and glassy, the gills red and full of blood. Fish should be
+cleaned as soon as possible and thoroughly wiped with a cloth wet in
+salt water, and should be kept in a cool place. Do not put it near
+other food such as milk, butter, etc., as they will absorb the odor.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Fish</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Rub a double broiler well with a piece of suet before putting in the
+fish. Lay the fish flat so that the flesh side will be exposed on one
+side of the broiler and the skin on the other. Broil carefully, as the
+skin side burns very quickly. A fish weighing 3 lbs. will take about
+25 or 30 minutes to broil. When cooked sprinkle with salt and pepper,
+and serve very hot.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Fish</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup cracker or bread crumbs.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. chopped onion.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. chopped parsley.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. pepper.</li>
+<li>1/4 cup melted butter or dripping.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Clean, wipe and dry the fish, rub with salt; fill with stuffing and
+sew or tie carefully. Rub all over with butter (or dripping), salt and
+pepper, dredge with flour, put it into a hot oven; baste when the
+flour is brown, and often afterwards. Remove carefully from the pan
+and place upon a hot platter.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Scalloped Fish</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Pick over carefully any remnants of cold boiled or baked fish, put
+into a shallow dish in alternate layers with bread crumbs and cream
+sauce. Cover with crumbs and bake till brown.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Salt Fish Balls</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup salt fish.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1/4 ssp. pepper.</li>
+<li>1 pint potatoes.</li>
+<li>1 egg, well beaten.</li>
+<li>More salt if needed.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash the fish, pick in pieces and free from bones. Pare the potatoes
+and cut in quarters. Put the potatoes and fish in a stew-pan and cover
+with boiling water. Boil until the potatoes are tender. Drain off all
+the water; mash and beat the fish and potatoes till very light. Add
+the butter and pepper, and when slightly cooled add the egg. Lift in a
+tbsp. and drop into smoking hot fat 1 minute, drain on brown paper;
+they may be formed into balls and browned in a very hot oven.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="MEAT" id="MEAT"></a>MEAT.</h2>
+
+<div class="center">(<i>See Analysis, Chap. V.</i>)</div>
+
+
+<p>As meat is composed of several substances, fibrine, albumen, gelatin,
+fat and the juices, it is necessary to understand the various methods
+of cooking in order to secure the best results. Meat has its season as
+well as many other foods. Pork is better in autumn and winter; veal in
+the spring and summer; fowl in autumn and winter; lamb in the summer
+and autumn; mutton and beef may be used any time. Meat should not be
+allowed to remain in the paper in which it comes from market, as it
+absorbs the juices and injures the flavor. Wipe all over with a clean
+wet cloth. Examine carefully, remove any tainted or unclean portions
+and keep in a clean, cool place until required. Good beef should be a
+bright red color, well mixed with fat, and a layer of fat on the
+outside; the suet should be dry and crumble easily. (See meat diagrams
+for different cuts.) Mutton should have an abundance of clear, white
+fat, the flesh fine grained and a bright red color. The fat of veal
+should be clear and white, the lean pink, and should always be
+thoroughly cooked. Pork is more indigestible when fresh than when
+cured, as in bacon and ham. Fresh pork should be firm, the fat white,
+the lean a pale red.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roast of Beef</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wipe, trim, and tie or skewer into shape the cut for roasting. If
+there be a large piece of the flank, cut it off and use for soups or
+stews. If you wish to roast it, turn it underneath and fasten with a
+skewer. Lay the meat on a rack in a pan, and dredge all over with
+flour. Put<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> on the top of a roast 2 or 3 tbsps. of dripping or pieces
+of the fat; put it in a very hot oven at first. After the outside has
+become seared, check off the heat and allow to cook slowly, basting
+frequently. (See time table for baking.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Steak</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Trim the steak free from all suet (save all trimmings for stews or the
+stock pot). Put the meat plate to warm, grease the broiler with a
+little of the fat. See that the fire is clear. Put the steak on the
+hot broiler and place it over the fire, turning every 10 seconds. It
+will take about 8 minutes if the steak is 1 inch thick. When done,
+place it on the hot plate, dredge it with salt and pepper; turn over
+and season the other side. Serve immediately.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pan-Broiled Steak</span>.</div>
+
+<p>When the fire is not suitable for broiling, heat the frying pan until
+smoking hot; trim the steak as for broiling, place firmly on the hot
+pan, turn frequently as in broiling, with a broad knife or pancake
+turner; never insert a fork, as it allows the juice to escape. It will
+cook in 10 minutes. Season, and serve the same as broiled steak. If a
+gravy is desired, fry a little of the suet and trimmings in the
+pan&mdash;after the steak has been removed&mdash;until brown, lift out the meat
+or suet, add 1 tbsp. of flour, stir until brown, add pepper and salt
+to taste, then add 1 teacup of boiling water. Cook for 2 or 3 minutes
+and strain over the steak.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hamburg Steak</span>.</div>
+
+<p>1 lb. of steak from the upper side of the round, or any piece of lean
+beef free from gristle; chop very fine, add<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> 1 tbsp. of onion juice
+(or finely minced onion), 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. black pepper, mix
+well together; dip the hands in cold water, take 2 tbsps. of the
+mixture and form with the hands into small round cakes. Have the
+frying pan very hot, put in 2 tbsps. of dripping; when hot, put in the
+steaks, brown on both sides&mdash;or they may be pan-broiled. Place them on
+a hot dish, add a tbsp. of flour to the fat remaining in the pan, mix
+until smooth and brown; add a cupful of boiling water, stir until it
+boils, add pepper and salt to taste, and pour over the steak.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beef Stew with Dumplings</span>.</div>
+
+<p>2 lbs. of lean beef (cheaper cuts). Cut into pieces about 1 inch
+square, dredge with flour. Put 2 tbsps. of dripping into a frying pan;
+as soon as it is very hot put in the meat and shake or stir until
+nicely browned. Skim out the meat and put it in a saucepan. Add 1
+tbsp. of flour to the dripping remaining in the pan, mix and add 1
+quart of boiling water; stir over the fire until it boils, then strain
+it over the meat; add one small onion, pepper and salt to taste. Cover
+the saucepan closely and let it simmer for 2 hours. Make the dumplings
+by sifting 1 pint of flour, to which has been added 2 tsps. baking
+powder. Add 1/4 tsp. salt and enough milk to make a soft dough. Lift
+the dough in spoonfuls, placing them over the meat, cover quickly and
+let boil 10 minutes. Do not uncover the saucepan while the dumplings
+are cooking or they will fall immediately. Be careful not to allow the
+stew to burn while the dumplings are cooking.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pot Roast</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Trim off the rough parts of a brisket of beef or any of the cheaper
+cuts. Place it in a kettle over a good fire; brown on one side, then
+turn and brown on the other; add 1 pint of boiling water, cover
+closely and simmer, allowing 20 minutes to every pound. Add pepper and
+salt when the meat is nearly done.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Braised Beef</span>.</div>
+
+<p>From 4 to 6 lbs. of beef from the lower part of the round or rump.
+Trim and rub well with salt, pepper and flour. Chop 2 small onions and
+fry until light brown in pork fat or dripping; skim them out and put
+them into the pan in which the meat is to be braised, then brown the
+meat all over, adding more fat if needed (this may be done in a very
+hot oven). Put the meat into the pan, on skewers to keep it from
+sticking, with the onions around it. Add 1 qt. of boiling water, cover
+closely, putting a brick or heavy weight on the cover to keep it down,
+and cook in a moderate oven 4 hours, basting occasionally. Turn once
+and add more water as it evaporates, so as to have 1 pt. left for
+gravy. When tender take up the meat, remove the fat, add more salt and
+pepper, and if liked, a little lemon juice or tomato may be added.
+Thicken with 2 tbsps. of flour wet in a little cold water. Cook 10
+minutes and pour the gravy over the meat. Any tough meat may be cooked
+in this way.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Hash</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Take any pieces left of a cold roast, steaks or stews, chop very fine;
+take 1 tbsp. butter or dripping, 1 tbsp. of flour, stir together in a
+hot frying pan, when brown add<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> 1 cup boiling water; add 1 tbsp.
+chopped onion, pepper and salt to taste, let simmer for 10 minutes,
+then add the meat, stir until heated thoroughly and serve on toast.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Corned Beef or Sausage Hash</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pt. hashed corn beef or sausage.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter or dripping.</li>
+<li>1 pt. of hashed potatoes.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. pepper.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup of milk.</li>
+<li>(Omit the milk if sausage is used).</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix the potato and meat, season with the pepper and salt, add the milk
+and stir lightly. Put the butter or dripping into a hot frying pan,
+when melted put in the hash, spread it lightly and evenly, but do not
+stir it. Cover the pan and set where the hash will cook slowly for 10
+or 15 minutes. Move over to a hotter part of the stove and let it
+remain until a rich, brown crust has formed on the bottom. Fold over
+and serve on a hot dish.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Mutton&mdash;Boiled Leg of Mutton</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wipe the leg with a damp towel. Dust a cloth with flour and wrap the
+leg up with it. Put it into a kettle of boiling water and simmer
+gently 20 minutes to every pound; add salt when the leg is nearly
+done. When cooked remove the cloth carefully, garnish with parsley and
+serve with caper sauce. Save the liquor in which it was boiled for
+broth, stews, etc.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Irish Stew</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>3 lbs. of the neck of mutton.</li>
+<li>4 good sized onions.</li>
+<li>4 potatoes cut into dice.</li>
+<li>2 qts. of water.</li>
+<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Cut the meat into small pieces, cover with the water, which should be
+boiling, add the onions sliced, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> simmer gently for 3 hours. About
+1/2 hour before the meat is done add the potatoes, season with pepper
+and salt, and serve.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">To Bake or Roast a Quarter of Lamb</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, place in a baking pan, dredge with
+pepper, put 1 tsp. of salt in the pan, add just enough water to keep
+the pan from burning until enough of its own fat has fried out to use
+for basting. Baste at least every 10 minutes; allow 15 minutes to
+every pound in a very hot oven. Serve with mint sauce.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lamb Chops</span></div>
+
+<p>Are broiled or pan-broiled the same as beefsteak.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Veal&mdash;Veal Cutlets</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Have the cutlets about 1/4 of an inch thick, dredge with salt, pepper
+and flour. Put a tbsp. of dripping in a frying pan, and when very hot
+put in the cutlets; when brown on one side turn and brown on the
+other, take out and place on a hot dish. Add a tbsp. of flour to the
+fat remaining in the pan, mix and stir until brown; add a cupful of
+boiling water, pepper and salt to taste, stir until it boils, pour
+over the cutlets, and serve.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Knuckle of Veal</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Wipe the knuckle well with a damp cloth. Cut it into pieces. Put into
+a kettle with 2 quarts of boiling water, add 1 onion chopped, 1/4 lb.
+of chopped ham, and 1 bay leaf, pepper and salt to taste. Cover and
+stew slowly for 2-1/2 hours (a half cup of rice may be added to this
+stew).</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Jellied Veal</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 knuckle of veal.</li>
+<li>1 blade of mace.</li>
+<li>12 whole cloves.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup of vinegar.</li>
+<li>1 onion.</li>
+<li>1 bay leaf.</li>
+<li>6 pepper corns.</li>
+<li>Salt and pepper to taste.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wipe the knuckle and cut it into pieces. Put into a kettle with 2
+quarts of cold water; bring slowly to simmering point; skim and simmer
+gently for 2 hours; then add the onion, mace, bay leaf, cloves, pepper
+corns, and simmer 1 hour longer. Take out the knuckle, carefully
+remove the bones and put the meat into a mould or square pan. Boil the
+liquor until reduced to 1 quart, add the vinegar, pepper and salt to
+taste, strain and pour over the meat. Stand away until cold, when it
+may be turned out and garnished with parsley and lemon.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fillet of Veal (stuffed)</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup of bread crumbs.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of summer savory.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. of pepper.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup of chopped salt pork or ham.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Have the bone removed from the shoulder, fill the space from which the
+bone was taken with the stuffing, fasten the meat together with a
+skewer to prevent the stuffing from coming out, put into the pan with
+3 or 4 tbsps. of dripping, allowing 20 minutes to each pound, basting
+frequently in a moderately hot oven.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pork and Beans</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Soak the beans over night in cold water. In the morning wash them well
+in a colander, put them on to boil in cold water, at the first boil
+drain this water off<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> and cover with fresh boiling water. Score the
+rind of the pork and put it in with the beans. Simmer gently until you
+can blow off the skin of the beans. To do this, take 3 or 4 beans in
+your hand, blow hard on them, and if the skin cracks they are done.
+Take out the pork and drain. Put the beans into an earthen pot or
+granite kettle with a cover; almost bury the pork in the centre of the
+beans. Add 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pint of the water in which the beans
+were boiled, pour this into the pot, sprinkle with pepper, pour over
+the beans 1 large spoonful of molasses, put on the lid, bake in a
+moderate oven for 6 or 8 hours. If baked in an ordinary iron baking
+pan they must be covered with another on which has been placed a
+weight, carefully watched, and baked only 3 hours.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roast Spare Ribs</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Put the spare ribs in a baking pan, sprinkle lightly with pepper, add
+1/2 tsp. of salt to 1/2 cup of boiling water, and pour in the bottom
+of the pan. Roast 20 minutes to every lb., basting often. When done,
+make a gravy and serve as for any other roast. (Spare ribs may be
+stuffed, the ribs cracked crosswise, the stuffing placed in the
+centre, the two ends folded over, roast as above.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Ham</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Have the ham cut into slices about 1/4 inch thick, trim off the rind
+and rusty edge. Broil the same as steak or chops. (This is a very nice
+way to serve ham with poached eggs.)</p>
+
+<p>Ham may be pan-broiled as directed in former recipes.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fried Bacon</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Cut into very thin slices, put into a very hot frying pan, and cook
+until clear and crisp.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sausage</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Prick the skins with a sharp fork so as to prevent bursting; place
+them in a frying pan over a moderate fire and fry in their own fat
+until a nice brown. After taking the sausage from the pan, add 1 tbsp.
+of flour to the fat in the pan, add 1 cup of boiling water, stir until
+it boils, pour over the sausage and serve.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Liver and Bacon</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Have the bacon cut in thin slices and keep it cold until the time to
+cook it. Have the liver cut into slices about 1/3 of an inch thick. If
+it be calf or sheep's liver, wash it in cold water and let it drain;
+but if it be beef liver, after washing it, cover with boiling water
+and let it stand for 5 minutes, then drain it. Cook the bacon as
+directed, then take it up. Lay the slices of liver in the hot fat,
+cook them for 8 or 10 minutes, turning often; season with pepper and
+salt. Arrange the liver on a warm platter, make a gravy as directed in
+other recipes, pour over the liver, placing the bacon round the
+outside. (Always cook bacon quickly and liver slowly.)</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h2><a name="POULTRY" id="POULTRY"></a>POULTRY.</h2>
+
+<p>The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, smooth,
+moist skin and plump breast; the cartilage on the end of the breast
+bone is soft and pliable. Pin feathers always indicate a young bird
+and long hairs an older one. All poultry should be dressed as soon as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+killed. Cut off the head, and if the fowl is to be roasted, slip the
+skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close to the body,
+leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. Remove the windpipe,
+pull the crop away from the skin on the neck and breast, and cut off
+close to the opening in the body. Cut through the skin about 2 inches
+below the leg joint, bend the leg at the cut by pressing it on the
+edge of the table and break off the bone. Then pull out the tendon. If
+care be taken to cut only through the skin, these cords may be pulled
+out easily, one at a time, with the fingers; or by putting the foot of
+the fowl against the casing of a door, then shut the door tightly and
+pull on the leg. The drum stick of a roast chicken or turkey is
+greatly improved by removing the tendons. Cut out the oil bag in the
+tail, make an incision near the vent, insert two fingers, keeping the
+fingers up close to the breast bone until you can reach in beyond the
+liver and heart, and loosen on either side down toward the back. Draw
+everything out carefully. See that the kidneys and lungs are not left
+in, and be very careful not to break any of the intestines. When the
+fowl has been cleaned carefully it will not require much washing.
+Rinse out the inside quickly and wipe dry. In stuffing and trussing a
+fowl, place the fowl in a bowl and put the stuffing in at the neck,
+fill out the breast until plump. Then draw the neck skin together at
+the ends and sew it over on the back. Put the remainder of the
+stuffing into the body at the other opening and sew with coarse thread
+or fine twine. Draw the thighs up close to the body and tie the legs
+over the tail firmly with twine. Put a long skewer through the thigh
+into the body and out through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> the opposite thigh, turn the tips of
+the wings under the back of the fowl, put a long skewer through from
+one wing to the other. Wind a string from the tail to the skewer in
+the thigh, then up to the one in the wing across the back to the other
+wing, then down to the opposite side and tie firmly round the tail. If
+you have no skewers, the fowl may be kept in shape by tying carefully
+with twine. Clean all the giblets, cut away all that looks green near
+the gall bladder, open the gizzard and remove the inner lining without
+breaking. Put the gizzard, heart, liver, and the piece of neck which
+has been cut off, into cold water, wash carefully, put in a saucepan,
+cover with cold water, place on the back of the stove and simmer till
+tender. Use the liquid for making the gravy; the meat may be chopped
+and used for giblet soup.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roast Chicken (or Turkey).</span></div>
+
+<p>Singe carefully, remove the pin feathers, draw as directed above.
+Wipe, stuff, sew and tie or skewer into shape, dredge with flour,
+cover with plenty of dripping; roast in a hot oven. When the flour is
+brown check the heat, baste frequently with the fat, and when nearly
+cooked dredge with pepper and salt and again with flour. Bake a 4 lb.
+chicken 1-1/2 hour, or until the joints separate easily. If browning
+too fast, cover with paper. (Roast chicken is considered to be more
+wholesome and to have a better flavor when cooked without stuffing.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fricassee of Chicken</span>.</div>
+
+<p>The first attempt of an inexperienced cook in the preparation of a
+chicken should be a fricassee, as it will<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> provide an opportunity for
+her to study the anatomy of a chicken while cutting it in pieces, and
+also show her the position of the intestines, so that when she
+attempts to draw a fowl she will know just where to place her hand so
+as to remove them without breaking.</p>
+
+<p>To prepare a chicken for a fricassee, clean and singe. Cut the chicken
+at the joints in pieces for serving. Place in a kettle, cover with
+boiling water, add 2 level tsps. of salt, a ssp. of pepper (some like
+a small piece of salt pork). Simmer until tender, reducing the water
+to a pint or less, lift the chicken, melt 1 tbsp. of butter in a
+saucepan, add 2 tbsps. of flour, and when well mixed pour on slowly
+the chicken liquor. Add more salt if needed, pepper, 1/2 tsp. of
+celery salt, 1 tsp. of lemon juice (an egg may be used by beating and
+pouring the sauce slowly on the egg, stirring well before adding it to
+the chicken). Pour this gravy over the chicken and serve; dumplings
+may be added if desired, or it may be placed in a deep dish, covered
+with pastry and baked for chicken pie.</p>
+
+<p>(The chicken may be browned in a little hot fat as in braising meat,
+and cooked in the same way.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Broiled Chicken</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Singe and split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, clean
+and wipe with a wet cloth, sprinkle with pepper and salt, rub well
+with butter or dripping, place in a double grid-iron and broil 20
+minutes over a clear fire. The chicken may be covered with fine bread
+crumbs or dredged with flour, allowing a plentiful supply of butter or
+dripping, and baked in a hot oven 1/2 hour.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Meat Souffle</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Make 1 cup of white sauce and season with chopped parsley and onion
+juice. Stir 1 cup of chopped meat (chicken, tongue, veal or lamb) into
+the sauce. When hot, add the beaten yolks of two eggs; cook 1 minute
+and set away to cool. When cool, stir in the whites, beat very stiff.
+Bake in a buttered dish about twenty minutes and serve immediately.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Croquettes</span>.</div>
+
+<p>These may be made with any kind of cooked meat, fish, rice, potatoes,
+etc., or from a mixture of several ingredients, when mixed with a
+thick white sauce, as follows: 1 pint hot milk, 2 tbsps. butter or
+beef dripping, 6 (l.) tbsps. flour, or 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch, 1/2
+tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. white pepper, 1/2 tsp. celery salt, a speck of
+cayenne. Melt the butter or dripping in a saucepan, when hot add the
+dry cornstarch or flour. Stir till well mixed. Add 1/3 of the hot milk
+and stir as it boils and thickens, add the remainder of the hot milk
+gradually. The sauce should be very thick. Add the seasoning, and mix
+it while hot with the meat or fish. It is improved by adding a beaten
+egg just before the sauce is taken from the fire. When cold, shape
+into rolls or like a pear, roll lightly in beaten egg, then in bread
+crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat. Drain on coarse brown paper. If the
+mixture be too soft to handle easily stir in enough fine cracker or
+soft bread crumbs to stiffen it, but never flour.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="HOT_PUDDINGS" id="HOT_PUDDINGS"></a>HOT PUDDINGS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Apple Pudding (baked).</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li>
+<li>1/4 cup butter or dripping.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cream of tartar.</li>
+<li>3 tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda sifted into the flour.</li>
+<li>6 tart apples.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix the dry ingredients, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, stir
+this into the dry mixture. Core, pare and cut the apples into quarters
+(if large into eighths). Place in the bottom of a pudding dish,
+sprinkle over them the sugar, a little nutmeg or cinnamon may be added
+if desired. Put the mixture over this, lifting the apples with a fork
+or spoon so as to let the mixture penetrate to the bottom of the pan.
+Bake in a moderately hot oven about 30 minutes. Serve with lemon sauce
+or thin custard.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cottage Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 pint sifted flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>2 tsps. baking powder (level).</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, add the unbeaten egg, beat
+vigorously for 3 or 4 minutes, add the salt, then the flour, with
+which the baking powder should be mixed. Beat for a few seconds, then
+turn the batter into a small, buttered pudding dish, bake about 25
+minutes in a moderate oven; serve with lemon sauce.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lemon Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>4 level tbsps. granulated sugar.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. of salt.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. milk.</li>
+<li>The juice and grated rind of a small lemon.</li>
+<li>6 (l.) tsps. cornstarch.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup water.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix the cornstarch with 3 tbsps. cold water; put the remainder of the
+water in the saucepan and set on to boil. Stir into this the mixed
+cornstarch and cook until clear. Take from the fire, add the salt and
+lemon, reserving 1/2 tsp. of the lemon. Beat the butter to a cream,
+gradually beat into it the sugar, the yolk of the egg, lastly the
+milk. Stir this mixture into the cooked ingredients, and bake in a
+moderate oven for 20 minutes. Beat the white of the egg to a stiff
+froth, beat into it 1 tbsp. of powdered sugar and the 1/2 tsp. of
+lemon juice. Spread this over the hot pudding and leave in the oven
+until slightly browned. (This pudding is better served very cold.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Bread Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint stale bread crumbs.</li>
+<li>1 quart of sugar.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. of nutmeg or cinnamon.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Soak the bread crumbs for 1 hour in 1 quart of milk. Beat the eggs,
+add the sugar and seasoning, stir all into the bread crumbs, bake 1
+hour in a buttered pudding dish. (Raisins or currants may be added if
+desired.)</p>
+
+<p>Another method for making bread pudding is to butter thin slices of
+stale bread, spread with a little jam or sprinkle a few currants (well
+washed) over each layer, lay them in a pudding dish, pour over a quart
+of milk,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> to which has been added 3 well beaten eggs, 1/2 cup sugar.
+Bake until the custard thickens. This pudding may be served either hot
+or cold.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Steamed Apple Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>3 pints pared and quartered apples.</li>
+<li>1/2 pint flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1/4 of a grated nutmeg.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 pint water.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>2 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the apples, water, sugar, and nutmeg into a porcelain or granite
+saucepan and set on the fire. When the apples begin to boil, set back
+where they will cook gently. Mix the flour, salt and baking powder
+together. Rub the butter into this dry mixture, wet with the milk,
+stir quickly into a soft dough. Press or roll the dough lightly into a
+round piece about the size of the top of the saucepan. Lay this on the
+apples; put on a close cover and continue cooking gently for 30
+minutes. The crust may be lifted to a plate for a moment, the apples
+turned into a pudding dish, then placing the crust over the top. To be
+served with lemon or nutmeg sauce.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Rice Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 cup rice.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 pint milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup raisins.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash the rice well. Put it on the fire in 1 pint of cold water and let
+it cook for 10 minutes. Drain off the water, add the salt and milk;
+then cook in the double boiler for 2 hours, add the raisins when about
+half cooked. Do not stir the rice while it is cooking.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Brown Betty</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Pare, core and slice 6 or 7 tart apples. Put a layer of stale bread
+crumbs in the bottom of the baking dish, then a layer of the apples,
+another layer of bread crumbs and apples, and so on until all are
+used, having the last layer crumbs. Add 1/2 cup of water to 1/2 cup
+molasses, stir in 2 tbsps. of brown sugar; pour it over the crumbs and
+bake in a moderate oven for 1 hour.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Apple Snow</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>6 apples.</li>
+<li>Juice of 1 lemon.</li>
+<li>1 cup white sugar.</li>
+<li>Whites of 6 eggs.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Pare, core and steam the apples until tender, then press them through
+a sieve and put aside to cool; when cold add the sugar and lemon
+juice. Beat the whites of the eggs to a very stiff froth, add the
+apples to them by spoonfuls, beating all the while. Heap in a glass
+dish and serve immediately. (This is a very delicate and wholesome
+pudding for an invalid.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Scalloped Apples</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Made the same as Brown Betty, omitting the molasses, adding water and
+a little lemon juice instead.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Suet Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup suet.</li>
+<li>1 cup molasses.</li>
+<li>3 cups flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 cup raisins.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cinnamon.</li>
+<li>2 tsps. baking powder.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Chop the suet very fine. Stone the raisins. Add the molasses to the
+suet, then the milk: mix well and add the salt, flour and cinnamon.
+Beat vigorously for 2 or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> 3 minutes, then add the raisins. Rub in the
+flour, to which has been added the baking powder; mix thoroughly, turn
+into a buttered mould, steam for 3 hours.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tapioca Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup tapioca.</li>
+<li>4 eggs.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1 quart milk.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. vanilla.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash the tapioca carefully, then add it to the milk and soak 2 hours.
+Beat the eggs and sugar together, add the salt, stir into the tapioca
+and milk, and bake in a moderate oven at least 3/4 of an hour. Serve
+hot or cold.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Chocolate Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. cornstarch.</li>
+<li>3 tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li>
+<li>1 pint milk.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. boiling water.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 oz. shaved chocolate.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder on the fire in a double
+boiler. Mix the cold milk with the cornstarch and salt. Beat the egg
+well and add to the cornstarch mixture. Stir this into the boiling
+milk and stir well. Put the chocolate, sugar and boiling water into a
+small frying pan or saucepan, and set over a hot fire. Stir until the
+mixture is smooth and glossy; beat this into the pudding and cook for
+2 minutes longer. Take from the fire and add the vanilla. Dip a mould
+into cold water and turn the pudding into it. Set away to cool. When
+cold and stiff, turn out on a flat dish and surround with whipped
+cream; or serve with cream and sugar or a soft custard.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Snow Pudding</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/4 box gelatine.</li>
+<li>1 cup boiling water.</li>
+<li>1 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. cold water.</li>
+<li>Juice of one lemon.</li>
+<li>Whites of 2 eggs.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Soak the gelatine in cold water for 2 hours. Pour upon this the
+boiling water and stir until the gelatine is dissolved; then add the
+sugar and lemon juice, stirring until the sugar is dissolved. Set the
+bowl in a pan of cold water, or broken ice. Stir frequently; when it
+begins to thicken, stir in the beaten whites of the eggs, pour into a
+mould and set away until firm. Serve with boiled custard.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cream Pie</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Make a plain cup cake, and bake it in a shallow cake pan. When cooked
+and cold, split it carefully. Put 1 pint of milk on to boil in a
+farina boiler. Beat the yolks of 3 eggs and 1/2 cup of sugar together
+until light, then add the well-beaten whites, and stir them into the
+boiling milk; stir over the fire for about 1 minute, then take from
+the fire, add 1 tsp. of vanilla, and stand away to cool. When cold,
+and ready to serve, put a thick layer of this sauce between the layers
+of cake, pour the remaining sauce around the pie, and serve
+immediately.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Blanc Mange</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint milk.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the milk on to boil. Moisten the cornstarch with a little cold
+milk, then add it to the boiling milk, and stir until it thickens; let
+it cook slowly for 5 minutes; add the sugar and salt, take from the
+fire, pour into a mould and set away to harden.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Strawberry Shortcake</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1 oz. butter.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix the salt, flour and butter together. Sift, then add the baking
+powder and sift again. Add the liquid gradually, mixing and cutting
+with a knife until the dough is light and spongy; turn it out on a
+well floured board, pat into a flat cake and roll gently till 1/2 an
+inch thick. Bake in a spider or pie plate in a rather hot oven. Split
+and spread with sweetened berries and serve either hot or cold.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h2><a name="PUDDING_SAUCES" id="PUDDING_SAUCES"></a>PUDDING SAUCES.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Plain Sauce</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup water.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.</li>
+<li>3 tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>2 tsps. flour or cornstarch.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Melt the butter and flour together, stir in the hot water, add the
+sugar and flavoring, cook until smooth and clear.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Molasses Sauce</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 cup molasses.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup water or 1/2 tbsp. vinegar.</li>
+<li>2 (l.) tsps. flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. lemon juice.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix the flour and sugar together. Pour the boiling water upon it. Add
+the molasses and place on the range. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the
+other ingredients; boil up once and serve. (Omit lemon if vinegar is
+used.)</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cream Sauce</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cornstarch.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup powdered sugar.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. vanilla.</li>
+<li>1 cup boiling milk.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth; then gradually beat into
+it the powdered sugar and cornstarch. Next add the yolk of the egg and
+beat well. Pour upon this the cupful of boiling milk and place on the
+fire. Stir until it boils, then add the butter and vanilla.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lemon Sauce</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 tbsp. cornstarch.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1 pint boiling water.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. butter.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>1 lemon.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the egg, add the cornstarch and sugar, stir them well together;
+add the boiling water gradually and stir over the fire until thick;
+add the butter, juice and grated rind of one lemon. Serve hot.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Vanilla Sauce</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>2 (l.) tbsps. sugar.</li>
+<li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. vanilla.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the milk on to boil, beat the yolks and sugar till very light; add
+them to the boiling milk; stir over the fire until creamy. Have the
+whites beaten, pour over them the boiling mixture; beat thoroughly and
+serve at once.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h2><a name="CAKE" id="CAKE"></a>CAKE.</h2>
+
+<p>There are practically two kinds of cake, that made with butter, and
+cake made without butter. When these two methods are understood, cake
+making becomes easy. A few simple rules must govern all cake making.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p><p>1st. Regulate the heat. Cakes without butter require a quick oven;
+with butter, a moderate oven. 2nd. Beat whites and yolks separately.
+3rd. Beat butter and sugar to a cream. 4th. Add the whites last. 5th.
+Currants should be cleaned, washed and dried and floured (to which
+flour some of the baking powder should be added). 6th. Add the milk or
+water gradually. 7th. Sift the flour before measuring. 8th. 2 level
+tsps. of baking powder are equal to 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of
+tartar. 9th. When looking at a cake while baking, do it quickly and
+without jarring the stove. 10th. To find out if it is baked, run a
+broom straw through the centre, if no dough adheres the cake is done.
+11th. If browning too quickly, cover with brown paper and reduce the
+heat gradually. This is usually necessary in baking fruit cake. 12th.
+Mix cake in an earthen bowl, never in tin. 13th. Soda, cream of
+tartar, and baking powder should be crushed and sifted with the flour.
+Always attend to the fire before beginning to make cake. Coarse
+granulated sugar makes a coarse, heavy cake. If cake browns before
+rising the oven is too hot. When it rises in the centre and cracks
+open it is too stiff with flour. It should rise first round the edge,
+then in the middle and remain level.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Gingerbread</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup molasses.</li>
+<li>2 tbsps. butter.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. ginger.</li>
+<li>1 pint flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sour milk.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. soda.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Put the molasses and butter in a pan and set on the stove. When the
+mixture boils up add the soda and ginger, and take from the fire
+immediately. Add the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> milk, the well-beaten egg and the flour, beat
+well. Bake in a shallow cake pan in a rather quick oven for 20
+minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Spice Cake</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/4 cup butter.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup molasses.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sour milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 ssp. salt.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li>
+<li>The juice and rind of 1/2 lemon.</li>
+<li>1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>2-1/2 cups flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. ginger.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cinnamon.</li>
+<li>1/4 nutmeg, grated.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the butter to a cream. Gradually beat into it the sugar, then the
+spice and lemon, next the molasses. Now dissolve the soda in one tbsp.
+cold water and stir it into the sour milk; add this, and the egg well
+beaten, to the other ingredients. Lastly add the flour, and beat
+briskly for 1/2 minute. Pour into a well buttered pan and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 50 minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sponge Cake</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>3 eggs.</li>
+<li>2/3 cup flour.</li>
+<li>2/3 cup pulverized sugar.</li>
+<li>The grated rind and juice of 1/2 lemon.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the yolks of the eggs and sugar until very light, now add the
+juice and rind of the lemon and half the flour; beat the whites to a
+very stiff froth, add the remainder of the flour and the whites
+alternately, stirring lightly, pour into a greased cake pan. Bake in a
+quick oven from 25 to 30 minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Roll Jelly Cake</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1-1/2 cup flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 cup sweet milk.</li>
+<li>3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li></ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></p><p>Beat the eggs separately till very light, then beat them together, add
+the sugar, then the milk gradually, then the flour in which the salt
+and baking powder have been mixed. Spread very thin on long shallow
+pans. Spread with jelly while warm and roll up.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Seed Cake</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup butter.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>2 tsps. caraway seeds.</li>
+<li>3 tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1-1/2 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>3 eggs.</li>
+<li>3 cups flour.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of the eggs,
+then the seeds; sift the baking powder with the flour; add the flour
+and milk alternately a little at a time, lastly the whites which have
+been beaten stiff and dry; bake from 40 to 50 minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Cookies (plain).</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 cup butter.</li>
+<li>1/4 cup milk.</li>
+<li>2 even tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>Flour to roll out thin.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Cream the butter, add the sugar, milk, egg beaten lightly, and the
+baking powder mixed with two cups of flour, then enough more flour to
+roll out. Roll a little at a time. Cut out. Bake about 10 minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Layer Cake</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 cup butter.</li>
+<li>1 cup sugar.</li>
+<li>2-1/2 cups flour.</li>
+<li>3 eggs.</li>
+<li>2/3 cup milk.</li>
+<li>4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, then add the yolks of the eggs
+gradually; then the flour and milk<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> alternately (sifting the baking
+powder with the flour), add the well-beaten whites last. Bake in 3
+tins in a moderate oven about 15 minutes. (Flavoring has been omitted
+in this recipe as the cake is more delicate by allowing the filling to
+provide the flavor.)</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Plain Fruit Cake</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>3 eggs.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1 oz. candied lemon.</li>
+<li>4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>2/3 cup butter.</li>
+<li>3 (l.) cups flour.</li>
+<li>1 cup raisins.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix as directed in preceding recipe, only mixing the fruit with the
+flour and baking powder.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Icing</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>Whites of 2 eggs.</li>
+<li>1/2 lb. powdered sugar.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. of lemon juice.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Have the material very cold. Break the eggs carefully, beat the whites
+until frothy (not stiff); sift the sugar in gradually, beating all the
+while; add the lemon juice and continue beating until fine and white,
+and stiff enough to stand alone. Keep in a cool place, when using,
+spread with a knife dipped in cold water. If used for ornamenting
+press through a tube. It may be divided and different colorings added.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Boiled Icing</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 cup granulated sugar.</li>
+<li>1/3 cup boiling water.</li>
+<li>1/4 tsp. cream of tartar.</li>
+<li>White of 1 egg.</li></ul>
+
+
+<p>Boil the sugar and water together until it hangs from the spoon. Beat
+the egg to a stiff froth, add the cream of tartar, then pour on the
+syrup, beating all the while. Beat until cold and thick.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PASTRY" id="PASTRY"></a>PASTRY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it
+should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many
+food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost
+of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary
+place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a
+popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is
+more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light
+crust. In order to secure satisfactory results in pastry
+making&mdash;especially puff pastry&mdash;three things should be observed: (1)
+have all the materials cold; (2) use as little liquid as possible; (3)
+handle lightly and quickly. Pastry should be very cold when it is put
+into the oven. Have the oven very hot.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Puff Paste</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 lb. flour.</li>
+<li>1 lb. butter.</li>
+<li>Enough ice water to make into a very stiff dough.</li></ul>
+
+<p>If the butter is salty, wash it as follows: Scald a large bowl, then
+fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse
+them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to
+the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice
+water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and
+elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard.
+Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife
+or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water
+until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or
+marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> about 1/4 inch
+thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over
+this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times.
+If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold
+plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so
+as to keep it in layers&mdash;even when cutting off the roll keep the
+layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For
+patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided
+it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin
+as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a
+cover for chicken pie.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Plain Pastry</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>2 cups flour.</li>
+<li>1 cup butter or lard.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water
+to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place
+for at least 1/2 hour before baking.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Paste for Meat Pies, Etc.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 pint flour.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. soda.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cream tartar</li>
+<li>Or 2 level tsps. baking powder.</li>
+<li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>1/2 tsp. salt.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. cream tartar.</li>
+<li>1/4 cup butter or dripping.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix as for biscuit or shortcake.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h2><a name="MISCELLANEOUS" id="MISCELLANEOUS"></a>MISCELLANEOUS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Shepherd's Pie</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1
+cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock
+thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> the meat in small pieces and put
+in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over
+the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and
+milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and
+bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beef Stew</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove
+all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about
+1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry.
+When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2
+small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the
+fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add
+the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and
+pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water
+and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer
+until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil
+more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for
+dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely
+and cook just 10 minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stuffed Tomatoes</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2
+tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread
+crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from
+the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the
+pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp
+and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> with this
+mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the
+tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley,
+and serve.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Stewed Kidneys</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and
+let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a
+saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion
+juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the
+frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and
+smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer
+1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and
+pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be
+prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is
+prepared.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Creamed Eggs</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of
+toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then
+part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the
+yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat
+this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for
+about 3 minutes, then serve.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Buttered Toast</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to
+draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a
+plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Croutons (for soup).</span></div>
+
+<p>Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into
+1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to
+brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">French Toast</span>.</div>
+
+<ul><li>1 egg.</li>
+<li>1 cup milk.</li>
+<li>1 ssp. salt.</li>
+<li>4 to 6 slices of stale bread.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and
+milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well
+buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a
+little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the
+other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sandwiches</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the
+fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon
+juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter
+creamed. Cut bread&mdash;at least 1 day old&mdash;in very thin slices, spread
+with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices
+together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches
+may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little
+of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.)</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS" id="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS"></a>A FEW GENERAL HINTS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">How to Blanch Almonds</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in
+the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub
+between the hands.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">To Clean Currants</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the
+flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer
+and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well
+in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and
+dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover
+closely, and they are ready for use at any time.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Serving Food</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be
+served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced
+lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the
+attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons
+should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets,
+carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with
+a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast
+cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes.</p>
+
+<p>Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light
+puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to
+vary the decoration.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Canning and Preserving</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any
+fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general
+rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good
+fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars&mdash;test by filling with
+water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and
+are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so
+that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into
+them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer
+for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit
+slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up
+with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to
+cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of
+water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking.
+Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency,
+screw on the top loosely&mdash;so as to allow the gas to escape&mdash;and place
+in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the
+jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10
+minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils.
+Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at
+once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by
+cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made
+by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order
+to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water
+on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit,
+or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the
+syrup, fruit or jelly.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> Always see that the tops are screwed on
+tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not
+be done until the fruit has become cold.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Preserving</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise
+the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights
+of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Jellies</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar.
+Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for
+jelly. Cook the fruit&mdash;currants may be mashed and drained without
+cooking&mdash;until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the
+morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar
+in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent
+burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and
+boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a
+spoon.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_YOUNG_HOUSEKEEPERS" id="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_YOUNG_HOUSEKEEPERS"></a>SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.</h2>
+
+<p>Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion
+of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the
+proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats.
+Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and
+money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh
+fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious,
+economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> of
+food&mdash;different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry&mdash;cooked in various
+ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially
+pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to
+use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled)
+is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over
+exertion of any kind.</p>
+
+<p>See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn
+before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for
+porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before
+using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the
+water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have
+it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish
+cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish
+cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to
+dry&mdash;if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for
+glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for
+kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid
+burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of
+boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day.</p>
+
+<p>All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept
+scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special
+attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept
+thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the
+end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not
+have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots
+and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be
+filled with cold water if not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> washed immediately after using. Never
+put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the
+handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all
+refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse
+pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of
+carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put
+pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it
+only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more
+difficult to clean.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Dish Washing</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of
+the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of
+china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of
+housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to
+know how everything pertaining to household management should be done,
+and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules
+may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives,
+forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and
+arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never
+pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires
+separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with
+soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the
+glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways
+so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> which
+will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much
+brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut,
+use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry
+such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing,
+and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and
+the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have
+contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver
+and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in
+the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often,
+especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the
+water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the
+kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on
+the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with
+bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold
+in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any
+circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash
+the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish
+towels, dish cloth and dish pan.</p>
+
+<p>Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and
+scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place
+them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor
+of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become
+rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours,
+then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub
+the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits
+of turpentine.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Ventilation and Sanitation</span>.</div>
+
+<p>As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that
+one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family
+supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few
+housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the
+general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book
+prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of
+the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the
+rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1.
+See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either
+natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry.
+Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air,
+and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly
+cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if
+possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4.
+Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause
+unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a
+special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper
+temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the
+housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation
+of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be
+neglected.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of
+ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an
+abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts,
+either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span>
+odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of
+the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the
+cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be
+thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few
+inches at the bottom, or&mdash;as in some double or outside windows&mdash;by a
+little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air
+in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling,
+which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for
+foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.</p>
+
+<p>If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open
+a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window
+will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a
+draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room
+quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more
+desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the
+sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two
+chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of
+fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in
+a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.</p>
+
+<p>When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during
+the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the
+bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as
+to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of
+the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been
+occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and
+bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which
+has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should
+be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to
+prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the
+night.</p>
+
+<p>Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to
+prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the
+house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near
+the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a
+draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the
+purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen
+chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are
+placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very
+cold weather.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Laundry Work</span>.</div>
+
+<p>As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water,
+a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure
+water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great
+absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found.
+The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air;
+among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and
+creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain
+water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water
+absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking
+into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other
+compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these
+substances, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span>forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such
+water is known as "hard."</p>
+
+<p>Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according
+to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to
+hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the
+fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface
+of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why
+"hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much
+better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or
+sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely
+upon soap for cleansing.</p>
+
+<p>Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing
+soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have
+a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything
+stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly
+than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised.
+Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and
+added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too
+frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual
+cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia
+or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in
+removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing
+silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot
+water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Removing Stains.</i>&mdash;All spots and stains should be taken out before
+the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap.
+Fruit stains are the most<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span> frequent and the most indelible, when
+neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by
+boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour
+boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are
+allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a
+bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains
+should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk
+may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains
+usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.</p>
+
+<p>Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will
+resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin,
+besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water.
+Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains,
+although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in
+cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is
+Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is
+composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2
+quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as
+they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and
+bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions
+to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted
+woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white
+tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with
+a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the
+nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear
+water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid
+water;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less
+soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used.
+Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood
+is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to
+soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water&mdash;2
+tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If
+applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.</p>
+
+<p>The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where
+colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of
+soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some
+hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green
+color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water.
+Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered.
+Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of
+chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth
+be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches
+the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but
+success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils
+may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha,
+chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot
+alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the
+point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene
+before water and soap touch them.</p>
+
+<p>Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored
+fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated
+with oxalic, muriatic or hot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> tartaric acid, applied in the same
+manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for
+some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some
+will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with
+acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch
+the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in
+one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will
+furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a
+little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower
+the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears.
+Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia
+water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric
+protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight
+stain.</p>
+
+<p>Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron
+rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the
+result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been
+imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes
+thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt,
+and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is
+unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in
+the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year
+is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of
+blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of
+the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching,
+for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer.
+When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> use a bleaching
+powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can
+in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the
+acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot
+water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot
+water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled
+portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll
+the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover
+the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed,
+and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are
+unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long
+soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the
+materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional
+disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to
+be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes.
+This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the
+deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of
+the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed.
+The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little
+or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and
+remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot
+than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete
+removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful
+of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a
+bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span> water over the
+clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because
+the temperature is so quickly lowered.</p>
+
+<p>The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of
+all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of
+alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while
+the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali
+may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and
+disinfectant.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Washing of Woollens</span>.</div>
+
+<p>All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different
+waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be
+borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form
+of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good
+white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make
+each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at
+the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the
+original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference
+to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on
+account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be
+used to make the water very soft.</p>
+
+<p>Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly
+brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen
+fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool
+should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> a
+wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become
+twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the
+article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the
+whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly
+before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze,
+for the teeth become knotted and hard.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Colored Cottons</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt
+will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each
+washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time
+renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after
+the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a
+matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware.
+The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth
+of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried
+thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly
+wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water
+and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the
+disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place.
+Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just
+enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap.</p>
+
+<p>Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if
+kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the
+bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer
+may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> a
+few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the
+kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease,
+lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial
+action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire
+house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health.</p>
+
+<p>All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed
+generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The
+kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning
+with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly
+flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for
+cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CARING_FOR_INVALIDS" id="CARING_FOR_INVALIDS"></a>CARING FOR INVALIDS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the
+ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not
+vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut
+flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to
+avoid a draft&mdash;especially when airing the room. If the room is too
+small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to
+raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this
+put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain
+until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn
+the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of
+either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but
+injurious.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p><p>One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect
+cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient.
+Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom
+with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and
+prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire
+by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire.
+Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is
+whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not
+consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome
+varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders
+concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or
+cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and
+a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most
+objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow
+fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick
+room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a
+sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as
+the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough
+knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best
+methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them
+to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has
+been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is
+necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the
+hunger&mdash;neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come
+under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the
+other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued
+illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to
+supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated
+form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes
+it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate
+digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not
+only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either
+lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing.
+Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly,
+albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together),
+and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry
+toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence,
+any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich
+puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided.</p>
+
+<p>People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily
+digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon
+and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals,
+and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or
+milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of
+gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for
+invalids.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beverages</span>.</div>
+
+<p><i>Barley Water.</i>&mdash;Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold
+water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of
+water, and allow it to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain
+and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be
+added while boiling if desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apple Water.</i>&mdash;Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a
+bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to
+taste; serve when cold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flax Seed Tea.</i>&mdash;One-half cupful of flax seed&mdash;which has been
+carefully washed in cold water&mdash;to 1 quart of boiling water; boil
+slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to
+remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon
+juice and sugar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lemonade.</i>&mdash;Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the
+lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or
+cold as required.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orange Water.</i>&mdash;Made the same as lemonade.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Meat Extractives</span>.</div>
+
+<p><i>Beef Juice</i> is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through,
+then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice
+is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little
+salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry
+toast.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beef Tea.</i>&mdash;Cut juicy pieces of steak&mdash;the round steak is the
+best&mdash;into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to
+160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press,
+strain, and flavor with salt and pepper.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span></p><p><i>Beef Tea</i> (<i>No. 2</i>).&mdash;Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass
+fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour,
+stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of
+water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point.
+Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the
+jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer;
+allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with
+the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef
+stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Beef Essence.</i>&mdash;(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of
+finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of
+soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60
+grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool
+place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat
+slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces
+of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It
+should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred
+warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel
+placed in hot water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chicken Broth.</i>&mdash;Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the
+chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a
+fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or
+crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the
+skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the
+meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer
+till the meat is tender. A few minutes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> before removing from the fire
+add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain,
+and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary
+quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg.
+Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine
+cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may
+be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient
+can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and
+moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared
+with the egg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mutton Broth.</i>&mdash;Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour
+over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very
+red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain,
+season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may
+be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with
+cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is
+not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed
+by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by
+passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken
+off with a spoon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oatmeal Gruel.</i>&mdash;To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of
+oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without
+milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir
+well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan.
+Then boil the water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Egg Soup.</i>&mdash;Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double
+boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> through a sieve and add 1/2 pint
+of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir
+gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste,
+and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Albumen and Milk.</i>&mdash;Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk.
+Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well
+for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A
+pinch of salt may be added if desired.</p>
+
+<p><i>Egg-Nog.</i>&mdash;Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar,
+and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2
+teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk
+of the egg makes it more palatable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orange Soup.</i>&mdash;Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind,
+and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the
+liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two
+level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold
+water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the
+boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and
+stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used
+for this soup.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Arrowroot Gruel.</i>&mdash;Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a
+little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds;
+take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of
+lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until
+very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint
+of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span></p><p><i>Rice Water or Jelly.</i>&mdash;Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls
+of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and
+sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into
+a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink,
+add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little
+stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot
+or cold.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stewed Figs.</i>&mdash;Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold
+water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point,
+and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until
+the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down
+the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve
+cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jellied Chicken.</i>&mdash;Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint
+it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4
+inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then
+put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being
+careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the
+chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the
+meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin
+and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or
+mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the
+meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the
+chicken when cooking.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Raw Meat Sandwiches.</i>&mdash;Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped
+very fine and rubbed through a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> hair sieve or scraped from a slice of
+steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of
+sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of
+brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be
+added if the flavor is liked.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc.</i> (See
+recipes in preceding chapters.)</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDREN" id="A_FEW_GENERAL_HINTS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDREN"></a>A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.</h2>
+
+
+<p>"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school
+children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in
+boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is
+from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are
+undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the
+body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands,
+therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food
+must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to
+yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food
+should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of
+formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of
+dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later
+life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in
+circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the
+accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits,
+which are often a serious obstacle to normal development.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p><p>"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by
+the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of an&aelig;mia and chlorosis,
+which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a
+faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to
+consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical
+constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember
+that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the
+period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the
+individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage
+success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than
+success in mental attainments." (Thompson.)</p>
+
+<p>An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which
+becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from
+carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of
+habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals
+should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before
+each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably
+without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be
+required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to
+hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or
+game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after
+meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at
+food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite,
+increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion.</p>
+
+<p>The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for
+the reason given in the preceding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span> sentence and for its effect upon
+the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the
+public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more
+often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate
+children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as
+for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the
+following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece
+of whole wheat bread and butter should be given&mdash;if they
+awaken&mdash;during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor,
+and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be
+given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and
+butter, between meals.</p>
+
+<p>These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two
+years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes
+two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth
+must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of
+vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made
+tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable
+appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and
+vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill
+attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating
+indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking
+for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain
+them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome
+foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDRENS_DIET" id="SUGGESTIONS_FOR_SCHOOL_CHILDRENS_DIET"></a>SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET.</h2>
+
+
+<p>If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any
+task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not
+expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the
+child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a
+roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the
+first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of
+wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and
+butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the
+day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some
+form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted,
+should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as
+pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a
+porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice,
+tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of
+preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good
+bowl of nutritious broth&mdash;or soup&mdash;with bread or crackers, may be
+substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found
+best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this
+case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass
+of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the more important articles of school diet require special
+mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical
+Dietetics may prove helpful:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Bread.</i>&mdash;"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must
+not be too coarse. The advantage of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span> bread for children consists
+in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than
+is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served
+with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children
+need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are
+very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however,
+when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them."</p>
+
+<p><i>Milk.</i>&mdash;"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of
+puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children
+should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass
+of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking.
+Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a
+dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of
+milk.'"</p>
+
+<p><i>Meat.</i>&mdash;"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may
+sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are
+supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly
+growing children."</p>
+
+<p><i>Sweets.</i>&mdash;"The greater number of children have a natural craving for
+sweets."</p>
+
+<p>The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption
+of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The
+craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true
+indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be
+admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most
+children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main
+difficulty with such forms of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span> sugar, however, is that children are
+not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and
+the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming
+very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy,
+which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much,
+with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing
+the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely
+excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to
+develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years.
+(Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Exercise.</i>&mdash;As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children
+disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when
+taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the
+romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often,
+though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of
+exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic
+attack.</p>
+
+<p>Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is
+the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated
+appetites.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="INFANTS_DIET" id="INFANTS_DIET"></a>INFANTS' DIET.</h2>
+
+
+<p>One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science
+course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject
+requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies
+the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the
+foundation upon which the future physical structure is built.</p>
+
+<p>It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and
+attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids,
+have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more
+than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the
+following suggestions may prove helpful.</p>
+
+<p>The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and
+quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as
+well as the comfort of the household.</p>
+
+<p>Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least,
+seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to
+assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the
+child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's
+supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's
+milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than
+human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline,
+this must be corrected by the use of lime water.</p>
+
+<p>There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk,
+therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following
+proportions have been submitted as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span> a digestible form of preparing
+cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul><li>Cream, 2 tbsps.</li>
+<li>Milk, 1 tbsp.</li>
+<li>Lime water, 2 tbsps.</li>
+<li>Milk-sugar water, 3 tbsps.</li></ul>
+
+<p>One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day,
+and once or twice at night.</p>
+
+<p>After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to
+one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be
+given at once.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water
+and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should
+be:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul><li>3 tbsps. milk.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. cream.</li>
+<li>1 tbsp. lime water.</li>
+<li>3 tbsps. sugar water.</li></ul>
+
+<p>When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be
+increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Barley Water.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>2 tbsps. pearl barley.</li>
+<li>1 pt. boiling water.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Wash the barley carefully. Pour over it the boiling water. Let it
+simmer for two hours. Strain and sweeten with a pinch of sugar of
+milk.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Milk-Sugar Water.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1/2 oz. sugar of milk.</li>
+<li>1/2 pt. boiling water.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Dissolve, and keep closely covered. It will not keep long, so should
+be made when required to use.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Lime Water.</span></div>
+
+<p>Take a lump of lime weighing about one ounce. Put in a bottle with a
+quart of cold water (which has been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span> boiled). Shake the bottle well
+until the lime is dissolved, and let it stand for 12 hours. Pour the
+clear liquid into another bottle, being careful not to disturb the
+sediment. Keep carefully corked. Water will only absorb a certain
+quantity of lime, so there is no danger of its being too strong.</p>
+
+<p>As cow's milk is more difficult to digest than mother's milk, it is
+sometimes necessary to substitute barley water in place of the lime
+water and milk, using the same amount of cream as given in recipe.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Malted Food.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>2 oz. wheat flour or barley meal.</li>
+<li>1-3/4 qts. water.</li>
+<li>1 tsp. extract of malt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Mix the flour to a paste with a little water, gradually add a quart of
+the water; put it in a double boiler and boil 10 minutes. Dissolve the
+malt extract in 4 tbsps. of the water (cold). Lift out the inner
+vessel and add the malt and remainder of the cold water. Let it stand
+15 minutes, replace, and boil again for 15 minutes. Strain through a
+wire gauze strainer. (Half this quantity may be made.)</p>
+
+<p>This preparation is used when both barley water and lime-water
+disagree. It must always be given with milk. It prevents the large
+tough curds forming, which is such an objectionable feature in using
+cow's milk.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Peptonized Milk.</span></div>
+
+<p>In cases of especially weak digestion it may be necessary to peptonize
+the milk, which may be done as follows: Add 5 grains of extract of
+pancreas and 15<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> grains of baking soda to 1 pint of milk. (Tablets of
+pancreatin and soda may be used.)</p>
+
+<p>After adding the peptonizing material put the milk in a double boiler
+or in a vessel which may be set in a larger one, holding water, as hot
+as the hand can bear being dipped into quickly, or about 115&deg; Fah.
+Leave the milk in the hot water about 20 minutes, then place on the
+ice. If heated too long the milk will taste bitter.</p>
+
+<p>The preparation given in recipe No. 1, or with the barley water added,
+may be peptonized.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Sterilized or Pasteurized Milk.</span></div>
+
+<div class="center">(<i>See Milk, Chapter V.</i>)</div>
+
+<p>Put the amount of milk required for a meal into pint or half pint
+bottles, allowing for the number of times the child is to be fed in 24
+hours. Use cotton batting as a stopper. Place a wire frame, or invert
+a perforated tin pie plate, in the bottom of a saucepan; stand the
+bottles on this, pour around them enough water to come well above the
+milk, cover the saucepan or kettle, and when the water boils lift the
+saucepan from the fire and allow the bottles to remain in the hot
+water for 1 hour. Keep in the ice box or stand them in cold water
+until needed. If milk is to be used during a long journey it will be
+necessary to repeat the above operation three times, letting the milk
+cool between each time.</p>
+
+<p>Unless the milk is perfectly fresh, and has been handled with great
+care, it is safer to sterilize or pasteurize it. The former, if any
+doubt is entertained as to the quality of the milk, the latter in
+every case.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Temperature of Food.</span></div>
+
+<p>Food should be "milk warm," or about 99&deg; Fah., when given to a baby.
+Hot food is very injurious.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Nursing Bottles and Feeding.</span></div>
+
+<p>Have two plain bottles with rubber tops, <i>without tubes</i>. Bottles with
+ounces and tablespoonfuls marked on them can be purchased, and are a
+great convenience in measuring the amount of food required.</p>
+
+<p>After using the bottle, empty the remaining milk; rinse in cold water,
+then in <i>scalding water</i>.</p>
+
+<p>If particles of milk adhere to the bottle use coarse salt or raw
+potato cut in small pieces. If the glass looks cloudy, add a little
+ammonia to the water. Turn the rubber tops inside out and scrub with a
+stiff brush; boil them every alternate day for 10 minutes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Absolute cleanliness is a necessity</i> in the care of a baby's food,
+bottles and rubber tops.</p>
+
+<p>The bottle should be held, while the baby is feeding, in such a
+position that the top is full of milk. If air is sucked in with the
+milk stomach-ache will likely result.</p>
+
+<p>Starchy food should not be given to a child until it is able to
+masticate. (See digestion of starch, Chap. VIII.)</p>
+
+<p>Arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, etc., <i>must not be given to infants</i>.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Flour Ball.</span></div>
+
+<p>Put a bowlful of flour into a strong cloth, tie it up like a pudding,
+and place it in a kettle of boiling water. Boil for 10 or 12 hours.
+When boiled turn it out of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> the cloth and cut away the soft outside
+coating. When cool, grate the hard inside portion and use a
+teaspoonful at each feeding, for a baby 8 months old, increasing the
+amount for an older child. This may be prepared in the same manner as
+cornstarch or flour. The long boiling converts the starch into
+dextrine, which is more easily digested than starch. This is
+especially valuable in cases of diarrh&oelig;a, and may be used instead
+of barley gruel as a food.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Oatmeal Gruel.</span></div>
+
+<p>Pound a cupful of oatmeal in a pestle or on a bread board. Put in a
+bowl and pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Stir it up, then let the
+mixture settle for a few minutes. Pour off the milky fluid, repeat
+this process. Boil this water for an hour, adding a pinch of salt, and
+use it to dilute the milk instead of water.</p>
+
+<p>A thicker gruel may be made from oatmeal by allowing 1 tablespoonful
+to a cup of boiling water. Let it boil 1 hour, then strain through a
+wire strainer.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Farina Gruel.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 tbsp. farina.</li>
+<li>2 cups boiling water.</li>
+<li>A spk. of salt.</li></ul>
+
+<p>Cook for 20 minutes; use as directed for oatmeal.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Beef Juice</span>.</div>
+
+<div class="center">(<i>See page 145.</i>)</div>
+
+<p><i>Beef juice</i> is sometimes ordered for delicate babies. For a child 9
+months old, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls may be given once a day.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Albuminized Food.</span></div>
+
+<p>When milk cannot be taken, albuminized food proves an excellent
+substitute.</p>
+
+<p>Shake the white of 1 egg with 1/2 a pint of water (filtered or boiled
+and cooled) in a glass jar until they are thoroughly mixed. Add a few
+grains of salt.</p>
+
+<p>Children do not require a great variety in their food. Give one
+article of diet at a time and see how it agrees before trying another.</p>
+
+<p>After a child is a year old the various cereals may be given as
+porridge instead of gruel, with the addition of a little sugar.</p>
+
+<p>Remember, all cereals should be thoroughly cooked (see page 83).</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Biscuits.</span></div>
+
+<p>Gluten, soda, oatmeal or Graham biscuits may be soaked in milk or
+given alone. Do not give the fancy or sweet biscuits to young
+children.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Eggs.</span></div>
+
+<p>A properly boiled egg (see page 69) may be given every alternate day
+to a child 1 year old.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Junket.</span></div>
+
+<p>Junket is much better for young children than custards or puddings,
+and sometimes agrees well with babies.</p>
+
+<p>Take 1 pint of milk, heat it to 98&deg; Fah., or milk warm. Add 1
+teaspoonful of rennet and 1 teaspoonful of sugar.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> Stir all together
+and let it stand in a warm place until it becomes as thick as jelly.
+Remove at once to a cool place or whey will appear.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Baked Potatoes.</span></div>
+
+<p>Potatoes should not be given to a child under 2 years old in any other
+form than baked. The potash salts are the most valuable constituent,
+and are lost when they are peeled and boiled. They should be dry and
+mealy. A little salt, butter or cream should be added.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Macaroni.</span></div>
+
+<div class="center">(<i>See page 85.</i>)</div>
+
+<p>Macaroni is an excellent food for young children.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Fruit.</span></div>
+
+<p>Baked apples and the juice of an orange are the only fruits which
+should be given to children under two years of age.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Rice.</span></div>
+
+<p>Rice is an excellent food for young children, but not for infants.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Ventilation.</span></div>
+
+<p>Foul air is injurious to grown persons, but it is infinitely more
+dangerous to the sensitive organization of a child. Therefore special
+attention should be given to the ventilation of rooms occupied by a
+baby (see page 132).</p>
+
+<p>Fresh air, wholesome food, regular bathing, and plenty of sleep will
+insure the normal growth of the average baby, and are within reach of
+every one who has the care of young children.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span></p><p>The writer is indebted to Miss Scovil, Superintendent of Newport
+Hospital, and one of the associate editors of the <i>Ladies' Home
+Journal</i>, for many of the above hints concerning the diet of infants.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Emergencies.</span></div>
+
+<p>As frequent accidents occur during the performance of household
+duties, a few suggestions as to how slight injuries should be treated
+may prove useful to the young housekeeper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuts.</i>&mdash;A cut should be washed with cold water, covered with a small
+pad of cotton, bound up, and left alone. Should matter form, the
+bandage must be taken off, the wound bathed with carbolized water,
+1-80, and a little carbolized vaseline spread on a bit of linen and
+laid over it. The washing and dressing should be repeated two or three
+times a day if there is much discharge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bruises.</i>&mdash;A flannel wrung out of very hot water, and laid on a
+bruise, relieves the soreness.</p>
+
+<p>For bruises on the face, apply ice. Brown paper wet in vinegar is an
+old-fashioned remedy. If the skin is broken, treat as a wound, with
+carbolized water and carbolized vaseline.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sprains.</i>&mdash;Both hot and cold treatment is recommended. Immerse the
+joint in water as hot as can be borne. Keep up the temperature by
+gradually adding more hot water. Let it soak for an hour or more. Then
+wrap in warm flannel, and surround with hot water bags or bottles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stings.</i>&mdash;Bathe the part in ammonia, or baking soda and water; wet a
+cloth in the same, and bind over it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Burns.</i>&mdash;The best household remedies for burns are baking soda and
+carbolized vaseline. For slight burns<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> mix the soda to a paste with
+water, and spread thickly over the part; cover with linen or old
+cotton. This may be kept wet by squeezing water over it. If shreds of
+clothing adhere to a burn, they should be soaked with oil, and not
+pulled off until softened. If the skin is gone, spread carbolized
+vaseline on linen, and bind on the part until the doctor arrives.</p>
+
+<p>In burns caused by acids, water should not be applied to the parts.
+Cover with dry baking soda.</p>
+
+<p>If caused by an alkali, such as lye, ammonia, or quick-lime, use an
+acid, as vinegar or lemon juice, diluted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Poisoning.</i>&mdash;For poison ivy, saturate a cloth in a solution of baking
+soda, or ammonia and water, and lay over the part.</p>
+
+<p>When poison has been swallowed, the first thing to do is to get it out
+of the stomach. Secondly, to prevent what remains from doing more
+mischief. Give an emetic at once. One tbsp. of salt in a glass of
+<i>tepid</i> water; 1 tsp. of mustard, or 1 tsp. of powdered alum in a
+glass of tepid water. A tsp. of wine of ipecac, followed by warm
+water. Repeat any of these three or four times if necessary. The
+quantities given are for children; larger doses may be given to
+adults. It is well to give a dose of castor oil after the danger is
+over, to carry off any remnants of the poison that may have lodged in
+the intestines.</p>
+
+<p>After a poison has burned the mouth and throat, plenty of milk may be
+given, also flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch gruel.</p>
+
+<p>For drowning and other serious accidents, see Public School
+Physiology.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center">FURNISHING A CLASS-ROOM.</div>
+
+<p>The furnishing of a class-room should be so complete that each pupil
+should be able to attend to the appointed task without delay. The
+furniture should consist of a stove, or range, gas stove if more
+convenient, a hot water tank or boiler, sink, table (side), towel
+rack, 2 dozen chairs, or seats with tablet arms, a cupboard or kitchen
+"dresser" for table ware, a large cupboard or arrangement for lockers,
+in which caps, aprons, etc., should be kept, a large table&mdash;horseshoe
+shape is the most satisfactory&mdash;with drawers, and space for rolling
+pin, bread board, etc., underneath. The table should be large enough
+to allow at least 2 ft. 6 in. for each pupil. Twenty pupils is the
+limit of a practice class. On the table should be placed at regular
+intervals, 10 gas burners with frame. The teacher's table should stand
+in the opening at the end of the table so that she may see each pupil
+while at work, and when demonstrating may be seen by each pupil.</p>
+
+<p>The following list of utensils will be found sufficient for practice
+work for a class of 20 pupils.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Earthen, China and Glass Ware.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 dinner set.</li>
+<li>2 quart pitchers.</li>
+<li>2 pint pitchers.</li>
+<li>2 small oval baking dishes.</li>
+<li>2 small round baking dishes.</li>
+<li>4 4-quart bowls, with lips.</li>
+<li>6 2-quart bowls, with lips.</li>
+<li>4 1-quart bowls.</li>
+<li>12 baking cups.</li>
+<li>6 kitchen cups.</li>
+<li>2 small platters.</li>
+<li>2 medium size platters.</li>
+<li>2 deep pie plates.</li>
+<li>6 shallow pie plates.</li>
+<li>2 jelly moulds.</li>
+<li>1 teapot.</li>
+<li>1 dozen quart gem jars.</li>
+<li>1 dozen pint gem jars.</li>
+<li>6 4-quart stone jars or crocks.</li>
+<li>1 dozen fancy plates, and glass dishes for serving.</li></ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span></p><div class="center"><span class="smcap">Woodenware.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 wash-board.</li>
+<li>12 small bread boards.</li>
+<li>12 rolling pins.</li>
+<li>2 chopping trays.</li>
+<li>2 potato mashers.</li>
+<li>1 potato ricer.</li>
+<li>1 water pail.</li>
+<li>1 scrubbing pail.</li>
+<li>1 pail or bucket for refuse.</li>
+<li>1 flour bucket, with cover.</li>
+<li>6 wooden spoons&mdash;small.</li>
+<li>1 2-gallon ice cream freezer.</li>
+<li>1 broom.</li>
+<li>1 whisk-broom.</li>
+<li>1 crumb pan and brush.</li>
+<li>1 floor scrubbing brush.</li>
+<li>6 small scrubbing brushes.</li>
+<li>1 stove brush.</li>
+<li>1 pastry brush.</li>
+<li>1 small refrigerator.</li>
+<li>Spice boxes.</li>
+<li>Dish mops.</li>
+<li>Lemon squeezers, etc.</li></ul>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Agate Ware.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>4 double boilers.</li>
+<li>2 4-quart kettles.</li>
+<li>2 2-quart saucepans.</li>
+<li>4 1-quart saucepans.</li>
+<li>4 pt. saucepans.</li>
+<li>2 oval pudding dishes.</li>
+<li>1 4-quart preserving kettle.</li>
+<li>1 hand basin.</li>
+<li>1 tea kettle.</li></ul>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Iron Ware.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 spider.</li>
+<li>1 griddle.</li>
+<li>1 pan for meat.</li>
+<li>1 pan for fish.</li>
+<li>1 meat fork.</li>
+<li>1 can opener.</li>
+<li>1 meat cleaver.</li>
+<li>2 wooden-handled spoons.</li>
+<li>1 braising pan (cover).</li>
+<li>Scales, etc.</li></ul>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Tin and Wire Ware.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>2 large graters.</li>
+<li>1 nutmeg grater.</li>
+<li>12 flour dredges.</li>
+<li>12 measuring cups.</li>
+<li>1 funnel.</li>
+<li>1 basting spoon.</li>
+<li>1 wire broiler, for toast.</li>
+<li>2 wire broilers, for steak.</li>
+<li>1 wire soap dish.</li>
+<li>3 Dover egg beaters.</li>
+<li>3 small wire strainers.</li>
+<li>1 large wire strainer.</li>
+<li>1 flour scoop.</li>
+<li>2 flour sifters.</li>
+<li>1 gravy strainer.</li>
+<li>1 colander.</li>
+<li>2 dish pans.</li>
+<li>2 2-qt. milk cans.</li>
+<li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span>1 quart measure.</li>
+<li>1 pint measure.</li>
+<li>1 steamer.</li>
+<li>6 small bread pans.</li>
+<li>6 small jelly moulds.</li>
+<li>1 set gem pans.</li>
+<li>1 doz. muffin rings.</li>
+<li>2 dustpans.</li>
+<li>2 plain cake cutters.</li>
+<li>1 doughnut cutter.</li>
+<li>1 small biscuit cutter.</li>
+<li>1 frying basket.</li>
+<li>1 dipper.</li>
+<li>2 long, shallow cake tins.</li>
+<li>2 egg whisks.</li>
+<li>1 round cake tin.</li>
+<li>1 wire frame.</li>
+<li>1 vegetable cutter.</li></ul>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous.</span></div>
+
+<ul><li>1 doz. dish towels.</li>
+<li>2 floor cloths.</li>
+<li>12 holders.</li>
+<li>Cheese cloth.</li>
+<li>Pudding cloth.</li>
+<li>Needles.</li>
+<li>Twine.</li>
+<li>Scissors.</li>
+<li>Skewers.</li>
+<li>Screw driver.</li>
+<li>Corkscrew.</li>
+<li>1 doz. knives and forks.</li>
+<li>Hammer.</li>
+<li>Tacks and Nails.</li>
+<li>Ironing sheet and holder.</li>
+<li>Coal scuttle.</li>
+<li>Fire shovel.</li>
+<li>Coal sieve.</li>
+<li>Ash hod.</li>
+<li>Flat irons.</li>
+<li>Paper for cake tins.</li>
+<li>Wrapping paper.</li>
+<li>Small tub for laundry work.</li>
+<li>6 tablespoons.</li>
+<li>2 doz. teaspoons.</li></ul>
+
+<p>While this may seem a formidable list, it will not be found expensive.
+Some of the above articles may be omitted and others substituted. It
+must be remembered that the utensils will be well cared for,
+consequently will last for many years. In country schools, or where
+gas is not available, oil stoves may be used. In some schools, where
+space is limited, one small table is used, two or more pupils
+demonstrating the lesson under the supervision of the teacher, the
+pupils taking this duty in alternation. The remainder of the class
+observe and take notes.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span></p><p>The cost of material is trifling. It should not average more than
+fifty cents per pupil per annum, and for a large number should average
+less than this amount.</p>
+
+<p>The Boston school kitchens are, many of them, furnished at a cost of
+from $200 to $300. A fair average cost for Ontario should be about
+$175.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="PLANNING_AND_SERVING_MEALS" id="PLANNING_AND_SERVING_MEALS"></a>PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a
+typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain
+number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the
+choice of food for each meal.</p>
+
+<p>State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost.
+Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how
+the meal should be served. <i>System</i>, neatness and promptness should be
+especially emphasized. Clean table linen&mdash;no matter how coarse&mdash;is
+possible for every one. A dish of fruit or flowers, if only a bunch of
+green foliage, improves the appearance of the table.</p>
+
+<p>During the school course a special lesson should be devoted to setting
+the table and serving meals, with and without a waitress, so as to
+give a knowledge of how a meal should be served, no matter what the
+pupil's position in life may be or what part she may have to perform.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">A Few General Hints on Setting the Table.</span></div>
+
+<p>Although every housekeeper has her own method for serving meals, a few
+general principles govern all properly regulated service. When setting
+the table, cover first with a canton-flannel or felt cloth, in order
+to prevent noise and protect the table. Place each article in its
+proper place and not in a confused "jumble." See that the tablecloth
+is spread smoothly, that the corners are of equal length, that the
+crease&mdash;if the cloth has been folded instead of rolled&mdash;is exactly in
+the centre. Place the fruit or flowers in the centre of the table.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span></p><p>For each person place knife, spoon and glass on the right, fork and
+napkin on the left. Place the glass at the point of the knife. Turn
+the edge of the knife towards the plate and the fork tines up, the
+spoon with the bowl up. If soup is to be served, place a square of
+bread or a roll on top of the napkin or between the folds. Place the
+pepper and salt at the corners of the table, unless individual salts
+are used, when they should be placed at the head of the plates, where
+the dessert spoon may be placed&mdash;the handle towards the right&mdash;for
+convenience.</p>
+
+<p>The general rule in serving simple family meals, with or without a
+waitress, is for the hostess to serve the porridge and coffee at
+breakfast; the soup, salad and dessert at dinner, and pour the tea at
+the evening meal. When luncheon is served in the middle of the day the
+hostess usually does the greater part of the serving, as luncheon is
+considered to be the most informal meal of the day.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">A Few Hints for Waitresses.</span></div>
+
+<p>Learn to move quickly and quietly. Be scrupulously clean and neat in
+every detail of dress and habit. Before serving a meal see that hands
+and finger nails are clean. Always have a fresh white apron ready to
+put on before the meal is announced. Look over the table and see that
+everything is in its place before announcing a meal. Fill the glasses
+with water either before the family enter the dining room or
+immediately after they are seated. Lift the covers from hot dishes and
+turn them over at once in order to prevent the steam from dropping on
+the cloth. Take the plate from the host or hostess, and place before
+each person from the right side&mdash;keep the thumb well<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> under the plate.
+When passing anything from which the persons seated at table help
+themselves, such as vegetables, sauces, etc., always go to the left,
+so as to leave the right hand of the one to be served free. Keep a
+watchful eye over the table and pass anything apparently required.</p>
+
+<p>Learn to receive instructions from the hostess in an undertone. Do not
+get excited and try to do too many things at once. It is an
+accomplishment to be a good waitress, as it requires special
+refinement and deftness, which are scarcely compatible with an untidy
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>When serving meals without a waitress, the daughters of the house
+should consider it their special privilege to save the mother any
+annoyance or discomfort during the meal time. Never allow dishes,
+which have been used, to accumulate on the table or allow the table to
+become disordered. As much of the food as possible should be placed on
+the table before the family are seated, and the plates or dishes
+removed at once after using. No matter how simple the meal may be,
+every housekeeper should see that it is served neatly and on time.
+Teachers may exercise a far-reaching influence in the refining of home
+life by impressing upon the pupils the importance of these&mdash;too often
+considered&mdash;minor matters, and by giving minute instructions in the
+setting of table and serving the meal. One carefully planned
+<i>practice</i> lesson will convey more knowledge of such matters than any
+number of lectures or pages of theory.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONSIDERATION_OF_MENUS" id="CONSIDERATION_OF_MENUS"></a>CONSIDERATION OF MENUS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74,
+prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so
+as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods
+in combination. <i>It must be remembered that the prices given are in
+excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less
+than is given in these illustrations.</i> The more expensive menus have
+been omitted. The writer of the article says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"In planning a well balanced diet the following points must be
+considered:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) The use of any considerable amount of fat meat or starchy food
+should be offset by the use of some material rich in protein. Thus, if
+roast pork is to be eaten for dinner, veal, fish, or lean beef might
+well be eaten for breakfast or supper, or both. Bean soup furnishes a
+considerable amount of protein, while bouillon, consomm&eacute;, and tomato
+soup are practically useless as a source of nutriment. Skim milk also
+furnishes protein, with but very little accompanying fats and
+carbohydrates to increase the fuel value.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The use of lean meats or fish for all three meals would require
+the use of such foods as rice, tapioca, or cornstarch pudding,
+considerable quantities of sugar and butter, and more vegetables, in
+order to furnish sufficient fuel value.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Since flour, sugar, and butter or lard enter very largely into
+pastries and desserts, the larger the quantities <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span>of these dishes that
+are consumed the larger does the fuel value tend to become as compared
+with the protein."</p>
+
+<p>The principal classes of food materials may be roughly grouped as
+follows as regards the proportion of protein to fuel value, beginning
+with those which have the largest proportion of protein and ending
+with those which contain little or no protein:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>
+Foods containing a large amount of protein as&nbsp; compared with the fuel value.
+
+<ul>
+<li>Fish;</li>
+<li>veal;</li>
+<li>lean beef, such as shank, shoulder, canned corned, round, neck, and chuck;</li>
+<li>skim milk.</li>
+</ul>
+</li>
+<li>
+Foods containing a medium amount of protein.
+
+<ul><li>Fowl;</li>
+<li>eggs;</li>
+<li>mutton leg and shoulder;</li>
+<li>beef, fatter cuts, such as rib, loin, rump, flank, and brisket;</li>
+<li>whole milk;</li>
+<li>beans and peas;</li>
+<li>mutton chuck and loin;</li>
+<li>cheese;</li>
+<li>lean pork;</li>
+<li>oatmeal and other breakfast foods;</li>
+<li>flour;</li>
+<li>bread, etc.</li></ul>
+</li>
+<li>
+Foods containing little or no protein.
+<ul>
+<li>Vegetables and fruit;</li>
+<li>fat pork;</li>
+<li>rice;</li>
+<li>tapioca;</li>
+<li>starch;</li>
+<li>butter and other fats and oils;</li>
+<li>sugar, syrups.</li></ul>
+
+</li></ul>
+
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap"><br />The Menus</span>.</div>
+
+<p>To illustrate the ways in which milk may be combined with other food
+materials, to form daily dietaries with about the amount of protein
+and the fuel value called for by the standard for men at moderate
+muscular work, a few menus are given in the following pages. These
+menus are intended to show how approximately the same nutritive value
+may be obtained by food combinations differing widely as regards the
+number, kind, and price of the food materials used to make up three
+daily meals. They also illustrate how the cost of the daily menu may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span>
+vary greatly with the kind and variety of materials purchased, though
+the nutritive value remains the same. These sample menus should not,
+however, be regarded as in any sense "models" to be followed in actual
+practice. The daily menus for any family will necessarily vary with
+the market supply, the season, and the relative expensiveness of
+different food materials, as well as with the tastes and purse of the
+consumers. The point to which we wish here to draw especial attention
+is that the prudent buyer of foods for family consumption can not
+afford to wholly neglect their nutritive value in making such
+purchases.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the following daily menus, several points must be
+definitely borne in mind. (1) The amounts given represent about what
+would be called for in a family equivalent to four full-grown men at
+ordinary manual labor, such as machinists, carpenters, mill-workers,
+farmers, truckmen, etc., according to the usually accepted standards.
+Sedentary people would require somewhat less than the amounts here
+given. (2) Children as a rule may be considered as having "moderate
+muscular exercise," and it may easily be understood that the
+14-year-old boy eats as much as his father who is engaged in business
+or professional occupation, both requiring, according to the tentative
+standard, 0.8 of the food needed by a man with moderate muscular work.
+(3) It is not assumed that any housewife will find it convenient to
+follow exactly the proportions suggested in the menus. The purpose is
+to show her about what amounts and proportions of food materials would
+give the required nutrients.</p>
+
+<p>A family equivalent to four men having little muscular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span>exercise&mdash;<i>i.e.</i>, men with sedentary occupation&mdash;would require but
+about 0.8 the quantities indicated in the following menus. It would be
+very doubtful, however, if they would eat proportionally less of every
+food material. It would, in fact, be more probable that the amounts of
+meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, and bread eaten would be reduced in a much
+greater proportion than fruit, pastry, coffee, etc.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Pecuniary Economy of Milk and Other Foods</span>.</div>
+
+
+<div class="center"><i>Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials for
+10 cts.</i><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<br />
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials">
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="4" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Food Material.</i></td>
+  <td align="center" style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align="center" style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Whole</td><td align='left'>Milk,</td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+  <td align='left'>cts. per qt.</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align="right">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>8</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align="right">8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>7</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align="right">14</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>6</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align="right">3</td>
+  <td align="right">5</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>5</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align="right">4</td>
+  <td align="right">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center'>"</td><td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>4</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align="right">5</td>
+  <td align="right">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Skim</td><td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>3</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align="right">6</td>
+  <td align="right">11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left'>Skim</td><td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align="right">10</td>
+  <td align="right">0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left'>Butter,</td>
+  <td align='right'>24</td>
+  <td align="left">cts. per lb.</td>
+  <td align="right">0</td>
+  <td align="right">7</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left'>Cheese,</td>
+  <td align='right'> 16</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='left'>Beef, round,</td>
+  <td align='right'>12</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; " &nbsp;&nbsp; sirloin,</td>
+  <td align='right'>18</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>9</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='left'>Mutton, loin,</td>
+  <td align='right'>16</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>10</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='left'>Pork, salt</td>
+  <td align='right'>12</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'> 0</td>
+  <td align='right'>13</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left'>Cod, salt</td>
+  <td align='right'>6</td>
+  <td align='center'>"</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='right'>9</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left'>Eggs,</td>
+  <td align='right'>22</td>
+  <td align="left"> cts. per doz.</td>
+  <td align="right">0</td>
+  <td align='right'>11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left'>Oysters,</td>
+  <td align='right'>30</td>
+  <td align="left">cts. per qt.</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='right'>11</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left'>Potatoes,</td>
+  <td align='right'>60</td>
+  <td align="left">cts. per bushel</td>
+  <td align="right">10</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left'>Beans, dried,</td>
+  <td align='right'>8</td>
+  <td align="left">cts. per qt.</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align='right'> 8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td colspan="2" align='left' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">Wheat flour,</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3</td>
+  <td align="left" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">cts. per lb.</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 5</td>
+</tr>
+</table><br />
+</div>
+
+<div class="center"><br />
+<span class="smcap">Menu</span> I.&mdash;<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu I">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>&nbsp;Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bananas, 4 (or grapes, 1 pound)</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;6&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>362</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast cereal</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.031&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>421</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;}&nbsp; 3</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.016&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'> &nbsp; 175</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Veal cutlets</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.200&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>775</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.018&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>325</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>653</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rolls</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.077&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>1,148</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">44&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.361&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>4,431</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pea soup:&nbsp; </td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Split peas</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.121&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">820</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;}&nbsp;&nbsp;5</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">217</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Flour</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.007&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">103</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Roast beef, chuck rib&nbsp; </td>
+  <td>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">21&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.275&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 1,260</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&#8531;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">406</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.005&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">67</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">
+    <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span>
+    Cottage pudding with lemon sauce:
+  </td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 cup flour</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> / .028&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sugar</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">350</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6&frac12;</td>
+   <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">325</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 cup milk</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;.016&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sugar</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">465</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cornstarch</td>
+  <td></td><td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">172</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">108</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total&nbsp; </td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">41&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-right: solid 2px;">.484&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">5,275</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk toast:</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Milk</td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.066&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">650</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bread</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;18</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.107</td>
+  <td align="right">1,356</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;/</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">869</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cornstarch</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">228</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Canned salmon</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">8&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.098&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">340</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fried potatoes:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Potatoes&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.009</td>
+  <td align="right">162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lard</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align="right" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">132</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cake</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align="right"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>619</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee or tea</td>
+  <td></td><td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align="right" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align="left"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">34&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.316&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">4,766</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day &nbsp; </td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">120&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.161&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">14,472</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one Man&nbsp; </td>
+  <td colspan="2"  align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">30&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.290&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,618</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<br /></div>
+
+
+<div class="center"><br />
+<span class="smcap">Menu</span> II.&mdash;<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu II">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>&nbsp;Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td>
+  <td align='right'> 0</td>
+  <td align="left"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.019&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>232</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.012</td>
+  <td align="right">122</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">175</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fresh pork sausage</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">18&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.192&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >3,255</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.013&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">244</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">904</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">434</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">31&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.317&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >5,776</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, for stew</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.347&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>1,900</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.027&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">487</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.005&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">67</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.048&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">603</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">217</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Indian pudding:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cornmeal</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;.022&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">414</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Molasses</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.007&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">329</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter</td>
+  <td></td><td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;/</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align="right">108</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Skim milk</td>
+  <td align="right">2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.068&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">340</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">31&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.534&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >4,875</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">
+  <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>Corned beef hash:</td>
+  <td  colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Corned beef, canned</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.142&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">560</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Potatoes</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">162</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">904</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">434</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apples&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.003&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">191</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk </td>
+  <td align='right' >&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.066&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">725</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">21&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.291&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>2,976</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">84&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.142&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >13,627</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">21&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.285&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,407</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In these menus the amount of milk has, as a rule, been taken as
+representing somewhere near the average consumption. The amount of
+milk can be increased in any of the menus given above either by
+substituting it to some extent for coffee or tea, or by using more
+milk and smaller quantities of meats, butter or eggs. Roughly
+speaking, 1 quart of whole milk could be substituted for half a pound
+of meat or eggs and the amount of nutrients would be the same, while a
+pint of milk would give as large a fuel value as 1-1/2 ounces of
+butter, and in addition considerable protein not furnished by the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>This replacement of meats by milk is illustrated in the following
+menu, in which a diet with a rather small quantity of milk is so
+changed as to include a much larger amount. Thus for breakfast in the
+modified ration a pint and a half of milk is made to take the place of
+half a pound of broiled steak. For dinner a quart of skim milk (or
+buttermilk) is called for, or a glass for each person unless some of
+it is used in the cooking. At the same time, 4 ounces less roast pork
+is required. In the same way a glass of whole milk is allowed each
+person for supper, or the bread can be made into milk toast and the
+most of the extra milk used in this way. This allows the canned salmon
+to be reduced 6 ounces.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Menu</span> III.&mdash;<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate exercise.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu III">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="4" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Weight of food.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials. &nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">With<br />small<br />amount<br />of milk.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">With<br />large<br />amount<br />of milk.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bananas, apples, or pears</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='left' >12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Wheat preparation </td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk&nbsp; </td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Broiled sirloin steak</td>
+  <td align='right'> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"></td>
+  <td align='left' >12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Baked potatoes</td>
+  <td align='right'> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' > 1</td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Hot rolls</td>
+  <td align='right'> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' > 1</td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2&frac12;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;2&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Extra milk</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >1</td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tomato soup</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align='left' >12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Roast pork</td>
+  <td align="right"> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align="right"> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Mashed potatoes</td>
+  <td align="right"> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align="right"> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apple fritters:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Apples</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Flour</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 egg</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lard</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;1&frac12;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right'> </td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Extra skim milk</td>
+  <td align="right"></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 2</td>
+  <td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Canned salmon</td>
+  <td align="right"> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align="right">1</td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align="right"> </td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align="right"> </td>
+  <td align='left' >12</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Berries, canned or fresh&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right'></td>
+  <td align='left' >&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Extra milk</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center"><br /><i>Cost, protein, and fuel value of the above.</i></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu III">
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> Cost.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;">Protein.&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> Fuel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"><i>With small amount of milk.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> <i>Cents.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-top: solid 2px;"> <i>Pounds.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;"> <i>Calories.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 48&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .39&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 5,300</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Dinner&nbsp; </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 51&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .39&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 5,800</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Supper or lunch</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 33&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .34&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 3,200</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 132&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.12&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>14,300</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">======&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">======&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >======</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for one man</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 33&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .28&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'> 3,575</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">======&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">======&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >======</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>With large amount of milk.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+   <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 43&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .36&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'> 5,270</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Dinner&nbsp; </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 47&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .41&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'> 5,400</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Supper or lunch</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 34&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> .34&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'> 3,600</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 125&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1.11&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >14,270</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">======&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">======&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >======</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 31&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;"> .28&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-bottom: solid 2px;"> 3,567</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Menus VI and VII, following, are intended to illustrate how nourishing
+food can be procured in sufficient quantities and moderate variety at
+a cost of not over 16 cents per day. The cost to the farmer would be
+much less, since these menus call for considerable amounts of milk,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>which is hardly worth more than one-half or one-third as much on the
+farm as it costs in the towns and cities. Coffee has not always been
+indicated, but can be introduced for any meal at a cost of from 1/2 to
+1-1/2 cents per cup, according to how much coffee is used in making
+the infusion, and how much sugar, milk, and cream are added.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, not important that each meal, or the total food of
+each individual day, should have just the right amount of nutrients,
+or that the proportions of protein and fuel ingredients should be
+exactly correct so as to make the meal or day's diet well balanced.
+The body is continually storing nutritive materials and using them. It
+is not dependent any day upon the food eaten that particular day.
+Hence an excess one day may be made up by a deficiency the next or
+<i>vice versa</i>. Healthful nourishment requires simply that the nutrients
+as a whole, during longer or shorter periods, should be fitted to the
+actual needs of the body for use.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><br /><span class="smcap">Menu</span> IV.&mdash;<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu IV">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>&nbsp;Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bananas, 4 (or grapes, 1 pound)</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 362</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Breakfast cereal</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.031&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>421</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;}&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.012&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>122</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>232</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Mutton chops</td>
+  <td align='right' >1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.165&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >1,812</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align='right' >1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.018&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 325</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'> 653</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Rolls&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.077&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 1,148</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">44&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.322&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' >5,485</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tomato Soup</td>
+  <td align='right' >2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.036&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 370</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Roast pork</td>
+  <td align='right' >2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">32&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.353&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">3,350</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align='right' >1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 406</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Turnips</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.005&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 67</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">
+    <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span>Tapioca pudding:
+  </td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Tapioca</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.001&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 310</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Apples</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\ </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.004&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 255</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sugar&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 232</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cream&nbsp; </td>
+ <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.006&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 228</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 410</td></tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">57&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.437&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">5,628</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk toast:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Milk</td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.066&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 650</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Bread</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;18&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.107&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">1,356</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 869</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cornstarch</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 238</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sliced cold pork</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 670</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Fried potatoes:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Potatoes</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.009&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Lard</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 132</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cake </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 619</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee or tea</td>
+  <td></td><td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">32&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.289&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">5,096</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">134&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.048&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 16,209</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man &nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">33&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.262&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">4,052</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="center"><br />
+<span class="smcap">Menu</span> V.&mdash;<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu V">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Baked apples</td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.008&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 510</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Boiled hominy</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.041&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 823</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;}&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">{&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.020&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 202</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;3</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/ </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 350</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Broiled sirloin</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.099&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 650</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Muffins:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 egg</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.032&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2 cups flour</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.057&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 820</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 435</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">31&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.276&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">4,524</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Tomato soup</td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.036&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 370</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Veal stew, shoulder </td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.332&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">1,350</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align='right'>3</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.054&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 975</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Apple dumpling:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 egg</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\ </td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.016&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 81</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4 apples</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.006&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 382</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1/2 cup lard</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">1,055</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1 cup flour</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;.028&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">
+    <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span>Sauce for dumpling:
+  </td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Butter</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 217</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Sugar</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">/</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">\&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 465</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.071&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 904</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 217</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Coffee or tea</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;<b>...</b></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.010&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 410</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">50&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.553&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>6,836</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2"  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper or lunch.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Dried canned corned beef</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.142&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' > 560</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potato croquette</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.009&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 162</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Biscuit</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.070&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">1,297</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter</td>
+   <td></td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 325</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oranges, 4</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left'  style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">7&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.007&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 400</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Skim milk</td>
+  <td align='right' >1</td>
+  <td align="left" style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.046&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 234</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">23&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.274&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">2,978</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">104&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.103&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 14,338</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man &nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">26&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.275&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,585</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="center"><br />
+<span class="smcap">Menu</span> VI.&mdash;<i>For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate muscular work.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu VI">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>&nbsp;Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cornmeal, in mush or cake</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;5</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 414</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.012&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 64</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 232</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Toast&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 753</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter (24 cents per pound)</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 434</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 8&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.093&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">1,897</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef roll (for roasting)</td>
+  <td align='right'>3</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.417&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">2,280</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beets&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.007&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 85</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 753</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 434</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr><tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">23&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.509&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">4,040</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> &nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beans, baked</td>
+  <td align='right'>2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.446&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">3,180</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Pork&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.012&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">2,556</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes, fried</td>
+  <td align='right' >1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.026&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Lard&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 537</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 753</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 434</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.543&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">7,948</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr><tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total for day</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">20&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.145&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 13,885</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man &nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">13&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.285&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,471</td>
+</tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span></p>
+<div class="center"><br />
+<span class="smcap">Menu</span> VII.&mdash;<i>For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work.</i>
+<br /><br /></div>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Menu VII">
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Food materials.</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"> Weight.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Cost.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;">Protein.</td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;">Fuel <br /> Value.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Breakfast.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>&nbsp;Lbs.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Oz.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Cents.</i></td>
+  <td align='center' style="border-top: solid 2px;border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Pounds.</i></td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-top: solid 2px;"><i>Calories.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Oatmeal</td>
+  <td align='right'>0</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;6</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.059&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 697</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Skim milk, 1 pint</td>
+  <td align='right' >1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.034&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 170</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sugar</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 232</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Bread (homemade)</td>
+  <td align='right'>1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.095&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">1,205</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Sausage</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">10</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.080&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">1,358</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter (24 cents per pound)</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;1</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 217</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">14&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.268&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">3,879</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Dinner.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef flank, stew</td>
+  <td align='right' > 2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">15&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.430&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">2,988</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Potatoes (60 cents per bushel)</td>
+  <td align='right' > 3</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.054&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 975</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cabbage</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.013&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 105</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Cornmeal pudding:</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Cornmeal</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;4</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.022&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 414</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Skim milk, 1 quart </td>
+  <td align='right'> 2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.068&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 340</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Molasses</td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">12</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.020&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 987</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">22&frac12;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.604&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">5,889</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="center" style="border-right: solid 2px;"><i>Supper.</i></td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp; </td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Beef, warmed in gravy &nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'> 1</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;8</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.086&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 598</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Hot biscuit</td>
+  <td align='right'> 2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.340&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">2,600</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Butter&nbsp; </td>
+  <td></td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;2</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> <b>...</b>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 434</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Milk, 1 quart</td>
+  <td align='right' > 2</td>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;"> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.033&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"> 325</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">18&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">.259&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">3,957</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;">Total per day</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">55&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">1.134&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right">3,645</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td style="border-right: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">=====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;">====&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right'>=====&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align='left' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">Total for one man &nbsp;</td>
+  <td colspan="2" align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">14&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align='right' style="border-right: solid 2px;border-bottom: solid 2px;">.285&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right" style="border-bottom: solid 2px;">3,411</td>
+</tr>
+</table><br /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">Discussion of the Menus</span>.</div>
+
+<p>These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of
+food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in
+the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied
+and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the
+use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided.
+The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is
+believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course
+they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials,
+oatmeal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span> and other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these
+substances as purchased.</p>
+
+<p>The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the
+different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of
+these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used
+simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of
+protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest.</p>
+
+<p>The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or
+less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the
+character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the
+more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as
+follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14
+cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents;
+bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart);
+skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese,
+16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2
+to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other
+vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents
+(20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per
+dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel).</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the
+average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of
+the country than in the central and western portions, where meats,
+cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to
+be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can
+be purchased much cheaper than here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span> indicated, while on the other
+hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The
+choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their
+abundance and cost.</p>
+
+<p>Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and
+consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is
+to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course,
+different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These
+figures express only general averages and are based upon the best
+information accessible.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'><span class="smcap">A Few Points to be Considered in Planning Meals</span>.</div>
+
+<p>Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular
+work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day,
+leaving such articles of food as soup&mdash;which is a valuable stimulant
+after a day of hard work&mdash;fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal,
+when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated
+foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the
+day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the
+necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish
+sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and
+beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk or
+<i>strained</i> tea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building
+requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words,
+food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work.
+Supper in such cases<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> should consist of a good broth or well made
+soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more
+substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for
+the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less
+expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings,
+fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such
+as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the
+day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much
+slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room,
+and where little exercise is taken.<a name="FNanchor_5_6" id="FNanchor_5_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_6" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Care should be taken in
+planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much
+oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry,
+griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man
+should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and
+butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable
+for luncheon.</p>
+
+<p>Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See
+p. 153.)</p>
+
+<p>Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a
+rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece
+of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient.</p>
+
+<p>Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently
+hurry away to their work in the morning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> without taking a substantial
+breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be
+followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten
+and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute
+for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active
+exercise for any length of time.</p>
+
+<p>Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel.
+The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long,
+slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done
+by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick
+fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in
+both food and fuel may be exercised.</p>
+
+<p>FOOTNOTE:</p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_6" id="Footnote_5_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_6">[5]</a> The teacher may make this clear by comparing the
+digestion of the two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a
+range with the drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion,
+effect of oxygen, etc.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SUGGESTIVE_QUESTIONS" id="SUGGESTIVE_QUESTIONS"></a>SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful
+to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be
+likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility,
+etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as
+fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to
+keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent
+illustrations and comparisons should be made.</p>
+
+<p>Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as
+every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few
+suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful.</p>
+
+
+<p>Why do we eat food?</p>
+
+<p>What is nitrogenous food?</p>
+
+<p>What is its chief office?</p>
+
+<p>Where is it to be found?</p>
+
+<p>In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant?</p>
+
+<p>What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs?</p>
+
+<p>Of what is it composed?</p>
+
+<p>Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous?</p>
+
+<p>Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh?</p>
+
+<p>Which are the most important heat-giving compounds?</p>
+
+<p>What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming
+compounds?</p>
+
+<p>What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span></p><p>Give their use?</p>
+
+<p>Where are they to be found?</p>
+
+<p>What is common salt?</p>
+
+<p>Where is it found?</p>
+
+<p>Why do we use it?</p>
+
+<p>Give the three digestive juices.</p>
+
+<p>What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables?</p>
+
+<p>Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in
+the dust bin or garbage pail?</p>
+
+<p>What should be done with them?</p>
+
+<p>Which are the most important warmth-giving foods?</p>
+
+<p>Give another name for these foods?</p>
+
+<p>Why are they so called?</p>
+
+<p>What is combustion?</p>
+
+<p>How do these foods produce force, etc.?</p>
+
+<p>What other elements do these foods contain?</p>
+
+<p>Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or
+sugar?</p>
+
+<p>What elements unite and form water?</p>
+
+<p>What is the proportion of water in the body?</p>
+
+<p>Give its use?</p>
+
+<p>Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat?</p>
+
+<p>Why does starch need cooking?</p>
+
+<p>To what kingdom does it belong?</p>
+
+<p>Which section is of most value?</p>
+
+<p>How is starch changed into sugar?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span></p><p>What changes food into blood?</p>
+
+<p>What gives the red color to blood?</p>
+
+<p>What mineral helps digestion most?</p>
+
+<p>What is sugar?</p>
+
+<p>What causes sugar to ferment?</p>
+
+<p>What is the result?</p>
+
+<p>Where is it to be found?</p>
+
+<p>What are food adjuncts?</p>
+
+<p>Of what value are they?</p>
+
+<p>Give the names of combustible nutrients.</p>
+
+<p>Give the names of incombustible nutrients.</p>
+
+<p>For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain?</p>
+
+<p>What supports combustion?</p>
+
+<p>What is chemically pure water?</p>
+
+<p>What causes the hardness of water?</p>
+
+<p>What is gluten?</p>
+
+<p>What is dextrine?</p>
+
+<p>Where is it found?</p>
+
+<p>In what way does dextrine differ from starch?</p>
+
+<p>What is decomposition?</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="SCHEDULE_OF_LESSONS_FOR_PUBLIC_SCHOOL_CLASSES" id="SCHEDULE_OF_LESSONS_FOR_PUBLIC_SCHOOL_CLASSES"></a>SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES.</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lesson</span>.</p>
+<ol>
+<li>Information regarding the conduct of classes. Practice in
+measuring. Practice in lighting gas-burners and oven.
+Practice in lighting and regulating a range.</li>
+
+<li>Fruit&mdash;Applesauce. Coddled apples. Stewed prunes.</li>
+
+<li>Starch&mdash;Boiled rice. Potatoes, boiled and mashed.</li>
+
+<li>Starch&mdash;Thickening liquids with flour.</li>
+
+<li>Starch&mdash;Practice in No. 4.</li>
+
+<li>Vegetables&mdash;Onions, cabbage, parsnips, etc.</li>
+
+<li>Eggs&mdash;Boiled eggs. Poached eggs. Toast.</li>
+
+<li>Eggs and milk&mdash;Boiled and baked custard.</li>
+
+<li>Flour mixtures&mdash;Popovers, griddle cake.</li>
+
+<li>Flour mixtures&mdash;Milk biscuits. Corn bread. Apple
+pudding.</li>
+
+<li>Bread&mdash;Making sponge, kneading, and setting to rise.</li>
+
+<li>Bread&mdash;Moulding and baking.</li>
+
+<li>Fish&mdash;Boiled and baked fish. Creamed fish and sauce.</li>
+
+<li>Review of theory and recipes.</li>
+
+<li>Meat&mdash;Roasting meat. Soup stock.</li>
+
+<li>Meat&mdash;Stewed meat.</li>
+
+<li>Meat&mdash;Cold meat and broiling.</li>
+
+<li>Salads.</li>
+
+<li>Beans.</li>
+
+<li>Plain puddings.</li></ol>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Note</span>.&mdash;After this each teacher must arrange lessons according
+to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with
+lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary
+matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving.</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span></p><hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof.
+Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Outline I</span>.</div>
+
+<p>The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an
+average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school.
+The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and
+interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate
+a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season
+of the year.</p>
+
+<p>It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are
+four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking
+of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and
+introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this
+arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food
+principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so
+that there is a constant review of principles already established; and
+to give practical work of increasing difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in
+house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken
+for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food
+values, the cost of food, marketing, etc.</p>
+
+<p>1. Simple experiments in combustion&mdash;to illustrate the structure of
+stoves and the care of such stoves. Study<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span> of the fuel and apparatus
+to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus;
+comparison with other apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>2. Utensils&mdash;what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to
+have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in
+tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double
+boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough
+for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter,
+croutons may be made.</p>
+
+<p>3. Measuring&mdash;experiment with the cooking of starch in water;
+cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the
+effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting
+of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking.</p>
+
+<p>4. A cereal and a fruit,&mdash;say, baked apples. In the cereal, in
+addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in
+both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being
+a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process.</p>
+
+<p>5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and
+cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and
+vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of
+peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar
+with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances.</p>
+
+<p>If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this
+may be given in the next lesson.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span></p><p>6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review
+lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions,
+several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to
+how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of
+soup.</p>
+
+<p>7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and
+yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain
+omelet.</p>
+
+<p>8. Eggs and milk.</p>
+
+<p>9. Oysters.</p>
+
+<p>10. Fish.</p>
+
+<p>11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially
+proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters
+is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder
+biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given
+for sake of variety.</p>
+
+<p>14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling.</p>
+
+<p>15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy.</p>
+
+<p>18. Tough meat. Soups and stews.</p>
+
+<p>19. Tough meat. Soups and stews.</p>
+
+<p>Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also.</p>
+
+<p>20. Beverages.</p>
+
+<p>21. Salads.</p>
+
+<p>22. Desserts.</p>
+
+<p>23. A breakfast.</p>
+
+<p>24. A luncheon.</p>
+
+<p>25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span></p><p>Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them;
+bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving;
+dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes.</p>
+
+
+<div class="center"><span class="smcap">Outline</span> II.</div>
+
+<p>This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was
+advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals.
+The plan can be followed in a longer course.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc.</i></p>
+
+<p>1. A cereal and fruit.</p>
+
+<p>2. Eggs.</p>
+
+<p>3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat.</p>
+
+<p>4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee.</p>
+
+<p>5. A breakfast.</p>
+
+<p>6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup.</p>
+
+<p>7. A made dish of meat or fish.</p>
+
+<p>8. Salad and dressing.</p>
+
+<p>9. Muffins or biscuit.</p>
+
+<p>10. A luncheon or supper.</p>
+
+<p>11. Vegetables. Macaroni.</p>
+
+<p>12. Meat.</p>
+
+<p>13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert.</p>
+
+<p>14. Bread or rolls.</p>
+
+<p>15. A dinner.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Public School Domestic Science
+
+Author: Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
+Release Date: April 1, 2006 [EBook #18097]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC SCHOOL
+
+DOMESTIC SCIENCE
+
+BY
+
+MRS. J. HOODLESS,
+
+President School Of Domestic Science, Hamilton.
+
+
+This Book may be used as a Text-Book in any High or Public School, if
+so ordered by a resolution of the Trustees.
+
+
+  TORONTO:
+  THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED,
+  1898.
+
+
+Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one
+thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight, by THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY,
+LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, in the Office of the Minister of
+Agriculture.
+
+
+[Illustration: A YOUNG HOUSEKEEPER.]
+
+
+"I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease which
+embitters the latter half of life is due to avoidable errors in diet,
+and that more mischief in the form of actual disease, of impaired
+vigour, and of shortened life, accrues to civilized man in England and
+throughout Central Europe from erroneous habits of eating than from
+the habitual use of alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil
+to be."--_Sir Henry Thompson._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Knowledge which subserves self-preservation by preventing loss of
+health is of primary importance. We do not contend that possession of
+such knowledge would by any means wholly remedy the evil. But we do
+contend that the right knowledge impressed in the right way would
+effect much; and we further contend that as the laws of health must be
+recognized before they can be fully conformed to, the imparting of
+such knowledge must precede a more rational living."--_Herbert
+Spencer._
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+"Cooking means the knowledge of Medea and Circe, and of Calypso and
+Helen, and of Rebekah, and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the
+knowledge of all fruits, and herbs, and balms, and spices, and of all
+that is healing and sweet in fields and groves, and savory in meats;
+it means carefulness, and inventiveness, and watchfulness, and
+willingness, and readiness of appliance; it means much tasting and no
+wasting; it means English thoroughness, and French art, and Arabian
+hospitality; it means, in fine, that you are to be perfect and always
+'ladies'--'loaf-givers.'"--_Ruskin._
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+An eminent authority[1] says: "Up to the age of sixteen even a lucid
+statement of principles is received by all but a few pupils as dogma.
+They do not and cannot in any adequate sense realize the reasoning
+process by which scientific conclusions are reached. They are taught
+not only facts but classifications and laws, and causes in relation to
+their effect. These are not, in the majority of cases, elaborated by
+the pupil. The teaching of them accordingly degenerates into a
+statement of facts, and the learning of them into an act of memory."
+
+To obviate this condition, or to at least neutralize its effects
+somewhat, is one of the principal reasons for introducing Domestic
+Science into the Public School curriculum; a science which relates so
+closely to the daily life that it cannot be left to an act of memory;
+where cause and effect are so palpable that the pupil may readily
+arrive at an individual conclusion.
+
+The aim of this text-book is to assist the pupil in acquiring a
+knowledge of the fundamental principles of correct living, to
+co-ordinate the regular school studies so as to make a practical use
+of knowledge already acquired. Arithmetic plays an important part in
+the arranging of weights and measures, in the study of the analysis
+and relative value of various kinds of food, in estimating the cost of
+manufactured products in proportion to their market value, in the
+purchase of food material, etc. History and geography are closely
+allied to the study of the diet and customs of the different
+countries, with their variety of climate and products. Physiology and
+temperance principles permeate the whole course of study. In addition
+to these are the direct lessons, provided by the practice work, in
+neatness, promptness and cleanliness. It will therefore be necessary
+to have a wide general knowledge before entering upon a course in
+Domestic Science.
+
+Owing to the limited time allowed for this course in the Public
+Schools, it will be impossible to teach more than a few of the first
+principles governing each department of the work, viz., a knowledge of
+the constituent parts of the human body; the classification of food
+and the relation of each class to the sustenance and repair of the
+body; simple recipes illustrating the most wholesome and economical
+methods of preparing the various kinds of food; the science of
+nutrition, economy and hygiene; general hints on household management,
+laundry work, and care of the sick.
+
+To enter more fully into the chemistry of food, bacteriology, etc.,
+would tend to cause confusion in the mind of the average school girl,
+and possibly create a distaste for knowledge containing so much
+abstract matter.
+
+This book is not a teacher's manual, nor is it intended to take the
+place of the teacher in any way. The normal training prescribed for
+teachers will enable them to supplement the information contained
+herein, by a much more general and comprehensive treatment of the
+various questions, than would be possible or judicious in a primary
+text-book. It has been found difficult for pupils to copy the recipes
+given with each lesson, or to write out the instructions carefully
+without infringing upon the time which should be devoted to practice
+work.[2] In order to meet this difficulty, also to enable the pupil to
+work at home under the same rules which govern the class work, simple
+recipes are given, beginning with a class requiring a knowledge of
+heat and its effect, going on to those requiring hand dexterity,
+before attempting the more difficult subjects. After the pupils have
+acquired a knowledge of the "why and wherefore" of the different
+processes required in cooking, they will have little difficulty in
+following the more elaborate recipes given in the numberless
+cook-books provided for household use. Once the art--and it is a fine
+art--of cookery is mastered, it becomes not only a pleasant occupation
+but provides excellent mental exercise, thereby preventing the
+reaction which frequently follows school life.
+
+The tables given are to be used for reference, and _not to be
+memorized_ by the pupil.
+
+The writer is greatly indebted to Prof. Atwater for his kindly
+interest and assistance in providing much valuable information, which
+in some instances is given verbatim; also to Dr. Gilman Thompson for
+permission to give extracts from his valuable book, "Practical
+Dietetics"; to Prof. Kinne, Columbia University (Domestic Science
+Dept.), for review and suggestions; to Miss Watson, Principal Hamilton
+School of Domestic Science, for practical hints and schedule for
+school work. The Boston Cook Book (with Normal Instruction), by Mrs.
+M.J. Lincoln; and the Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning, by Ellen H.
+Richards (Prof. of Sanitary Science, Boston Institute of Technology),
+and Miss Talbot, are recommended to students who desire further
+information on practical household matters. The publications of the
+U.S. Experiment Stations, by Prof. Atwater and other eminent chemists,
+contain much valuable information.
+
+To the school-girls, and future housekeepers of Ontario, this book is
+respectfully dedicated.
+
+ADELAIDE HOODLESS.
+
+    "EASTCOURT,"
+    Hamilton, June, 1898.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] S.S. Laurie, A.M., LL.D., Prof. of the Institutes and History of
+Education, Edinburgh University.
+
+[2] Where time is allowed, much benefit may be derived from writing
+notes, as a study in composition, spelling, etc.
+
+
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHER.
+
+
+Owing to the limitations of a text-book, it will be necessary for the
+teacher to enter very carefully into all the details of the various
+questions; to explain the underlying principles so thoroughly that
+"the why and the wherefore" of every action in the preparation of food
+will be clearly understood. She should endeavor to impress upon the
+pupils the value of thoroughly understanding the relation of food to
+the body. In practice lessons frequent _reference_ should be made to
+the analysis of the various foods, as given in the tables and charts.
+
+The first practice lesson should be given on the making and care of a
+fire, regulating dampers, cleaning stove, etc. The pupils should then
+be taught the name and place of all the utensils. Special attention
+should be given to the explanation of weights and measures; the table
+of abbreviations should be memorized. Arrange the class work so that
+each pupil may in alternation share the duties of both kitchen work
+and cooking.
+
+Personal cleanliness must be insisted upon. Special attention should
+be given to the hands and nails. The hair should be carefully pinned
+back or confined in some way, and covered by a cap. A large clean
+apron and a holder should be worn while at work. Never allow the
+pupils to use a handkerchief or their aprons in place of a holder.
+Untidy habits must not be allowed in the class-room. Set an example of
+perfect order and neatness, and insist upon pupils following that
+example. Teach the pupils that cooking may be done without soiling
+either hands or clothes. The pupils should do all the work of the
+class-room, except scrubbing the floor. Everything must be left in
+perfect order at the close of each lesson.
+
+Frequent _reviews_ are absolutely necessary. Urge the pupils to think
+for themselves, and not to rely upon the text-book. Where pupils are
+backward, or have not had previous practice in kitchen work, give
+special attention to their manner of holding a knife or spoon in
+preparing articles for use, and in beating or stirring mixtures.
+Encourage deftness and light handling of kitchen ware. Insist upon
+promptness and keeping within the time limit, both in preparing the
+food and in the cooking.
+
+Owing to the variety of climate and markets, it would be impossible to
+arrange the lessons in the text-book in regular order. A few sample
+menus are given at the back of the book, but each teacher must be
+governed by circumstances in arranging the lessons for her class. For
+instance, recipes without eggs should be given in mid-winter, when
+eggs are dear. Fruits and vegetables must be given in season.
+
+The recipes given in the text-book are suitable for class work; in
+some cases it may be necessary to divide them, as the quantities given
+are intended for home practice. The teacher should consider herself at
+liberty to substitute any recipe which she may consider valuable. The
+digestibility of food, the effect of stimulants--especially of tea and
+coffee, the value of fresh air, etc., should be carefully impressed
+upon the pupil.
+
+The teacher must keep the object of this instruction constantly before
+her: (1) to co-ordinate other school studies, such as arithmetic,
+history, geography, physiology and temperance; (2) to develop the
+mental in conjunction with the manual powers of the children; (3) to
+enable pupils to understand the reason for doing certain things in a
+certain way; in other words, to work with an intelligent conception
+of the value, both physically and hygienically, of knowing how the
+daily duties should be performed.
+
+In order that material may not be needlessly destroyed, each class of
+food should be introduced by an experimental lesson. For instance,
+before giving a lesson in the preparation of starches, each pupil
+should be given an opportunity to learn how to mix and stir the
+mixture over the fire, so as to prevent it from burning or becoming
+lumpy; this may be done by using water and common laundry starch, or
+flour. The same test applies to sauces, etc. A few cheap apples and
+potatoes may be used in learning to pare these articles. The effect of
+cold and hot water on albumen and tissues may be illustrated by the
+cheaper pieces of meat.
+
+Although the more scientific studies are grouped together, it does not
+follow that they are to be studied in the order given. The teacher
+must arrange her lessons--from the beginning--so as to include a
+certain amount of the theory with the practice work. Frequent
+reference should be made during practice lessons to the various
+chapters bearing more directly upon the science of cooking, so as to
+interest the pupil in the theoretical study of the food question.
+
+The teacher should insist upon the pupils taking careful notes while
+she is demonstrating a lesson, so that they may not be entirely
+dependent upon the text-book, which from its limitations must simply
+serve as the key-note for further study.
+
+Special attention must be given to the chapter on "Digestion," page
+58, in the Public School Physiology. This chapter should be
+studied--especially pages 71-75--in conjunction with "Food
+Classifications" (Chap. 2); also in dealing with the digestibility of
+starches, etc.
+
+
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS--(_Atwater_)
+
+_Nutritive Ingredients, Refuse, and Food Value._
+
+  Nutrients:
+    P--Protein.
+    F--Fats.
+    C--Carbohydrates.
+    M--Mineral Matters.
+
+  Non-nutrients:
+    W--Water.
+    R--Refuse.
+
+  Fuel Value:
+    X--Calories.
+
+  _Protein_ Compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)
+  of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.
+
+  _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, \
+                                             \ serve as fuel to yield
+                                             / heat and muscular power.
+  _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar,    /
+
+
+  Nutrients, etc., p.c |   10   20   30   40   50   60   70   80   90  100
+  ---------------------+-------------------------------------------------|
+  Fuel value of 1 lb.  |  400  800 1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000
+                       |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRR|
+  Beef, round          |XXXXXXXXX|                                       |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPPP|FFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Beef, round[A]       |XXXXXXXXXX|                                      |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRR|
+  Beef, sirloin        |XXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                   |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Beef, sirloin[A]     |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                 |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRR|
+  Beef, rib            |XXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                   |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Beef, rib[A]         |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                              |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPP|FFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRR|
+  Mutton, leg          |XXXXXXXXXXX|                                     |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR|
+  Pork, spare rib      |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWW|RRR|
+  Pork, salt           |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|           |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR|
+  Ham, smoked          |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPP|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRRRR|
+  Codfish, fresh       |XXX|                                             |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPP|MMMMMMM|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRRRRRRR|
+  Codfish, salt        |XXXX|                                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PP|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Oysters              |XXX|                                             |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |P|F|CC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Milk                 |XXXX|                                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |P|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|M|WWWW|
+  Butter               |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|   |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPPPPPP|FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF|C|MM|WWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Cheese               |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                       |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPP|FFFF|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRR|
+  Eggs                 |XXXXXXXX|                                        |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWW|
+  Wheat bread          |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                                |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW|
+  Wheat flour          |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWWW|
+  Cornmeal             |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPP|FFF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WW|
+  Oatmeal              |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                          |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PPPPPPPPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|MM|WWWWW|
+  Beans, dried         |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|M|WWWWW|
+  Rice                 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |P|CCCC|M|WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW|RRRRRR|
+  Potatoes             |XXX|                                             |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+                       |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|
+  Sugar                |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                          |
+  ---------------------+----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+
+  [A] Without bone.
+
+
+
+
+PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD--(_Atwater_).
+
+_Amounts of actually Nutritive Ingredients obtained in different Food
+Materials for 10 cents._
+
+  P--Protein.
+  F--Fats.
+  C--Carbohydrates.
+  X--Fuel Value.
+
+  _Protein_ compounds, e.g., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd)
+    of milk, and gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc.
+
+  _Fats_, e.g., fat of meat, butter and oil, \
+                                              \ serve as fuel to yield
+                                              / heat and muscular power.
+  _Carbohydrates_, e.g., starch and sugar,   /
+
+  --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------|
+                | Price | Ten  |                                            |
+                | per   | cents|     Pounds of Nutrients and Calories of    |
+                | pound.| will |        Fuel Value in 10 cents worth.       |
+                |       | buy--|                                            |
+  --------------+-------+------+--------------------------------------------|
+                | Cents.| Lbs. |       1 Lb.     2 Lbs.    3 Lbs.    4 Lbs. |
+                |       |      |     2000 Cal. 4000 Cal. 6000 Cal. 8000 Cal.|
+                |       |      |         |         |         |         |    |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|F|                                       |
+  Beef, round   | 12    |  .83 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|F|                                        |
+  Beef, sirloin | 18    |  .55 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|F|                                        |
+  Beef, rib     | 16    |  .63 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|F|                                       |
+  Mutton, leg   | 12    |  .83 |XXXXX|                                      |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Pork,         |       |      |PP|FF|                                      |
+    spare rib   | 12    |  .83 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Pork,         |       |      |P|FFFF|                                     |
+    salt, fat   | 14    |  .71 |XXXXXXXXXX|                                 |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|FFF|                                      |
+  Ham, smoked   | 16    |  .63 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Codfish,      |       |      |PP|                                         |
+    fresh       |  8    | 1.25 |XX|                                         |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Codfish,      |       |      |PPP|                                        |
+    salt        |  6    | 1.67 |XXX|                                        |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Oysters, 40   |       |      |P|                                          |
+    cents quart | 20    |  .50 |X|                                          |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Milk, 6 cents |       |      |P|F|C|                                      |
+     quart      |  3    | 3.33 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |FFFF|                                       |
+  Butter        | 24    |  .42 |XXXXXXX|                                    |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|FF|                                      |
+  Cheese        | 16    |  .63 |XXXXXX|                                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Eggs, 25      |       |      |P|F|                                        |
+    cents dozen | 16-3/4|  .60 |XXX|                                        |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCC|                          |
+  Wheat bread   |  4    | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                           |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|              |
+  Wheat flour   |  2-1/2| 4.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|           |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PPP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|  |
+  Cornmeal      |  2    | 5.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|   |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |PP|FF|CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                      |
+  Oatmeal       |  4    | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                     |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Beans, white, |       |      |PPPP|F|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                      |
+     dried      |  4    | 2.50 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                        |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                           |
+  Rice          |  5    | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+  Potatoes, 60  |       |      |P|CCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                           |
+    cents bushel|  1    |10.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                            |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+                |       |      |CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC|                        |
+  Sugar         |  5    | 2.00 |XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX|                         |
+  --------------+-------+------+---------|---------|---------|---------|----|
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                      PAGE.
+    Preface                                              v
+    Suggestions to Teachers                             ix
+    Composition of Food Materials (_Atwater_)          xii
+    Pecuniary Economy of Food (_Atwater_)             xiii
+
+    CHAPTER I.
+    The Relation of Food to the Body                     1
+
+    CHAPTER II.
+    Food Classification                                  6
+
+    CHAPTER III.
+    Nutrition                                           10
+
+    CHAPTER IV.
+    Food and Economy                                    12
+
+    CHAPTER V.
+    Foods containing Protein or Nitrogenous Matter      22
+
+    CHAPTER VI.
+    Fats and Oils                                       34
+
+    CHAPTER VII.
+    Carbohydrate Foods                                  37
+
+    CHAPTER VIII.
+    Fruits                                              50
+
+    CHAPTER IX.
+    Preparing Food                                      54
+
+    RECIPES:
+      Batters, Biscuits and Bread                       60
+      Bread                                             65
+      Sauces and Milk Soups                             66
+      Eggs                                              69
+      Fruit                                             72
+      Vegetables                                        74
+      Salads                                            80
+      Macaroni                                          85
+      Cheese                                            86
+      Beverages                                         87
+      Soups                                             89
+      Fish                                              94
+      Meat                                              96
+      Poultry                                          104
+      Hot Puddings                                     109
+      Plain Sauces                                     115
+      Pastry                                           121
+      Miscellaneous                                    122
+
+    General Hints                                      126
+
+    Suggestions for Young Housekeepers                 128
+
+    Caring for Invalids                                142
+
+    General Hints for School Children                  150
+
+    Suggestions for School Children's Diet             153
+
+    Infants' Diet                                      156
+
+    Planning and Serving Meals                         170
+
+    Consideration of Menus                             173
+
+    Suggestive Questions                               188
+
+    Schedule of Lessons for Public School Classes      191
+
+    Appendix                                           193
+
+
+
+
+PUBLIC SCHOOL DOMESTIC SCIENCE
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+The Relation of Food to the Body.
+
+
+In order to understand the relation of food to the sustenance and
+repairing of the body, it will be necessary to learn, first, of what
+the body is composed, and the corresponding elements contained in the
+food required to build and keep the body in a healthy condition. The
+following table gives the approximate analysis of a man weighing 148
+pounds:--
+
+    Oxygen                 92.1 pounds.
+    Hydrogen               14.6    "
+    Carbon                 31.6    "
+    Nitrogen                4.6    "
+    Phosphorus              1.4    "
+    Calcium                 2.8    "
+    Sulphur                 0.24   "
+    Chlorine                0.12   "
+    Sodium                  0.12   "
+    Iron                    0.02   "
+    Potassium               0.34   "
+    Magnesium               0.04   "
+    Silica                    ?    "
+    Fluorine                0.02   "
+                          ------
+    Total                 148.00 pounds.
+
+As food contains all these elements, and as there is constant wearing
+and repair going on in the body, it will be readily seen how necessary
+some knowledge of the relation of food to the body is, in order to
+preserve health.
+
+Hydrogen and oxygen combined form water, hence we find from the above
+calculation that about three-fifths of the body is composed of water.
+Carbon is a solid: diamonds are nearly pure carbon; "lead" of lead
+pencils, anthracite coal and coke are impure forms of carbon. Carbon
+combined with other elements in the body makes about one-fifth of the
+whole weight. Carbon with oxygen will burn. In this way the carbon
+taken into the body as food, when combined with the oxygen of the
+inhaled air, yields heat to keep the body warm, and force--muscular
+strength--for work. The carbonic acid (or carbon dioxide) is given out
+through the lungs and skin. In the further study of carbonaceous
+foods, their relation to the body as fuel will be more clearly
+understood, as carbon is the most important fuel element. Phosphorus
+is a solid. According to the table, about one pound six ounces would
+be found in a body weighing 148 pounds. United with oxygen, phosphorus
+forms what is known as phosphoric acid; this, with lime, makes
+phosphate of lime, in which form it is found in the bones and teeth;
+it is found also in the brain and nerves, flesh and blood. Hydrogen is
+a gas, and like carbon unites with the oxygen of the inhaled air in
+the body, thus serving as fuel. The water produced is given off in the
+respiration through the lungs and as perspiration through the skin.[3]
+Calcium is a metal. The table given allows three pounds of calcium;
+united with oxygen, calcium forms lime. This with phosphoric acid
+makes phosphate of lime, the basis of the bones and teeth, in which
+nearly all the calcium of the body is found.
+
+The elements which bear no direct relation to the force production of
+the body, but which enter into tissue formation, are chlorine,
+sulphur, iron, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium.
+Bone tissue contains about 50 per cent. of lime phosphate, hence the
+need of this substance in the food of a growing infant, in order that
+the bones may become firm and strong. Lack of iron salts in the food
+impoverishes the coloring matter of the red blood corpuscles on which
+they depend for their power of carrying oxygen to the tissues; anaemia
+and other disorders of deficient oxidation result. The lack of
+sufficient potash salts is a factor in producing scurvy, a condition
+aggravated by the use of common salt. A diet of salt meat and starches
+may cause it, with absence of fresh fruit and vegetables. Such
+illustrations show the need of a well-balanced diet.
+
+In order to understand the value of the various classes of food and
+their relation to the body as force producers, tissue builders, etc.,
+the following table may prove helpful:--
+
+                                               |           |     C.H.
+                                               |           | Combustibles
+                                               | Nitrogen. | Calculated as
+                                               |           |    Carbon.
+  ---------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------
+  Beef, uncooked                               |    3.00   |     11.00
+  Roast beef                                   |    3.53   |     17.76
+  Calf's liver                                 |    3.09   |     15.68
+  Foie-gras                                    |    2.12   |     65.58
+  Sheep's kidneys                              |    2.66   |     12.13
+  Skate                                        |    3.83   |     12.25
+  Cod, salted                                  |    5.02   |     16.00
+  Herring, salted                              |    3.11   |     23.00
+  Herring, fresh                               |    1.83   |     21.00
+  Whiting                                      |    2.41   |      9.00
+  Mackerel                                     |    3.74   |     19.26
+  Sole                                         |    1.91   |     12.25
+  Salmon                                       |    2.09   |     16.00
+  Carp                                         |    3.49   |     12.10
+  Oysters                                      |    2.13   |      7.18
+  Lobster, uncooked                            |    2.93   |     10.96
+  Eggs                                         |    1.90   |     13.50
+  Milk (cows')                                 |    0.66   |      8.00
+  Cheese (Brie)                                |    2.93   |     35.00
+  Cheese (Gruyere)                             |    5.00   |     38.00
+  Cheese (Roquefort)                           |    4.21   |     44.44
+  Chocolate                                    |    1.52   |     58.00
+  Wheat (hard Southern, variable average)      |    3.00   |     41.00
+  Wheat (soft Southern, variable average)      |    1.81   |     39.00
+  Flour, white (Paris)                         |    1.64   |     38.50
+  Rye flour                                    |    1.75   |     41.00
+  Winter barley                                |    1.90   |     40.00
+  Maize                                        |    1.70   |     44.00
+  Buckwheat                                    |    2.20   |     42.50
+  Rice                                         |    1.80   |     41.00
+  Oatmeal                                      |    1.95   |     44.00
+  Bread, white (Paris, 30 per cent. water)     |    1.08   |     29.50
+  Bread, brown (soldiers' rations formerly)    |    1.07   |     28.00
+  Bread, brown (soldiers' rations at present)  |    1.20   |     30.00
+  Bread, from flour of hard wheat              |    2.20   |     31.00
+  Potatoes                                     |    0.33   |     11.00
+  Beans                                        |    4.50   |     42.00
+  Lentils, dry                                 |    3.87   |     43.00
+  Peas, dry                                    |    3.66   |     44.00
+  Carrots                                      |    0.31   |      5.50
+  Mushrooms                                    |    0.60   |      4.52
+  Figs, fresh                                  |    0.41   |     15.50
+  Figs, dry                                    |    0.92   |     34.00
+  Coffee (infusion of 100 grams)               |    1.10   |      9.00
+  Tea (infusion of 100 grams)                  |    1.00   |     10.50
+  Bacon                                        |    1.29   |     71.14
+  Butter                                       |    0.64   |     83.00
+  Olive oil                                    |   Trace   |     98.00
+  Beer, strong                                 |    0.05   |      4.50
+  Wine                                         |    0.15   |      4.00
+  ---------------------------------------------+-----------+--------------
+
+"The hydrogen existing in the compound in excess of what is required
+to form water with the oxygen present is calculated as carbon. It is
+only necessary to multiply the nitrogen by 6.5 to obtain the amount
+of dry proteids in 100 grams of the fresh food substance."
+(Dujardin-Beauretz.) The following simple rules are given by
+Parks:--"1st. To obtain the amount of nitrogen in proteid of foods,
+divide the quantity of food by 6.30. 2nd. To obtain the carbon in fat
+multiply by 0.79. 3rd. To obtain the carbon in carbohydrate food
+multiply by 0.444. 4. To obtain the carbon in proteid food multiply by
+0.535."
+
+Finding that our food and our bodies contain essentially the same
+elements, we must also bear in mind that the body cannot create
+anything for itself, neither material nor energy; all must be supplied
+by the food we eat, which is transformed into repair material for the
+body. Therefore, the object of a course of study dealing with the
+science of this question, as it relates to the daily life, should be
+to learn something of how food builds the body, repairs the waste,
+yields heat and energy, and to teach the principles of food economy in
+its relation to health and income. This, with the development of
+executive ability, is all that can be attempted in a primary course.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[3] An illustration of vapor rising may be given by breathing upon a
+mirror.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+Food Classification.
+
+
+The following are familiar examples of compounds of each of the four
+principal classes of nutrients:
+
+    PROTEIN:
+
+      _Proteids._
+
+        _Albuminoids_, _e.g._, albumen of eggs; myosin,
+            the basis of muscle (lean meat); the albuminoids
+            which make up the gluten of wheat, etc.
+
+        _Gelatinoids_, constituents of connective tissue which
+            yield gelatin and allied substances, _e.g._, collagen
+            of tendon; ossein of bone.
+
+      "Nitrogenous extractives" of flesh, _i.e._, of meats and fish.
+         These include kreatin and allied compounds, and are the
+         chief ingredients of beef tea and most meat extracts.
+         Amids: this term is frequently applied to the nitrogenous
+         non-albuminoid compounds of vegetable foods and feeding
+         stuffs, among which are amido acids, such as aspartic acid
+         and asparagin. Some of them are more or less allied in
+         chemical constitution to the nitrogenous extractives of
+         flesh.
+
+    _Fats._
+
+      Fat of meat: fat of milk; oil of corn, wheat, etc. The
+      ingredients of the "ether extract" of animal and vegetable
+      foods and feeding stuffs, which it is customary to group
+      together roughly as fats, include, with the true fats,
+      various other substances, as lecithians, and chlorophylls.
+
+    _Carbohydrates_, sugars, starches, celluloses, gums, woody fibre, etc.
+
+    _Mineral matter._
+
+      Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium chlorids, sulphates
+      and phosphates. (Atwater).
+
+The terms (_a_) "nitrogenous" and (_b_) "carbonaceous" are frequently
+used to designate the two distinct classes of food, viz.: (_a_) the
+tissue builders and flesh formers; (_b_) fuel and force producers.
+
+Each of these classes contains food material derived from both the
+animal and vegetable kingdom, although the majority of the animal
+substances belong to the nitrogenous, and the majority of the
+vegetable substances to the carbonaceous group.
+
+Therefore, for practical purposes, we will confine ourselves to the
+more general terms used in Atwater's table.
+
+
+Uses of Food.
+
+First, food is used to form the materials of the body and repair its
+waste; second, to yield energy in the form of (1) heat to keep the
+body warm, (2) to provide muscular and other power for the work it has
+to do. In forming the tissues and fluids of the body the food serves
+for building and repair. In yielding energy, it serves as fuel for
+heat and power. The principal tissue formers are the albuminoids;
+these form the frame-work of the body. They build and repair the
+nitrogenous materials, as those of muscle, tendon and bone, and supply
+the albuminoids of blood, milk and other fluids. The chief fuel
+ingredients of food are the carbohydrates and fats. These are either
+consumed in the body or are stored as fat to be used as occasion
+demands.
+
+
+Water.
+
+By referring to a preceding chapter we find that water composes
+three-fifths of the entire body. The elasticity of muscles, cartilage,
+tendons, and even of bones is due in great part to the water which
+these tissues contain. The amount of water required by a healthy man
+in twenty-four hours (children in proportion) is on the average
+between 50 and 60 ounces, beside about 25 ounces taken as an
+ingredient of solid food, thus making a total of from 75 to 85 ounces.
+One of the most universal dietetic failings is neglect to take enough
+water into the system. Dr. Gilman Thompson gives the following uses of
+water in the body:--
+
+(1) It enters into the chemical composition of the tissues; (2) it
+forms the chief ingredient of all the fluids of the body and maintains
+their proper degree of dilution; (3) by moistening various surfaces of
+the body, such as the mucous and serous membranes, it prevents
+friction and the uncomfortable symptoms which might result from
+drying; (4) it furnishes in the blood and lymph a fluid medium by
+which food may be taken to remote parts of the body and the waste
+matter removed, thus promoting rapid tissue changes; (5) it serves as
+a distributer of body heat; (6) it regulates the body temperature by
+the physical processes of absorption and evaporation.
+
+
+Salts (Mineral Matter).--Use of Salts in Food.
+
+(1) To regulate the specific gravity of the blood and other fluids of
+the body; (2) to preserve the tissues from disorganization and
+putrefaction; (3) to enter into the composition of the teeth and
+bones. These are only a few of the uses of salts in the body, but are
+sufficient for our purpose. Fruits and nuts contain the least quantity
+of salts, meat ranks next, then vegetables and pulses, cereals contain
+most of all (Chambers). Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most
+important and valuable salt. It must not however be used in excess.
+Potassium salts rank next in importance.[4] Calcium, phosphorus,
+sulphur and iron are included in this class.
+
+The quantity of salts or mineral matter contained in some important
+articles of vegetable and animal food is shown in this table (Church):
+
+_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 14 Vegetable Products._
+
+                             Lbs.
+    Apples                    4
+    Rice                      5
+    Wheaten flour             7
+    Turnips                   8
+    Potatoes                 10
+    Barley                   11
+    Cabbage                  12
+    Bread                    12
+    Watercress               13
+    Maize                    20
+    Oatmeal                  21
+    Peas                     30
+    Cocoa nibs               36
+    Wheaten bran             60
+
+_Mineral Matter in 1,000 lbs. of 8 Animal Products._
+
+                             Lbs.
+    Fat Pork                  5
+    Cow's milk                7
+    Eggs (without shells)    13
+    Lean of mutton           17
+    Flesh of common fowl     16
+    Bacon                    44
+    Gloucester cheese        49
+    Salted herrings         158
+
+"In most seeds and fruits there is much phosphate in the mineral
+matter, and in most green vegetables much potash. One important kind
+of mineral matter alone is deficient in vegetable food, and that is
+common salt."
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[4] See Vegetables, Chap. VII.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+Nutrition.
+
+
+It is not within the scope of this book to deal with the science of
+nutrition; but a few general principles may be given which concern the
+effect upon the system of the different classes of food. Animal food
+requires a considerable quantity of oxygen for its complete
+combustion. Meat in general has a more stimulating effect upon the
+system and is more strengthening than vegetable food. There is,
+however, a tendency to eat too much meat, and when its effects are not
+counter-balanced by free outdoor exercise, it causes biliousness and
+sometimes gout and other troubles. Albuminous foods can be eaten
+longer alone without exciting loathing than can fats, sugars or
+starches. A carbonaceous diet taxes the excretory organs less than
+animal food. Meat is not necessary to life. Nitrogenous food man must
+have, but it need not be in the form of meat. The estimate commonly
+given is, that meat should occupy one-fourth and vegetable food
+three-fourths of a mixed diet, but in many cases the meat eaten is
+much in excess of this allowance. The proper association of different
+foods always keeps healthy people in better condition; there are
+times, however, when it may be necessary to abstain from certain
+articles of diet. It may be well to bear in mind, that the protein
+compounds can do the work of the carbohydrates and fats in being
+consumed for fuel, but the carbohydrates and fats cannot do the work
+of protein in building and repairing the tissues of the body. As
+already stated, a mixed diet is the only rational one for man. An
+exclusively vegetable diet, while it may maintain a condition of
+health for a time, eventually results in a loss of strength and power
+to resist disease. Therefore it is necessary to understand the
+approximate value of each class of food in arranging the daily
+dietary.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+Food and Economy.
+
+
+It has been stated that "a quart of milk, three-quarters of a pound of
+moderately lean beef, and five ounces of wheat flour contain about the
+same amount of nutritive material;" but we pay different prices for
+them, and they have different values for nutriment. The milk comes
+nearest to being a perfect food. It contains all the different kinds
+of nutritive materials that the body requires. Bread made from wheat
+flour will support life. It contains all the necessary ingredients for
+nourishment, but not in the proportion best adapted for ordinary use.
+A man might live on beef alone, but it would be a very one-sided and
+imperfect diet. Meat and bread together make the essentials of a
+healthful diet. In order to give a general idea of food economy, it
+will be necessary to deal briefly with the functions of the various
+food principles. As our bodies contain a great deal of muscle, the
+waste of which is repaired by protein found in such food as lean meat,
+eggs, cheese, beans, peas, oatmeal, fish, etc., a supply of these
+articles must be considered in purchasing the daily supply. Fatty
+tissue (not muscle) serves as fuel, therefore the value of such foods
+as butter, cream, oils, etc., is apparent. Carbohydrates form fat and
+serve as fuel and force producers; these come in the form of starches,
+sugars,--vegetables and grains being the most important. In being
+themselves burned to yield energy, the nutrients protect each other
+from being consumed. The protein and fats of body tissue are used like
+those of foods. An important use of the carbohydrates and fats is to
+protect protein (muscle, etc.) from consumption. "The most healthful
+food is that which is best fitted to the wants of the user: the
+cheapest food is that which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment
+at the least cost: the best food is that which is both healthful and
+cheap." By referring to the various charts a fair estimate of food
+values may be obtained.
+
+As will be noticed, the animal foods contain the most protein and
+fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in carbohydrates. A pound of
+cheese may have 0.28 pound of protein, as much as a man at ordinary
+work needs for a day's sustenance, while a pound of milk would have
+only 0.04, and a pound of potatoes 0.02 pound of protein. The
+materials which have the most fats and carbohydrates have the highest
+fuel value. The fuel value of a pound of fat pork may reach 2.995
+calories, while that of a pound of salt codfish would be only .315
+calories. On the other hand, the nutritive material of the codfish
+would consist almost entirely of protein, while the pork contains very
+little. Among the vegetable foods, peas and beans have a high
+proportion of protein. Oatmeal contains a large proportion also.
+Potatoes are low in fuel value as well as in protein, because they are
+three-fourths water. For the same reason milk, which is seven-eights
+water, ranks low in respect to both protein and fuel value, hence the
+reason why it is not so valuable as food for an adult as many of the
+other food materials.
+
+These few illustrations will help to show the need of an intelligent
+idea of food values before attempting to purchase the supplies for
+family use. As one-half a laboring man's income goes towards
+providing food, it must follow that such knowledge will help the
+housewife very materially in securing the best results from the amount
+expended.
+
+The _average daily diet_ of an adult should contain (Church):--
+
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+  NUTRIENTS.                      |  IN 100 PARTS.  |   EACH 24 HOURS.
+  --------------------------------|-----------------|--------------------
+                                  |                 |  lb.  oz.      gr.
+  Water                           |       81.5      |   5    8      .320
+  Albuminoids                     |        3.9      |   0    4      .178
+  Fat                             |        3.0      |   0    3      .337
+  Common salt                     |        3.7      |   0    0      .325
+  Phosphates, potash, salts, etc. |        0.3      |   0    0     0.170
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+
+Quantity of Food Required.
+
+The quantity of food required to maintain the body in a vigorous
+condition depends upon the following conditions:--(1) Climate and
+season, (2) clothing, (3) occupation, (4) age and sex. In civilized
+countries more food is eaten, as a rule, than is necessary to maintain
+health and strength. Climate and seasons influence the quantity of
+food eaten. A cold, bracing atmosphere stimulates the appetite, tempts
+one to exercise, while a hot climate has the contrary effect; hence
+the need for more or less food. Abundant clothing in cold weather
+conserves the body heat; less food is therefore required to maintain
+life. Exercise and muscular work cause greater oxidation in the
+tissues and greater waste of the muscles; this must be replaced by
+proper food. Outdoor work requires more food than indoor, and physical
+labor more than mental. It has been estimated "that a child of ten
+years requires half as much food as a grown woman, and one of fourteen
+an equal amount. The rapidly growing active boy often eats as much as
+a man, and the middle-aged man requires more than the aged. A man of
+seventy years may preserve health on a quantity which would soon
+starve his grandson."
+
+Just what ingredients of the food serve for nourishment of the brain
+and nerves, and how they do that service, are mysteries which have not
+yet been solved. Brain and nerve contain the elements nitrogen and
+phosphorus, which are found in protein compounds but not in the true
+fats, sugars, and starches, which contain only carbon, hydrogen and
+oxygen. We naturally infer that the protein compounds must be
+especially concerned in building up brain and nerve, and keeping them
+in repair. Just how much food the brain worker needs is a question
+which has not yet been decided. In general it appears that a man or a
+woman whose occupation is what we call sedentary, who is without
+vigorous exercise and does but little hard muscular work, needs much
+less than the man at hard manual labor, and that the brain worker
+needs comparatively little of carbohydrates or fats. Many physicians,
+physiologists and students of hygiene have become convinced that
+well-to-do people, whose work is mental rather than physical, eat too
+much; that the diet of people of this class as a whole is one-sided as
+well as excessive, and that the principal evil is the use of too much
+fat, starch and sugar. It is well to remember that it is the quantity
+of food digested which builds the body, and more injury is likely to
+result from over-eating than from a restricted diet, hence the value
+of having food cooked so as to aid digestion. The following dietary
+standards may be interesting to the more advanced pupils, housewives,
+etc.:--
+
+STANDARDS FOR DAILY DIET OF LABORING MAN AT MODERATE MUSCULAR
+WORK.
+
+  ========================+==========+=======+============================
+                          |          |       |  Nutrients in Daily Food.
+       Author.            | Protein. | Fats. |---------------+------------
+                          |          |       | Carbohydrates.| Fuel Value.
+  ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------
+                          |    lb.   |   lb. |      lb.      | Calories.
+   Playfair, England      |   .26    |   .11 |     1.17      |   3.140
+   Moleschotte, Italy     |   .29    |   .09 |     1.21      |   3.160
+   Wolff, Germany         |   .28    |   .08 |     1.19      |   3.030
+   Voit, Germany          |   .26    |   .12 |     1.10      |   3.055
+   Atwater, United States |   .28    | 17.33 |    88.1.21    |   3.500
+  ------------------------+----------+-------+---------------+------------
+
+
+Quality of Food.
+
+It is a great mistake to think that the best is the cheapest in regard
+to the food question, that the higher priced meats, fish, butter,
+etc., contain special virtues lacking in the cheaper articles. _Poor
+cooking is the chief cause of this error in judgment._ No doubt a well
+broiled steak is more appetizing and delicate in flavor than some of
+the cheaper cuts, but in proportion to the cost is not equal in
+nutritive value; careful cooking and judicious flavoring render the
+cheaper pieces of beef equally palatable. That expensive food is not
+necessary to maintain life has been clearly demonstrated by the
+traditional diet of the Scotch people with their oatmeal and herring;
+the Irish, potatoes and buttermilk; New England, codfish and potatoes,
+and pork and beans; the Chinese, rice, etc. Monotony of diet, however,
+is not recommended, for reasons given in a previous chapter, and in
+the countries where a special diet prevails owing to the climate,
+nature of soil and markets, the results have not warranted us in
+believing that it is as good as a mixed diet. From this necessarily
+brief outline of the food question we have learned (1) that a
+knowledge of the requirements of the body are absolutely necessary in
+regulating a proper diet; (2) to furnish the food principles in a
+cheap rather than a dear form; (3) to understand the art of cookery so
+as to secure the full nutritive value and at the same time stimulate
+the appetite; (4) the value of economy in regard to food principles.
+When the housekeeper has acquired this knowledge she will have covered
+the field of food economy. Prof. Atwater says: "When we know what are
+the kinds and amount of nutritive substances our bodies need and our
+food materials contain, then and not till then shall we be able to
+adjust our diet to the demands of health and purse."
+
+
+Cooking of Food.
+
+It is sometimes asked, why do we cook our food? As many opportunities
+will occur during this course of instruction for a comparison of the
+customs and diet of the various countries, and the advance of
+civilization in this direction, we will confine ourselves to the
+definition of the term as it concerns ourselves.
+
+Mr. Atkinson says, that "Cooking is the right application of heat for
+the conversion of food material."
+
+As much of our food requires cooking, how we shall cook it so as to
+render it more palatable, more digestible, and with the greatest
+economy of time, fuel and money, is an object deserving the most
+careful attention. The art of cooking lies in the power to develop
+certain flavors which are agreeable to the palate, or in other words,
+which "make the mouth water," without interfering with the nutritive
+qualities of the food prepared, to understand by what method certain
+foods may be rendered more digestible, and to provide variety.
+Monotony of diet and of flavor lessens the appetite and fails to
+stimulate the digestive organs.
+
+The chemical changes, produced by cooking food properly, aid
+digestion, beside destroying any germs which may be contained in the
+food. Nearly all foods--except fruit--require cooking. The
+digestibility of starch depends almost entirely upon the manner in
+which it is cooked, especially the cereal class. Gastric troubles are
+sure to follow the use of improperly cooked grains or starches. (See
+Chap. VII.)
+
+
+Methods.
+
+The following are the usual methods observed in cooking, viz.: (1)
+boiling, (2) stewing, (3) roasting, (4) broiling, (5) frying, (6)
+braising, (7) baking, (8) steaming.
+
+BOILING.
+
+Water boils at a temperature of 212 deg. F. Simmering should be at a
+temperature of from 175 deg. F. to 180 deg. F. When water has reached the
+boiling point, its temperature cannot be raised, but will be converted
+into steam; hence the folly of adding fuel to the fire when water has
+already reached the boiling point.
+
+STEWING.
+
+Stewing allows the juices of the meat to become dissolved in water
+heated to the simmering point. The juices thus dissolved are eaten
+with the meat. If not injured by the addition of rich sauces or fats,
+this is usually a very digestible method of preparing certain kinds of
+meat.
+
+BROILING.
+
+Broiling is cooking directly over the hot coals. A coating of
+coagulated albumen is formed upon the outer surface. This coating
+prevents the evaporation of the juices, which with the extractive
+materials are retained and improve the flavor. Meat cooked in this way
+has a decided advantage, in both flavor and nutritive value, over that
+which has been boiled or stewed. There are, however, only certain
+kinds of meat that are suitable for broiling.
+
+FRYING.
+
+Frying is cooking in hot fat. The boiling point of fat is far above
+that of water. Fat should not be heated above 400 deg. F., as it will then
+turn dark and emit a disagreeable odor. Fried food, unless very
+carefully prepared, is considered unwholesome. The only proper method
+for frying is to immerse the food completely in a bath of hot fat.
+
+BRAISING.
+
+Braising is cooking meat in a covered vessel surrounded by a solution
+of vegetable and animal juices in a strong but not boiling
+temperature. Tough meat may be rendered very palatable and nutritious
+by cooking in this way. The cover of the pan or kettle must fit
+closely enough to prevent evaporation. It requires long, steady
+cooking. The flavor is improved by browning the meat in either hot
+fat or in a very hot oven before braising.
+
+BAKING.
+
+Baking is cooking in confined heat. Meat properly cooked in an oven is
+considered by many authorities as quite equal in delicacy of flavor to
+that roasted before a fire, and is equally digestible.
+
+STEAMING.
+
+Steaming is cooking food over condensed steam, and is an excellent
+method for preparing food which requires long, slow cooking. Puddings,
+cereals, and other glutinous mixtures are often cooked in this way. It
+is an economical method, and has the advantage of developing flavor
+without loss of substance.
+
+
+Food Preservation.
+
+Food is preserved by the following processes: (1) drying, (2) smoking,
+(3) salting, (4) freezing, (5) refrigerating, (6) sealing, (7)
+addition of antiseptic and preservative substances.
+
+DRYING.
+
+Drying in the sun and before a fire is the usual method employed by
+housekeepers. Fruits and vegetables, meat and fish may be preserved by
+drying, the latter with the addition of salt.
+
+SMOKING.
+
+Smoking is chiefly applied to beef, tongue, bacon, ham, and fish,
+which are hung in a confined chamber, saturated with wood smoke for a
+long time until they absorb a certain percentage of antiseptic
+material, which prevents the fat from becoming rancid, and the albumen
+from putrefying. Well smoked bacon cut thin and properly cooked is a
+digestible form of fatty food, especially for tubercular patients.
+Smoking improves the digestibility of ham.
+
+SALTING.
+
+Salting is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. The addition
+of a little saltpetre helps to preserve the color of the meat. Brine
+is frequently used to temporarily preserve meat and other substances.
+Corned beef is a popular form of salt preservation. All salted meats
+require long, slow cooking. They should always be placed in cold water
+and heated gradually in order to extract the salt. Salt meats are less
+digestible and not quite so nutritious as fresh meats.
+
+FREEZING.
+
+Food may be kept in a frozen condition almost indefinitely, but will
+decompose very quickly when thawed, hence the necessity for cooking
+immediately. Frozen meat loses 10 per cent. of its nutritive value in
+cooking.
+
+REFRIGERATING.
+
+This process does not involve actual freezing, but implies
+preservation in chambers at a temperature maintained a few degrees
+above freezing point. This method does not affect the flavor or
+nutritive value of food so much as freezing.
+
+SEALING.
+
+Sealing is accomplished not only in the process of canning but by
+covering with substances which are impermeable. Beef has been
+preserved for considerable time by immersing in hot fat in which it
+was allowed to remain after cooling.
+
+CHEMICALS.
+
+Chemicals are sometimes used in the preservation of food, but the
+other methods are safer.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+Foods Containing Protein, or Nitrogenous Matter.
+
+
+Animal foods contain nutritive matter in a concentrated form, and
+being chemically similar to the composition of the body is doubtless
+the reason why they assimilate more readily than vegetable foods,
+although the latter are richer in mineral matter. The most valuable
+animal foods in common use are meat, eggs, milk, fish, gelatin and
+fats.
+
+MEAT.
+
+Meat is composed of muscular tissue, connective tissue or gristle,
+fatty tissue, blood-vessels, nerves, bone, etc. The value of meat as
+food is due chiefly to the nitrogenous compound it contains, the most
+valuable being the albuminoids: the gelatinoid of meat is easily
+changed into gelatin by the action of hot water. Gelatin when combined
+with the albuminoids and extractives has considerable nutritive value.
+Extractives are meat bases, or rather meat which has been dissolved by
+water, such as soup stock and beef tea. The object in cooking meat is
+to soften and loosen the tissue, which renders it more easily
+digested. Another object is to sterilize or kill any germs which may
+exist and to make it more palatable. The digestibility of meat is
+influenced by the age of the animal killed and the feeding. The
+following table is given as an average of the digestibility of animal
+foods:--
+
+
+TABLE OF COMPARATIVE DIGESTIBILITY.
+
+_Commencing with the most digestible and ending with the least
+digestible of meats and other animal foods._ (Thompson.)
+
+    Oysters.
+    Soft cooked eggs.
+    Sweetbread.
+    Whitefish, etc.
+    Chicken, boiled or broiled.
+    Lean roast beef or beefsteak.
+    Eggs, scrambled, omelette.
+    Mutton.
+    Bacon.
+    Roast fowl, chicken, turkey, etc.
+    Tripe, brains, liver.
+    Roast lamb.
+    Chops, mutton or lamb.
+    Corn beef.
+    Veal.
+    Duck and other game.
+    Salmon, mackerel, herring.
+    Roast goose.
+    Lobster and crabs.
+    Pork.
+    Fish, smoked, dried, pickled.
+
+Cooking affects the digestibility of meat, which is evident from the
+figures given in the following table (Church):--
+
+
+TIME OF DIGESTION.
+
+  --------------------+----------------
+                      |      Hours.
+  --------------------+----------------
+   Beef, raw          |          2
+   Beef, half boiled  |          2-1/2
+   Beef, well boiled  | 2-3/4 to 3
+   Beef, half roasted | 2-3/4 to 3
+   Beef, well roasted | 2-1/4 to 4
+   Mutton, raw        |          2
+   Mutton, boiled     |          3
+   Mutton, roasted    |          3-1/4
+   Veal, raw          |          2-1/2
+   Pork, raw          |          3
+   Pork, roasted      |          5-1/4
+   Fowl, boiled       |          4
+   Turkey, boiled     |          2-1/2
+   Venison, broiled   |          1-1/2
+  --------------------+----------------
+
+It may be well to add here that animal food is more digestible when
+cooked between 160 deg. and 180 deg. F. than at a higher temperature.
+
+
+Cooking of Meat.
+
+_(For more general information, see Recipes.)_
+
+In boiling meat two principles must be considered, the softening of
+the fibre and preserving of the juices. If the meat alone is to be
+used it should be placed in sufficient boiling water to completely
+cover, and kept at boiling point (212 deg. F.) for at least ten minutes,
+so as to harden the albumen and prevent the escape of the juices. The
+temperature should then be allowed to fall to simmering point (175 deg.
+F.). If the water is kept boiling it will render the meat tough and
+dry. If the juice is to be extracted and the broth used, the meat
+should be placed in cold water; if bones are added they should be cut
+or broken into small pieces in order that the gelatin may be
+dissolved. If the water is heated gradually the soluble materials are
+more easily dissolved. The albumen will rise as a scum to the top, but
+should not be skimmed off, as it contains the most nutriment and will
+settle to the bottom as sediment.
+
+STEWING.
+
+If both meat and broth are to be used the process of cooking should be
+quite different. In stewing, the meat should be cut into small pieces,
+put into cold water in order that the juices, flavoring material and
+fibre may be dissolved. The temperature should be gradually raised to
+simmering point and remain at that heat for at least three or four
+hours, the vessel being kept closely covered. Cooked in this way the
+broth will be rich, and the meat tender and juicy. Any suitable
+flavoring may be added. This is a good method for cooking meat
+containing gristle.
+
+ROASTING AND BROILING.
+
+When the meat alone is to be eaten, either roasting, broiling or
+frying in deep fat is a more economical method, as the juices are
+saved. The shrinkage in a roast of meat during cooking is chiefly due
+to a loss of water. A small roast will require a hotter fire than a
+larger one, in order to harden the exterior and prevent the juices
+from escaping. Meat is a poor conductor of heat, consequently a large
+roast exposed to this intense heat would become burned before the
+interior could be heated. The large roast should be exposed to intense
+heat for a few minutes, but the temperature should then be reduced,
+and long steady cooking allowed.
+
+Broiling (see broiling in previous chapter, p. 19.)
+
+
+Varieties of Meat.
+
+BEEF TONGUE.
+
+Beef tongue is a tender form of meat, but contains too much fat to
+agree well with people of delicate digestion.
+
+VEAL.
+
+Veal, when obtained from animals killed too young, is apt to be tough,
+pale and indigestible, but good veal is considered fairly nutritious.
+It contains more gelatin than beef, and in broth is considered
+valuable, especially for the sick.
+
+MUTTON.
+
+Mutton is considered to be more digestible than beef, that is well fed
+mutton from sheep at least three years old; but as it is more
+difficult to obtain tender mutton than beef, the latter is more
+generally preferred. Mutton broth is wholesome and valuable in
+sickness.
+
+LAMB.
+
+Lamb, when tender and of the right age, is quite as digestible as beef
+or mutton, but the flesh contains too large a proportion of fat.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of cuts of beef.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of cuts of veal.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of cuts of pork.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of cuts of mutton.]
+
+VENISON.
+
+Venison is a tender meat with short fibres, which is very digestible
+when obtained from young deer, but is considered to be rather too
+stimulating. Its chemical composition is similar to lean beef.
+
+PORK.
+
+Pork is a tender-fibred meat, but is very indigestible owing to the
+high percentage of fat, which is considerably more than the
+nitrogenous material it contains. Pork ribs may have as much as 42 per
+cent. of fat.
+
+HAM AND BACON.
+
+Ham is more digestible when well boiled and eaten cold. Bacon is more
+easily digested than either ham or pork; when cut thin and cooked
+quickly--until transparent and crisp--it can often be eaten by
+dyspeptics, and forms an excellent food for consumptives.
+
+FOWL.
+
+Chicken is one of the most digestible of meats, contains considerable
+phosphorus and is particularly valuable as food for invalids. Turkey
+is somewhat less digestible than chicken. Ducks and geese are
+difficult of digestion, unless quite young, on account of the fat they
+contain.
+
+GAME.
+
+Game, if well cooked, is fairly digestible.
+
+SWEETBREAD.
+
+Sweetbread, which is thymus gland of the calf, is a delicate and
+agreeable article of diet, particularly for invalids. Tripe, heart,
+liver and kidneys are other forms of animal viscera used as
+food--valuable chiefly as affording variety.
+
+FISH.
+
+The chief difference in fish is the coarseness of fibre and the
+quantity of fat present. Fish which are highly flavored and fat, while
+they may be nutritious, are much less easy of digestion than
+flounder, sole, whitefish, and the lighter varieties. The following
+fish contain the largest percentage of albuminoids:--Red snapper,
+whitefish, brook trout, salmon, bluefish, shad, eels, mackerel,
+halibut, haddock, lake trout, bass, cod and flounder. The old theory
+that fish constituted "brain food," on account of the phosphorus it
+contained, has proved to be entirely without foundation, as in reality
+many fish contain less of this element than meat. The tribes which
+live largely on fish are not noted for intellectuality. Fish having
+white meat when broiled or boiled--not fried--are excellent food for
+invalids or people of weak digestion. Fish should be well cooked.
+
+OYSTERS.
+
+Oysters are a nutritious food, and may be eaten either raw or cooked.
+Lobsters, crabs and shrimps are called "sea scavengers," and unless
+absolutely fresh are not a desirable food.
+
+MILK.
+
+Milk contains all the elements which are necessary to maintain life;
+and constitutes a complete diet for infants. It will sustain life in
+an adult for several months. Although milk furnishes a useful food, it
+is not essential to a diet required for active bodily exercise. It is
+seldom given to athletes while in active training. Adults who are able
+to eat any kind of food are kept in better health by abstaining from
+milk, except as used for cooking purposes. An occasional glass of hot
+milk taken as a stimulant for tired brain and nerves is sometimes
+beneficial. Milk is composed of water, salts, fat, milk sugar or
+lactose, albumen and casein. Average milk has from 8 to 10 per cent.
+of cream. Good milk should form a layer of cream about 2-1/2 in. thick
+as it stands in a quart bottle. Lactose (milk sugar) is an important
+ingredient in milk. It is less liable to ferment in the stomach than
+cane sugar. In the presence of fermenting nitrogenous material it is
+converted into lactic acid, making the milk sour. Casein is present in
+milk chiefly in its alkaline form, and in conjunction with calcium
+phosphate. Milk absorbs germs from the air and from unclean vessels
+very readily. Good, clean, uncontaminated milk ought to keep fresh,
+exposed in a clean room at a temperature of 68 deg. F., for 48 hours
+without souring. If the milk is tainted in any way it will sour in a
+few hours. Boiled milk will keep fresh half as long again as fresh
+milk. Milk absorbs odors very quickly, therefore should never be left
+in a refrigerator with stale cheese, ham, vegetables, etc., unless in
+an air-tight jar. It should never be left exposed in a sick room or
+near waste pipes. Absolute cleanliness is necessary for the
+preservation of milk; vessels in which it is to be kept must be
+thoroughly scalded with boiling water, not merely washed out with warm
+water.
+
+
+_Methods of Preserving Milk._
+
+STERILIZED MILK.
+
+Milk to be thoroughly sterilized and germ free must be heated to the
+boiling point (212 deg. F.). This may be done by putting the milk into
+perfectly clean bottles and placing in a rack, in a kettle of boiling
+water, remaining until it reaches the necessary degree of heat. The
+bottle should be closely covered _immediately_ after with absorbent
+cotton or cotton batting in order to prevent other germs getting into
+the milk.
+
+PASTEURIZED MILK.
+
+The difference between pasteurizing and sterilizing is only in the
+degree of heat to which the milk is subjected. In pasteurizing, the
+milk is kept at a temperature of 170 deg. F. from 10 to 20 minutes. This
+is considered a better method for treating milk which is to be given
+to young children, as it is more easily digested than sterilized milk.
+All milk should be sterilized or pasteurized in warm weather,
+especially for children.
+
+CHEESE.
+
+Cheese is one of the most nutritious of foods, and when meat is scarce
+makes an excellent substitute, as it contains more protein than meat.
+Cheese is the separated casein of milk, which includes some of the
+fats and salts.
+
+EGGS.
+
+Eggs contain all the ingredients necessary to support life. Out of an
+egg the entire structure of the bird--bones, nerves, muscles, viscera,
+and feathers--is developed. The inner portion of the shell is
+dissolved to furnish phosphate for the bones. The composition of a
+hen's egg is about as follows (Church):--
+
+  ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------
+                        | White--In  ||                     | Yolk--In
+                        | 100 parts. ||                     | 100 parts.
+  ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------
+   Water                |   84.8     || Water               |   51.5
+   Albumen              |   12.0     || Casein and albumen  |   15.0
+   Fat, sugar,          |            || Oil and fat         |   30.0
+     extractives, etc.  |    2.0     || Pigment             |
+   Mineral matter       |    1.2     ||   extractives, etc. |    2.1
+                        |            || Mineral matter      |    1.4
+  ----------------------+------------++---------------------+------------
+
+The albumen--or the "white"--of an egg is greatly altered by cooking.
+When heated beyond boiling point it becomes a very indigestible
+substance. Eggs cooked at a temperature of about 170 deg. F., leaving the
+whites soft, are easily digested. A raw egg is ordinarily digested in
+1-1/2 hour, while a baked egg requires from 2 to 3 hours. Eggs _baked_
+in puddings, or in any other manner, form one of the most insoluble
+varieties of albumen.
+
+GELATIN.
+
+Gelatin is obtained from bones, ligaments, and other connective
+tissues. In combinations with other foods it has considerable
+nutritive value. The place given to it by scientists is to save the
+albumen of the body; as it does not help to form tissue or repair
+waste it cannot replace albumen entirely. Gelatin will not sustain
+life, but when used in the form of soup stock, etc., is considered
+valuable as a stimulant.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LEGUMES--PEAS, BEANS AND LENTILS.
+
+These vegetables contain as much protein as meat; yet, this being
+inferior in quality to that contained in meat, they can scarcely be
+given a place in the same class; therefore we will give them an
+intermediate position in food value between meat and grains. From the
+standpoint of economy they occupy a high place in nutritive value,
+especially for outdoor workers. (See Recipes.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+Fats and Oils.
+
+
+Fats and oils contain three elements--carbon, oxygen and hydrogen.
+About one-fifth of the body is composed of fat. Before death results
+from starvation 90 per cent. of the body fat is consumed.
+
+USES OF FAT.
+
+(1) To furnish energy for the development of heat; (2) to supply
+force; (3) to serve as covering and protection in the body; (4) to
+lubricate the various structures of the body; and (5) to spare the
+tissues. The fats and oils used as food all serve the same purpose,
+and come before the carbohydrates in fuel and force value; in
+combination with proteids, they form valuable foods for those engaged
+in severe muscular exercise, such as army marching, mining
+expeditions, etc.
+
+Fats and oils are but little changed during digestion. The fat is
+divided into little globules by the action of the pancreatic juice and
+other digestive elements, and is absorbed by the system. Fat forms the
+chief material in adipose tissue, a fatty layer lying beneath the
+skin, which keeps the warmth in the body, and is re-absorbed into the
+blood, keeping up heat and activity, and preserving other tissues
+during abstinence from food. Fat sometimes aids the digestion of
+starchy foods by preventing them from forming lumpy masses in the
+mouth and stomach, hence the value of using butter with bread,
+potatoes, etc. The animal fats are more nutritive than the vegetable,
+butter and cream heading the list. Cooking fats at a very high
+temperature, such as frying, causes a reaction or decomposition, which
+irritates the mucous membrane and interferes with digestion.
+
+The principal animal fats are butter, cream, lard, suet, the fat of
+mutton, pork, bacon, beef, fish and cod liver oil. The vegetable fats
+and oils chiefly used as food are derived from seeds, olives, and
+nuts. The most important fats and oils for household purposes are:
+
+BUTTER.
+
+Butter, which contains from 5 to 10 per cent. of water, 11.7 per cent.
+fat, 0.5 per cent. casein, 0.5 per cent. milk sugar (Konig). The
+addition of salt to butter prevents fermentation. Butter will not
+support life when taken alone, but with other foods is highly
+nutritious and digestible.
+
+CREAM.
+
+Cream is one of the most wholesome and agreeable forms of fat. It is
+an excellent substitute for cod liver oil in tuberculosis. Ice cream
+when eaten slowly is very nutritious.
+
+LARD.
+
+Lard is hog fat, separated by melting.
+
+SUET.
+
+Suet is beef fat surrounding the kidneys.
+
+COTTOLENE.
+
+Cottolene is a preparation of cotton-seed oil.
+
+OLEOMARGARINE.
+
+Oleomargarine is a preparation of beef fat provided as a substitute
+for butter.
+
+OLIVE OIL.
+
+Olive oil is obtained from the fruit, and is considered to be very
+wholesome; in some cases being preferred to either cod-liver oil or
+cream for consumptives.
+
+COTTON SEED OIL.
+
+Cotton seed oil is frequently substituted for olive oil.
+
+NUTS.
+
+Nuts contain a good deal of oil.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+Carbohydrate Foods.
+
+
+The idea of starchy foods is usually connected with such substances as
+laundry starch, cornstarch, arrow root, etc. These are, of course,
+more concentrated forms of starch than potatoes, rice, etc. Many
+starchy foods contain other ingredients, and some are especially rich
+in proteids.
+
+The following table may help to make this clear (Atwater):--
+
+
+PERCENTAGE OF STARCH IN VEGETABLE FOODS.
+
+  -----------------+-----------
+                   | Per Cent.
+  -----------------+-----------
+   Wheat bread     |   55.5
+   Wheat flour     |   75.6
+   Graham flour    |   71.8
+   Rye flour       |   78.7
+   Buckwheat flour |   77.6
+   Beans           |   57.4
+   Oatmeal         |   68.1
+   Cornmeal        |   71.0
+   Rice            |   79.4
+   Potatoes        |   21.3
+   Sweet Potatoes  |   21.1
+   Turnips         |    6.9
+   Carrots         |   10.1
+   Cabbage         |    6.2
+   Melons          |    2.5
+   Apples          |   14.3
+   Pears           |   16.3
+   Bananas         |   23.3
+  -----------------+-----------
+
+It is estimated that starch composes one-half of peas, beans, wheat,
+oats and rye, three-fourths of corn and rice, one-fifth of potatoes.
+Vegetable proteids, as already stated, are less easily digested than
+those belonging to the animal kingdom, therefore it must be remembered
+that a purely vegetable diet, even though it may be so arranged as to
+provide the necessary protein, is apt to over-tax the digestive
+organs more than a mixed diet from both the animal and vegetable
+kingdoms. Much depends upon the cooking of the starchy foods in order
+to render them digestible. (Study chapter on Digestion in the Public
+School Physiology.)
+
+STARCH.
+
+The digestion of starch--which is insoluble in cold water--really
+begins with the cooking, which by softening the outer coating or fibre
+of the grains, causes them to swell and burst, thereby preparing them
+for the chemical change which is caused by the action of the saliva in
+converting the starch into a species of sugar before it enters the
+stomach. Substances which are insoluble in cold water cannot be
+absorbed into the blood, therefore are not of any value as food until
+they have become changed, and made soluble, which overtaxes the
+digestive organs and causes trouble. The temperature of the saliva is
+too low to dissolve the starch fibre unaided. Each of the digestive
+juices has its own work to do, and the saliva acts directly upon the
+starchy food; hence the importance of thoroughly masticating such food
+as bread, potatoes, rice, cereals, etc. The action of heat, in baking,
+which causes the vapor to rise, and forms the crust of starchy food,
+produces what is called dextrine, or partially digested starch.
+Dextrine is soluble in cold water, hence the ease with which crust and
+toast--when properly made--are digested. It is more important to
+thoroughly chew starchy food than meat, as it is mixed with another
+digestive juice, which acts upon it in the stomach.
+
+
+Sugars.
+
+SUGAR.
+
+There are many varieties of sugar in common use, viz.: cane sugar,
+grape sugar or glucose, and sugar of milk (lactose). As food, sugars
+have practically the same use as starch; sugar, owing to its
+solubility, taxes the digestive organs very little. Over-indulgence in
+sugar, however, tends to cause various disorders of assimilation and
+nutrition. Sugar is also very fattening, it is a force producer, and
+can be used with greater safety by those engaged in active muscular
+work. Cane sugar is the clarified and crystallized juice of the sugar
+cane. Nearly half the sugar used in the world comes from sugar cane,
+the other half from beet roots. The latter is not quite so sweet as
+the cane sugar. Sugar is also made from the sap of the maple tree, but
+this is considered more of a luxury; consequently, not generally used
+for cooking purposes.
+
+MOLASSES AND TREACLE.
+
+Molasses and treacle are formed in the process of crystallizing and
+refining sugar. Treacle is the waste drained from moulds used in
+refining sugar, and usually contains more or less dirt.
+
+GLUCOSE.
+
+Glucose, or grape sugar, is commonly manufactured from starch. It is
+found in almost all the sweeter varieties of fruit. It is not so
+desirable for general use as cane sugar.
+
+HONEY.
+
+Honey is a form of sugar gathered by bees from the nectar of flowering
+plants, and stored by them in cells. Honey contains water 16.13,
+fruit sugar 78.74, cane sugar 2.69, nitrogenous matter 1.29, mineral
+matter 0.12 per cent. (Konig.)
+
+
+Grains.
+
+While the grains contain less proteid than the legumes, they are more
+valuable on account of the variety of the nutrients contained in them,
+and are more easily adapted to the demands of the appetite. They,
+however, require long, slow cooking in order to soften the fibre and
+render the starch more soluble. Among the most important we may place:
+
+WHEAT.
+
+A wheat kernel may be subdivided into three layers. The first or outer
+one contains the bran; second, the gluten, fats and salts; third, the
+starch. Some of the mineral matter for which wheat is so valuable is
+contained in the bran, hence the value of at least a portion of that
+part of the wheat being included in bread flour--not by the addition
+of coarse bran (which is indigestible) to the ordinary flour, but by
+the refining process employed in producing whole wheat flour. While
+wheat is used in other forms, its principal use as food is in the form
+of flour.
+
+The following table, giving the composition of bread from wheat and
+maize, will be of interest (Stone):--
+
+
+COMPOSITION OF BREAD FROM WHEAT AND MAIZE.
+
+  -------------------------+--------------------------------------------
+                           |            In Air-Dry Material.
+                           +------+-----+-----+-------+--------+--------
+                           |      |     |     |       |        |Nitrogen
+                           |Water.| Ash.| Fat.| Fibre.|Protein.|  free
+                           |      |     |     |       |        |extract.
+  -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+--------
+                           |P.ct. |P.ct.|P.ct.| P.ct. | P.ct.  |  P.ct.
+   Bread from whole winter |      |     |     |       |        |
+     wheat                 | 3.07 | 2.33| 1.22| 2.86  | 15.70  |  74.82
+   Bread from whole spring |      |     |     |       |        |
+     wheat                 | 7.46 | 1.69| 1.24| 2.80  | 15.26  |  71.55
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |     |     |       |        |
+     winter wheat          |10.39 |  .59|  .32|  .44  | 11.94  |  76.32
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |     |     |       |        |
+     spring wheat          | 8.00 |  .43|  .47|  .39  | 14.41  |  76.30
+   Corn bread from whole   |      |     |     |       |        |
+     maize                 | 3.40 | 1.88| 4.14| 2.53  | 12.88  |  75.17
+  -------------------------+------+-----+-----+-------+--------+--------
+
+
+  -------------------------+------------------------------------------
+                           |              In Dry Matter
+                           +------+------+--------+---------+---------
+                           |      |      |        |         | Nitrogen
+                           | Ash. | Fat. | Fibre. | Protein.|   free
+                           |      |      |        |         | extract.
+  -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+---------
+                           |P.ct. |P.ct. | P.ct.  | P.ct.   |  P.ct.
+   Bread from whole winter |      |      |        |         |
+     wheat                 | 2.40 | 1.25 | 2.95   | 16.20   |  77.20
+   Bread from whole spring |      |      |        |         |
+     wheat                 | 1.82 | 1.34 | 3.02   | 16.49   |  77.33
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |      |        |         |
+     winter wheat          |  .66 |  .35 |  .49   | 13.33   |  85.17
+   Bread from fine flour,  |      |      |        |         |
+     spring wheat          |  .47 |  .51 |  .42   | 15.66   |  82.94
+   Corn bread from whole   |      |      |        |         |
+     maize                 | 1.95 | 4.29 | 2.62   | 13.33   |  77.81
+  -------------------------+------+------+--------+---------+---------
+
+
+BREAD.
+
+The most valuable food product manufactured from flour is bread.
+
+Bread contains so many of the ingredients required to nourish the
+body, viz.: fat, proteid, salts, sugar and starch, that it may well be
+termed the "staff of life." As it does not contain enough fat for a
+perfect food the addition of butter to it renders it more valuable as
+an article of diet. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards gives the following
+explanation of what constitutes ideal bread: "(1) It should retain as
+much as possible of the nutritive principles of the grain from which
+it is made; (2) it should be prepared in such a manner as to secure
+the complete assimilation of these nutritive principles; (3) it should
+be light and porous, so as to allow the digestive juices to penetrate
+it quickly and thoroughly; (4) it should be nearly or quite free from
+coarse bran, which causes too rapid muscular action to allow of
+complete digestion. This effect is also produced when the bread is
+sour." Bread is made from a combination of flour, liquid (either milk
+or water), and a vegetable ferment called yeast (see yeast recipes).
+The yeast acts slowly or rapidly according to the temperature to which
+it is exposed. The starch has to be changed by the ferment called
+diastase (diastase is a vegetable ferment which converts starchy foods
+into a soluble material called maltose) into sugar, and the sugar into
+alcohol and carbonic acid gas (carbon dioxide), when it makes itself
+known by the bubbles which appear and the gradual swelling of the
+whole mass. It is the effect of the carbonic acid gas upon the gluten,
+which, when checked at the proper time before the ferment becomes
+acetic (sour) by baking, produces the sweet, wholesome bread which is
+the pride of all good housekeepers. The kneading of bread is to break
+up the gas bubbles into small portions in order that there may be no
+large holes and the fermentation be equal throughout. The loaf is
+baked in order to kill the ferment, to render the starch soluble, to
+expand the carbonic acid gas and drive off the alcohol, to stiffen the
+gluten and to form a crust which shall have a pleasant flavor. Much of
+the indigestibility of bread is owing to the imperfect baking; unless
+the interior of the loaf has reached the sterilizing point, 212 deg. F.,
+the bacteria contained in the yeast will not be killed, and some of
+the gas will remain in the centre of the loaf. The scientific method
+of baking bread is to fix the air cells as quickly as possible at
+first. This can be done better by baking the bread in small loaves in
+separate pans, thereby securing a uniform heat and more crust, which
+is considered to be the most easily digested part of the bread. Some
+cooks consider that long, slow baking produces a more desirable flavor
+and renders bread more digestible. One hundred pounds of flour will
+make an average of one hundred and thirty-five pounds of bread. This
+increase of weight is due to the addition of water.
+
+MACARONI.
+
+Macaroni is a flour preparation of great food value. It contains about
+six per cent. more gluten than bread, and is regarded by Sir Henry
+Thompson as equal to meat for flesh-forming purposes. Dieticians say
+that macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli are not used so extensively as
+their value deserves.
+
+BUCKWHEAT.
+
+Buckwheat is the least important of the cereals.
+
+RYE.
+
+Rye is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. Its treatment in
+regard to bread making is similar to that of wheat.
+
+CORN.
+
+Corn contains fat, proteid and starch, and produces heat and energy.
+It is very fattening, and when eaten as a vegetable is considered
+difficult of digestion. Cornmeal is a wholesome food; it contains more
+fat than wheat flour, and less mineral matter.
+
+RICE.
+
+Rice constitutes a staple food of a great many of the world's
+inhabitants. It contains more starch than any other cereal, but when
+properly cooked is very easily digested. It should be combined with
+some animal food, as it contains too little nitrogen to satisfy the
+demands of the system. It forms a wholesome combination with fruit,
+such as apples, peaches, prunes, berries, etc.
+
+BARLEY.
+
+Barley is almost equal to wheat in nutritive value. It contains more
+fat, mineral matter and cellulose (cellulose is often called
+indigestible fibre, as it resists the solvent action of the digestive
+juices, and is of no value as a nutrient), and less proteid and
+digestible carbohydrates.
+
+OATMEAL.
+
+Oatmeal is one of the most valuable foods. Oats contain fat, proteid,
+salts and cellulose, in addition to a large percentage of starch. The
+nutritive value of oatmeal is great, but much depends upon the manner
+of cooking. (See recipes.) People who eat much oatmeal should lead a
+vigorous outdoor life. The following analysis of oatmeal is given
+(Letheby):--
+
+  Nitrogenous matter            12.6 per cent.
+  Carbohydrates, starch, etc.   63.8    "
+  Fatty matter                   5.6    "
+  Mineral matter                 3.0    "
+  Water                         15.0    "
+                                ----
+  Total                        100.0
+
+
+Vegetables.
+
+Legumes--peas, beans and lentils--have an exceedingly leathery
+envelope when old; and unless soaked for a long time in cold water--in
+order to soften the woody fibre--and are then cooked slowly for some
+hours, are very indigestible. Pea and bean soups are considered very
+nutritious. Lentils grow in France; they are dried and split, in which
+form they are used in soups.
+
+POTATOES.
+
+Potatoes are the most popular of all the tubers. As an article of diet
+they possess little nutritive value, being about three-fourths water.
+They contain some mineral matter, hence the reason why they are better
+boiled and baked in their skins, so as to prevent the escape of the
+salts into the water. Potatoes are more easily digested when baked
+than cooked in any other form.
+
+BEETS.
+
+Beets contain between 85 and 90 per cent. of starch and sugar, some
+salts, and a little over one per cent. of proteid matter. Young beets,
+either in the form of a vegetable or a salad, are considered to be
+very wholesome.
+
+CARROTS, TURNIPS, PARSNIPS, OYSTER PLANT.
+
+Carrots, turnips, parsnips and oyster plant, although containing a
+large percentage of water, are considered valuable as nutrients, the
+turnip being the least nutritious.
+
+GREEN VEGETABLES.
+
+Green vegetables do not contain much nutriment, and are chiefly
+valuable as affording a pleasing variety in diet; also for supplying
+mineral matter and some acids. In this class we may include cabbage,
+cauliflower, spinach, lettuce and celery.
+
+TOMATOES.
+
+Tomatoes are wholesome vegetables; on account of the oxalic acid they
+contain they do not always agree with people of delicate digestion.
+
+CUCUMBERS.
+
+Cucumbers are neither wholesome nor digestible.
+
+ASPARAGUS.
+
+Asparagus is a much prized vegetable. The substance called asparagin
+which it contains is supposed to possess some value.
+
+RHUBARB.
+
+Rhubarb is a wholesome vegetable.
+
+ONIONS, GARLIC, SHALLOTS.
+
+Onions, garlic, and shallots are valuable both as condiments and eaten
+separately. They contain more nutrients than the last vegetables
+considered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+Fruits.
+
+
+Fruits are composed largely of water, with starches, a vegetable
+jelly, pectin, cellulose and organic acids. The most important acids
+in fruit are citric, malic and tartaric. Citric acid is found in
+lemons, limes and oranges; tartaric acid in grapes; malic acid in
+apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries and currants. Among the
+least acid are peaches, sweet apples, bananas and prunes. Strawberries
+are moderately acid, while lemons and currants contain the most acid
+of all.
+
+
+Uses of Fruit.
+
+(1) To furnish nutriment; (2) to convey water to the system and
+relieve thirst; (3) to introduce various mineral matter (salts) and
+acids which improve the quality of the blood; (4) as anti-scorbutics;
+(5) as laxatives and cathartics; (6) to stimulate the appetite,
+improve digestion and provide variety in the diet. Apples, lemons and
+oranges are especially valuable for the potash salts, lime and
+magnesia they contain. Fruit as a common article of daily diet is
+highly beneficial, and should be used freely in season. Cooked fruit
+is more easily digested than raw, and when over-ripe should always be
+cooked in order to prevent fruit poisoning.
+
+NUTS.
+
+Nuts contain proteid, with some starch and sugar, but are not
+considered valuable as nutrients. Cocoanuts, almonds and English
+walnuts are the most nutritious.
+
+
+Beverages.
+
+TEA.
+
+Tannin is an astringent of vegetable origin which exists in tea, is
+also found in coffee and wines, and is very injurious. Tea is a
+preparation made from the leaves of a shrub called Thea. The
+difference between black and green tea is due to the mode of
+preparation, and not to separate species of plant. Green tea contains
+more tannin than black. The following table will show the
+difference:--
+
+  =======================+===================+===================
+                         |    GREEN TEA.     |    BLACK TEA.
+  -----------------------+-------------------+-------------------
+   Crude protein         |       37.43       |       38.90
+   Fibre                 |       10.06       |       10.07
+   Ash  (mineral matter) |        4.92       |        4.93
+   Theine                |        3.20       |        3.30
+   Tannin                |       10.64       |        4.89
+   Total nitrogen        |        5.99       |        6.22
+  -----------------------+-------------------+-------------------
+
+The stimulating properties which tea possesses, as well as its color
+and flavor, depend upon the season of the year at which the leaves are
+gathered, the variety of the plant, the age of the leaves, which
+become tough as they grow older, and the care exercised in their
+preparation. Much depends upon the manner in which tea is infused. (1)
+Use freshly boiled water; (2) allow it to infuse only three or four
+minutes, in order to avoid extracting the tannin. When carefully
+prepared as above, tea is not considered unwholesome for people in
+good health.
+
+COFFEE.
+
+Coffee is made from the berries of coffee-arabica, which are dried,
+roasted and browned. The following table gives an approximate idea of
+the composition of coffee beans (Konig):--
+
+    Water                       1.15
+    Fat                        14.48
+    Crude fibre                19.89
+    Ash (mineral matter)        4.75
+    Caffeine                    1.24
+    Albuminoids                13.98
+    Other nitrogenous matter   45.09
+    Sugar, gum and dextrin      1.66
+
+Coffee is frequently adulterated with chicory, which is harmless.
+Coffee should not be allowed to boil long or stand in the coffee pot
+over a fire, as the tannin is extracted, which renders it more
+indigestible. Much controversy has been indulged in over the effect of
+coffee upon the system, but like many other similar questions it has
+not reached a practical solution. The general opinion seems to be that
+when properly made and used in moderation it is a valuable stimulant
+and not harmful to adults.
+
+COCOA.
+
+Cocoa and chocolate contain more food substances than tea or coffee,
+although their use in this respect is not of much value. The following
+table gives the analysis of cocoa (Stutzer):--
+
+    Theobromine                           1.73
+    Total nitrogenous substance          19.28
+    Fat                                  30.51
+    Water                                 3.83
+    Ash (mineral matter)                  8.30
+    Fibre and non-nitrogenous extract    37.48
+
+ALCOHOL.
+
+The use of alcohol is wholly unnecessary for the health of the human
+organism. (See Public School Physiology and Temperance.)
+
+
+Condiments.
+
+Condiments and spices are used as food adjuncts; they supply little
+nourishment, the effect being mainly stimulating, and are very
+injurious when used in excess. They add flavor to food and relieve
+monotony of diet. The use of such condiments as pepper, curry,
+pickles, vinegar and mustard, if abused, is decidedly harmful. Salt is
+the only necessary condiment, for reasons given in the chapter on
+mineral matter. The blending of flavors so as to make food more
+palatable without being injured is one of the fine arts in cookery.
+Some flavors, such as lemon juice, vinegar, etc., increase the solvent
+properties of the gastric juice, making certain foods more
+digestible.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+Preparing Food.
+
+
+The knowledge of food values and their relation to the body will be of
+little use for practical purposes unless combined with the knowledge
+of how the various foods should be prepared, either by cooking or in
+whatever form circumstances and the material may require. The first
+requisite for cooking purposes is heat; this necessitates the use of
+fuel. The fuels chiefly used for household purposes are wood, coal,
+kerosene oil and gas. Soft woods, such as pine or birch, are best for
+kindling and for a quick fire. Hard woods, oak, ash, etc., burn more
+slowly, retain the heat longer, and are better adapted for cooking
+purposes.
+
+COAL.
+
+Coal (anthracite) is about 95 per cent. carbon. It kindles slowly,
+gives a steady heat, and burns for a longer time without attention
+than wood. Stoves for burning oil and gas have become popular, and are
+very convenient and satisfactory for cooking purposes.
+
+OIL.
+
+Oil is considered to be the cheapest fuel.
+
+GAS.
+
+Gas is a very satisfactory fuel for cooking purposes, but can only be
+used in certain localities.
+
+
+Making and Care of a Fire.
+
+CARE OF A FIRE.
+
+Great care should be exercised in the selection of a stove or range.
+The plainer the range the easier it will be to keep it clean. There
+should be plenty of dampers that can be used to hasten the fire or to
+check it. Learn thoroughly the management of the range before
+beginning to cook. In lighting a fire, remove the covers, brush the
+soot from the top of the oven into the fire-box; clean out the grate
+(saving all the unburned coal, and cinders). Put in shavings or paper,
+then kindling arranged crosswise, allowing plenty of air space between
+the pieces, a little hard wood and a single layer of coal. Put on the
+covers, open the direct draft and oven damper, then light the paper.
+When the wood is thoroughly kindled and the first layer of coal
+heated, fill the fire-box with coal even with the top of the oven.
+When the blue flame becomes white, close the oven damper, and when the
+coal is burning freely, shut the direct draft. When coal becomes
+bright red all through it has lost most of its heat. A great deal of
+coal is wasted by filling the fire-box too full and leaving the drafts
+open till the coal is red. To keep a steady fire it is better to add a
+little coal often rather than to add a large quantity and allow it to
+burn out. Never allow dust or cinders to accumulate around a range,
+either inside or out. Learn to open and shut the oven door quietly and
+quickly. Study the amount of fire required to heat the oven to the
+desired temperature. Learn which is the hotter or cooler side of the
+oven, and move the article which is being baked as required, being
+very careful to move it gently.
+
+Measurements.
+
+Accurate measurement is necessary to insure success in cooking. As
+there is such a diversity of opinion as to what constitutes a heaping
+spoonful, all the measurements given in this book will be by level
+spoonfuls. A cupful is all the cup will hold without running over, and
+the cup is one holding 1/2 pint.
+
+The following table may be used where scales are not convenient:--
+
+    4 cups of flour                        = 1 pound or 1 quart.
+    2 cups of solid butter                 = 1   "
+    1/2 cup butter                         = 1/4 "
+    2 cups granulated sugar                = 1   "
+    2-1/2 cups powdered sugar              = 1   "
+    3 cups meal                            = 1   "
+    1 pint of milk or water                = 1   "
+    1 pint chopped meat, packed solidly    = 1   "
+    9 large eggs, 10 medium eggs           = 1   "
+    2 level tablespoonfuls butter          = 1 ounce.
+    4   "          "         "             = 2 ounces or 1/4 cup.
+    Butter the size of an egg              = 2   "    "      "
+    2 level tablespoonfuls sugar           = 1   "
+    4   "          "       flour           = 1   "
+    4   "          "       coffee          = 1   "
+    4   "          "       powdered sugar  = 1   "
+
+
+Table of Abbreviations.
+
+    Saltspoon                   ssp.
+    Tablespoon                 tbsp.
+    Pint                         pt.
+    Gallon                      gal.
+    Teaspoon                    tsp.
+    Cupful                       cf.
+    Quart                        qt.
+    Peck                         pk.
+
+A speck (spk.) is what you can put on a quarter inch square surface.
+
+
+Time-table for Cooking.
+
+BAKING BREAD, CAKES AND PUDDINGS.
+
+    Loaf bread           40 to 60 m.
+    Graham gems          25 to 30 m.
+    Sponge cake          45 to 60 m.
+    Cookies              10 to 15 m.
+    Rice and tapioca      1 hr.
+    Custards             15 to 20 m.
+    Pastry (thin puff)   10 to 15 m.
+    Pie crust            25 to 30 m.
+    Baked beans           6 to 8 hrs.
+    Scalloped dishes     15 to 20 m.
+    Rolls, biscuit       10 to 20 m.
+    Gingerbread          25 to 30 m.
+    Fruit cake            2 to 3 hrs.
+    Bread pudding         1 hr.
+    Indian pudding        2 to 3 hrs.
+    Steamed pudding       1 to 3 hrs.
+    Pastry (thick)       30 to 50 m.
+    Potatoes             30 to 45 m.
+    Braised meat          3 to 4 hrs.
+
+
+BAKING MEATS.
+
+    Beef, sirloin, rare, per lb.          8 to 10 m.
+    Beef, well done, per lb.             12 to 15 m.
+    Beef, rolled rib or rump, per lb.    12 to 15 m.
+    Beef, fillet, per lb.                20 to 30 m.
+    Mutton, rare, per lb.                10 m.
+    Mutton, well done, per lb.           15 m.
+    Lamb, well done, per lb.             15 m.
+    Veal, well done, per lb.             20 m.
+    Pork, well done, per lb.             30 m.
+    Turkey, 10 lbs. weight               2-1/2 hrs.
+    Chicken, 3 to 4 lbs. weight          1 to 1-1/2 hr.
+    Goose, 8 lbs.                        2 hrs.
+    Tame duck                            1 to 1-1/2 hr.
+    Game                                 40 to 60 m.
+    Grouse                               30 to 40 m.
+    Small birds                          20 to 25 m.
+    Venison, per lb.                     15 m.
+    Fish, 6 to 8 lbs.                    1 hr.
+    Fish, small                          30 to 40 m.
+
+
+VEGETABLES (BOILING).
+
+    Rice, green corn, peas, tomatoes, asparagus
+      (hard boiled eggs)                                    20 to 25 m.
+    Potatoes, macaroni, squash, celery, spinach             25 to 30 m.
+    Young beets, carrots, turnips, onions, parsnips,
+      cauliflower                                           30 to 45 m.
+    Young cabbage, string beans, shell beans, oyster plant  45 to 60 m.
+    Winter vegetables, oatmeal, hominy and wheat             1 to 2  hrs.
+
+
+FRYING (DEEP).
+
+    Smelts, croquettes, fish balls                   1 to  2 m.
+    Muffins, fritters, doughnuts                     4 to  6 m.
+    Fish, breaded chops                              5 to  7 m.
+
+
+BROILING.
+
+    Steak, 1 inch thick                              6 to  8 m.
+    Steak, 1-1/2 inch thick                          8 to 10 m.
+    Fish, small                                      6 to  8 m.
+    Fish, thick                                     12 to 15 m.
+    Chops                                            8 to 10 m.
+    Chicken                                         20 m.
+
+
+Table of Proportions.
+
+    1 qt. of liquid to 3 qts. of flour for bread.
+    1 qt. of liquid to 2 qts. of flour for muffins.
+    1 qt. of liquid to 1 qt. of flour for batters.
+    1 cup of yeast (1 yeast cake) to 1 qt. of liquid.
+    1 tsp. of soda (level), 3 of cream tartar to 1 qt. of flour.
+    1 tsp. of soda to 1 pt. of sour milk.
+    1 tsp. of soda to 1 cup of molasses.
+    4 tsps. of baking powder to 1 qt. of flour.
+    1 tsp. of salt to 1 qt. of soup stock.
+    1 ssp. of salt to 1 loaf of cake.
+    1 tbsp. of each vegetable, chopped, to 1 qt. of stock.
+    1-1/2 tbsp. of flour to 1 qt. of stock for thickening soup.
+    1 tbsp. of flour to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.
+    1 tsp. of salt to 1 pt. of stock for sauces.
+    4 tbsps. (level) cornstarch to 1 pt. of milk (to mould).
+    1 tsp. of salt to 2 qts. of flour for biscuits, etc.
+
+
+Methods for Flour Mixtures.
+
+STIRRING.
+
+Stirring is simply blending two or more materials by moving the spoon
+round and round until smooth and of the proper consistency.
+
+BEATING.
+
+Beating is bringing the spoon up through the mixture with a quick
+movement so as to entangle as much air as possible.
+
+CUTTING OR FOLDING.
+
+Cutting or folding is adding the beaten white of egg to a mixture
+without breaking the air bubbles, by lifting and turning the mixture
+over and over as in folding. Do not stir or beat.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+RECIPES.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BATTERS, BISCUITS AND BREAD.
+
+
+POPOVERS.
+
+    2 cups of flour.
+    3 eggs.
+    2 cups of milk.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Beat the eggs (without separating) until very light, then add the milk
+and salt; pour this mixture on the flour (slowly), beating all the
+while. Beat until smooth and light, about five minutes. Grease gem
+pans or small cups, and bake in a moderately hot oven about
+thirty-five minutes. They should increase to four times their original
+size. (This recipe may be divided for class work.)
+
+
+PANCAKES.
+
+    1 pint of flour.
+    1 tbsp. of melted butter.
+    1 pint of milk.
+    2 eggs.
+    2 tsps. baking powder.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Beat the whites and yolks of the eggs separately; add the yolks to the
+milk, then the melted butter; salt. Sift the baking powder and flour
+together, add slowly to the liquid, stir until smooth. Lastly, add the
+whites of the eggs. These may be cooked in waffle irons or on a
+griddle.
+
+
+PANCAKES WITH BUTTERMILK.
+
+    1 pint of buttermilk.
+    Flour to make a medium batter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+
+Crush the soda, add it and the salt to the buttermilk, add the flour
+gradually, beat until the batter is smooth, and bake on a hot griddle.
+An egg may be added.
+
+
+CORNMEAL GRIDDLE CAKES.
+
+    1 pint of Indian meal.
+    1 cup of flour.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    3 eggs.
+    4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    1 pint of milk.
+
+Put the meal into a bowl, and pour over it just enough boiling water
+to scald it; do not make it soft; let stand until cool. Then add the
+milk; beat the eggs until very light, add them to the batter, add the
+flour and salt in which the baking powder has been sifted. Mix well,
+beat vigorously for a minute or two, and bake on a hot griddle.
+
+
+BREAD GRIDDLE CAKES.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    1/2 tsp. of salt.
+    1/2 tsp. of soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    1/2 pt. stale bread crumbs.
+    2 eggs.
+    Flour to make a thin batter.
+
+Soak the bread in the milk for one hour, then beat it smooth. Beat the
+eggs separately till very light, add first the yolks, then the flour
+and salt and baking powder. Beat again, add the whites, and bake
+quickly on a hot griddle.
+
+
+BUCKWHEAT CAKES.
+
+    1 pt. boiling water.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 cup white flour.
+    1 ssp. soda.
+    1/2 cup corn or Graham meal.
+    1/4 yeast cake.
+    1 cup buckwheat flour.
+
+Pour the boiling water on the corn or Graham meal, add the salt, and
+when lukewarm add the flour, beat until smooth, then add the yeast.
+Let it rise over night. In the morning add the soda just before baking
+(milk may be used instead of water). A tablespoonful of molasses is
+sometimes added in order to make the cakes a darker brown.
+
+
+FRITTERS.
+
+Beat two eggs together until light, add to them 1 cup of milk, 1/2
+tsp. salt and sufficient flour to make a batter that will drop from
+the spoon. Beat until smooth. Have ready a deep pan of hot fat; add 3
+(l.) tsps. of baking powder to the batter, mix thoroughly and drop by
+spoonfuls into the hot fat. When brown on one side turn and brown on
+the other; take out with a skimmer and serve very hot. Do not pierce
+with a fork as it allows the steam to escape and makes the fritter
+heavy.
+
+
+GEMS--WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM GEMS.
+
+    2 cups of whole wheat flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    2 eggs, beaten separately.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 cup water.
+
+Mix flour, salt and sugar. Beat the eggs until light, add the milk and
+water, stir this into the dry mixture. Bake in hot gem pans for 30
+minutes.
+
+
+CORN MUFFINS.
+
+    1 cup cornmeal.
+    1 cup flour.
+    1-1/4 cups milk.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.
+    1 egg.
+
+Mix all the dry ingredients together. Melt the butter in a hot cup.
+Beat the egg till light. Add the milk to it and turn this mixture into
+the bowl containing the dry ingredients. Add the melted butter and
+beat vigorously and quickly. Pour into buttered muffin or gem pans,
+and bake for one-half hour in a moderate oven.
+
+
+QUICK MUFFINS OR GEMS.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    1 oz. butter.
+    3 cups of flour.
+    4 tsps. baking powder.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    3 eggs.
+
+Beat the eggs separately till light, add the yolks to the milk, then
+the flour, which must be more or less, according to the quality. The
+batter must be thin and pour from the spoon. Now add the melted butter
+and salt; give the whole a vigorous beating. Now add the baking powder
+and the well beaten whites, stir till thoroughly mixed. Bake in muffin
+rings in a quick oven or on the griddle.
+
+
+TEA BISCUIT.
+
+    1 pt. of flour.
+    1 cup milk.
+    2-1/2 tsps. baking powder.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. lard or butter.
+    1/2 tsp. sugar.
+
+Mix thoroughly in a sieve the flour, sugar, salt and baking powder,
+and rub through the sieve. Rub the butter or lard into this mixture.
+Now add the milk, stirring quickly with a strong spoon. Sprinkle the
+board with flour, turn out the dough upon it. Roll to the thickness of
+about 1/2 inch, cut with a small cutter. Bake in a quick oven. Do not
+crowd the biscuit in the pan. They should bake from 10 to 15 minutes.
+(All biscuit doughs should be mixed as soft as it is possible to
+handle. Sour milk may be used in this recipe by substituting soda for
+the baking powder.)
+
+
+HOT CORN BREAD.
+
+    1 qt. of cornmeal.
+    1 tsp. of salt.
+    1 pt. sour milk or buttermilk.
+    1 oz. of butter.
+    2 eggs.
+    1 tsp. of soda.
+
+Put the cornmeal in a large bowl and pour over it just enough boiling
+water to scald it through. Let it stand until cold, then add the eggs
+well beaten, the milk or buttermilk, salt, and butter (melted); beat
+thoroughly. Dissolve the soda in two tbsps. of boiling water, stir
+into the mixture, turn quickly into a greased square, shallow pan,
+put into a hot oven and bake 40 minutes.
+
+
+SHORTCAKES.
+
+(_Suitable for strawberries or any sweetened fruit._)
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1 cup sweet or sour milk.
+    1/4 cup butter.
+    2-1/2 tsps. baking powder, or 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Mix the salt, soda, cream tartar or baking powder with the flour,
+sift; rub in the butter until fine like meal. Add the liquid
+gradually, mixing with a knife, and use just enough to make it of a
+light spongy consistency. Turn the dough out on a well floured board,
+pat lightly into a flat cake and roll gently till half inch thick.
+Bake either in a spider or pie plate in the oven; split, butter, and
+spread with the fruit.
+
+
+DOUGHNUTS.
+
+    1 egg
+    1 tbsp. melted butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    Flour enough to make into a soft dough.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    1 ssp. cinnamon.
+
+Mix all the dry ingredients, beat the egg until light, add to this the
+milk, sugar and melted butter. Pour into the flour, mixing carefully
+into a soft dough. Have the board well floured. Roll only a large
+spoonful at a time. Cut into the desired shape and drop into hot fat.
+The fat should be hot enough for the dough to rise to the top
+instantly.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BREAD.
+
+As bread is one of the most important articles of the daily diet, it
+naturally follows that special attention should be given to a subject
+upon which the health of the family, to a great extent, depends. A
+knowledge of the chemical changes and their effect (see Chap. VII)
+must be understood before proficiency in bread-making can be attained.
+The first element to consider is the _yeast_, and the generating of
+carbonic acid gas, so as to have the bread light, tender, and porous.
+
+Yeast is a plant or vegetable growth produced from grain which has
+commenced to bud or sprout, and which forms the substance called
+diastase. This substance has the power to convert starch into sugar.
+(See Chap. VII for effect of yeast upon flour.)
+
+The temperature at which fermentation takes place, and when to check
+it, are important features of bread-making.
+
+The liquid (milk or water) should be tepid when mixed, as too great
+heat destroys the growth of the yeast. The dough should rise in a
+temperature of 75 deg.. After fermentation has become active the
+temperature may be gradually lowered--as in setting bread over
+night--without injury.
+
+Avoid a cold draft or sudden change of temperature, as it checks
+fermentation and affects the flavor.
+
+Never allow bread to rise until it "settles," or runs over the side of
+the bowl. The usual rule is to let it rise until it is double in bulk,
+both in the bowl and after it is put into the pans. If it is not
+convenient to bake the bread when ready, it may be kneaded again and
+kept in a cool place, to prevent souring. Bread should be mixed in a
+stone or granite bowl.
+
+The only necessary ingredients for bread are water, flour, salt, and
+yeast. Sugar may be added to restore the natural sweetness of the
+flour which has been lost during fermentation, but it is not
+necessary. If milk is used, and the bread well kneaded, no other
+shortening is required; but with water, the addition of a little
+butter or dripping makes the bread more tender, therefore it is more
+easily penetrated by the digestive fluids. Tough, leathery bread is
+not easily digested, no matter how light it may be. As already stated,
+by the action of heat the ferment is killed, the starch-grains
+ruptured, the gas carried off, and the crust formed. In order that
+bread may be thoroughly cooked, and plenty of crust formed, each loaf
+should be baked in a pan about 4 inches deep, 4 to 6 inches wide, and
+from 8 to 12 inches long. Smaller loaves are even more desirable. It
+is very difficult to bake a large loaf so as to insure the escape of
+all the carbonic acid gas, and to cook the starch sufficiently without
+injuring the crust, besides entailing an unnecessary waste of fuel.
+The custom of baking several loaves together in one large pan is
+contrary to all scientific rules of bread-making. The oven should be
+hot enough to brown a spoonful of flour in five minutes, for bread.
+The dough should rise during the first fifteen minutes, then begin to
+brown; keep the heat steady for the next fifteen or twenty minutes,
+then decrease it. If the oven is too hot a hard crust will form and
+prevent the dough from rising, which will not only cause the bread to
+be heavy, but will prevent the gas from escaping. If, on the other
+hand, the oven is not hot enough, the bread will go on rising until
+it becomes sour. A loaf, the size already mentioned, should take from
+fifty-five to sixty minutes to bake, and should give a hollow sound,
+if tapped, when removed from the oven. Better take too long than not
+long enough, as doughy bread is most objectionable and unwholesome. If
+the crust is beginning to burn, cover the loaf with brown paper, and
+reduce the heat, but have a brown crust, not a whity-brown, which is
+usually hard and without flavor. Upon removing the loaves from the
+pans, place them on a rack, where the air may circulate freely. Never
+leave warm bread on a pine table, or where it will absorb odors.
+
+
+BREAD MADE WITH WATER.
+
+    2 quarts flour.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    1 pint lukewarm water.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. butter, dripping or lard.
+    1/2 cake compressed yeast, dissolved in 1/2 cup water.
+
+(This recipe is for Manitoba flour. A little more fine flour would be
+necessary.)
+
+Sift the flour. Put the salt, sugar and butter into a large bowl, pour
+on the warm water, stir until they are dissolved. Add the flour
+gradually until it forms a thin batter, then add the yeast; beat
+vigorously for at least five minutes. Add more flour until the dough
+is stiff enough to knead. Turn out on the board and knead for half
+hour. Cover and let rise until double its bulk. Form into separate
+loaves, put into the pans, cover, and let rise again till double its
+bulk. Bake in a hot oven about an hour. (Milk or half milk may be
+substituted in this recipe.)
+
+
+BREAD (WITH A SPONGE).
+
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    1/2 cup yeast or 1/2 yeast cake.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 pt. water.
+    About 2 qts. flour.
+
+Put the butter, sugar and salt in the mixing bowl, add 1/4 cup boiling
+water to dissolve them; then add enough lukewarm water to make a pint,
+3 cups of flour, then the yeast (if the cake is used dissolve in 1/4
+cup tepid water). Give it a vigorous beating, cover, and let it rise
+over night. In the morning add flour to make it stiff enough to knead.
+Knead for 1/2 hour. Cover closely, let it rise till it doubles its
+bulk; shape into loaves; let it rise again in the pans; bake as
+directed in previous recipe.
+
+
+WHOLE WHEAT OR GRAHAM BREAD.
+
+    1 pt. milk, scalded and cooled.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    2 cups white flour.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    5 or 6 cups whole wheat flour.
+    1/2 yeast cake or 1/2 cup yeast.
+
+Mix in the same order as given in previous recipes. Whole wheat flour
+makes a softer dough, consequently does not require so much kneading,
+otherwise it should be treated the same as other bread, allowing it a
+little longer time for baking; if too moist, a cupful of white flour
+may be added.
+
+
+YEAST.
+
+Steep 1/2 cup of loose hops in 1 quart of boiling water, in a granite
+kettle, 5 minutes. Mix 1 cup of flour, 1/4 of a cup sugar and 1 tbsp.
+salt. Strain the hop liquor and pour it boiling into the flour
+mixture. Boil 1 minute, or till thick. When cooled add 1 cup of yeast.
+Cover and set in a warm place until foamy, which will be in 4 or 5
+hours. Pour into stone jars, which should be not more than half full,
+and keep in a cool place. (Three boiled potatoes may be mashed
+smoothly and added to this yeast if desired.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SAUCES AND MILK SOUPS.
+
+
+WHITE SAUCE.
+
+(_For Vegetables, Eggs, etc._)
+
+    1 pt. milk.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 ssp. white pepper.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Heat the milk over hot water. Put the butter in a granite saucepan and
+stir till it melts, being careful not to brown. Add the dry flour, and
+stir quickly till well mixed. Add the milk gradually, stirring
+carefully (especially from the sides) until perfectly smooth. Let it
+boil until it thickens, then add salt and pepper.
+
+In using this sauce for creamed oysters, add 1/2 tsp. of celery salt,
+a few grains of cayenne pepper, and a tsp. of lemon juice.
+
+
+DRAWN BUTTER SAUCE.
+
+    1 pt. hot water or stock.
+    1/2 cup butter.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Put the butter in the saucepan; when melted add the dry flour, and mix
+well. Add the hot water or stock a little at a time, and stir rapidly
+till it thickens; when smooth add the salt and pepper. Be careful to
+have all sauces free from lumps. (Hard boiled eggs may be added to
+this sauce for baked or boiled fish. Two tbsps. of chopped parsley may
+be added if parsley sauce is desired.)
+
+
+BROWN SAUCE.
+
+    1 pt. hot stock.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. lemon juice.
+    2 tbsps. minced onions.
+    4 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+    Caramel enough to color.
+
+Mince the onion and fry it in the butter 5 minutes. Be careful not to
+burn it. When the butter is browned add the dry flour, and stir well.
+Add the hot stock a little at a time; stir rapidly until it thickens
+and is perfectly smooth. Add the salt and pepper. Simmer 5 minutes,
+and strain to remove the onion.
+
+
+CARAMEL FOR COLORING SOUPS AND SAUCES.
+
+Melt 1 cup of sugar with 1 tbsp. of water in a frying-pan. Stir until
+it becomes of a dark brown color. Add 1 cup of boiling water, simmer
+10 minutes, and bottle when cool. This coloring is useful for many
+purposes, and is more wholesome than browned butter.
+
+
+MOCK BISQUE SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. stewed tomatoes.
+    2 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 pt. milk.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1/4 tsp. pepper.
+
+Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, put the remainder on to cook in a
+stew-pan. Mix the flour with the cold milk, and stir into the boiling
+milk. Cook for 10 minutes, then add the salt, pepper and butter. Stir
+the soda into the hot tomatoes and stir 1/2 minute, then rub through a
+strainer. Add the strained tomatoes to the thickened milk, and serve
+at once.
+
+
+POTATO SOUP.
+
+    4 potatoes, medium size.
+    2 tbsps. minced celery.
+    2 tbsps. of flour.
+    1/4 tsp. of pepper.
+    1/2 tsp. minced parsley.
+    1-1/2 pints of milk.
+    4 tbsps. minced onions.
+    1 tsp. of salt.
+    1 tbsp. of butter.
+
+Pare the potatoes, place on the fire in enough boiling water to cover,
+and cook for 30 minutes. Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder in
+the double boiler with the onion and celery and place on the fire. Mix
+the cold milk with the flour and stir into the boiling milk. When the
+potatoes are cooked pour off the water, mash them until fine and
+light. Gradually beat into them the milk; now add salt, pepper and
+butter, and rub the soup through a sieve. Return to the fire and add
+the minced parsley; simmer for 5 minutes and serve immediately. (The
+parsley may be omitted and celery salt substituted for the minced
+celery.)
+
+
+CELERY SOUP.
+
+    1 head celery.
+    1 pint milk.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 pint water.
+    1 tbsp. chopped onion.
+    2 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+
+Wash and scrape the celery, cut into 1/2 inch pieces, put it into the
+pint of boiling salted water and cook until very soft. Mash in the
+water in which it was boiled. Cook the onion with the milk in a double
+boiler 10 minutes and add it to the celery. Rub all through a strainer
+and put on to boil again. Melt the butter in a saucepan, stir in the
+flour and cook until smooth, but not brown, then stir it into the
+boiling soup. Add the salt and pepper; simmer 5 minutes and strain
+into the tureen. Serve very hot.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+EGGS.
+
+While eggs are nutritious and valuable as food they should not be used
+too freely, as they are a highly concentrated form of food. The
+albumen (white) of egg is one of the most valuable tissue builders.
+Much depends upon the manner in which they are cooked. Eggs fried in
+fat or hard boiled are very indigestible. Do not use an egg until it
+has been laid some hours, as the white does not become thick till then
+and cannot be beaten stiff. Eggs should be kept in a cool dark place,
+and handled carefully in order to avoid mixing the white and yolk,
+which causes the egg to spoil quickly.
+
+
+BOILED EGGS.
+
+Have the water boiling in a saucepan. Put in the eggs and move to the
+back of the stove where the water will keep hot, about 175 or 180 F.,
+for from 8 to 10 minutes. If the back of the stove is too hot, move to
+the hearth. The white should be of a soft, jelly-like consistency, the
+yolks soft but not liquid. An egg to be cooked soft should never be
+cooked in boiling water.
+
+
+HARD BOILED EGGS.
+
+Cook eggs for 20 minutes in water just below the boiling point. The
+yolk of an egg cooked 10 minutes is tough and indigestible; 20 minutes
+will make it dry and mealy, when it is more easily penetrated by the
+gastric fluid.
+
+
+POACHED EGGS.
+
+Have a clean, shallow pan nearly full of salted and boiling water.
+Remove the scum and let the water just simmer. Break each egg
+carefully into a saucer and slip it gently into the water. Dip the
+water over it with the end of the spoon, and when a film has formed
+over the yolk and the white is like a soft jelly, take up with a
+skimmer and place on a piece of neatly trimmed toast. This is the most
+wholesome way of cooking eggs for serving with ham or bacon.
+
+
+OMELET.
+
+Beat the yolks of two eggs, add two tbsps. of milk, 1 ssp. of salt and
+1/4 of a ssp. of pepper. Beat the whites till stiff and dry. Cut and
+fold them into the yolks till just covered. Have a clean, smooth
+omelet pan (or spider). When hot, rub well with a teaspoonful of
+butter; see that the butter is all over the pan, turn in the omelet
+and spread evenly on the pan. Cook until slightly browned underneath,
+being careful not to let it burn; set in a hot oven until dry on top.
+When dry throughout, run a knife round the edge, tip the pan to one
+side, fold the omelet and turn out on a hot platter. This may be made
+by beating the whites and yolks together for a plain omelet. A little
+chopped parsley, a little fine grated onion, a tbsp. or two of chopped
+ham, veal or chicken may be spread on the omelet before folding.
+
+
+CUP CUSTARDS.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    1/4 cup of sugar.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.
+
+Beat the eggs until light, then add the sugar; beat again, add the
+milk and nutmeg, stir until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into custard
+cups, stand the cups in a pan of boiling water and then put the pan in
+the oven. Bake until the custards are set, or until a knife may be
+slipped into the centre without anything adhering to it. When done,
+take them out of the water and stand away to cool. (This custard may
+be poured into a baking dish and baked in a quick oven until firm in
+the centre.)
+
+
+BOILED CUSTARD.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+
+Put the milk on in the double boiler, beat the sugar and yolks of eggs
+together until light, then stir them into the boiling milk; stir until
+it begins to thicken, then take it from the fire; add the vanilla and
+stand aside to cool. When cool, pour into a glass dish. Beat the
+whites until stiff, add three tbsps. of powdered sugar gradually. Heap
+them on a dinner plate and stand in the oven a moment until slightly
+brown, then loosen from the plate, slip off gently on top of the
+custard; serve very cold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FRUIT.
+
+If people would only realize the value of fruit in its natural state,
+much of the time devoted to the preparation of pies, puddings, etc.,
+would be saved. All uncooked fruit should be thoroughly ripe and
+served fresh and cold. Sometimes fruit is more easily digested when
+the woody fibre has been softened by cooking than when in its natural
+state, therefore a few simple recipes for cooking fruit are given.
+
+
+APPLESAUCE.
+
+Pare, core and quarter 6 or 8 tart apples. Make a syrup with 1/2 cup
+of sugar, 1/2 cup of water, and a little grated lemon peel. When
+boiling, add the apples and cook carefully till they are just tender,
+but not broken. Remove them carefully, boil the syrup down a little
+and pour it over the apples. (For serving with roast goose, etc., cook
+the apples in a little water, mash until smooth, add sugar to taste.)
+
+
+CODDLED APPLES.
+
+Pare tart apples of uniform size; remove the cores without breaking
+the apples. Stand them in the bottom of a granite kettle, sprinkle
+thickly with sugar, cover the bottom of the kettle with boiling water,
+cover closely and allow the apples to steam on the back part of the
+stove till tender. Lift carefully without breaking, pour the syrup
+over them and stand away to cool (delicious served with whipped
+cream).
+
+
+STEWED PRUNES.
+
+Wash carefully and soak in water an hour before cooking, put them into
+a porcelain or granite kettle, cover with boiling water and let them
+simmer until tender. Add a tbsp. of sugar for each pint of prunes, and
+boil a few moments longer.
+
+
+CRANBERRIES.
+
+Put 1 pint of cranberries in a granite saucepan, 1 cup of sugar, 1 cup
+of water. After they begin to boil cook 10 minutes, closely covered.
+(This may be pressed through a sieve while hot, removing the skins, if
+desired for a mould.)
+
+
+STEWED RHUBARB.
+
+Wash the rhubarb (if young and tender it will not be necessary to
+remove the skin), cut into pieces about 1 inch long. To every lb. of
+rhubarb allow 1 lb. of sugar. Put the rhubarb into a porcelain or
+granite kettle, cover with the sugar, and stand on the back part of
+the fire until the sugar melts. Move forward, let simmer for a few
+minutes without stirring, turn it out carefully to cool.
+
+
+BAKED PEARS.
+
+Take large, sweet pears, wipe them but do not remove the stems. Stand
+them in an earthen baking dish, pour around them a cup of boiling
+water, add 2 tbsps. sugar, cover with another dish and bake slowly
+until the pears are tender, basting occasionally with the liquor. When
+done, stand away to cool in the dish in which they were baked. When
+cold put them into a glass dish, pour the liquor over them and serve.
+
+
+BAKED APPLES.
+
+Pare and core, without breaking, tart apples. Put them into a shallow
+earthen dish, fill the cavities with sugar, add water to cover the
+bottom of the dish. Bake in a quick oven till soft, basting often with
+the syrup. (Quinces may be baked in the same way.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+VEGETABLES.
+
+Vegetables should be used very freely, as they contain saline
+substances which counteract the effect of too much meat, and are the
+chief source of mineral supply for the body. In cooking vegetables, a
+common rule is to add salt, while cooking, to all classes growing
+above ground (including onions), and to omit salt in the cooking of
+vegetables growing underground. In cooking vegetables care must be
+taken to preserve the flavor, and to prevent the waste of mineral
+matter.
+
+
+CABBAGE.
+
+Cut a small head of cabbage in quarters, soak in cold water 1 hour,
+drain and shake dry. Remove the stalk, or hard part, and chop the
+remainder rather fine. Put it into a stew-pan with enough boiling
+water to cover, and boil 20 minutes. Drain in a colander. Turn into a
+hot dish, and pour over it cream sauce or a little melted butter,
+pepper and salt.
+
+
+CAULIFLOWER.
+
+Pick off the outside leaves, soak in cold salted water, top downwards,
+for 1 hour. Tie it round with a piece of twine to prevent breaking.
+Cook in boiling salted water until tender, remove the string, turn
+into a hot dish with the top up, cover with cream sauce or drawn
+butter sauce. (When cold, it may be picked to pieces and served in a
+salad.)
+
+
+CELERY.
+
+Scrape clean and cut the stalks into 2-inch pieces: cook in salted
+water until tender, drain and cover with a white sauce. The sauce
+should be made with the water in which the celery has been stewed.
+
+
+BOILED BEETS.
+
+Wash, but do not cut them, as that injures the color. Cook in boiling
+water until tender. When cooked put them into a pan of cold water and
+rub off the skins. They may be cut in slices and served hot with
+pepper, butter and salt, or sliced, covered with vinegar, and served
+cold. They may be cut into dice and served as a salad, either alone or
+mixed with potatoes and other vegetables.
+
+
+BEANS (DRIED).
+
+Lima beans should be soaked in warm water over night. In the morning
+drain off this water and cover with fresh warm water. Two hours before
+needed drain, cover with boiling water and boil 30 minutes; drain
+again, cover with fresh boiling water, and boil until tender. Add a
+teaspoonful of salt while they are boiling. When cooked drain them,
+add a little butter, pepper and salt, or a cream sauce.
+
+
+ASPARAGUS.
+
+Wash the asparagus well in cold water, reject the tough parts, tie in
+a bunch or cut into pieces 1 inch long. Put it in a kettle, cover with
+boiling water, and boil until tender. Put it in a colander to drain.
+Serve with melted butter, pepper and salt, or with a cream or drawn
+butter sauce.
+
+
+ONIONS.
+
+Scald in boiling water, then remove the skins. Put them in boiling
+salted water; when they have boiled 10 minutes, change the water. Boil
+until tender but not until broken. Drain and serve with either cream
+sauce or butter, pepper and salt.
+
+
+POTATOES.
+
+Wash and scrub with a brush. If old, soak in cold water after paring.
+Put them in boiling water, when about half cooked add a tbsp. of salt.
+Cook until soft but not broken. Drain carefully. Expose the potatoes
+for a minute to a current of air, then cover and place on the back of
+the stove to keep hot, allowing the steam to escape.
+
+
+RICE POTATOES.
+
+Press the cooked potatoes through a coarse strainer into the dish in
+which they are to be served.
+
+
+MASHED POTATOES.
+
+To 1 pint of hot boiled potatoes, add 1 tbsp. butter, 1/2 tsp. of
+salt, 1/2 ssp. of white pepper and hot milk or cream to moisten. Mash
+in the kettle in which they were boiled, beat with a fork until they
+are light and creamy. Turn lightly into a dish.
+
+
+POTATO PUFFS.
+
+Prepare as for mashed potatoes, adding a little chopped parsley or
+celery salt if the flavor is liked. Beat 2 eggs, yolks and whites
+separately. Stir the beaten whites in carefully, shape into smooth
+balls or cones, brush lightly with the beaten yolks, and bake in a
+moderately hot oven until brown.
+
+
+CREAMED POTATOES.
+
+Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in a shallow pan,
+cover with milk and cook until the potatoes have absorbed nearly all
+the milk. To 1 pint of potatoes, add 1 tbsp. of butter, 1/2 tsp. of
+salt, 1/2 ssp. of pepper and a little chopped parsley or onion.
+
+
+BAKED POTATOES.
+
+Select smooth potatoes of uniform size, wash and scrub well. Bake in a
+hot oven about 45 minutes or until soft. Break the skin or puncture
+with a fork to let the steam escape and serve at once. This is the
+most wholesome method of cooking potatoes, as the mineral matter is
+retained.
+
+
+FRIED POTATOES.
+
+Pare, wash and cut into slices or quarters. Soak in cold salted water,
+drain and dry between towels. Have sufficient fat in a kettle to more
+than cover the potatoes. When it is very hot drop the potatoes in, a
+few at a time, so as not to reduce the heat of the fat too quickly.
+When brown, which should be in about 4 or 5 minutes for quarters and
+about 2 minutes if sliced, drain and sprinkle with salt.
+
+
+TOMATOES (RAW).
+
+Scald and peel sometime before using, place on ice, and serve with
+salt, sugar and vinegar, or with a salad dressing.
+
+
+SCALLOPED TOMATOES.
+
+Scald and peel as many tomatoes as required. Butter a deep dish and
+sprinkle with fine bread or cracker crumbs, then a layer of sliced
+tomato, over this sprinkle a little salt, pepper and sugar; then add a
+layer of bread crumbs, another of tomatoes, sprinkle again with salt,
+pepper and sugar: put bread crumbs on the top, moisten with a little
+melted butter, and bake until brown.
+
+
+STEWED TOMATOES.
+
+Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, remove the skins and the hard
+green stem, cut into quarters or slices and stew in a granite kettle
+until the pulp is soft, add salt, pepper, butter and a little sugar if
+desired. If too thin the tomato may be thickened with crumbs or
+cornstarch wet in a little cold water.
+
+
+SPINACH.
+
+Pick over carefully, discarding all decayed leaves. Wash thoroughly,
+then place in a pan of cold water, let stand for a few minutes. Drain
+and put in a large kettle with just enough water to keep it from
+burning. Cook very slowly until tender. Drain and chop fine, add 1
+tbsp. of butter, a tsp. of salt, a ssp. of pepper. It may be served on
+toast (hot) or garnished with hard boiled eggs.
+
+
+CARROTS AND TURNIPS.
+
+Carrots as a vegetable for the table are more palatable when young and
+tender. They should be washed and scraped, boiled until tender, and
+served with butter, pepper and salt or a white sauce. Turnips contain
+little nutriment; having no starch, they are very suitable for eating
+with potatoes. They require more salt than any other vegetable, and
+should be served with fat meat, corned beef, roast pork or mutton.
+Turnips should be washed, pared, cut into slices or strips, boiled
+until tender. Drain, mash and season with pepper and salt.
+
+
+PEAS (GREEN).
+
+Wash the pods, which should be green, crisp and plump, before
+shelling, then the peas will not require washing. Put the peas into a
+strainer or colander and shake out all the fine particles. Boil until
+tender. When nearly done add the salt. Use little water in cooking,
+when they may be served without draining; season with a little butter,
+pepper and salt. If drained, serve either dry with butter, pepper and
+salt, or with a white sauce.
+
+
+GREEN SWEET CORN.
+
+Remove the husk and silky fibre, cover with boiling water (the flavor
+is improved by adding a few of the clean inner husks) and cook, if
+young and tender, from 10 to 15 minutes. Try a kernel and take up the
+corn as soon as the milk has thickened and the raw taste is
+destroyed.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SALADS.
+
+
+FRENCH DRESSING.
+
+    3 tbsps. of olive oil.
+    1/4 tsp. of salt.
+    1 tbsp. vinegar.
+    1/2 ssp. of pepper or speck of cayenne.
+
+Mix these ingredients together and serve. This makes a particularly
+good dressing for lettuce or vegetable salads.
+
+
+SALAD DRESSING.
+
+    1/2 cup vinegar.
+    1 tbsp. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 cup cream.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. mustard.
+    A speck of cayenne pepper.
+
+Beat the eggs well, mix the sugar, salt, mustard and pepper together,
+add to the beaten eggs, then add the vinegar. Place the saucepan on
+the range in a pan of boiling water. Stir constantly until the
+dressing becomes thick and light. Take from the fire and turn into a
+cold bowl at once to prevent curdling. Beat the cream to a thick froth
+and stir it into the cold dressing. (When cream is not available use
+the same quantity of milk, previously thickened to the consistency of
+cream with a little cornstarch, add a tsp. of butter; when cold, add
+to the dressing.)
+
+
+MAYONNAISE DRESSING.
+
+    1/2 pt. of olive oil.
+    1 tsp. mustard.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    Yolks of 2 uncooked eggs.
+    1 tbsp. lemon juice.
+    1 tbsp. vinegar.
+    1/2 tsp. sugar.
+    A speck of cayenne.
+
+Put the yolks of the eggs into a cold bowl, stir in the dry
+ingredients, beat well, using a silver or small wooden spoon. Then add
+the oil, drop by drop. When the mixture gets so thick that it is
+difficult to stir, add a few drops of the vinegar to thin it. Continue
+stirring in the oil and vinegar alternately until all are used, when
+it should be very thick; add the lemon juice last and beat for a few
+minutes longer; a cupful of whipped cream may be stirred into this
+dressing before using. (The following rules must be observed in order
+to insure success: (1) to beat the yolks and dry ingredients until
+thick; (2) to add the oil only in drops at first; (3) always beat or
+stir in one direction, reversing the motion is apt to curdle the
+dressing.)
+
+
+LETTUCE SALAD.
+
+Choose crisp, fresh lettuce, wash clean, let it remain for a little
+time in cold or ice water, drain thoroughly, break or tear the leaves
+into convenient pieces, dress with a French or cooked dressing; serve
+at once, cold.
+
+
+POTATO SALAD.
+
+    1 pt. cold boiled potatoes.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1/2 cup cooked dressing. Or the French dressing, as given.
+    1 tsp. finely chopped onion.
+    1 sp. pepper.
+
+Cut the potatoes into pieces about the size of dice, mix the
+seasonings with the potatoes, turn into a dish in alternate layers of
+potatoes and dressing, having a little dressing on top. Garnish with
+parsley, and allow to stand at least an hour in a cold place before
+serving, so that the potatoes may absorb the seasoning. (Cold boiled
+beets cut into cubes may be added in alternate layers with the
+potatoes in this recipe, using a little more dressing.)
+
+
+TOMATO SALAD.
+
+Peel the tomatoes (without scalding) and put them on ice until very
+cold, have crisp leaves of lettuce which have been washed and dried.
+When ready to serve, cut the tomatoes in halves, place one-half on a
+leaf of lettuce (the curly leaves being the best), on this put a tbsp.
+of mayonnaise or cooked dressing, and serve immediately.
+
+
+CABBAGE SALAD.
+
+Cabbage or celery may be used as a salad by cutting rather fine,
+allowing it to get cold and crisp, and serving with a cooked or French
+dressing. Indeed almost any vegetable may be used for a salad. String
+beans, asparagus, cauliflower, which have been cooked, are suitable
+for salad, either alone or in combination with nasturtium, cress, hard
+boiled eggs, etc.
+
+
+CHICKEN SALAD.
+
+One pint each of cold boiled or roasted chicken and celery. Cut the
+chicken into 1/4-inch dice, scrape, wash and cut the celery into dice,
+put the celery in a napkin and lay on the ice for 10 or 12 minutes;
+season the chicken with vinegar, salt, pepper and oil (or the French
+dressing-oil may be omitted if the flavor is not agreeable,
+substituting cream or melted butter). Add the celery to the seasoned
+chicken, add half the dressing (using either a cooked or mayonnaise),
+heap in a dish, add the remainder of the dressing, garnish with the
+tiny bleached celery leaves or small curly lettuce leaves. (A few
+capers and a hard boiled egg may be used as a garnish if desired.)
+
+In summer the chicken may be served on a tender lettuce leaf, adding a
+spoonful of dressing, and serving very cold.
+
+
+FRUIT SALAD.
+
+    4 oranges.
+    1 cup water.
+    1/4 package gelatine.
+    4 bananas.
+    Juice of 2 lemons.
+    1-1/2 cup sugar.
+
+Dissolve the gelatine in the water, add the sugar and lemon juice,
+strain and pour over the oranges and bananas, which have been peeled
+and sliced and placed in alternate layers in a mould. Set away to
+cool. When needed, turn out and serve. Garnish with Malaga grapes,
+cherries, currants, or any suitable fruit.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CEREALS.
+
+All cereals require thorough cooking, because of the starch in them,
+also to soften the woody fibre. No matter what the cereal product may
+be, it should be cooked not less than three-quarters of an hour, and
+better if cooked longer.
+
+
+OATMEAL PORRIDGE.
+
+    1 pt. of boiling water.
+    1/2 cup of oatmeal.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Be sure to have the water boiling. Sprinkle in the oatmeal slowly,
+stirring all the time. Add the salt, and move back or set in a vessel
+of boiling water where it will cook gently for 1 hour. Do not stir the
+porridge after the first 5 minutes.
+
+All porridge (or mush) is made on the same principle.
+
+
+CRACKED WHEAT
+
+Should be cooked at least 4 or 5 hours.
+
+
+CORNMEAL
+
+Should be cooked an hour or more.
+
+
+RICE.
+
+Wash 1 cup of rice. Have 2 quarts of water, with 1 tbsp. salt, boiling
+rapidly. Sprinkle in the rice gradually, when you have it all in cover
+the kettle and boil 20 minutes. If too thick add a little boiling
+water. Test the grains, and the moment they are soft, and before the
+starch begins to cloud the water, pour into a colander to drain. Stand
+it in the oven a few minutes to dry, leaving the door open. Turn
+carefully into a heated dish and serve without a cover. (Do not stir
+the rice while cooking.)
+
+
+RICE CROQUETTES.
+
+    1 pint of milk.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. of sugar.
+    1/2 cup raisins.
+    1/2 cup of rice.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+    Yolks of two eggs.
+
+Wash the rice and put it into the boiling milk in a double boiler.
+Cook until very thick; add the yolks of the eggs and the sugar, beat
+thoroughly. Take from the fire, add the vanilla and the fruit, which
+has been well floured. Turn out on a dish to cool, when cold form in
+pyramids or cylinders; dip first in beaten egg, then in fine bread
+crumbs and fry in deep, boiling fat. Put a little jelly on the top of
+each croquette, dust the whole with powdered sugar, and serve with
+vanilla sauce or cream and sugar.
+
+
+BAKED RICE.
+
+Wash 1/2 cup of rice, turn into a buttered pudding dish, add 2 tbsps.
+sugar, grate 1/4 of a small nutmeg, add 1 qt. of milk, bake slowly for
+at least 1-1/2 hour.
+
+
+FARINA.
+
+    1 pint of milk.
+    3 level tbsps. of farina.
+
+Put the milk in the double boiler, when the milk boils add the salt,
+then sprinkle in the farina, stirring all the while; beat the mixture
+well and cook for 30 minutes. Serve with cream and sugar. (This may be
+made into a pudding by adding an egg, 2 tbsps. sugar, 1/2 tsp.
+vanilla, baking in the oven until brown.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MACARONI.
+
+Macaroni is quite as valuable as bread for food, and should be used
+very freely.
+
+
+BOILED MACARONI.
+
+Break the macaroni in pieces about 2 inches long. Have boiling water,
+add a tsp. of salt; throw in the macaroni and boil rapidly 30 minutes,
+put it into a colander to drain, return to the kettle, rub a tbsp. of
+butter and flour together until smooth, add either milk or water until
+the sauce is as thick as rich cream. Cook it a few minutes before
+pouring over the macaroni, and serve (add salt to taste).
+
+
+MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE.
+
+    1/4 lb. macaroni.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+    1 tbsp. flour.
+    1 cup stewed tomatoes.
+
+Hold the long sticks of macaroni in the hand; put the end into boiling
+salted water, as it softens bend and coil in the water without
+breaking. Boil rapidly 20 minutes. When done put it in a colander to
+drain. Put the butter in a saucepan to melt, add to it the flour, mix
+until smooth, then add the tomatoes (which have been strained), stir
+carefully until it boils. Pour over the hot macaroni and serve at
+once.
+
+
+MACARONI AND CHEESE.
+
+    1/4 lb. of macaroni.
+    1/4 lb. grated cheese.
+    Salt and white pepper to taste.
+    1/2 pt. milk.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+
+Break the macaroni in pieces about 3 inches long. Put it into plenty
+of boiling water. Add 1 tsp. salt and boil rapidly 25 minutes; drain,
+throw into cold water to blanch for 10 minutes. Put the milk into the
+double boiler, add to it the butter, then the macaroni which has been
+drained, and cheese; stir until heated, add the salt and pepper, and
+serve. (The macaroni may be placed in a baking dish in alternate
+layers with the cheese, sprinkling each layer with pepper and salt,
+pouring the milk over the top, cutting the butter in small bits
+distributed over the top, and bake until brown in a moderately quick
+oven.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CHEESE.
+
+
+CHEESE SOUFFLE.
+
+    1/4 lb. of cheese.
+    1 ssp. of soda.
+    A speck of cayenne.
+    2 tbsps. flour.
+    1/2 cup of milk.
+    1 tsp. mustard.
+    2 eggs.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+
+Put the butter in a saucepan, when melted stir in the flour, add the
+milk slowly, then the salt, mustard and cayenne, which have been mixed
+together. Add the yolks of the eggs which have been well beaten, then
+the grated cheese; stir all together, lift from the fire and set away
+to cool. When cold, add the stiff beaten whites, turn into a buttered
+dish and bake 25 or 30 minutes. Serve immediately.
+
+
+WELSH RAREBIT.
+
+    1/4 lb. cheese.
+    1 tsp. mustard.
+    A speck of cayenne.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1/4 cup cream or milk.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 egg.
+
+Grate the cheese, put it with the milk in the double boiler. While
+this is heating, make some toast. Mix the mustard, salt and pepper,
+add the egg and beat well. When the cheese has melted, stir in the egg
+and butter, and cook about two minutes, or until it thickens a little,
+but do not let it curdle. Pour it over the hot toast and serve at
+once.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+BEVERAGES.
+
+
+TEA.
+
+In making tea, the following rules should be observed. The water
+should be freshly boiled. The teapot, which should be of earthen or
+china (never of tin), should be scalded and heated before putting in
+the tea. Pour on the boiling water and cover closely, and let stand
+for 3 or 4 minutes before using. Never, under any circumstances,
+allow tea to boil. The usual proportion is a small teaspoonful of tea
+to 1 cup of boiling water, but this is too strong for general use.
+
+
+COFFEE.
+
+Coffee may be made in various ways; by filtering, clarifying with an
+egg, or made with cold water. A common rule for making coffee is as
+follows: 1 heaping tbsp. ground coffee to 2 cups of freshly boiling
+water, 1 egg shell. Scald the coffee-pot, put in the coffee and the
+egg shell, add the boiling water, cover and boil just 3 minutes.
+Before serving, add a tbsp. of cold water; let stand for a few minutes
+before using.
+
+
+COFFEE MADE WITH AN EGG.
+
+1 egg is sufficient to clear 1 cup of ground coffee; if a smaller
+quantity be desired, half the egg may be used. Add 1/2 cup cold water
+to the portion of egg to be used, and 1/2 cup of ground coffee. Beat
+well, put it in the coffee-pot, add 1 qt. of boiling water, and boil 3
+minutes. Move back where it will keep hot, but not boil, for 10
+minutes. Pour out a little and pour it back again to clear the spout
+before serving.
+
+
+COCOA.
+
+    1 pt. of milk.
+    3 tbsps. of water.
+    2 (l.) tsps. of cocoa.
+
+Put the milk in the double boiler and set on the fire, mix the cocoa
+to a smooth paste with the cold water. When the milk boils, add the
+cocoa and boil for 1 minute. Serve very hot. If more water and less
+milk be used, allow a little more cocoa.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SOUPS.
+
+Soups may be divided into two classes, soup made with stock, and with
+milk. As soup should form part of the regular daily diet, and may be
+made from the cheaper materials, it is absolutely necessary that every
+housekeeper should understand the art of making it properly.
+
+In the first place it is well to know what may be used in the process
+of soup making. The first and most important step is to prepare the
+stock. For this purpose have a large earthen bowl or "catch all," as
+some teachers call it. Into this put all the bones, trimmings, bits of
+steak or chop and gravy which has been left over. Keep in a cold
+place. When needed, cover with cold water and simmer 4 or 5 hours;
+strain and set away to cool. When cold, remove the fat which will have
+formed a solid coating on the top. The stock is now ready for use. By
+saving the remains of vegetables cooked for the table, the outer
+stocks of celery, a hard boiled egg, etc., a very palatable and
+nutritious soup may be made at a trifling cost. In families where
+large quantities of meat are used, there should be sufficient material
+without buying meat for soup. It is not necessary to have all the
+ingredients mentioned in some recipes in order to secure satisfactory
+results. It will, however, be necessary to understand soup flavorings,
+so as to know which ones may be left out. Stock made from the shin of
+beef, or from the cheaper pieces which contain the coarser fibre and
+gristle, require long, slow cooking (see Methods).
+
+Never soak meat in water before cooking in any form. Wipe carefully
+with a damp cloth before cutting or preparing for use. For soup break
+or saw the bones into small pieces, and for each pound of meat and
+bone allow 1 qt. of cold water. Cover the kettle closely and let it
+heat slowly until it reaches the simmering point, when it should be
+moved back and kept at that degree for several hours. Soup should
+never be allowed to boil hard. The scum which rises to the surface is
+the albumen and juices of the meat, and should not be skimmed off. If
+the kettle is clean, and all impurities removed from the meat, there
+will not be anything objectionable in the scum. Stock must always be
+allowed to remain until cold, so that the fat may be removed before
+using. A strong, greasy soup is rarely relished, and is one of the
+principal reasons why so many people dislike this valuable article of
+diet. Do not add salt to the meat which is being prepared for stock
+until a few minutes before removing from the fire. Salt hardens the
+water if added at first and makes the tissues more difficult to
+dissolve. Stock may be kept for several days by occasionally bringing
+it to the boiling point. This is not necessary in winter if it is kept
+in a cold place.
+
+
+VEGETABLE SOUP.
+
+    1 qt. stock.
+    1/2 cup each chopped turnip and cabbage.
+    1 tsp. sugar.
+    1 ssp. pepper.
+    1/2 cup each of onion, carrot, celery (chopped).
+    1-1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+If all these vegetables are not available, a little macaroni, rice or
+barley may be added. Chop all the vegetables very fine, cabbage or
+onions should be parboiled 5 minutes, drain carefully. Put all the
+vegetables together, cover with 1 qt. of water and simmer until
+tender, then add the stock, the seasoning, and allow it to simmer
+about 10 minutes. Serve without straining.
+
+
+TOMATO SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. of canned or stewed tomatoes.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. sugar.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    2 whole cloves or 1/2 bay leaf.
+    1 pt. of stock.
+    1/2 ssp. pepper.
+    1 tbsp. minced onion.
+    1 tbsp. flour or cornstarch.
+    A speck of cayenne may be added if desired.
+
+Put the tomato and stock in a saucepan and set on the fire. Cook the
+vegetables in the butter for 15 minutes; then press out the butter and
+put the vegetables in the soup. Into the butter remaining in the pan
+put the flour and stir until smooth, then add to the soup. Allow all
+to simmer for 20 minutes; strain and serve.
+
+
+SPLIT PEA SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. of split peas.
+    1-1/2 qt. of boiling water.
+    1 qt. of stock.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Wash the peas in cold water (rejecting those which float) and soak
+them over night. In the morning drain the water off and cover them
+again with 1 qt. of the boiling water. Boil until tender, about 1-1/2
+hour. Now add the stock and 1 pt. of the boiling water. Press the
+whole through a sieve; wash the soup kettle, return the soup, boil up
+once, add salt and pepper and serve with croutons. Dried pea soup may
+be made in exactly the same manner, using 1 pt. of dried peas instead
+of the split ones.
+
+
+ONION SOUP.
+
+    1 large Spanish onion.
+    1 qt. stock.
+    1 tbsp. flour.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Peel and chop the onion. Put the butter in a frying-pan, add the
+onion, and stir until a nice brown. Put the stock on to boil. Skim the
+onions out of the butter and add them to the stock. Stir 1 tbsp. of
+flour into the remaining butter, thin with a little of the stock, put
+all together, and simmer for 20 minutes. Add salt and pepper, and it
+is ready to serve.
+
+
+MACARONI SOUP.
+
+    1 qt. clear soup.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    5 sticks macaroni.
+
+Break the macaroni into small pieces and throw it into 1 quart of
+boiling water containing the tsp. of salt. Let it boil uncovered 25
+minutes. Drain off the water and add the macaroni to the hot stock,
+cover and cook slowly for 10 or 15 minutes. A little more seasoning
+may be added if desired.
+
+
+OYSTER SOUP.
+
+    1 pt. oysters.
+    1/2 pt. cold water.
+    1/4 tsp. pepper.
+    Salt to taste.
+    1 pt. milk.
+    2 (l.) tbsps. flour.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+
+Put a strainer over a bowl and turn the oysters into it. Pour the
+water over the oysters and stir with a spoon until all the liquid has
+passed through the strainer. Reserve 1/2 cup of the milk, pouring the
+remainder into the double boiler, set it on the fire. Put the oyster
+liquor in a stew-pan, and heat slowly. Mix the cold milk with the
+flour, and stirring into the boiling milk; cook for 10 minutes. When
+the oyster liquor boils, skim it. When the flour and milk have cooked
+for 10 minutes, add the oysters, butter, salt, pepper and oyster
+liquor. Cook until the oysters curl on the edge and are plump. Serve
+at once.
+
+
+BEAN SOUP (WITHOUT STOCK).
+
+    1 qt. dried white beans.
+    1 large tbsp. butter.
+    2 qts. water.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Wash the beans, cover them with water, and soak over night. Next
+morning drain, put them on to boil with 2 quarts of fresh cold water.
+As soon as they come to a boil drain this water off and throw it away.
+Cover again with 2 quarts of fresh boiling water, add 1 ssp. of soda,
+and boil until soft. Press the beans through a sieve, return to the
+kettle, and if too thick add enough boiling water to make the soup
+about the consistency of cream. Add the salt, pepper and butter, and
+serve. (Minced onion, carrot, or celery fried in a little butter or
+dripping, and added to this soup before straining, improves the
+flavor.)
+
+
+BOUILLON.
+
+    2 lbs. lean beef.
+    1 small onion.
+    A sprig of parsley.
+    1 qt. cold water.
+    1 stalk celery, or 1/2 tsp. celery seed.
+    1 bay leaf.
+
+Remove all the fat and chop the meat very fine. Put it into the soup
+kettle with the water, bay leaf, parsley, onion and celery. Cover the
+kettle closely and place it in the back part of the range for 2 hours.
+Then move it over and let it come to a boil; skim at the first boil.
+Move back and simmer gently for 4 hours. Strain, return to the kettle,
+add salt and pepper. Beat the white of one egg with 1/2 cup of cold
+water until thoroughly mixed. Wash the egg shell, mash it and add to
+the white. Now add the white, shell and water to the boiling bouillon;
+let it boil hard for 10 minutes, then throw in 1/2 cup of cold water
+and boil 5 minutes longer. Take the kettle off the fire, strain
+through a flannel bag, add salt to taste, and color with caramel. (See
+recipe for caramel.) This is an excellent preparation for invalids.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+FISH.
+
+Fish is an invaluable article of food. It provides variety in diet,
+and while less stimulating than meat, is usually more easily digested.
+Fish should be perfectly fresh and thoroughly cooked. The most
+wholesome as well as the most palatable methods for cooking fish are
+broiling and baking. The flesh of fresh fish is firm and will not
+retain the impress of the finger if pressed into it. The eyes should
+be bright and glassy, the gills red and full of blood. Fish should be
+cleaned as soon as possible and thoroughly wiped with a cloth wet in
+salt water, and should be kept in a cool place. Do not put it near
+other food such as milk, butter, etc., as they will absorb the odor.
+
+
+BROILED FISH.
+
+Rub a double broiler well with a piece of suet before putting in the
+fish. Lay the fish flat so that the flesh side will be exposed on one
+side of the broiler and the skin on the other. Broil carefully, as the
+skin side burns very quickly. A fish weighing 3 lbs. will take about
+25 or 30 minutes to broil. When cooked sprinkle with salt and pepper,
+and serve very hot.
+
+
+BAKED FISH.
+
+    1 cup cracker or bread crumbs.
+    1 ssp. salt.
+    1 tsp. chopped onion.
+    1 tsp. chopped parsley.
+    1 ssp. pepper.
+    1/4 cup melted butter or dripping.
+
+Clean, wipe and dry the fish, rub with salt; fill with stuffing and
+sew or tie carefully. Rub all over with butter (or dripping), salt and
+pepper, dredge with flour, put it into a hot oven; baste when the
+flour is brown, and often afterwards. Remove carefully from the pan
+and place upon a hot platter.
+
+
+SCALLOPED FISH.
+
+Pick over carefully any remnants of cold boiled or baked fish, put
+into a shallow dish in alternate layers with bread crumbs and cream
+sauce. Cover with crumbs and bake till brown.
+
+
+SALT FISH BALLS.
+
+    1 cup salt fish.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1/4 ssp. pepper.
+    1 pint potatoes.
+    1 egg, well beaten.
+    More salt if needed.
+
+Wash the fish, pick in pieces and free from bones. Pare the potatoes
+and cut in quarters. Put the potatoes and fish in a stew-pan and cover
+with boiling water. Boil until the potatoes are tender. Drain off all
+the water; mash and beat the fish and potatoes till very light. Add
+the butter and pepper, and when slightly cooled add the egg. Lift in a
+tbsp. and drop into smoking hot fat 1 minute, drain on brown paper;
+they may be formed into balls and browned in a very hot oven.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MEAT.
+
+(_See Analysis, Chap. V._)
+
+As meat is composed of several substances, fibrine, albumen, gelatin,
+fat and the juices, it is necessary to understand the various methods
+of cooking in order to secure the best results. Meat has its season as
+well as many other foods. Pork is better in autumn and winter; veal in
+the spring and summer; fowl in autumn and winter; lamb in the summer
+and autumn; mutton and beef may be used any time. Meat should not be
+allowed to remain in the paper in which it comes from market, as it
+absorbs the juices and injures the flavor. Wipe all over with a clean
+wet cloth. Examine carefully, remove any tainted or unclean portions
+and keep in a clean, cool place until required. Good beef should be a
+bright red color, well mixed with fat, and a layer of fat on the
+outside; the suet should be dry and crumble easily. (See meat diagrams
+for different cuts.) Mutton should have an abundance of clear, white
+fat, the flesh fine grained and a bright red color. The fat of veal
+should be clear and white, the lean pink, and should always be
+thoroughly cooked. Pork is more indigestible when fresh than when
+cured, as in bacon and ham. Fresh pork should be firm, the fat white,
+the lean a pale red.
+
+
+ROAST OF BEEF.
+
+Wipe, trim, and tie or skewer into shape the cut for roasting. If
+there be a large piece of the flank, cut it off and use for soups or
+stews. If you wish to roast it, turn it underneath and fasten with a
+skewer. Lay the meat on a rack in a pan, and dredge all over with
+flour. Put on the top of a roast 2 or 3 tbsps. of dripping or pieces
+of the fat; put it in a very hot oven at first. After the outside has
+become seared, check off the heat and allow to cook slowly, basting
+frequently. (See time table for baking.)
+
+
+BROILED STEAK.
+
+Trim the steak free from all suet (save all trimmings for stews or the
+stock pot). Put the meat plate to warm, grease the broiler with a
+little of the fat. See that the fire is clear. Put the steak on the
+hot broiler and place it over the fire, turning every 10 seconds. It
+will take about 8 minutes if the steak is 1 inch thick. When done,
+place it on the hot plate, dredge it with salt and pepper; turn over
+and season the other side. Serve immediately.
+
+
+PAN-BROILED STEAK.
+
+When the fire is not suitable for broiling, heat the frying pan until
+smoking hot; trim the steak as for broiling, place firmly on the hot
+pan, turn frequently as in broiling, with a broad knife or pancake
+turner; never insert a fork, as it allows the juice to escape. It will
+cook in 10 minutes. Season, and serve the same as broiled steak. If a
+gravy is desired, fry a little of the suet and trimmings in the
+pan--after the steak has been removed--until brown, lift out the meat
+or suet, add 1 tbsp. of flour, stir until brown, add pepper and salt
+to taste, then add 1 teacup of boiling water. Cook for 2 or 3 minutes
+and strain over the steak.
+
+
+HAMBURG STEAK.
+
+1 lb. of steak from the upper side of the round, or any piece of lean
+beef free from gristle; chop very fine, add 1 tbsp. of onion juice
+(or finely minced onion), 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. black pepper, mix
+well together; dip the hands in cold water, take 2 tbsps. of the
+mixture and form with the hands into small round cakes. Have the
+frying pan very hot, put in 2 tbsps. of dripping; when hot, put in the
+steaks, brown on both sides--or they may be pan-broiled. Place them on
+a hot dish, add a tbsp. of flour to the fat remaining in the pan, mix
+until smooth and brown; add a cupful of boiling water, stir until it
+boils, add pepper and salt to taste, and pour over the steak.
+
+
+BEEF STEW WITH DUMPLINGS.
+
+2 lbs. of lean beef (cheaper cuts). Cut into pieces about 1 inch
+square, dredge with flour. Put 2 tbsps. of dripping into a frying pan;
+as soon as it is very hot put in the meat and shake or stir until
+nicely browned. Skim out the meat and put it in a saucepan. Add 1
+tbsp. of flour to the dripping remaining in the pan, mix and add 1
+quart of boiling water; stir over the fire until it boils, then strain
+it over the meat; add one small onion, pepper and salt to taste. Cover
+the saucepan closely and let it simmer for 2 hours. Make the dumplings
+by sifting 1 pint of flour, to which has been added 2 tsps. baking
+powder. Add 1/4 tsp. salt and enough milk to make a soft dough. Lift
+the dough in spoonfuls, placing them over the meat, cover quickly and
+let boil 10 minutes. Do not uncover the saucepan while the dumplings
+are cooking or they will fall immediately. Be careful not to allow the
+stew to burn while the dumplings are cooking.
+
+
+POT ROAST.
+
+Trim off the rough parts of a brisket of beef or any of the cheaper
+cuts. Place it in a kettle over a good fire; brown on one side, then
+turn and brown on the other; add 1 pint of boiling water, cover
+closely and simmer, allowing 20 minutes to every pound. Add pepper and
+salt when the meat is nearly done.
+
+
+BRAISED BEEF.
+
+From 4 to 6 lbs. of beef from the lower part of the round or rump.
+Trim and rub well with salt, pepper and flour. Chop 2 small onions and
+fry until light brown in pork fat or dripping; skim them out and put
+them into the pan in which the meat is to be braised, then brown the
+meat all over, adding more fat if needed (this may be done in a very
+hot oven). Put the meat into the pan, on skewers to keep it from
+sticking, with the onions around it. Add 1 qt. of boiling water, cover
+closely, putting a brick or heavy weight on the cover to keep it down,
+and cook in a moderate oven 4 hours, basting occasionally. Turn once
+and add more water as it evaporates, so as to have 1 pt. left for
+gravy. When tender take up the meat, remove the fat, add more salt and
+pepper, and if liked, a little lemon juice or tomato may be added.
+Thicken with 2 tbsps. of flour wet in a little cold water. Cook 10
+minutes and pour the gravy over the meat. Any tough meat may be cooked
+in this way.
+
+
+HASH.
+
+Take any pieces left of a cold roast, steaks or stews, chop very fine;
+take 1 tbsp. butter or dripping, 1 tbsp. of flour, stir together in a
+hot frying pan, when brown add 1 cup boiling water; add 1 tbsp.
+chopped onion, pepper and salt to taste, let simmer for 10 minutes,
+then add the meat, stir until heated thoroughly and serve on toast.
+
+
+CORNED BEEF OR SAUSAGE HASH.
+
+    1 pt. hashed corn beef or sausage.
+    1 tsp. salt.
+    1 tbsp. butter or dripping.
+    1 pt. of hashed potatoes.
+    1/4 tsp. pepper.
+    1/2 cup of milk.
+    (Omit the milk if sausage is used).
+
+Mix the potato and meat, season with the pepper and salt, add the milk
+and stir lightly. Put the butter or dripping into a hot frying pan,
+when melted put in the hash, spread it lightly and evenly, but do not
+stir it. Cover the pan and set where the hash will cook slowly for 10
+or 15 minutes. Move over to a hotter part of the stove and let it
+remain until a rich, brown crust has formed on the bottom. Fold over
+and serve on a hot dish.
+
+
+MUTTON--BOILED LEG OF MUTTON.
+
+Wipe the leg with a damp towel. Dust a cloth with flour and wrap the
+leg up with it. Put it into a kettle of boiling water and simmer
+gently 20 minutes to every pound; add salt when the leg is nearly
+done. When cooked remove the cloth carefully, garnish with parsley and
+serve with caper sauce. Save the liquor in which it was boiled for
+broth, stews, etc.
+
+
+IRISH STEW.
+
+    3 lbs. of the neck of mutton.
+    4 good sized onions.
+    4 potatoes cut into dice.
+    2 qts. of water.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Cut the meat into small pieces, cover with the water, which should be
+boiling, add the onions sliced, and simmer gently for 3 hours. About
+1/2 hour before the meat is done add the potatoes, season with pepper
+and salt, and serve.
+
+
+TO BAKE OR ROAST A QUARTER OF LAMB.
+
+Wipe the meat with a damp cloth, place in a baking pan, dredge with
+pepper, put 1 tsp. of salt in the pan, add just enough water to keep
+the pan from burning until enough of its own fat has fried out to use
+for basting. Baste at least every 10 minutes; allow 15 minutes to
+every pound in a very hot oven. Serve with mint sauce.
+
+
+LAMB CHOPS
+
+Are broiled or pan-broiled the same as beefsteak.
+
+
+VEAL--VEAL CUTLETS.
+
+Have the cutlets about 1/4 of an inch thick, dredge with salt, pepper
+and flour. Put a tbsp. of dripping in a frying pan, and when very hot
+put in the cutlets; when brown on one side turn and brown on the
+other, take out and place on a hot dish. Add a tbsp. of flour to the
+fat remaining in the pan, mix and stir until brown; add a cupful of
+boiling water, pepper and salt to taste, stir until it boils, pour
+over the cutlets, and serve.
+
+
+STEWED KNUCKLE OF VEAL.
+
+Wipe the knuckle well with a damp cloth. Cut it into pieces. Put into
+a kettle with 2 quarts of boiling water, add 1 onion chopped, 1/4 lb.
+of chopped ham, and 1 bay leaf, pepper and salt to taste. Cover and
+stew slowly for 2-1/2 hours (a half cup of rice may be added to this
+stew).
+
+
+JELLIED VEAL.
+
+    1 knuckle of veal.
+    1 blade of mace.
+    12 whole cloves.
+    1/2 cup of vinegar.
+    1 onion.
+    1 bay leaf.
+    6 pepper corns.
+    Salt and pepper to taste.
+
+Wipe the knuckle and cut it into pieces. Put into a kettle with 2
+quarts of cold water; bring slowly to simmering point; skim and simmer
+gently for 2 hours; then add the onion, mace, bay leaf, cloves, pepper
+corns, and simmer 1 hour longer. Take out the knuckle, carefully
+remove the bones and put the meat into a mould or square pan. Boil the
+liquor until reduced to 1 quart, add the vinegar, pepper and salt to
+taste, strain and pour over the meat. Stand away until cold, when it
+may be turned out and garnished with parsley and lemon.
+
+
+FILLET OF VEAL (STUFFED).
+
+    1 cup of bread crumbs.
+    1 tsp. of summer savory.
+    1 ssp. of pepper.
+    1/2 cup of chopped salt pork or ham.
+    1 tsp. of salt.
+
+Have the bone removed from the shoulder, fill the space from which the
+bone was taken with the stuffing, fasten the meat together with a
+skewer to prevent the stuffing from coming out, put into the pan with
+3 or 4 tbsps. of dripping, allowing 20 minutes to each pound, basting
+frequently in a moderately hot oven.
+
+
+PORK AND BEANS.
+
+Soak the beans over night in cold water. In the morning wash them well
+in a colander, put them on to boil in cold water, at the first boil
+drain this water off and cover with fresh boiling water. Score the
+rind of the pork and put it in with the beans. Simmer gently until you
+can blow off the skin of the beans. To do this, take 3 or 4 beans in
+your hand, blow hard on them, and if the skin cracks they are done.
+Take out the pork and drain. Put the beans into an earthen pot or
+granite kettle with a cover; almost bury the pork in the centre of the
+beans. Add 1 tsp. of salt to 1 pint of the water in which the beans
+were boiled, pour this into the pot, sprinkle with pepper, pour over
+the beans 1 large spoonful of molasses, put on the lid, bake in a
+moderate oven for 6 or 8 hours. If baked in an ordinary iron baking
+pan they must be covered with another on which has been placed a
+weight, carefully watched, and baked only 3 hours.
+
+
+ROAST SPARE RIBS.
+
+Put the spare ribs in a baking pan, sprinkle lightly with pepper, add
+1/2 tsp. of salt to 1/2 cup of boiling water, and pour in the bottom
+of the pan. Roast 20 minutes to every lb., basting often. When done,
+make a gravy and serve as for any other roast. (Spare ribs may be
+stuffed, the ribs cracked crosswise, the stuffing placed in the
+centre, the two ends folded over, roast as above.)
+
+
+BROILED HAM.
+
+Have the ham cut into slices about 1/4 inch thick, trim off the rind
+and rusty edge. Broil the same as steak or chops. (This is a very nice
+way to serve ham with poached eggs.)
+
+Ham may be pan-broiled as directed in former recipes.
+
+
+FRIED BACON.
+
+Cut into very thin slices, put into a very hot frying pan, and cook
+until clear and crisp.
+
+
+SAUSAGE.
+
+Prick the skins with a sharp fork so as to prevent bursting; place
+them in a frying pan over a moderate fire and fry in their own fat
+until a nice brown. After taking the sausage from the pan, add 1 tbsp.
+of flour to the fat in the pan, add 1 cup of boiling water, stir until
+it boils, pour over the sausage and serve.
+
+
+LIVER AND BACON.
+
+Have the bacon cut in thin slices and keep it cold until the time to
+cook it. Have the liver cut into slices about 1/3 of an inch thick. If
+it be calf or sheep's liver, wash it in cold water and let it drain;
+but if it be beef liver, after washing it, cover with boiling water
+and let it stand for 5 minutes, then drain it. Cook the bacon as
+directed, then take it up. Lay the slices of liver in the hot fat,
+cook them for 8 or 10 minutes, turning often; season with pepper and
+salt. Arrange the liver on a warm platter, make a gravy as directed in
+other recipes, pour over the liver, placing the bacon round the
+outside. (Always cook bacon quickly and liver slowly.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+POULTRY.
+
+The best chickens have soft yellow feet, short thick legs, smooth,
+moist skin and plump breast; the cartilage on the end of the breast
+bone is soft and pliable. Pin feathers always indicate a young bird
+and long hairs an older one. All poultry should be dressed as soon as
+killed. Cut off the head, and if the fowl is to be roasted, slip the
+skin back from the neck and cut the neck off close to the body,
+leaving skin enough to fold over on the back. Remove the windpipe,
+pull the crop away from the skin on the neck and breast, and cut off
+close to the opening in the body. Cut through the skin about 2 inches
+below the leg joint, bend the leg at the cut by pressing it on the
+edge of the table and break off the bone. Then pull out the tendon. If
+care be taken to cut only through the skin, these cords may be pulled
+out easily, one at a time, with the fingers; or by putting the foot of
+the fowl against the casing of a door, then shut the door tightly and
+pull on the leg. The drum stick of a roast chicken or turkey is
+greatly improved by removing the tendons. Cut out the oil bag in the
+tail, make an incision near the vent, insert two fingers, keeping the
+fingers up close to the breast bone until you can reach in beyond the
+liver and heart, and loosen on either side down toward the back. Draw
+everything out carefully. See that the kidneys and lungs are not left
+in, and be very careful not to break any of the intestines. When the
+fowl has been cleaned carefully it will not require much washing.
+Rinse out the inside quickly and wipe dry. In stuffing and trussing a
+fowl, place the fowl in a bowl and put the stuffing in at the neck,
+fill out the breast until plump. Then draw the neck skin together at
+the ends and sew it over on the back. Put the remainder of the
+stuffing into the body at the other opening and sew with coarse thread
+or fine twine. Draw the thighs up close to the body and tie the legs
+over the tail firmly with twine. Put a long skewer through the thigh
+into the body and out through the opposite thigh, turn the tips of
+the wings under the back of the fowl, put a long skewer through from
+one wing to the other. Wind a string from the tail to the skewer in
+the thigh, then up to the one in the wing across the back to the other
+wing, then down to the opposite side and tie firmly round the tail. If
+you have no skewers, the fowl may be kept in shape by tying carefully
+with twine. Clean all the giblets, cut away all that looks green near
+the gall bladder, open the gizzard and remove the inner lining without
+breaking. Put the gizzard, heart, liver, and the piece of neck which
+has been cut off, into cold water, wash carefully, put in a saucepan,
+cover with cold water, place on the back of the stove and simmer till
+tender. Use the liquid for making the gravy; the meat may be chopped
+and used for giblet soup.
+
+
+ROAST CHICKEN (OR TURKEY).
+
+Singe carefully, remove the pin feathers, draw as directed above.
+Wipe, stuff, sew and tie or skewer into shape, dredge with flour,
+cover with plenty of dripping; roast in a hot oven. When the flour is
+brown check the heat, baste frequently with the fat, and when nearly
+cooked dredge with pepper and salt and again with flour. Bake a 4 lb.
+chicken 1-1/2 hour, or until the joints separate easily. If browning
+too fast, cover with paper. (Roast chicken is considered to be more
+wholesome and to have a better flavor when cooked without stuffing.)
+
+
+FRICASSEE OF CHICKEN.
+
+The first attempt of an inexperienced cook in the preparation of a
+chicken should be a fricassee, as it will provide an opportunity for
+her to study the anatomy of a chicken while cutting it in pieces, and
+also show her the position of the intestines, so that when she
+attempts to draw a fowl she will know just where to place her hand so
+as to remove them without breaking.
+
+To prepare a chicken for a fricassee, clean and singe. Cut the chicken
+at the joints in pieces for serving. Place in a kettle, cover with
+boiling water, add 2 level tsps. of salt, a ssp. of pepper (some like
+a small piece of salt pork). Simmer until tender, reducing the water
+to a pint or less, lift the chicken, melt 1 tbsp. of butter in a
+saucepan, add 2 tbsps. of flour, and when well mixed pour on slowly
+the chicken liquor. Add more salt if needed, pepper, 1/2 tsp. of
+celery salt, 1 tsp. of lemon juice (an egg may be used by beating and
+pouring the sauce slowly on the egg, stirring well before adding it to
+the chicken). Pour this gravy over the chicken and serve; dumplings
+may be added if desired, or it may be placed in a deep dish, covered
+with pastry and baked for chicken pie.
+
+(The chicken may be browned in a little hot fat as in braising meat,
+and cooked in the same way.)
+
+
+BROILED CHICKEN.
+
+Singe and split a young chicken down the back. Break the joints, clean
+and wipe with a wet cloth, sprinkle with pepper and salt, rub well
+with butter or dripping, place in a double grid-iron and broil 20
+minutes over a clear fire. The chicken may be covered with fine bread
+crumbs or dredged with flour, allowing a plentiful supply of butter or
+dripping, and baked in a hot oven 1/2 hour.
+
+
+MEAT SOUFFLE.
+
+Make 1 cup of white sauce and season with chopped parsley and onion
+juice. Stir 1 cup of chopped meat (chicken, tongue, veal or lamb) into
+the sauce. When hot, add the beaten yolks of two eggs; cook 1 minute
+and set away to cool. When cool, stir in the whites, beat very stiff.
+Bake in a buttered dish about twenty minutes and serve immediately.
+
+
+CROQUETTES.
+
+These may be made with any kind of cooked meat, fish, rice, potatoes,
+etc., or from a mixture of several ingredients, when mixed with a
+thick white sauce, as follows: 1 pint hot milk, 2 tbsps. butter or
+beef dripping, 6 (l.) tbsps. flour, or 4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch, 1/2
+tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. white pepper, 1/2 tsp. celery salt, a speck of
+cayenne. Melt the butter or dripping in a saucepan, when hot add the
+dry cornstarch or flour. Stir till well mixed. Add 1/3 of the hot milk
+and stir as it boils and thickens, add the remainder of the hot milk
+gradually. The sauce should be very thick. Add the seasoning, and mix
+it while hot with the meat or fish. It is improved by adding a beaten
+egg just before the sauce is taken from the fire. When cold, shape
+into rolls or like a pear, roll lightly in beaten egg, then in bread
+crumbs, and fry in deep hot fat. Drain on coarse brown paper. If the
+mixture be too soft to handle easily stir in enough fine cracker or
+soft bread crumbs to stiffen it, but never flour.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+HOT PUDDINGS.
+
+
+APPLE PUDDING (BAKED).
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/4 cup butter or dripping.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 tsp. cream of tartar.
+    3 tbsps. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 egg.
+    1/2 tsp. soda sifted into the flour.
+    6 tart apples.
+
+Mix the dry ingredients, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, stir
+this into the dry mixture. Core, pare and cut the apples into quarters
+(if large into eighths). Place in the bottom of a pudding dish,
+sprinkle over them the sugar, a little nutmeg or cinnamon may be added
+if desired. Put the mixture over this, lifting the apples with a fork
+or spoon so as to let the mixture penetrate to the bottom of the pan.
+Bake in a moderately hot oven about 30 minutes. Serve with lemon sauce
+or thin custard.
+
+
+COTTAGE PUDDING.
+
+    1/2 pint sifted flour.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1/4 tsp. salt.
+    1 egg.
+    1/2 cup milk.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    2 tsps. baking powder (level).
+
+Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, add the unbeaten egg, beat
+vigorously for 3 or 4 minutes, add the salt, then the flour, with
+which the baking powder should be mixed. Beat for a few seconds, then
+turn the batter into a small, buttered pudding dish, bake about 25
+minutes in a moderate oven; serve with lemon sauce.
+
+
+LEMON PUDDING.
+
+    4 level tbsps. granulated sugar.
+    1 ssp. of salt.
+    2 tbsps. milk.
+    The juice and grated rind of a small lemon.
+    6 (l.) tsps. cornstarch.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/2 cup water.
+    1 egg.
+
+Mix the cornstarch with 3 tbsps. cold water; put the remainder of the
+water in the saucepan and set on to boil. Stir into this the mixed
+cornstarch and cook until clear. Take from the fire, add the salt and
+lemon, reserving 1/2 tsp. of the lemon. Beat the butter to a cream,
+gradually beat into it the sugar, the yolk of the egg, lastly the
+milk. Stir this mixture into the cooked ingredients, and bake in a
+moderate oven for 20 minutes. Beat the white of the egg to a stiff
+froth, beat into it 1 tbsp. of powdered sugar and the 1/2 tsp. of
+lemon juice. Spread this over the hot pudding and leave in the oven
+until slightly browned. (This pudding is better served very cold.)
+
+
+BREAD PUDDING.
+
+    1 pint stale bread crumbs.
+    1 quart of sugar.
+    1 ssp. of nutmeg or cinnamon.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+
+Soak the bread crumbs for 1 hour in 1 quart of milk. Beat the eggs,
+add the sugar and seasoning, stir all into the bread crumbs, bake 1
+hour in a buttered pudding dish. (Raisins or currants may be added if
+desired.)
+
+Another method for making bread pudding is to butter thin slices of
+stale bread, spread with a little jam or sprinkle a few currants (well
+washed) over each layer, lay them in a pudding dish, pour over a quart
+of milk, to which has been added 3 well beaten eggs, 1/2 cup sugar.
+Bake until the custard thickens. This pudding may be served either hot
+or cold.
+
+
+STEAMED APPLE PUDDING.
+
+    3 pints pared and quartered apples.
+    1/2 pint flour.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/4 of a grated nutmeg.
+    1/2 cup milk.
+    1/2 pint water.
+    1/4 tsp. salt.
+    2 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+
+Put the apples, water, sugar, and nutmeg into a porcelain or granite
+saucepan and set on the fire. When the apples begin to boil, set back
+where they will cook gently. Mix the flour, salt and baking powder
+together. Rub the butter into this dry mixture, wet with the milk,
+stir quickly into a soft dough. Press or roll the dough lightly into a
+round piece about the size of the top of the saucepan. Lay this on the
+apples; put on a close cover and continue cooking gently for 30
+minutes. The crust may be lifted to a plate for a moment, the apples
+turned into a pudding dish, then placing the crust over the top. To be
+served with lemon or nutmeg sauce.
+
+
+BOILED RICE PUDDING.
+
+    1/2 cup rice.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 pint milk.
+    1/2 cup raisins.
+
+Wash the rice well. Put it on the fire in 1 pint of cold water and let
+it cook for 10 minutes. Drain off the water, add the salt and milk;
+then cook in the double boiler for 2 hours, add the raisins when about
+half cooked. Do not stir the rice while it is cooking.
+
+
+BROWN BETTY.
+
+Pare, core and slice 6 or 7 tart apples. Put a layer of stale bread
+crumbs in the bottom of the baking dish, then a layer of the apples,
+another layer of bread crumbs and apples, and so on until all are
+used, having the last layer crumbs. Add 1/2 cup of water to 1/2 cup
+molasses, stir in 2 tbsps. of brown sugar; pour it over the crumbs and
+bake in a moderate oven for 1 hour.
+
+
+APPLE SNOW.
+
+    6 apples.
+    Juice of 1 lemon.
+    1 cup white sugar.
+    Whites of 6 eggs.
+
+Pare, core and steam the apples until tender, then press them through
+a sieve and put aside to cool; when cold add the sugar and lemon
+juice. Beat the whites of the eggs to a very stiff froth, add the
+apples to them by spoonfuls, beating all the while. Heap in a glass
+dish and serve immediately. (This is a very delicate and wholesome
+pudding for an invalid.)
+
+
+SCALLOPED APPLES.
+
+Made the same as Brown Betty, omitting the molasses, adding water and
+a little lemon juice instead.
+
+
+SUET PUDDING.
+
+    1 cup suet.
+    1 cup molasses.
+    3 cups flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 cup raisins.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 tsp. cinnamon.
+    2 tsps. baking powder.
+
+Chop the suet very fine. Stone the raisins. Add the molasses to the
+suet, then the milk: mix well and add the salt, flour and cinnamon.
+Beat vigorously for 2 or 3 minutes, then add the raisins. Rub in the
+flour, to which has been added the baking powder; mix thoroughly, turn
+into a buttered mould, steam for 3 hours.
+
+
+TAPIOCA PUDDING.
+
+    1 cup tapioca.
+    4 eggs.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 quart milk.
+    1/4 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. vanilla.
+
+Wash the tapioca carefully, then add it to the milk and soak 2 hours.
+Beat the eggs and sugar together, add the salt, stir into the tapioca
+and milk, and bake in a moderate oven at least 3/4 of an hour. Serve
+hot or cold.
+
+
+CHOCOLATE PUDDING.
+
+    1 egg.
+    2 tbsps. cornstarch.
+    3 tbsps. sugar.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+    1 pint milk.
+    1 tbsp. boiling water.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 oz. shaved chocolate.
+
+Reserve 1/2 cup milk, put the remainder on the fire in a double
+boiler. Mix the cold milk with the cornstarch and salt. Beat the egg
+well and add to the cornstarch mixture. Stir this into the boiling
+milk and stir well. Put the chocolate, sugar and boiling water into a
+small frying pan or saucepan, and set over a hot fire. Stir until the
+mixture is smooth and glossy; beat this into the pudding and cook for
+2 minutes longer. Take from the fire and add the vanilla. Dip a mould
+into cold water and turn the pudding into it. Set away to cool. When
+cold and stiff, turn out on a flat dish and surround with whipped
+cream; or serve with cream and sugar or a soft custard.
+
+
+SNOW PUDDING.
+
+    1/4 box gelatine.
+    1 cup boiling water.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    2 tbsps. cold water.
+    Juice of one lemon.
+    Whites of 2 eggs.
+
+Soak the gelatine in cold water for 2 hours. Pour upon this the
+boiling water and stir until the gelatine is dissolved; then add the
+sugar and lemon juice, stirring until the sugar is dissolved. Set the
+bowl in a pan of cold water, or broken ice. Stir frequently; when it
+begins to thicken, stir in the beaten whites of the eggs, pour into a
+mould and set away until firm. Serve with boiled custard.
+
+
+CREAM PIE.
+
+Make a plain cup cake, and bake it in a shallow cake pan. When cooked
+and cold, split it carefully. Put 1 pint of milk on to boil in a
+farina boiler. Beat the yolks of 3 eggs and 1/2 cup of sugar together
+until light, then add the well-beaten whites, and stir them into the
+boiling milk; stir over the fire for about 1 minute, then take from
+the fire, add 1 tsp. of vanilla, and stand away to cool. When cold,
+and ready to serve, put a thick layer of this sauce between the layers
+of cake, pour the remaining sauce around the pie, and serve
+immediately.
+
+
+BLANC MANGE.
+
+    1 pint milk.
+    2 tbsps. sugar.
+    4 (l.) tbsps. cornstarch.
+    1/2 ssp. salt.
+
+Put the milk on to boil. Moisten the cornstarch with a little cold
+milk, then add it to the boiling milk, and stir until it thickens; let
+it cook slowly for 5 minutes; add the sugar and salt, take from the
+fire, pour into a mould and set away to harden.
+
+
+STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE.
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    1 oz. butter.
+    1 cup milk.
+
+Mix the salt, flour and butter together. Sift, then add the baking
+powder and sift again. Add the liquid gradually, mixing and cutting
+with a knife until the dough is light and spongy; turn it out on a
+well floured board, pat into a flat cake and roll gently till 1/2 an
+inch thick. Bake in a spider or pie plate in a rather hot oven. Split
+and spread with sweetened berries and serve either hot or cold.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PUDDING SAUCES.
+
+
+PLAIN SAUCE.
+
+    1 cup water.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1/2 ssp. grated nutmeg.
+    3 tbsps. sugar.
+    2 tsps. flour or cornstarch.
+
+Melt the butter and flour together, stir in the hot water, add the
+sugar and flavoring, cook until smooth and clear.
+
+
+MOLASSES SAUCE.
+
+    1/2 cup molasses.
+    1/2 cup water or 1/2 tbsp. vinegar.
+    2 (l.) tsps. flour.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 tbsp. lemon juice.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1/2 ssp. salt.
+
+Mix the flour and sugar together. Pour the boiling water upon it. Add
+the molasses and place on the range. Simmer for 10 minutes. Add the
+other ingredients; boil up once and serve. (Omit lemon if vinegar is
+used.)
+
+
+CREAM SAUCE.
+
+    1 egg.
+    1 tsp. butter.
+    1 tsp. cornstarch.
+    1/2 cup powdered sugar.
+    1 tsp. vanilla.
+    1 cup boiling milk.
+
+Beat the white of the egg to a stiff froth; then gradually beat into
+it the powdered sugar and cornstarch. Next add the yolk of the egg and
+beat well. Pour upon this the cupful of boiling milk and place on the
+fire. Stir until it boils, then add the butter and vanilla.
+
+
+LEMON SAUCE.
+
+    1 tbsp. cornstarch.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    1 pint boiling water.
+    1 tbsp. butter.
+    1 egg.
+    1 lemon.
+
+Beat the egg, add the cornstarch and sugar, stir them well together;
+add the boiling water gradually and stir over the fire until thick;
+add the butter, juice and grated rind of one lemon. Serve hot.
+
+
+VANILLA SAUCE.
+
+    1 cup milk.
+    2 (l.) tbsps. sugar.
+    2 eggs.
+    1/2 tsp. vanilla.
+
+Put the milk on to boil, beat the yolks and sugar till very light; add
+them to the boiling milk; stir over the fire until creamy. Have the
+whites beaten, pour over them the boiling mixture; beat thoroughly and
+serve at once.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CAKE.
+
+There are practically two kinds of cake, that made with butter, and
+cake made without butter. When these two methods are understood, cake
+making becomes easy. A few simple rules must govern all cake making.
+
+1st. Regulate the heat. Cakes without butter require a quick oven;
+with butter, a moderate oven. 2nd. Beat whites and yolks separately.
+3rd. Beat butter and sugar to a cream. 4th. Add the whites last. 5th.
+Currants should be cleaned, washed and dried and floured (to which
+flour some of the baking powder should be added). 6th. Add the milk or
+water gradually. 7th. Sift the flour before measuring. 8th. 2 level
+tsps. of baking powder are equal to 1/2 tsp. soda and 1 tsp. cream of
+tartar. 9th. When looking at a cake while baking, do it quickly and
+without jarring the stove. 10th. To find out if it is baked, run a
+broom straw through the centre, if no dough adheres the cake is done.
+11th. If browning too quickly, cover with brown paper and reduce the
+heat gradually. This is usually necessary in baking fruit cake. 12th.
+Mix cake in an earthen bowl, never in tin. 13th. Soda, cream of
+tartar, and baking powder should be crushed and sifted with the flour.
+Always attend to the fire before beginning to make cake. Coarse
+granulated sugar makes a coarse, heavy cake. If cake browns before
+rising the oven is too hot. When it rises in the centre and cracks
+open it is too stiff with flour. It should rise first round the edge,
+then in the middle and remain level.
+
+
+GINGERBREAD.
+
+    1 cup molasses.
+    2 tbsps. butter.
+    1 tsp. ginger.
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/2 cup sour milk.
+    1 tsp. soda.
+    1 egg.
+
+Put the molasses and butter in a pan and set on the stove. When the
+mixture boils up add the soda and ginger, and take from the fire
+immediately. Add the milk, the well-beaten egg and the flour, beat
+well. Bake in a shallow cake pan in a rather quick oven for 20
+minutes.
+
+
+SPICE CAKE.
+
+    1/4 cup butter.
+    1/2 cup molasses.
+    1/2 cup sour milk.
+    1/2 ssp. salt.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    The juice and rind of 1/2 lemon.
+    1/2 cup sugar.
+    2-1/2 cups flour.
+    1/2 tsp. ginger.
+    1 tsp. cinnamon.
+    1/4 nutmeg, grated.
+    1 egg.
+
+Beat the butter to a cream. Gradually beat into it the sugar, then the
+spice and lemon, next the molasses. Now dissolve the soda in one tbsp.
+cold water and stir it into the sour milk; add this, and the egg well
+beaten, to the other ingredients. Lastly add the flour, and beat
+briskly for 1/2 minute. Pour into a well buttered pan and bake in a
+moderate oven for about 50 minutes.
+
+
+SPONGE CAKE.
+
+    3 eggs.
+    2/3 cup flour.
+    2/3 cup pulverized sugar.
+    The grated rind and juice of 1/2 lemon.
+
+Beat the yolks of the eggs and sugar until very light, now add the
+juice and rind of the lemon and half the flour; beat the whites to a
+very stiff froth, add the remainder of the flour and the whites
+alternately, stirring lightly, pour into a greased cake pan. Bake in a
+quick oven from 25 to 30 minutes.
+
+
+ROLL JELLY CAKE.
+
+    2 eggs.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    1-1/2 cup flour.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 cup sweet milk.
+    3 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+
+Beat the eggs separately till very light, then beat them together, add
+the sugar, then the milk gradually, then the flour in which the salt
+and baking powder have been mixed. Spread very thin on long shallow
+pans. Spread with jelly while warm and roll up.
+
+
+SEED CAKE.
+
+    1 cup butter.
+    1 cup milk.
+    2 tsps. caraway seeds.
+    3 tsps. baking powder.
+    1-1/2 cup sugar.
+    3 eggs.
+    3 cups flour.
+
+Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually, then the yolks of the eggs,
+then the seeds; sift the baking powder with the flour; add the flour
+and milk alternately a little at a time, lastly the whites which have
+been beaten stiff and dry; bake from 40 to 50 minutes.
+
+
+COOKIES (PLAIN).
+
+    1/2 cup butter.
+    1/4 cup milk.
+    2 even tsps. baking powder.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    1 egg.
+    Flour to roll out thin.
+
+Cream the butter, add the sugar, milk, egg beaten lightly, and the
+baking powder mixed with two cups of flour, then enough more flour to
+roll out. Roll a little at a time. Cut out. Bake about 10 minutes.
+
+
+LAYER CAKE.
+
+    1/2 cup butter.
+    1 cup sugar.
+    2-1/2 cups flour.
+    3 eggs.
+    2/3 cup milk.
+    4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+
+Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, then add the yolks of the eggs
+gradually; then the flour and milk alternately (sifting the baking
+powder with the flour), add the well-beaten whites last. Bake in 3
+tins in a moderate oven about 15 minutes. (Flavoring has been omitted
+in this recipe as the cake is more delicate by allowing the filling to
+provide the flavor.)
+
+
+PLAIN FRUIT CAKE.
+
+    3 eggs.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 oz. candied lemon.
+    4 (l.) tsps. baking powder.
+    2/3 cup butter.
+    3 (l.) cups flour.
+    1 cup raisins.
+
+Mix as directed in preceding recipe, only mixing the fruit with the
+flour and baking powder.
+
+
+ICING.
+
+    Whites of 2 eggs.
+    1/2 lb. powdered sugar.
+    1 tsp. of lemon juice.
+
+Have the material very cold. Break the eggs carefully, beat the whites
+until frothy (not stiff); sift the sugar in gradually, beating all the
+while; add the lemon juice and continue beating until fine and white,
+and stiff enough to stand alone. Keep in a cool place, when using,
+spread with a knife dipped in cold water. If used for ornamenting
+press through a tube. It may be divided and different colorings added.
+
+
+BOILED ICING.
+
+    1 cup granulated sugar.
+    1/3 cup boiling water.
+    1/4 tsp. cream of tartar.
+    White of 1 egg.
+
+Boil the sugar and water together until it hangs from the spoon. Beat
+the egg to a stiff froth, add the cream of tartar, then pour on the
+syrup, beating all the while. Beat until cold and thick.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PASTRY.
+
+Pastry, unless light and tender, should never be eaten; even then it
+should be avoided by people with poor digestion. There are so many
+food preparations superior to pastry in both nutritive value and cost
+of time and material, that it will be wise to give it a very secondary
+place in the training of a culinary artist. However, as it is still a
+popular fancy with many, we may as well make the best of it. Butter is
+more wholesome in pastry than lard, although the latter makes a light
+crust. In order to secure satisfactory results in pastry
+making--especially puff pastry--three things should be observed: (1)
+have all the materials cold; (2) use as little liquid as possible; (3)
+handle lightly and quickly. Pastry should be very cold when it is put
+into the oven. Have the oven very hot.
+
+
+PUFF PASTE.
+
+    1 lb. flour.
+    1 lb. butter.
+    Enough ice water to make into a very stiff dough.
+
+If the butter is salty, wash it as follows: Scald a large bowl, then
+fill with cold water; wash the hands in hot soapy water, then rinse
+them in cold water, as this will prevent the butter from sticking to
+the hands. Turn the cold water out of the bowl; fill it with ice
+water, put the butter into it and work with the hands until soft and
+elastic. Drain the water from the butter and place on ice until hard.
+Sift the flour, put 1/4 of the butter into the flour, cut with a knife
+or chopping knife until thoroughly mixed; then gradually add ice water
+until it is moist enough to hold together, turn out on the board or
+marble slab. Press into shape, roll lightly until about 1/4 inch
+thick; cut the remainder of the butter into small pieces, and lay over
+this layer of dough. Fold carefully over and over, roll three times.
+If the dough should get soft and sticky, place it in a tin or cold
+plate on the ice to harden between the rollings. Always fold pastry so
+as to keep it in layers--even when cutting off the roll keep the
+layers one above the other, not turning them on their sides. For
+patties, or especially flaky pastry, roll five or six times, provided
+it is not allowed to get soft. Pastry should be rolled about as thin
+as the edge of a plate for tarts, etc., and about 1/3 inch thick for a
+cover for chicken pie.
+
+
+PLAIN PASTRY.
+
+    2 cups flour.
+    1 cup butter or lard.
+
+Add the butter to the flour, chop with a knife, add enough ice water
+to make a firm dough. Roll out, fold, set on ice or in a cold place
+for at least 1/2 hour before baking.
+
+
+PASTE FOR MEAT PIES, ETC.
+
+    1 pint flour.
+    1/2 tsp. soda.
+    1 tsp. cream tartar
+    Or 2 level tsps. baking powder.
+    1 egg.
+    1/2 tsp. salt.
+    1 tsp. cream tartar.
+    1/4 cup butter or dripping.
+    1 cup milk.
+
+Mix as for biscuit or shortcake.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+
+SHEPHERD'S PIE.
+
+Three cups of any kind of cold meat, 6 or 7 potatoes, 1 small onion, 1
+cupful of boiling milk, salt, pepper, 1-1/2 cup gravy or stock
+thickened with 1 tbsp. of flour. Cut the meat in small pieces and put
+in a deep earthen dish. Grate the onion into the gravy and pour over
+the meat. Pare, boil, and mash the potatoes. Add the salt, pepper and
+milk, and 1 tbsp. of butter or dripping. Cover the meat with this and
+bake in a moderate oven until nicely brown.
+
+
+BEEF STEW.
+
+Take the bones and hard tough parts left from a roast of beef. Remove
+all the meat from the bones and cut it into small pieces. Cut about
+1/4 of a lb. of the fat into pieces; put it in the stew-pan to fry.
+When it begins to brown put in 1/2 carrot, a piece of turnip and 2
+small onions cut fine. Stir over the fire for 10 minutes. Take out the
+fat and vegetables and put the bones in the bottom of the kettle. Add
+the meat and cooked vegetables, but not the fat. Dredge with salt and
+pepper, and flour, using at least 1/2 cup flour. Add 3 pints of water
+and simmer gently 1 hour; pare and cut in slices 6 potatoes, simmer
+until the potatoes are well cooked. Draw forward where it will boil
+more rapidly, have dough ready for dumplings (see recipe for
+dumplings). Put the dumplings on the top of the stew; cover closely
+and cook just 10 minutes.
+
+
+STUFFED TOMATOES.
+
+Take 6 large smooth tomatoes, 1/2 tsp. salt, 1/2 ssp. pepper, 1/2
+tbsp. butter, 1/2 tbsp. sugar, 1/2 tsp. onion juice, 1/2 cupful bread
+crumbs. Arrange the tomatoes in a baking pan. Cut a thin slice from
+the smooth end of each. With a small spoon scoop out as much of the
+pulp and juice as possible without injuring the shape. Mix the pulp
+and juice with the other ingredients and fill the tomatoes with this
+mixture. Put on the tops and bake slowly 3/4 of an hour. Lift the
+tomatoes carefully and place on a hot flat dish, garnish with parsley,
+and serve.
+
+
+STEWED KIDNEYS.
+
+Cut the kidneys in thin, round slices. Cover them with cold water and
+let them stand for 1/2 hour; wash them clean, and put them in a
+saucepan with 1 qt. of water or stock, 2 cloves, 2 tbsps. of onion
+juice, salt and pepper. Simmer 2 hours. Put 1 tbsp. of butter in the
+frying pan, and when hot add 1 of flour; stir until it is brown and
+smooth, and add to the kidneys. Add a little sweet herbs, and simmer
+1/2 hour longer. If not seasoned enough, add a little more salt and
+pepper, and, if desired, 1 tbsp. of lemon juice. This dish can be
+prepared at any time, as it is quite as good warmed over as when it is
+prepared.
+
+
+CREAMED EGGS.
+
+Boil 6 eggs 20 minutes. Make 1 pint of cream sauce. Have 6 slices of
+toast on a hot dish. Put a layer of sauce on each slice of toast, then
+part of the whites of the eggs, cut in thin strips, rub part of the
+yolks through a sieve, or a potato ricer, on to the toast. Repeat
+this, and finish with a third layer of sauce. Place in the oven for
+about 3 minutes, then serve.
+
+
+BUTTERED TOAST.
+
+Cut the bread 1/3 of an inch thick. Turn the bread twice (so as to
+draw out the moisture) before browning. Have some melted butter on a
+plate, dip one side of the toast in this before serving.
+
+
+CROUTONS (FOR SOUP).
+
+Cut stale bread into 1/2 inch slices, remove the crust and cut into
+1/2 inch cubes. Drop them into hot fat, which should be hot enough to
+brown them, while you count 40; drain and sprinkle with salt.
+
+
+FRENCH TOAST.
+
+    1 egg.
+    1 cup milk.
+    1 ssp. salt.
+    4 to 6 slices of stale bread.
+
+Beat the egg lightly with a fork in a shallow dish, add the salt and
+milk. Dip the bread in this, turn; have a griddle hot and well
+buttered, put the dipped bread on the hot griddle, brown, then put a
+little piece of butter on the top of each slice, turn and brown on the
+other side. To be eaten hot with jelly or with butter and sugar.
+
+
+SANDWICHES.
+
+Chop very fine cold ham, corned beef or tongue, adding a little of the
+fat. Mix 1 tsp. of dry mustard, 1 ssp. of salt, a few drops of lemon
+juice with cold water to a stiff paste; add to it 1/4 cup butter
+creamed. Cut bread--at least 1 day old--in very thin slices, spread
+with the mustard and butter paste, then with the meat. Put two slices
+together and cut into any shape desired. (Chicken or veal sandwiches
+may be made by chopping the meat very fine, and adding to it a little
+of the cooked salad dressing or mayonnaise.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A FEW GENERAL HINTS.
+
+
+HOW TO BLANCH ALMONDS.
+
+Shell the nuts, and pour boiling water over them; let them stand in
+the water a minute or two and then throw them into cold water. Rub
+between the hands.
+
+
+TO CLEAN CURRANTS.
+
+Sprinkle thickly with flour, rub well until they are separated and the
+flour, grit, and fine stems have loosened. Throw them into a strainer
+and wash thoroughly in cold water; change the water often; shake well
+in the strainer; then drain between towels, pick over carefully, and
+dry them in a warm place, but not in the oven. Put away in jars, cover
+closely, and they are ready for use at any time.
+
+
+SERVING FOOD.
+
+Hot food should be served hot, and on hot plates. Cold food should be
+served very cold. A little garnish of parsley, hard-boiled egg, sliced
+lemon, toast, watercress or centre of a lettuce head adds much to the
+attractiveness of a dish. Small rolls, a square of bread, or croutons
+should be served with soup. Sliced lemon with fish. Cold beets,
+carrots, turnips, and the whites of hard-boiled eggs, stamped out with
+a fancy vegetable cutter, make a pretty garnish for cold meats. Toast
+cut into triangles makes a suitable garnish for many dishes.
+
+Whipped cream is the most delicate garnish for all cold, light
+puddings; a little coloring may be added to part of it in order to
+vary the decoration.
+
+
+CANNING AND PRESERVING.
+
+Canning fruit is simply sterilizing and sealing in air-tight jars. Any
+fresh ripe fruit may be kept in this way. By observing a few general
+rules any housekeeper may preserve fruit successfully. 1st. Have good
+fruit, ripe and fresh. 2nd. Have air-tight jars--test by filling with
+water and inverting. 3rd. See that the jars have been well scalded and
+are free from odor of any kind. 4th. Have rims and covers at hand so
+that the jars may be sealed immediately when the fruit is put into
+them. 5th. Fill the jars till they overflow. 6th. Let the syrup simmer
+for a few minutes before putting in the fruit. 7th. Cook the fruit
+slowly so as to avoid breaking; place carefully in the jars, fill up
+with syrup and seal at once. A good method for canning fruit is to
+cook the fruit in the jars, by placing them in a boiler or kettle of
+water with a wire frame or something underneath to avoid breaking.
+Fill the jar with fruit; pour over a syrup of the desired consistency,
+screw on the top loosely--so as to allow the gas to escape--and place
+in the boiler; fill the boiler with cold water up to the rim of the
+jar and bring slowly to boiling point. Allow small fruits to remain 10
+minutes, and peaches, pears, etc., 15 minutes after the water boils.
+Remove the tops, fill to overflowing with boiling syrup, and seal at
+once. By this method fruit retains the flavor somewhat more than by
+cooking in an open kettle. An average syrup for canning fruit is made
+by adding a pound of sugar to a pint of water (see rule 6). In order
+to prevent fruit jars from cracking, wring a cloth out of cold water
+on which the jar should be placed before filling with the hot fruit,
+or by placing a silver spoon or fork in the jar before putting in the
+syrup, fruit or jelly. Always see that the tops are screwed on
+tightly before putting the jar away in a cool place, which should not
+be done until the fruit has become cold.
+
+
+PRESERVING.
+
+Preserving differs from canning in the amount of sugar used; otherwise
+the method is similar. Preserves are usually made from equal weights
+of sugar and fruit, and cooked at least 20 minutes.
+
+
+JELLIES.
+
+Fruit jellies are made of equal parts of clear fruit juice and sugar.
+Crab apples, currants, and quinces are the most reliable fruits for
+jelly. Cook the fruit--currants may be mashed and drained without
+cooking--until soft. Drain over night through a flannel bag. In the
+morning measure 1 pint of sugar for each pint of juice. Heat the sugar
+in a large earthen bowl in the oven, stirring often to prevent
+burning. Let the juice boil 20 minutes; then add the hot sugar and
+boil about 5 minutes longer, or until it thickens when dropped from a
+spoon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR YOUNG HOUSEKEEPERS.
+
+Carefully supervise the daily dietary so that a reasonable proportion
+of the necessary food elements may be provided. See that the
+proportion of proteid is one part to four of carbohydrates and fats.
+Adapt the dietary to the season and climate. Do not waste time and
+money in preparing rich puddings, entrees, cakes, etc., when fresh
+fruit, vegetables, salads, etc., are so much more nutritious,
+economical and convenient. Arrange to have a variety of
+food--different kinds of meat, fish, and poultry--cooked in various
+ways. See that suitable food is provided for the children; especially
+pure milk and food containing mineral salts. Do not allow children to
+use tea, coffee, or other stimulants. A glass of hot milk (not boiled)
+is the best stimulant for a child when wearied with study or over
+exertion of any kind.
+
+See that the water which has stood in the pipes over night is drawn
+before filling the tea-kettle for breakfast, or using the water for
+porridge or other purposes. Rinse the tea-kettle every morning before
+using. Never use water from the hot tank for cooking. See that the
+water used for drinking purposes is pure; if suspicious, either have
+it filtered or boiled before using. Do not allow soiled rags, dish
+cloths or towels to lie around the kitchen. Wash and scald the dish
+cloths and towels after each dish washing, hanging them outside to
+dry--if possible. Keep plenty of clean towels; some fine ones for
+glass and china, coarser ones for general use. Have special cloths for
+kitchen use. Keep a holder within reach of the oven so as to avoid
+burning the fingers, or using an apron. See that a kettleful of
+boiling water is poured down the sink pipes every day.
+
+All boxes, jars and shelves in which food is kept, must be kept
+scrupulously clean and well aired. The refrigerator requires special
+attention; see that the drain pipe and interior of ice-box are kept
+thoroughly clean. A stiff wire with a piece of cloth fastened on the
+end may be used to clean the drain pipe at least once a week. Do not
+have any closet under the sink or places of concealment for dirty pots
+and pans. Bowls which have been used for flour mixtures should be
+filled with cold water if not washed immediately after using. Never
+put kitchen knives and forks into the dish water, as it loosens the
+handles; hold them in the hand and wash with the dish cloth. Burn all
+refuse, both for convenience and as a sanitary measure. If a refuse
+pail is used, it should be scalded frequently and a solution of
+carbolic acid, chloride of lime or other disinfectant used. Do not put
+pans and kettles half filled with water on the stove to soak, as it
+only hardens whatever may have adhered to the kettle and makes it more
+difficult to clean.
+
+
+DISH WASHING.
+
+Many young housekeepers look upon dish washing as the "bug-bear" of
+the kitchen. It need not be disagreeable work; indeed the washing of
+china, glass and silver ware may be placed among the arts of
+housekeeping. It should be the ambition of every young housekeeper to
+know how everything pertaining to household management should be done,
+and how to do it; whether she has to do it herself or direct others.
+
+One of the most important duties is dish-washing. A few simple rules
+may help to make this duty less objectionable. 1. Collect knives,
+forks and spoons by themselves. Scrape the dishes, empty the cups, and
+arrange neatly in the order in which they are to be washed. 2. Never
+pile dishes indiscriminately in a dish pan, as each kind requires
+separate treatment. 3. Have two pans half full of water; one with
+soapy water, the other with clear hot water for rinsing. 4. Wash the
+glassware first, in moderately hot water, slip the glasses in sideways
+so that the hot water may strike inside and outside at once, which
+will prevent breaking. Rinse and wipe at once, as they will be much
+brighter and clearer than if allowed to drain. 5. If the glass is cut,
+use a brush to cleanse out all the grooves. As it is difficult to dry
+such glassware, it should be dipped in clear cold water after washing,
+and allowed to drain. 6. Always keep the towel between the hands and
+the glass so as to avoid finger marks. Rinse glasses which have
+contained milk in cold water before washing. 7. Next wash the silver
+and wipe at once; then the china, first in the hot suds, then rinse in
+the clear hot water; wipe while warm. 8. Change dish water often,
+especially if the dishes are greasy; and do not leave the soap in the
+water to waste and stick to the dishes. 9. Use fresh water for the
+kitchen crockery, and pots and pans. After wiping tinware, place it on
+the hearth to dry, as it rusts very easily. 10. Polish the knives with
+bathbrick, wood ashes or sandsoap. Wash, and wipe perfectly dry; hold
+in the hand and wash with the dish cloth; do not under any
+circumstances allow knives and forks to lie in hot water. Next wash
+the tray, the rinsing pan, the table and the sink. Finally, the dish
+towels, dish cloth and dish pan.
+
+Pans in which fish or onions have been cooked should be washed and
+scalded, then filled with water, in which put a tsp. of soda. Place
+them on the top of the stove for 1/2 hour; this will remove the flavor
+of fish or onions. If the steel of knives or forks should become
+rusted, dip them in sweet oil and let stand for twenty-four hours,
+then rub with powdered quick-lime and the stain will be removed. Rub
+the ivory handles which have become stained, with whiting and spirits
+of turpentine.
+
+
+VENTILATION AND SANITATION.
+
+As pure air is one of the essentials of good health, it follows that
+one of the chief duties of a housekeeper is to see that the family
+supply of this necessary element is properly regulated. Very few
+housekeepers realize the importance of ventilation in promoting the
+general health and comfort of the family. As the scope of this book
+prevents anything further than a few suggestions or a brief outline of
+the principles underlying these important questions, we will adopt the
+rule followed in the preceding chapter, beginning with the cellar: 1.
+See that surface water is carried away from all sides, by either
+natural or artificial drains, and that the cellar is perfectly dry.
+Have enough windows in the cellar to secure plenty of light and air,
+and see that they are opened every day. 2. Have the cellar thoroughly
+cleaned and whitewashed with lime at least once a year, twice if
+possible, in the spring and fall. 3. Keep the coal in a dry place. 4.
+Do not allow decomposed vegetables, or old bottles, which may cause
+unpleasant odors, to accumulate in the cellar. Unless there is a
+special cellar for vegetables, where they may be kept at a proper
+temperature and carefully looked after, it is much better for the
+housekeeper to purchase in small quantities. Remember the ventilation
+of the cellar is of the greatest importance, and should never be
+neglected.
+
+One of the most noted authorities in America, on the question of
+ventilation, says: "The three important objects are, (1) To provide an
+abundance of pure air in every part of the house; (2) To avoid drafts,
+either hot or cold; (3) To provide means of escape for foul air and
+odors." As before stated, much of the vigor, comfort and happiness of
+the family depends upon attention to these matters. Next to the
+cellar, we will take the living and sleeping rooms, which should be
+thoroughly aired every day, not simply by opening the window a few
+inches at the bottom, or--as in some double or outside windows--by a
+little opening a few inches wide; but by causing a circulation of air
+in the room, and providing an outlet for foul air near the ceiling,
+which may be done by lowering the window from the top. An outlet for
+foul air is quite as important as an inlet for fresh air.
+
+If there is a skylight at the top of the house, it should be kept open
+a few inches all the time as an outlet for impure air; an attic window
+will serve the same purpose. Have doors and windows so arranged that a
+draft may be made possible when needed to change the air of a room
+quickly, or in airing bedclothes; two windows being of course more
+desirable. After dressing in the morning, open the window of the
+sleeping room, top and bottom; turn back the clothes over one or two
+chairs; place pillows and mattress where they will have a current of
+fresh air; also open the closet door. Do not allow water to remain in
+a bedroom more than twenty-four hours.
+
+When a sleeping room has been used for a sewing or sitting room during
+the day, it should be thoroughly aired before bedtime. Open the
+bathroom window frequently, top and bottom, for a few minutes, so as
+to allow the air to escape out of doors instead of into other parts of
+the house. A nursery, sitting room or school room, which has been
+occupied by a number of people, should have the windows open, top and
+bottom, while the occupants are at meals or elsewhere. A room which
+has been occupied as a family sitting room during the evening should
+be aired by the last member of the family to retire, in order to
+prevent the impure air making its way through the house during the
+night.
+
+Special attention should be given to kitchen ventilation. In order to
+prevent kitchen odors from penetrating through the other parts of the
+house, it is necessary to have an outlet for steam and impure air near
+the ceiling in the kitchen. If windows are placed so as to secure a
+draft, they may be opened at the top only, when they will serve the
+purpose admirably. There should be a ventilating flue in all kitchen
+chimneys. In building a house, see that register ventilators are
+placed in the kitchen on different walls, which may be closed in very
+cold weather.
+
+
+LAUNDRY WORK.
+
+As the first essential of laundry work is a plentiful supply of water,
+a word concerning that necessary article may not be out of place. Pure
+water is a chemical compound of hydrogen and oxygen. It has great
+absorbent and solvent powers, therefore pure water is seldom found.
+The first fall of any shower is mixed with the impurities of the air;
+among these may be acids, ammonia and carbon in the form of soot and
+creosote. It is these impurities which cause the stain left when rain
+water stands on the window-sill or other finished wood. Rain water
+absorbs more or less carbon dioxide from various sources, and soaking
+into the soil often comes in contact with lime, magnesia and other
+compounds. Water saturated with carbon dioxide will dissolve these
+substances, forming carbonates or other salts which are soluble; such
+water is known as "hard."
+
+Water for domestic uses is called either "hard" or "soft," according
+to the amount of salts which it may contain. When soap is added to
+hard water, the new compound formed by the union of the lime with the
+fatty acid of the soap is insoluble, and is deposited upon the surface
+of any article with which it comes in contact. This is the reason why
+"hard" water requires more soap when used for laundry work. It is much
+better to soften the water by the addition of alkalies, ammonia or
+sal-soda before using for laundry purposes than to depend entirely
+upon soap for cleansing.
+
+Another important material used in the laundry is soap. In purchasing
+soap, it is safer to choose the make of some well-known firm, who have
+a reputation to lose if their products are not good; and for anything
+stronger than soap, it is better to buy sal-soda and use it knowingly
+than to trust to the various packages so extensively advertised.
+Washing soda should always be dissolved in a separate vessel, and
+added to the water to be used. Ammonia may be used, but its too
+frequent use will yellow bleached fabrics. Borax is an effectual
+cleanser, disinfectant and bleacher. It is more expensive than ammonia
+or soda but is the safest alkali to use. Turpentine is valuable in
+removing grease; 1 tbsp. to a quart of water will serve for washing
+silks and other delicate materials. It should never be used in hot
+water.
+
+_Removing Stains._--All spots and stains should be taken out before
+the clothes are put into the general wash to be treated with soap.
+Fruit stains are the most frequent and the most indelible, when
+neglected. The composition of fruit juice is readily dissolved by
+boiling water. Stretch the stained part over an earthen dish and pour
+boiling water upon the stain until it disappears. If fruit stains are
+allowed to remain, they will require an acid, or in some cases a
+bleaching liquid like chloride of lime to remove them. Wine stains
+should be immediately covered with a thick layer of salt. Boiling milk
+may be used for taking out wine or fruit stains. Medicine stains
+usually yield to alcohol. Iodine dissolves in ether or chloroform.
+
+Coffee, tea and cocoa stain badly; the latter, if neglected, will
+resist to the destruction of the fabric. These all contain tannin,
+besides various coloring matters, and are "fixed" by soap and water.
+Clear boiling water will often remove fresh coffee and tea stains,
+although it is safer to sprinkle the stains with borax and soak in
+cold water first. An alkaline solution of great use and convenience is
+Javelle water. It will remove stains and is a general bleacher. It is
+composed of 1 lb. of sal-soda with 1/4 lb. of chloride of lime in 2
+quarts of boiling water. When the substances have dissolved as much as
+they will, and become cool and settled, pour off the clear liquid and
+bottle it for use. Be careful not to allow any of the solid portions
+to pass into the bottle. Use the dregs for scouring unpainted
+woodwork, or to cleanse waste pipes. When a spot is found on a white
+tablecloth place under it an inverted plate. Apply Javelle water with
+a soft tooth brush (the use of the brush protects the skin and the
+nails). Rub gently till the stain disappears, then rinse in clear
+water and finally in ammonia. Blood stains require clear cold or tepid
+water; hot water and soap render the red coloring matter less
+soluble. When the stain is nearly gone soap and hot water may be used.
+Stains from meat juice should be treated in the same way. When blood
+is mixed with mucous, as in the case of handkerchiefs, it is well to
+soak the stains for some hours in a solution of salt and cold water--2
+tablespoonfuls to a quart. Grass stains dissolve in alcohol. If
+applied immediately, ammonia and water will sometimes wash them out.
+
+The following methods have proved successful, and may be tried where
+colors are likely to be affected by alcohol. Molasses, or a paste of
+soap and cooking soda may be spread over the stain and left for some
+hours, or the stain may be kept moist in the sunshine until the green
+color has changed to brown, when it will wash out in pure water.
+Mildew requires different treatment from any previously considered.
+Strong soap suds, a layer of soft soap and pulverized chalk, or one of
+chalk and salt, are all effective, if in addition the moistened cloth
+be subjected to strong sunlight, which kills the plant and bleaches
+the fibre. Javelle water may be tried in cases of advanced growth, but
+success is not always assured. Some of the animal and vegetable oils
+may be taken out by soap and cold water, or dissolved in naphtha,
+chloroform, ether, etc. Some of the vegetable oils are soluble in hot
+alcohol (care being taken that the temperature be not raised to the
+point of igniting). Vaseline stains should be soaked in kerosene
+before water and soap touch them.
+
+Ink spots on white goods are the same in character as on colored
+fabrics. Where the ink is an iron compound, the stain may be treated
+with oxalic, muriatic or hot tartaric acid, applied in the same
+manner as for iron rust stains. No definite rule can be given, for
+some inks are affected by strong alkalies, others by acids, while some
+will dissolve in clear water. Red iron rust spots must be treated with
+acid. Fill an earthen dish two-thirds full of hot water and stretch
+the stained cloth over this. Have two other dishes with clear water in
+one and ammonia water in the other. The steam from the hot water will
+furnish the heat and moisture favorable for chemical action. Drop a
+little muriatic acid on the stain; let it remain a moment, then lower
+the cloth into the clear water. Repeat until the stain disappears.
+Rinse carefully in the clear water and finally immerse in the ammonia
+water, that any excess of acid may be neutralized and the fabric
+protected. Salt and lemon juice are often sufficient for a slight
+stain.
+
+Many spots appear upon white goods, which resemble those made by iron
+rust, or the fabrics themselves acquire a yellowish tinge. This is the
+result of the use of blueing and soap, where the clothes have been
+imperfectly rinsed. Therefore, if all dirt is removed, and the clothes
+thoroughly rinsed from all soap or alkalies used in removing the dirt,
+and exposed for a long time to air and sunshine, the use of blueing is
+unnecessary. In cities, where conveniences for drying and bleaching in
+the sunshine are few, a thorough bleaching two or three times a year
+is a necessity; but in the country it is wiser to abolish all use of
+blueing and let the sun, in its action with moisture and the oxygen of
+the air, keep the clothes white and pure. Freezing aids in bleaching,
+for it retains the moisture upon which the sun can act so much longer.
+When clean grass, dew and sunshine are not available, use a bleaching
+powder. Directions for the use of the powder usually accompany the can
+in which it is bought. Care must be taken to completely rinse out the
+acid present in the powder. Grease is more quickly acted upon by hot
+water than by cold, but other organic matter is fixed by the hot
+water. An effective method is to soak thoroughly the most soiled
+portion of the clothes, fold these together towards the centre, roll
+the whole tightly and soak in cold water. The water should just cover
+the articles. In this way the soap is kept where it is most needed,
+and not washed away before it has done its work. When the clothes are
+unrolled, the dirt may be washed out with less rubbing. Too long
+soaking, when a strong soap is used, will weaken the fabric.
+
+Whether to boil clothes or not, depends largely upon the purity of the
+materials used and the care exercised. Many feel that the additional
+disinfection which boiling insures, is an element of cleanness not to
+be disregarded, while others insist that boiling yellows the clothes.
+This yellowness may be caused by impure material in the soap, the
+deposit of iron from the water or the boiler; the imperfect washing of
+the clothes, that is, the organic matter is not thoroughly removed.
+The safer process is to put the clothes into cold water, with little
+or no soap, let the temperature rise gradually to boiling point and
+remain there for a few minutes. Soap is more readily dissolved by hot
+than by cold water, hence the boiling should help in the complete
+removal of the soap, and should precede the rinsing. One tablespoonful
+of borax to every gallon of water added to each boilerful, serves as a
+bleacher and disinfectant. Scalding or pouring boiling water over the
+clothes is not so effectual for their disinfection as boiling, because
+the temperature is so quickly lowered.
+
+The main points in laundry cleansing seem to be: (1) The removal of
+all stains; (2) Soft water and a good quality of soap; (3) The use of
+alkalies in solution only; (4) Not too hot nor too much water, while
+the soap is acting on the dirt; (5) Thorough rinsing, that all alkali
+may be removed; (6) Long exposure to sunlight, the best bleacher and
+disinfectant.
+
+
+WASHING OF WOOLLENS.
+
+All wool goods require the greatest care in washing. The different
+waters used should be of the same temperature, and never too hot to be
+borne comfortably by the hands. Soap should always be used in the form
+of a solution. No soap should be rubbed on the fabric, and only a good
+white soap, free from resin, or a soft potash soap is allowable. Make
+each water slightly soapy, and leave a very little in the fabric at
+the last rinsing, in order to furnish a dressing as nearly like the
+original as possible. Ammonia or borax is sometimes used in preference
+to soap. For pure white flannel borax is the most satisfactory, on
+account of its bleaching quality. Only enough of any alkali should be
+used to make the water very soft.
+
+Wool fibres collect much dust, and should therefore be thoroughly
+brushed or shaken before the fabric is put into the water. Woollen
+fabrics should be cleansed by squeezing, and not by rubbing. Wool
+should not be wrung by hand. Either run the fabric smoothly through a
+wringer or squeeze the water out, so that the fibres may not become
+twisted. Woollen articles may be dried more quickly by rolling the
+article tightly in a thick, dry towel or sheet, and squeezing the
+whole till all moisture is absorbed. Shake the article thoroughly
+before placing to dry. Woollen goods should not be allowed to freeze,
+for the teeth become knotted and hard.
+
+
+COLORED COTTONS.
+
+Colored cottons should have their colors fixed before washing. Salt
+will set most colors, but the process must be repeated at each
+washing. Alum sets the colors permanently, and at the same time
+renders the fabric less combustible, if used in strong solution after
+the final rinsing. Dish cloths and dish towels must be kept clean as a
+matter of health, as well as a necessity for clean, bright tableware.
+The greasy dish cloth furnishes a most favorable field for the growth
+of germs. It must be washed with soap and hot water and dried
+thoroughly each time. All such cloths should form part of the weekly
+wash and receive all the disinfection possible, with soap, hot water
+and long drying in the sunshine and open air. Beware of the
+disease-breeding, greasy, damp, dish cloth hung in a warm, dark place.
+Oven towels, soiled with soot, etc., may be soaked over night in just
+enough kerosene to cover, then washed in cold water and soap.
+
+Laundry tubs should be carefully washed and dried. Wooden tubs, if
+kept in a dry place, should be turned upside down, and have the
+bottoms covered with a little water. The rubber rollers of the wringer
+may be kept clean and white by rubbing them with a clean cloth and a
+few drops of kerosene (coal oil). All waste pipes, from that of the
+kitchen sink to that of the refrigerator, become foul with grease,
+lint, dust and other organic matters which are the result of bacterial
+action. They are sources of contamination to the air of the entire
+house and to the food supply, thereby endangering health.
+
+All bath, wash basin and water-closet pipes should be flushed
+generously (as stated in a previous chapter) once a day at least. The
+kitchen sink pipe and laundry pipes should have a thorough cleaning
+with a strong boiling solution of washing soda daily, and a monthly
+flushing with crude potash. The soda solution should be used for
+cleansing the drain pipe of the refrigerator.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CARING FOR INVALIDS.
+
+One of the first considerations in caring for an invalid is the
+ventilation of the sick room. Care must be taken that the air is not
+vitiated by anything in the room, such as a kerosene lamp, wilted cut
+flowers, soiled clothing, etc. The bed should be so arranged as to
+avoid a draft--especially when airing the room. If the room is too
+small to allow this, a very good way to protect the patient is to
+raise an umbrella and place it over the head and shoulders; over this
+put a blanket while the room is being aired; allowing it to remain
+until the room has reached the desired temperature again. Never turn
+the wick of a lamp below the point of free combustion in the room of
+either sick or well, as the odor is not only disagreeable but
+injurious.
+
+One of the most important essentials in a sick room is perfect
+cleanliness of the room, the bed linen and clothing of the patient.
+Never air or dry cloths or garments in the sick room. Cover the broom
+with a damp flannel cloth in sweeping, so as to avoid noise and
+prevent the dust from rising. Avoid noise in placing coal on the fire
+by putting the coal in a paper bag, placing bag and all upon the fire.
+Do not allow loud talking or discussion in the sick room; neither is
+whispering desirable, as it is apt to irritate the patient. Do not
+consult the patient about the food, but see that tempting, wholesome
+varieties are provided, in accordance with the doctor's orders
+concerning the diet. Serve food in small quantities, and either hot or
+cold, as the article may require. A warm dish which should be hot, and
+a tepid drink, or food, which should be cold, is one of the most
+objectionable and unappetizing forms of serving food. Do not allow
+fresh fruit, which is intended for the patient, to remain in the sick
+room, but keep in a cool place and serve when needed. Never visit a
+sick room when in a violent perspiration or with an empty stomach, as
+the system at that time is more susceptible to contagion.
+
+One of the most important qualifications in a nurse is a thorough
+knowledge of the nature, use and digestibility, as well as the best
+methods of preparing the different kinds of food, so as to adapt them
+to the different forms of disease. In some cases, when the system has
+been overtaxed, either mentally or physically, a complete rest is
+necessary, and the diet should be food which merely satisfies the
+hunger--neither stimulating nor especially nourishing. Such foods come
+under the head of gruels, soups, jellies, fruit and drinks. On the
+other hand when a patient has become wasted from a long continued
+illness and requires building up, more nourishment is required to
+supply the waste. In some cases the food must be given in concentrated
+form. Milk is one of the most valuable foods in this class; sometimes
+it requires the addition of a little pepsin in order to facilitate
+digestion; sometimes the addition of a pinch of salt makes milk not
+only more agreeable to the patient, but aids digestion. Eggs, either
+lightly boiled or in egg-nog, are easily digested and very nourishing.
+Meat and milk soups, farina and oatmeal gruel, port wine jelly,
+albumen and milk (which is the white of egg and milk shaken together),
+and in some cases a bit of carefully broiled steak or chop, with dry
+toast, are suitable foods for this class of patient. In convalescence,
+any well cooked, easily digested food may be given. Fried food, rich
+puddings and pastry must be carefully avoided.
+
+People with consumptive tendencies should eat wholesome, easily
+digested food, with plenty of fat, such as cream, butter, fat of bacon
+and of roast beef, mutton, olive oil, salads, cornmeal and cereals,
+and take plenty of outdoor exercise. Soups which have in them cream or
+milk are better for invalids than those containing a greater amount of
+gelatine. A few simple recipes are given, which are suitable for
+invalids.
+
+
+BEVERAGES.
+
+_Barley Water._--Take 2 ounces of pearl barley and wash well with cold
+water at least 2 or 3 times. Put into a saucepan with 1-1/2 pint of
+water, and allow it to boil for 20 minutes closely covered. Strain
+and sweeten, and flavor with lemon juice; a little lemon peel may be
+added while boiling if desired.
+
+_Apple Water._--Take 2 or 3 tart apples. After baking, put them in a
+bowl and pour over them 1 cup of boiling water, strain and sweeten to
+taste; serve when cold.
+
+_Flax Seed Tea._--One-half cupful of flax seed--which has been
+carefully washed in cold water--to 1 quart of boiling water; boil
+slowly 30 minutes, move to the back of the stove and allow it to
+remain 10 or 15 minutes longer. Strain, and flavor to taste with lemon
+juice and sugar.
+
+_Lemonade._--Slice 1 lemon, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, press the
+lemon and sugar, add 1 cup of boiling water. Strain and serve hot or
+cold as required.
+
+_Orange Water._--Made the same as lemonade.
+
+
+MEAT EXTRACTIVES.
+
+_Beef Juice_ is prepared by broiling until the meat is heated through,
+then placing it in a lemon squeezer and pressing until all the juice
+is extracted. Heat until warm enough to be palatable, add a little
+salt, and by way of variety it may be poured over a slice of hot dry
+toast.
+
+_Beef Tea._--Cut juicy pieces of steak--the round steak is the
+best--into small pieces, cover with cold water and heat gradually to
+160 F. Allow it to remain at this temperature 10 or 15 minutes. Press,
+strain, and flavor with salt and pepper.
+
+_Beef Tea_ (_No. 2_).--Put a pound of finely minced beef into a glass
+fruit jar, add a pint of cold water. Let it stand for an hour,
+stirring and pressing occasionally. Place the jar in a kettle of
+water; place over the fire and allow the water to reach boiling point.
+Move back where the water will just simmer for an hour, keeping the
+jar closely covered. Strain the beef tea through a fine wire strainer;
+allowing the fine sediment to pass through, which should be drunk with
+the liquid. Flavor with salt. (For an especially strong beef
+stimulant, see recipe for Bouillon, in a former chapter.)
+
+_Beef Essence._--(This method is highly recommended.) One ounce of
+finely chopped fresh beef, free from fat; pour over it 8 ounces of
+soft water, add 5 or 6 drops of dilute hydrochloric acid, and 50 or 60
+grains of common salt, stir well, and leave for 3 hours in a cool
+place. Strain the fluid through a hair sieve, pressing the meat
+slightly; adding gradually toward the end of the straining, 2 ounces
+of water. The liquid is of a bright red color, tasting like soup. It
+should be served cold, in a small quantity at a time. If preferred
+warm it must not be put on the fire, but heated in a covered vessel
+placed in hot water.
+
+_Chicken Broth._--Singe and clean a small chicken. One-half of the
+chicken may be used for broth, and the other half for broiling or a
+fricassee. Disjoint, and cut the meat into small pieces. Break or
+crush the bones. Dip the feet into boiling water and scald until the
+skin and nails will peel off (as the feet contain gelatin). Cover the
+meat, feet and bones with cold water; heat very slowly, and simmer
+till the meat is tender. A few minutes before removing from the fire
+add salt and pepper to taste, also 1/2 teaspoonful of sugar. Strain,
+and when cool remove the fat. When needed, heat the necessary
+quantity, and if desired very clear add the shell and white of 1 egg.
+Let this boil slowly 3 or 4 minutes. Skim and strain through a fine
+cloth. A little lemon juice may be added to vary the flavor. This may
+be poured into small cups and kept in a cool place; or if the patient
+can take it some of the breast meat may be cut into small pieces and
+moulded with it. If the broth is served hot, it should not be cleared
+with the egg.
+
+_Mutton Broth._--Chop 1 pound of lean, juicy mutton very fine; pour
+over it 1 pint of cold water. Let it stand until the water is very
+red, then heat it slowly. Allow it to simmer 10 minutes. Strain,
+season, and if liked thick, 2 tablespoonfuls of soft boiled rice may
+be added; or it may be thickened with a little cornstarch wet with
+cold water and stirred into the hot broth. Serve very hot. If there is
+not enough time to cool the broth and reheat, the fat may be removed
+by using a piece of tissue, coarse brown or blotting paper, which, by
+passing over the surface, will remove any fat which cannot be taken
+off with a spoon.
+
+_Oatmeal Gruel._--To 1 quart of boiling water add 2 tablespoonfuls of
+oatmeal, salt to taste. Boil 1 hour, strain and serve with or without
+milk. Another method is to cover the oatmeal with cold water. Stir
+well; let it settle, then pour off the mealy water into a saucepan.
+Then boil the water.
+
+_Egg Soup._--Put 1 ounce of sago with 1/2 pint of milk into a double
+boiler, and cook 20 minutes. Strain through a sieve and add 1/2 pint
+of beef extract (or Bouillon). When hot take it from the fire and stir
+gradually into it the yolks (well beaten) of 2 eggs. Season to taste,
+and serve. Chicken or mutton broth may be used.
+
+_Albumen and Milk._--Put the white of 1 egg into 1/2 pint of milk.
+Pour into a pint fruit jar, screw on the top tightly and shake well
+for 1 minute, when it should be light and smooth. Serve at once. A
+pinch of salt may be added if desired.
+
+_Egg-Nog._--Beat 1 egg until very light, add 2 teaspoonfuls of sugar,
+and beat again; add 2/3 cup of cold milk, mix well, and if ordered, 2
+teaspoonfuls of brandy may be added. A pinch of salt added to the yolk
+of the egg makes it more palatable.
+
+_Orange Soup._--Soak the juice of an orange, 1/3 of the grated rind,
+and 1 teaspoonful of lemon juice for 1/2 hour. Strain, and make the
+liquid up to a cupful with water. Bring to boiling point and add two
+level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot, moistened with a very little cold
+water, stirring constantly until it thickens. When it reaches the
+boiling point, add 1 tablespoonful of sugar, turn into a bowl and
+stand away to cool. Serve very cold. (Any tart fruit juice may be used
+for this soup.)
+
+_Arrowroot Gruel._--Dissolve 2 level teaspoonfuls of arrowroot in a
+little cold water, add 1 cup of boiling water, cook for a few seconds;
+take from the fire, add a tablespoonful of sugar, 1 tablespoonful of
+lemon juice. (One egg may be beaten, white and yolk separately, until
+very light, mix them carefully and pour over the egg slowly one pint
+of hot arrowroot gruel, made as above; stir until well mixed.)
+
+_Rice Water or Jelly._--Pick over and wash carefully 2 tablespoonfuls
+of rice, and cook in water until the rice is dissolved. Add salt and
+sugar to taste. If intended to jelly, add lemon juice and strain into
+a mould. Serve cold with cream and sugar. If to be used as a drink,
+add enough hot water to make a thin liquid, and boil longer. A little
+stick cinnamon may be added a few minutes before straining. Serve hot
+or cold.
+
+_Stewed Figs._--Take some choice figs, wash, then cover them with cold
+water. Soak over night. In the morning bring them to boiling point,
+and keep them over the fire, just simmering for 20 minutes, or until
+the figs are plump and soft. Lift them out carefully, and boil down
+the liquor until it forms a syrup. Pour this over the figs and serve
+cold. Whipped or plain cream may be served with them.
+
+_Jellied Chicken._--Take a young, tender chicken. Prepare and disjoint
+it as for a fricassee. Put a bay leaf, a stock of celery about 4
+inches long, and 2 whole pepper corns in the bottom of a bowl. Then
+put in the chicken. Stand the bowl in a pot of boiling water, being
+careful that the steam shall not drip, or the water boil over into the
+chicken. Cover the pot closely and keep the water boiling until the
+meat is tender enough to allow the bones to slip out. Remove the skin
+and bones and put the remainder of the chicken into a pint bowl or
+mould. Season the remaining liquor with salt, and strain over the
+meat. Stand in a cool place to harden. (Do not add water to the
+chicken when cooking.)
+
+_Raw Meat Sandwiches._--Three ounces of raw beef, which may be chopped
+very fine and rubbed through a hair sieve or scraped from a slice of
+steak. Mix with it 1 ounce of fine bread crumbs, 1 teaspoonful of
+sugar, pepper and salt to taste. Spread it between thin slices of
+brown or white bread and butter. (A few drops of lemon juice may be
+added if the flavor is liked.)
+
+_Broiled Steak, Hamburg Steak, Broiled White Fish, Stews, Etc._ (See
+recipes in preceding chapters.)
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+A FEW GENERAL HINTS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN.
+
+"Too much attention cannot be given by parents to the diet of school
+children, or by teachers to the diet of pupils under their care in
+boarding schools and colleges. The average age of school children is
+from six to sixteen years. During this time both mind and body are
+undergoing development. Throughout school period the growth of the
+body is continued until almost completed. There are unusual demands,
+therefore, upon the functions of absorption and assimilation. The food
+must be abundant, and of the character to furnish new tissue, and to
+yield energy in the form of heat and muscular activity. The food
+should also contain salts of lime to meet the requirements of
+formation of the bones and teeth. Many children acquire habits of
+dislike for certain articles of food, which become so fixed in later
+life that they find it very inconvenient, especially when placed in
+circumstances, as in travelling, where one cannot always obtain the
+accustomed diet; it therefore is unwise to cultivate such habits,
+which are often a serious obstacle to normal development.
+
+"A physician is often baffled in the treatment of a severe disease by
+the vitiated taste of the patient. Many cases of anaemia and chlorosis,
+which are so commonly seen in young girls, are directly traceable to a
+faulty diet. It should be the imperative duty of all teachers to
+consider the responsibility of rightly developing the physical
+constitutions of those entrusted to their care. They should remember
+that the mind keeps on developing long after the body, and that the
+period under discussion is one in which the constitution of the
+individual is established for the remainder of life. At this stage
+success in digestion and assimilation is of greater importance than
+success in mental attainments." (Thompson.)
+
+An important consideration in school diet is to avoid monotony, which
+becomes so common from economic reasons, or more often from
+carelessness. It is so much easier to yield to routine and force of
+habit than to study the question. The hours for study and for meals
+should be so regulated that sufficient time will be allowed before
+each meal for children to wash and prepare themselves comfortably
+without going to the table excited by hurry, and they should be
+required to remain at the table for a fixed time, and not allowed to
+hastily swallow their food in order to complete an unfinished task or
+game. An interval of at least half an hour should intervene after
+meals before any mental exertion is required. Constant nibbling at
+food between meals should be forbidden; it destroys the appetite,
+increases the saliva, and interferes with gastric digestion.
+
+The habit of chewing gum cannot be too strongly condemned, both for
+the reason given in the preceding sentence and for its effect upon
+the muscles and nerves. It is being more and more realized by the
+public in general, that the breaking down of health at school is more
+often due to impoverished nutrition than to overwork. Delicate
+children should not be allowed too long intervals between meals, as
+for instance, the evening meal at six o'clock and breakfast the
+following morning at seven or half past. A glass of milk and a piece
+of whole wheat bread and butter should be given--if they
+awaken--during the night. Delicate children whose appetites are poor,
+and who do not do proper justice to their regular meals, should be
+given an extra allowance of hot broth or hot milk with bread and
+butter, between meals.
+
+These rules are applicable in cases of children who, during one or two
+years, seem to develop with extraordinary rapidity, growing sometimes
+two inches or more in six months. The demands of this rapid growth
+must be met by proper nutrition, or serious subsequent impairment of
+vitality may result. Such children should have their meals made
+tempting by good cooking and pleasant variety, as well as an agreeable
+appearance of the food. Meat which is carved in unsightly masses and
+vegetables which are sodden and tasteless will be refused, and an ill
+attempt is made to supply the deficiency in proper food by eating
+indigestible candy, nuts, etc. Children often have no natural liking
+for meat, and prefer puddings, pastry or sweets when they can obtain
+them; it is therefore more important that meat and other wholesome
+foods should be made attractive to them at the age when they need it.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOL CHILDREN'S DIET.
+
+If early rising is insisted upon, a child should never be set at any
+task before breakfast, especially in winter; and if it is not
+expedient to serve a full breakfast at half-past six or seven, the
+child should be given a bowl of milk and bread, a cup of cocoa with a
+roll or other light food. Breakfast may be served later, after the
+first exercises of the morning, and should consist of porridge of
+wheaten grits, hominy, fish, eggs, fruit (raw or cooked), bread and
+butter. Dinner, which should always be served near the middle of the
+day, should comprise meat, potatoes, one or two green vegetables, some
+form of light pudding or sweet. Supper, it is generally admitted,
+should comprise easily digested articles of food; such substances as
+pastry, cheese and meats are better omitted; it should consist of a
+porridge, with milk or cream, or a light, farinacious pudding of rice,
+tapioca or sago, with bread and butter, and some simple form of
+preserve, stewed apples or prunes, or very light, plain cake. A good
+bowl of nutritious broth--or soup--with bread or crackers, may be
+substituted for the porridge or pudding. It will sometimes be found
+best to serve this meal at seven or half-past seven o'clock; in this
+case the child should be given a slice of bread and butter or a glass
+of milk (drinking it slowly), at half-past four or five.
+
+Some of the more important articles of school diet require special
+mention; the following extract from Dr. Thompson's Practical
+Dietetics may prove helpful:--
+
+_Bread._--"Bread, as a rule, should be made of whole meal, but must
+not be too coarse. The advantage of this bread for children consists
+in its containing a larger proportion of salts, which they need, than
+is found in refined white flour, and butter should be freely served
+with it to supply the deficiency of fats which exist in meat. Children
+need fat, but they do not digest meat fat well, as a rule, and are
+very apt to dislike it. They will often take suet pudding, however,
+when hot mutton fat wholly disagrees with them."
+
+_Milk._--"Milk should be freely supplied, not only in the form of
+puddings and porridges, but as an occasional beverage, and children
+should be made to understand that when hungry, they can obtain a glass
+of milk, or a bowl of crackers or bread and milk, for the asking.
+Chambers says, 'The best lunch that a growing young man can have is a
+dish of roast potatoes, well buttered and peppered, and a draft of
+milk.'"
+
+_Meat._--"Meat may be given twice a day, but not oftener. It may
+sometimes be advisable to give it but once a day when fish or eggs are
+supplied; it should, however, be given at least once daily, to rapidly
+growing children."
+
+_Sweets._--"The greater number of children have a natural craving for
+sweets."
+
+The energy developed in active childhood necessitates the consumption
+of a larger proportion of sugar than is required by adults. The
+craving of children for confections, candy, etc., furnishes a true
+indication of the actual requirements of nature, and it must be
+admitted that a certain amount of wholesome candy not only does most
+children no harm, but may serve them as an excellent food. The main
+difficulty with such forms of sugar, however, is that children are
+not furnished with a proper proportion of sugar with their meals, and
+the meals themselves are not so regulated as to prevent their becoming
+very hungry between times; consequently, if they can obtain candy,
+which satisfies them for the time, they are very apt to eat too much,
+with the result of producing more or less dyspepsia and diminishing
+the normal appetite. Alcohol in every form should be absolutely
+excluded. If given during early youth, it is particularly prone to
+develop a taste which may become uncontrollable in later years.
+(Children should not indulge in tea and coffee.)
+
+_Exercise._--As a general rule, active muscular exercise in children
+disturbs their digestive process far less than mental effort, when
+taken immediately after meals; and every adult is familiar with the
+romping which children can undertake straightway after dinner, often,
+though not always, with impunity, whereas a proportionate amount of
+exercise on the part of an adult might produce a severe dyspeptic
+attack.
+
+Much of the headache and inattention of pupils during school hours is
+the direct result of an ill-regulated diet, or from vitiated
+appetites.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+INFANTS' DIET.
+
+One of the most important subjects included in a domestic science
+course of study is the feeding and care of infants. A subject
+requiring special intelligence and consideration; one which embodies
+the condensed information of the preceding chapters, and is the
+foundation upon which the future physical structure is built.
+
+It is not upon the mother alone that the baby depends for care and
+attention. Many young girls, especially elder sisters and nurse-maids,
+have this responsibility placed upon them when they are little more
+than children themselves. To these, as well as to young mothers, the
+following suggestions may prove helpful.
+
+The first demand of an infant is for food, and upon the quality and
+quantity of the article provided depends the health of the child, as
+well as the comfort of the household.
+
+Milk is the only food required by an infant until it is, at least,
+seven or eight months old, or until sufficient saliva is secreted to
+assist digestion; some authorities say one year, others until the
+child has sufficient teeth with which to masticate food. If nature's
+supply is not available, or sufficient, the best substitute is cow's
+milk. As cow's milk contains less sugar of milk, and fat (cream), than
+human milk, these must be supplied. Being more acid than alkaline,
+this must be corrected by the use of lime water.
+
+There is more casein (curd) in cow's milk than in mother's milk,
+therefore water must be added to reduce this. The following
+proportions have been submitted as a digestible form of preparing
+cow's milk for young infants (Dr. Meigs):--
+
+    Cream, 2 tbsps.
+    Milk, 1 tbsp.
+    Lime water, 2 tbsps.
+    Milk-sugar water, 3 tbsps.
+
+One quarter of this amount to be given every two hours during the day,
+and once or twice at night.
+
+After the baby is a week old, the quantity may be increased to
+one-half at each meal; at two months the whole amount prepared may be
+given at once.
+
+The proportion of milk should be gradually increased, and the water
+and cream decreased, until at two months old the proportion should
+be:--
+
+    3 tbsps. milk.
+    1 tbsp. cream.
+    1 tbsp. lime water.
+    3 tbsps. sugar water.
+
+When six months old the quantity of milk is doubled. It should be
+increased every day until ten tablespoonfuls are given at a feeding.
+
+
+BARLEY WATER.
+
+    2 tbsps. pearl barley.
+    1 pt. boiling water.
+
+Wash the barley carefully. Pour over it the boiling water. Let it
+simmer for two hours. Strain and sweeten with a pinch of sugar of
+milk.
+
+
+MILK-SUGAR WATER.
+
+    1/2 oz. sugar of milk.
+    1/2 pt. boiling water.
+
+Dissolve, and keep closely covered. It will not keep long, so should
+be made when required to use.
+
+
+LIME WATER.
+
+Take a lump of lime weighing about one ounce. Put in a bottle with a
+quart of cold water (which has been boiled). Shake the bottle well
+until the lime is dissolved, and let it stand for 12 hours. Pour the
+clear liquid into another bottle, being careful not to disturb the
+sediment. Keep carefully corked. Water will only absorb a certain
+quantity of lime, so there is no danger of its being too strong.
+
+As cow's milk is more difficult to digest than mother's milk, it is
+sometimes necessary to substitute barley water in place of the lime
+water and milk, using the same amount of cream as given in recipe.
+
+
+MALTED FOOD.
+
+    2 oz. wheat flour or barley meal.
+    1-3/4 qts. water.
+    1 tsp. extract of malt.
+
+Mix the flour to a paste with a little water, gradually add a quart of
+the water; put it in a double boiler and boil 10 minutes. Dissolve the
+malt extract in 4 tbsps. of the water (cold). Lift out the inner
+vessel and add the malt and remainder of the cold water. Let it stand
+15 minutes, replace, and boil again for 15 minutes. Strain through a
+wire gauze strainer. (Half this quantity may be made.)
+
+This preparation is used when both barley water and lime-water
+disagree. It must always be given with milk. It prevents the large
+tough curds forming, which is such an objectionable feature in using
+cow's milk.
+
+
+PEPTONIZED MILK.
+
+In cases of especially weak digestion it may be necessary to peptonize
+the milk, which may be done as follows: Add 5 grains of extract of
+pancreas and 15 grains of baking soda to 1 pint of milk. (Tablets of
+pancreatin and soda may be used.)
+
+After adding the peptonizing material put the milk in a double boiler
+or in a vessel which may be set in a larger one, holding water, as hot
+as the hand can bear being dipped into quickly, or about 115 deg. Fah.
+Leave the milk in the hot water about 20 minutes, then place on the
+ice. If heated too long the milk will taste bitter.
+
+The preparation given in recipe No. 1, or with the barley water added,
+may be peptonized.
+
+
+STERILIZED OR PASTEURIZED MILK.
+
+(_See Milk, Chapter V._)
+
+Put the amount of milk required for a meal into pint or half pint
+bottles, allowing for the number of times the child is to be fed in 24
+hours. Use cotton batting as a stopper. Place a wire frame, or invert
+a perforated tin pie plate, in the bottom of a saucepan; stand the
+bottles on this, pour around them enough water to come well above the
+milk, cover the saucepan or kettle, and when the water boils lift the
+saucepan from the fire and allow the bottles to remain in the hot
+water for 1 hour. Keep in the ice box or stand them in cold water
+until needed. If milk is to be used during a long journey it will be
+necessary to repeat the above operation three times, letting the milk
+cool between each time.
+
+Unless the milk is perfectly fresh, and has been handled with great
+care, it is safer to sterilize or pasteurize it. The former, if any
+doubt is entertained as to the quality of the milk, the latter in
+every case.
+
+
+TEMPERATURE OF FOOD.
+
+Food should be "milk warm," or about 99 deg. Fah., when given to a baby.
+Hot food is very injurious.
+
+
+NURSING BOTTLES AND FEEDING.
+
+Have two plain bottles with rubber tops, _without tubes_. Bottles with
+ounces and tablespoonfuls marked on them can be purchased, and are a
+great convenience in measuring the amount of food required.
+
+After using the bottle, empty the remaining milk; rinse in cold water,
+then in _scalding water_.
+
+If particles of milk adhere to the bottle use coarse salt or raw
+potato cut in small pieces. If the glass looks cloudy, add a little
+ammonia to the water. Turn the rubber tops inside out and scrub with a
+stiff brush; boil them every alternate day for 10 minutes.
+
+_Absolute cleanliness is a necessity_ in the care of a baby's food,
+bottles and rubber tops.
+
+The bottle should be held, while the baby is feeding, in such a
+position that the top is full of milk. If air is sucked in with the
+milk stomach-ache will likely result.
+
+Starchy food should not be given to a child until it is able to
+masticate. (See digestion of starch, Chap. VIII.)
+
+Arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, etc., _must not be given to infants_.
+
+
+FLOUR BALL.
+
+Put a bowlful of flour into a strong cloth, tie it up like a pudding,
+and place it in a kettle of boiling water. Boil for 10 or 12 hours.
+When boiled turn it out of the cloth and cut away the soft outside
+coating. When cool, grate the hard inside portion and use a
+teaspoonful at each feeding, for a baby 8 months old, increasing the
+amount for an older child. This may be prepared in the same manner as
+cornstarch or flour. The long boiling converts the starch into
+dextrine, which is more easily digested than starch. This is
+especially valuable in cases of diarrhoea, and may be used instead
+of barley gruel as a food.
+
+
+OATMEAL GRUEL.
+
+Pound a cupful of oatmeal in a pestle or on a bread board. Put in a
+bowl and pour over it 1 pint of cold water. Stir it up, then let the
+mixture settle for a few minutes. Pour off the milky fluid, repeat
+this process. Boil this water for an hour, adding a pinch of salt, and
+use it to dilute the milk instead of water.
+
+A thicker gruel may be made from oatmeal by allowing 1 tablespoonful
+to a cup of boiling water. Let it boil 1 hour, then strain through a
+wire strainer.
+
+
+FARINA GRUEL.
+
+    1 tbsp. farina.
+    2 cups boiling water.
+    A spk. of salt.
+
+Cook for 20 minutes; use as directed for oatmeal.
+
+
+BEEF JUICE.
+
+(_See page 145._)
+
+_Beef juice_ is sometimes ordered for delicate babies. For a child 9
+months old, 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls may be given once a day.
+
+
+ALBUMINIZED FOOD.
+
+When milk cannot be taken, albuminized food proves an excellent
+substitute.
+
+Shake the white of 1 egg with 1/2 a pint of water (filtered or boiled
+and cooled) in a glass jar until they are thoroughly mixed. Add a few
+grains of salt.
+
+Children do not require a great variety in their food. Give one
+article of diet at a time and see how it agrees before trying another.
+
+After a child is a year old the various cereals may be given as
+porridge instead of gruel, with the addition of a little sugar.
+
+Remember, all cereals should be thoroughly cooked (see page 83).
+
+
+BISCUITS.
+
+Gluten, soda, oatmeal or Graham biscuits may be soaked in milk or
+given alone. Do not give the fancy or sweet biscuits to young
+children.
+
+
+EGGS.
+
+A properly boiled egg (see page 69) may be given every alternate day
+to a child 1 year old.
+
+
+JUNKET.
+
+Junket is much better for young children than custards or puddings,
+and sometimes agrees well with babies.
+
+Take 1 pint of milk, heat it to 98 deg. Fah., or milk warm. Add 1
+teaspoonful of rennet and 1 teaspoonful of sugar. Stir all together
+and let it stand in a warm place until it becomes as thick as jelly.
+Remove at once to a cool place or whey will appear.
+
+
+BAKED POTATOES.
+
+Potatoes should not be given to a child under 2 years old in any other
+form than baked. The potash salts are the most valuable constituent,
+and are lost when they are peeled and boiled. They should be dry and
+mealy. A little salt, butter or cream should be added.
+
+
+MACARONI.
+
+(_See page 85._)
+
+Macaroni is an excellent food for young children.
+
+
+FRUIT.
+
+Baked apples and the juice of an orange are the only fruits which
+should be given to children under two years of age.
+
+
+RICE.
+
+Rice is an excellent food for young children, but not for infants.
+
+
+VENTILATION.
+
+Foul air is injurious to grown persons, but it is infinitely more
+dangerous to the sensitive organization of a child. Therefore special
+attention should be given to the ventilation of rooms occupied by a
+baby (see page 132).
+
+Fresh air, wholesome food, regular bathing, and plenty of sleep will
+insure the normal growth of the average baby, and are within reach of
+every one who has the care of young children.
+
+The writer is indebted to Miss Scovil, Superintendent of Newport
+Hospital, and one of the associate editors of the _Ladies' Home
+Journal_, for many of the above hints concerning the diet of infants.
+
+
+EMERGENCIES.
+
+As frequent accidents occur during the performance of household
+duties, a few suggestions as to how slight injuries should be treated
+may prove useful to the young housekeeper.
+
+_Cuts._--A cut should be washed with cold water, covered with a small
+pad of cotton, bound up, and left alone. Should matter form, the
+bandage must be taken off, the wound bathed with carbolized water,
+1-80, and a little carbolized vaseline spread on a bit of linen and
+laid over it. The washing and dressing should be repeated two or three
+times a day if there is much discharge.
+
+_Bruises._--A flannel wrung out of very hot water, and laid on a
+bruise, relieves the soreness.
+
+For bruises on the face, apply ice. Brown paper wet in vinegar is an
+old-fashioned remedy. If the skin is broken, treat as a wound, with
+carbolized water and carbolized vaseline.
+
+_Sprains._--Both hot and cold treatment is recommended. Immerse the
+joint in water as hot as can be borne. Keep up the temperature by
+gradually adding more hot water. Let it soak for an hour or more. Then
+wrap in warm flannel, and surround with hot water bags or bottles.
+
+_Stings._--Bathe the part in ammonia, or baking soda and water; wet a
+cloth in the same, and bind over it.
+
+_Burns._--The best household remedies for burns are baking soda and
+carbolized vaseline. For slight burns mix the soda to a paste with
+water, and spread thickly over the part; cover with linen or old
+cotton. This may be kept wet by squeezing water over it. If shreds of
+clothing adhere to a burn, they should be soaked with oil, and not
+pulled off until softened. If the skin is gone, spread carbolized
+vaseline on linen, and bind on the part until the doctor arrives.
+
+In burns caused by acids, water should not be applied to the parts.
+Cover with dry baking soda.
+
+If caused by an alkali, such as lye, ammonia, or quick-lime, use an
+acid, as vinegar or lemon juice, diluted.
+
+_Poisoning._--For poison ivy, saturate a cloth in a solution of baking
+soda, or ammonia and water, and lay over the part.
+
+When poison has been swallowed, the first thing to do is to get it out
+of the stomach. Secondly, to prevent what remains from doing more
+mischief. Give an emetic at once. One tbsp. of salt in a glass of
+_tepid_ water; 1 tsp. of mustard, or 1 tsp. of powdered alum in a
+glass of tepid water. A tsp. of wine of ipecac, followed by warm
+water. Repeat any of these three or four times if necessary. The
+quantities given are for children; larger doses may be given to
+adults. It is well to give a dose of castor oil after the danger is
+over, to carry off any remnants of the poison that may have lodged in
+the intestines.
+
+After a poison has burned the mouth and throat, plenty of milk may be
+given, also flour, arrowroot, or cornstarch gruel.
+
+For drowning and other serious accidents, see Public School
+Physiology.
+
+
+FURNISHING A CLASS-ROOM.
+
+The furnishing of a class-room should be so complete that each pupil
+should be able to attend to the appointed task without delay. The
+furniture should consist of a stove, or range, gas stove if more
+convenient, a hot water tank or boiler, sink, table (side), towel
+rack, 2 dozen chairs, or seats with tablet arms, a cupboard or kitchen
+"dresser" for table ware, a large cupboard or arrangement for lockers,
+in which caps, aprons, etc., should be kept, a large table--horseshoe
+shape is the most satisfactory--with drawers, and space for rolling
+pin, bread board, etc., underneath. The table should be large enough
+to allow at least 2 ft. 6 in. for each pupil. Twenty pupils is the
+limit of a practice class. On the table should be placed at regular
+intervals, 10 gas burners with frame. The teacher's table should stand
+in the opening at the end of the table so that she may see each pupil
+while at work, and when demonstrating may be seen by each pupil.
+
+The following list of utensils will be found sufficient for practice
+work for a class of 20 pupils.
+
+
+EARTHEN, CHINA AND GLASS WARE.
+
+     1 dinner set.
+     2 quart pitchers.
+     2 pint pitchers.
+     2 small oval baking dishes.
+     2 small round baking dishes.
+     4 4-quart bowls, with lips.
+     6 2-quart bowls, with lips.
+     4 1-quart bowls.
+    12 baking cups.
+     6 kitchen cups.
+     2 small platters.
+     2 medium size platters.
+     2 deep pie plates.
+     6 shallow pie plates.
+     2 jelly moulds.
+     1 teapot.
+     1 dozen quart gem jars.
+     1 dozen pint gem jars.
+     6 4-quart stone jars or crocks.
+     1 dozen fancy plates, and glass dishes for serving.
+
+WOODENWARE.
+
+     1 wash-board.
+    12 small bread boards.
+    12 rolling pins.
+     2 chopping trays.
+     2 potato mashers.
+     1 potato ricer.
+     1 water pail.
+     1 scrubbing pail.
+     1 pail or bucket for refuse.
+     1 flour bucket, with cover.
+     6 wooden spoons--small.
+     1 2-gallon ice cream freezer.
+     1 broom.
+     1 whisk-broom.
+     1 crumb pan and brush.
+     1 floor scrubbing brush.
+     6 small scrubbing brushes.
+     1 stove brush.
+     1 pastry brush.
+     1 small refrigerator.
+     Spice boxes.
+     Dish mops.
+     Lemon squeezers, etc.
+
+AGATE WARE.
+
+    4 double boilers.
+    2 4-quart kettles.
+    2 2-quart saucepans.
+    4 1-quart saucepans.
+    4 pt. saucepans.
+    2 oval pudding dishes.
+    1 4-quart preserving kettle.
+    1 hand basin.
+    1 tea kettle.
+
+IRON WARE.
+
+    1 spider.
+    1 griddle.
+    1 pan for meat.
+    1 pan for fish.
+    1 meat fork.
+    1 can opener.
+    1 meat cleaver.
+    2 wooden-handled spoons.
+    1 braising pan (cover).
+    Scales, etc.
+
+TIN AND WIRE WARE.
+
+     2 large graters.
+     1 nutmeg grater.
+    12 flour dredges.
+    12 measuring cups.
+     1 funnel.
+     1 basting spoon.
+     1 wire broiler, for toast.
+     2 wire broilers, for steak.
+     1 wire soap dish.
+     3 Dover egg beaters.
+     3 small wire strainers.
+     1 large wire strainer.
+     1 flour scoop.
+     2 flour sifters.
+     1 gravy strainer.
+     1 colander.
+     2 dish pans.
+     2 2-qt. milk cans.
+     1 quart measure.
+     1 pint measure.
+     1 steamer.
+     6 small bread pans.
+     6 small jelly moulds.
+     1 set gem pans.
+     1 doz. muffin rings.
+     2 dustpans.
+     2 plain cake cutters.
+     1 doughnut cutter.
+     1 small biscuit cutter.
+     1 frying basket.
+     1 dipper.
+     2 long, shallow cake tins.
+     2 egg whisks.
+     1 round cake tin.
+     1 wire frame.
+     1 vegetable cutter.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+    1 doz. dish towels.
+    2 floor cloths.
+    12 holders.
+    Cheese cloth.
+    Pudding cloth.
+    Needles.
+    Twine.
+    Scissors.
+    Skewers.
+    Screw driver.
+    Corkscrew.
+    1 doz. knives and forks.
+    Hammer.
+    Tacks and Nails.
+    Ironing sheet and holder.
+    Coal scuttle.
+    Fire shovel.
+    Coal sieve.
+    Ash hod.
+    Flat irons.
+    Paper for cake tins.
+    Wrapping paper.
+    Small tub for laundry work.
+    6 tablespoons.
+    2 doz. teaspoons.
+
+While this may seem a formidable list, it will not be found expensive.
+Some of the above articles may be omitted and others substituted. It
+must be remembered that the utensils will be well cared for,
+consequently will last for many years. In country schools, or where
+gas is not available, oil stoves may be used. In some schools, where
+space is limited, one small table is used, two or more pupils
+demonstrating the lesson under the supervision of the teacher, the
+pupils taking this duty in alternation. The remainder of the class
+observe and take notes.
+
+The cost of material is trifling. It should not average more than
+fifty cents per pupil per annum, and for a large number should average
+less than this amount.
+
+The Boston school kitchens are, many of them, furnished at a cost of
+from $200 to $300. A fair average cost for Ontario should be about
+$175.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PLANNING AND SERVING MEALS.
+
+During the last quarter of school work each pupil should submit a
+typical menu for breakfast, dinner and supper, allowing for a certain
+number of people. Consider the occupation, and give reasons for the
+choice of food for each meal.
+
+State how long it should take to prepare the meal, and give the cost.
+Insist upon variety in menus, and request the pupil to describe how
+the meal should be served. _System_, neatness and promptness should be
+especially emphasized. Clean table linen--no matter how coarse--is
+possible for every one. A dish of fruit or flowers, if only a bunch of
+green foliage, improves the appearance of the table.
+
+During the school course a special lesson should be devoted to setting
+the table and serving meals, with and without a waitress, so as to
+give a knowledge of how a meal should be served, no matter what the
+pupil's position in life may be or what part she may have to perform.
+
+
+A FEW GENERAL HINTS ON SETTING THE TABLE.
+
+Although every housekeeper has her own method for serving meals, a few
+general principles govern all properly regulated service. When setting
+the table, cover first with a canton-flannel or felt cloth, in order
+to prevent noise and protect the table. Place each article in its
+proper place and not in a confused "jumble." See that the tablecloth
+is spread smoothly, that the corners are of equal length, that the
+crease--if the cloth has been folded instead of rolled--is exactly in
+the centre. Place the fruit or flowers in the centre of the table.
+
+For each person place knife, spoon and glass on the right, fork and
+napkin on the left. Place the glass at the point of the knife. Turn
+the edge of the knife towards the plate and the fork tines up, the
+spoon with the bowl up. If soup is to be served, place a square of
+bread or a roll on top of the napkin or between the folds. Place the
+pepper and salt at the corners of the table, unless individual salts
+are used, when they should be placed at the head of the plates, where
+the dessert spoon may be placed--the handle towards the right--for
+convenience.
+
+The general rule in serving simple family meals, with or without a
+waitress, is for the hostess to serve the porridge and coffee at
+breakfast; the soup, salad and dessert at dinner, and pour the tea at
+the evening meal. When luncheon is served in the middle of the day the
+hostess usually does the greater part of the serving, as luncheon is
+considered to be the most informal meal of the day.
+
+
+A FEW HINTS FOR WAITRESSES.
+
+Learn to move quickly and quietly. Be scrupulously clean and neat in
+every detail of dress and habit. Before serving a meal see that hands
+and finger nails are clean. Always have a fresh white apron ready to
+put on before the meal is announced. Look over the table and see that
+everything is in its place before announcing a meal. Fill the glasses
+with water either before the family enter the dining room or
+immediately after they are seated. Lift the covers from hot dishes and
+turn them over at once in order to prevent the steam from dropping on
+the cloth. Take the plate from the host or hostess, and place before
+each person from the right side--keep the thumb well under the plate.
+When passing anything from which the persons seated at table help
+themselves, such as vegetables, sauces, etc., always go to the left,
+so as to leave the right hand of the one to be served free. Keep a
+watchful eye over the table and pass anything apparently required.
+
+Learn to receive instructions from the hostess in an undertone. Do not
+get excited and try to do too many things at once. It is an
+accomplishment to be a good waitress, as it requires special
+refinement and deftness, which are scarcely compatible with an untidy
+nature.
+
+When serving meals without a waitress, the daughters of the house
+should consider it their special privilege to save the mother any
+annoyance or discomfort during the meal time. Never allow dishes,
+which have been used, to accumulate on the table or allow the table to
+become disordered. As much of the food as possible should be placed on
+the table before the family are seated, and the plates or dishes
+removed at once after using. No matter how simple the meal may be,
+every housekeeper should see that it is served neatly and on time.
+Teachers may exercise a far-reaching influence in the refining of home
+life by impressing upon the pupils the importance of these--too often
+considered--minor matters, and by giving minute instructions in the
+setting of table and serving the meal. One carefully planned
+_practice_ lesson will convey more knowledge of such matters than any
+number of lectures or pages of theory.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONSIDERATION OF MENUS.
+
+The following menus and analyses are taken from bulletin No. 74,
+prepared in the United States Experiment Stations, and are inserted so
+as to give some idea of the cost and relative value of various foods
+in combination. _It must be remembered that the prices given are in
+excess of prices in Ontario, therefore the cost per menu would be less
+than is given in these illustrations._ The more expensive menus have
+been omitted. The writer of the article says:--
+
+"In planning a well balanced diet the following points must be
+considered:--
+
+(1) The use of any considerable amount of fat meat or starchy food
+should be offset by the use of some material rich in protein. Thus, if
+roast pork is to be eaten for dinner, veal, fish, or lean beef might
+well be eaten for breakfast or supper, or both. Bean soup furnishes a
+considerable amount of protein, while bouillon, consomme, and tomato
+soup are practically useless as a source of nutriment. Skim milk also
+furnishes protein, with but very little accompanying fats and
+carbohydrates to increase the fuel value.
+
+(2) The use of lean meats or fish for all three meals would require
+the use of such foods as rice, tapioca, or cornstarch pudding,
+considerable quantities of sugar and butter, and more vegetables, in
+order to furnish sufficient fuel value.
+
+(3) Since flour, sugar, and butter or lard enter very largely into
+pastries and desserts, the larger the quantities of these dishes that
+are consumed the larger does the fuel value tend to become as compared
+with the protein."
+
+The principal classes of food materials may be roughly grouped as
+follows as regards the proportion of protein to fuel value, beginning
+with those which have the largest proportion of protein and ending
+with those which contain little or no protein:--
+
+  Foods containing a large amount of protein as
+  compared with the fuel value.
+
+    Fish;
+    veal;
+    lean beef, such as shank, shoulder, canned corned,
+      round, neck, and chuck;
+    skim milk.
+
+
+  Foods containing a medium amount of protein.
+
+    Fowl;
+    eggs;
+    mutton leg and shoulder;
+    beef, fatter cuts, such as rib, loin, rump, flank, and brisket;
+    whole milk;
+    beans and peas;
+    mutton chuck and loin;
+    cheese;
+    lean pork;
+    oatmeal and other breakfast foods;
+    flour;
+    bread, etc.
+
+
+  Foods containing little or no protein.
+
+    Vegetables and fruit;
+    fat pork;
+    rice;
+    tapioca;
+    starch;
+    butter and other fats and oils;
+    sugar, syrups.
+
+
+THE MENUS.
+
+To illustrate the ways in which milk may be combined with other food
+materials, to form daily dietaries with about the amount of protein
+and the fuel value called for by the standard for men at moderate
+muscular work, a few menus are given in the following pages. These
+menus are intended to show how approximately the same nutritive value
+may be obtained by food combinations differing widely as regards the
+number, kind, and price of the food materials used to make up three
+daily meals. They also illustrate how the cost of the daily menu may
+vary greatly with the kind and variety of materials purchased, though
+the nutritive value remains the same. These sample menus should not,
+however, be regarded as in any sense "models" to be followed in actual
+practice. The daily menus for any family will necessarily vary with
+the market supply, the season, and the relative expensiveness of
+different food materials, as well as with the tastes and purse of the
+consumers. The point to which we wish here to draw especial attention
+is that the prudent buyer of foods for family consumption can not
+afford to wholly neglect their nutritive value in making such
+purchases.
+
+With reference to the following daily menus, several points must be
+definitely borne in mind. (1) The amounts given represent about what
+would be called for in a family equivalent to four full-grown men at
+ordinary manual labor, such as machinists, carpenters, mill-workers,
+farmers, truckmen, etc., according to the usually accepted standards.
+Sedentary people would require somewhat less than the amounts here
+given. (2) Children as a rule may be considered as having "moderate
+muscular exercise," and it may easily be understood that the
+14-year-old boy eats as much as his father who is engaged in business
+or professional occupation, both requiring, according to the tentative
+standard, 0.8 of the food needed by a man with moderate muscular work.
+(3) It is not assumed that any housewife will find it convenient to
+follow exactly the proportions suggested in the menus. The purpose is
+to show her about what amounts and proportions of food materials would
+give the required nutrients.
+
+A family equivalent to four men having little muscular
+exercise--_i.e._, men with sedentary occupation--would require but
+about 0.8 the quantities indicated in the following menus. It would be
+very doubtful, however, if they would eat proportionally less of every
+food material. It would, in fact, be more probable that the amounts of
+meat, fish, eggs, potatoes, and bread eaten would be reduced in a much
+greater proportion than fruit, pastry, coffee, etc.
+
+
+PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF MILK AND OTHER FOODS.
+
+_Amounts of actual nutrients obtained in different food materials for
+10 cts._
+
+    _Food Material._                       _Lbs. Oz._
+
+    Whole Milk, 10 cts. per qt.              2    0
+      "     "    8       "                   2    8
+      "     "    7       "                   2   14
+      "     "    6       "                   3    5
+      "     "    5       "                   4    0
+      "     "    4       "                   5    0
+    Skim    "    3       "                   6   11
+    Skim    "    2       "                  10    0
+    Butter, 24 cts. per lb.                  0    7
+    Cheese, 16       "                       0   10
+    Beef, round,  12 cts. per lb.            0   13
+     "  sirloin,  18      "                  0    9
+    Mutton, loin, 16      "                  0   10
+    Pork, salt    12      "                  0   13
+    Cod, salt     6       "                  1    9
+    Eggs, 22 cts. per doz.                   0   11
+    Oysters, 30 cts. per qt.                 0   11
+    Potatoes, 60 cts. per bushel            10    0
+    Beans, dried, 8 cts. per qt.             2    8
+    Wheat flour, 3 cts. per lb.              3    5
+
+
+MENU I.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Bananas, 4 (or grapes,      |           |          |         |
+    1 pound)                  |  1  4     |    6-1/2 |    .009 |      362
+  Breakfast cereal            |     4     |\         | /  .031 |      421
+  Milk                        |     8     | >  3     |<   .016 |      162
+  Sugar                       |     1-1/ 2|/         | \   ... |      175
+  Veal cutlets                |  1  0     |   20     |    .200 |      775
+  Potatoes                    |  1  0     |    1-1/2 |    .018 |      325
+  Butter                      |     3     |    6     |     ... |      653
+  Rolls                       |    12     |    4     |    .077 |    1,148
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |    .010 |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+---------
+      Total                   |           |   44-1/2 |    .361 |    4,431
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Pea soup:                   |           |          |         |
+    Split peas                |     8     |\         | /  .121 |      820
+    Butter                    |     1     | >  5     |<    ... |      217
+    Flour                     |     1     |/         | \  .007 |      103
+  Roast beef, chuck rib       |  1 12     |   21     |    .275 |    1,260
+  Potatoes                    |  1  4     |    1-1/3 |    .022 |      406
+  Turnips                     |     8     |    1     |    .005 |       67
+  Cottage pudding with        |           |          |         |
+    lemon sauce:              |           |          |         |
+    1 cup flour               |     4     |\         | / .028  |      410
+    Sugar                     |     3     | \        |/   ...  |      350
+    Butter                    |     1-1/2 | /  6-1/2 |\   ...  |      325
+    1 cup milk                |     8     |/         | \ .016  |      162
+    Sugar                     |     4     |\         | /  ...  |      465
+    Cornstarch                |     1-1/2 | >  2-1/2 |<   ...  |      172
+    Butter                    |       1/2 |/         | \  ...  |      108
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   41     |   .484  |    5,275
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Milk toast:                 |           |          |         |
+    Milk                      |  2  0     |\         | / .066  |      650
+    Bread                     |  1  2     | \ 18     |/  .107  |    1,356
+    Butter                    |     4     | /        |\   ...  |      869
+    Cornstarch                |     2     |/         | \  ...  |      228
+  Canned salmon               |     8     |    8     |   .098  |      340
+  Fried potatoes:             |           |          |         |
+    Potatoes                  |     8     |\   1     |/  .009  |      162
+    Lard                      |       1/2 |/         |\   ...  |      132
+  Cake                        |     6     |    4     |   .026  |      619
+  Coffee or tea               |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   34-1/2 |   .316  |    4,766
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |  120     |  1.161  |   14,472
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one Man       |           |   30     |   .290  |    3,618
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU II.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Oatmeal                     |  0  2     |\         | / .019  |      232
+  Milk                        |     6-1/2 | >  2     |<  .012  |      122
+  Sugar                       |     1     |/         | \  ...  |      175
+  Fresh pork sausage          |  1  8     |   18     |   .192  |    3,255
+  Potatoes                    |    12     |    1     |   .013  |      244
+  Bread                       |    12     |    3     |   .071  |      904
+  Butter                      |     2     |    4     |    ...  |      434
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   31-1/2 |   .317  |    5,776
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef, for stew              |  2  8     |   15     |   .347  |    1,900
+  Potatoes                    |  1  8     |    2     |   .027  |      487
+  Turnips                     |     8     |    1     |   .005  |       67
+  Bread                       |     8     |    2     |   .048  |      603
+  Butter                      |     1     |    2     |    ...  |      217
+  Indian pudding:             |           |          |         |
+    Cornmeal                  |     4     |\         | / .022  |      414
+    Molasses                  |     4     | \  6     |/  .007  |      329
+    Butter                    |       1/2 | /        |\   ...  |      108
+    Skim milk                 |  2  0     |/         | \ .068  |      340
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |      410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   31-1/2 |   .534  |    4,875
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+   Corned beef hash:          |           |          |         |
+    Corned beef, canned       |     8     |    6     |   .142  |      560
+    Potatoes                  |     8     |    1     |   .009  |      162
+  Bread                       |    12     |    3     |   .071  |      904
+  Butter                      |     2     |    4     |    ...  |      434
+  Apples                      |    12     |    1     |   .003  |      191
+  Milk                        |  2  0     |    6     |   .066  |      725
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   21     |   .291  |    2,976
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total per day           |           |   84     |  1.142  |   13,627
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   21     |   .285  |    3,407
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+In these menus the amount of milk has, as a rule, been taken as
+representing somewhere near the average consumption. The amount of
+milk can be increased in any of the menus given above either by
+substituting it to some extent for coffee or tea, or by using more
+milk and smaller quantities of meats, butter or eggs. Roughly
+speaking, 1 quart of whole milk could be substituted for half a pound
+of meat or eggs and the amount of nutrients would be the same, while a
+pint of milk would give as large a fuel value as 1-1/2 ounces of
+butter, and in addition considerable protein not furnished by the
+latter.
+
+This replacement of meats by milk is illustrated in the following
+menu, in which a diet with a rather small quantity of milk is so
+changed as to include a much larger amount. Thus for breakfast in the
+modified ration a pint and a half of milk is made to take the place of
+half a pound of broiled steak. For dinner a quart of skim milk (or
+buttermilk) is called for, or a glass for each person unless some of
+it is used in the cooking. At the same time, 4 ounces less roast pork
+is required. In the same way a glass of whole milk is allowed each
+person for supper, or the bread can be made into milk toast and the
+most of the extra milk used in this way. This allows the canned salmon
+to be reduced 6 ounces.
+
+
+MENU III.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate exercise._
+
+  --------------------------+----------------------------------
+                            |          Weight of food.
+                            |-----------------+----------------
+      Food materials.       |      With       |      With
+                            |     small       |     large
+                            |     amount      |     amount
+                            |    of milk.     |    of milk.
+  --------------------------+-----------------+----------------
+                            |                 |
+  _Breakfast._              |   Lbs. Oz.      |   Lbs. Oz.
+                            |                 |
+  Bananas, apples, or pears |     0   12      |     0   12
+  Wheat preparation         |          4      |          4
+  Milk                      |          8      |          8
+  Sugar                     |          2      |          2
+  Broiled sirloin steak     |     1    4      |         12
+  Baked potatoes            |     1    8      |     1    8
+  Hot rolls                 |     1    0      |     1    0
+  Butter                    |          2-1/2  |          2-1/2
+  Extra milk                |                 |     1    8
+                            |                 |
+  _Dinner._                 |                 |
+                            |                 |
+  Tomato soup               |     1   12      |     1   12
+  Roast pork                |     1   12      |     1    8
+  Mashed potatoes           |     1    4      |     1    4
+  Turnips                   |          8      |          8
+  Apple fritters:           |                 |
+    Apples                  |          8      |          8
+    Flour                   |          2      |          2
+    1 egg                   |          2      |          2
+    Lard                    |          1-1/2  |          1-1/2
+  Bread                     |          8      |          8
+  Butter                    |          2      |          2
+  Extra skim milk           |                 |     2    0
+                            |                 |
+  _Supper._                 |                 |
+                            |                 |
+  Canned salmon             |     1    6      |     1    0
+  Potatoes                  |         12      |         12
+  Bread                     |          8      |          8
+  Butter                    |          2      |          2
+  Berries, canned or fresh  |          8      |          8
+  Extra milk                |                 |     2    0
+  --------------------------+-----------------+-----------------
+
+  _Cost, protein, and fuel value of the above._
+
+  -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+                               |    Cost.    |   Protein.   |    Fuel
+                               |             |              |   Value.
+  -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+                               |             |              |
+  _With small amount of milk._ |   Cents.    |    Pounds.   |  Calories.
+                               |             |              |
+                               |             |              |
+  Breakfast                    |     48      |      .39     |    5,300
+  Dinner                       |     51      |      .39     |    5,800
+  Supper or lunch              |     33-1/2  |      .34     |    3,200
+                               |-------------+--------------+------------
+  Total per day                |    132-1/2  |     1.12     |   14,300
+                               |=============|==============|============
+  Total for one man            |     33      |      .28     |    3,575
+                               |=============|==============|============
+                               |             |              |
+  _With large amount of milk._ |             |              |
+                               |             |              |
+  Breakfast                    |     43      |      .36     |    5,270
+  Dinner                       |     47-1/2  |      .41     |    5,400
+  Supper or lunch              |     34-1/2  |      .34     |    3,600
+                               |-------------|--------------|------------
+  Total per day                |    125      |     1.11     |   14,270
+                               |=============|==============|============
+  Total for one man            |     31      |      .28     |    3,567
+  -----------------------------+-------------+--------------+------------
+
+Menus VI and VII, following, are intended to illustrate how nourishing
+food can be procured in sufficient quantities and moderate variety at
+a cost of not over 16 cents per day. The cost to the farmer would be
+much less, since these menus call for considerable amounts of milk,
+which is hardly worth more than one-half or one-third as much on the
+farm as it costs in the towns and cities. Coffee has not always been
+indicated, but can be introduced for any meal at a cost of from 1/2 to
+1-1/2 cents per cup, according to how much coffee is used in making
+the infusion, and how much sugar, milk, and cream are added.
+
+It is, of course, not important that each meal, or the total food of
+each individual day, should have just the right amount of nutrients,
+or that the proportions of protein and fuel ingredients should be
+exactly correct so as to make the meal or day's diet well balanced.
+The body is continually storing nutritive materials and using them. It
+is not dependent any day upon the food eaten that particular day.
+Hence an excess one day may be made up by a deficiency the next or
+_vice versa_. Healthful nourishment requires simply that the nutrients
+as a whole, during longer or shorter periods, should be fitted to the
+actual needs of the body for use.
+
+
+MENU IV.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Bananas, 4 (or grapes,      |           |          |         |
+    1 pound)                  |  1  4     |    6-1/2 |   .009  |    362
+  Breakfast cereal            |     4     |\         | / .031  |    421
+  Milk                        |     6     | >  3     |<  .012  |    122
+  Sugar                       |     2     |/         | \  ...  |    232
+  Mutton chops                |  1  4     |   20     |   .165  |  1,812
+  Potatoes                    |  1  0     |    1-1/2 |   .018  |    325
+  Butter                      |     3     |    6     |    ...  |    653
+  Rolls                       |    12     |    4     |   .077  |  1,148
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+---------
+      Total                   |           |   44-1/2 |   .322  |  5,485
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Tomato Soup                 |  2  0     |   12     |   .036  |    370
+  Roast pork                  |  2  8     |   32     |   .353  |  3,350
+  Potatoes                    |  1  4     |    1-1/2 |   .022  |    406
+  Turnips                     |     8     |    1     |   .005  |     67
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Tapioca pudding:            |           |          |         |
+    Tapioca                   |     3     |\         | / .001  |    310
+    Apples                    |  1  0     | \        |/  .004  |    255
+  Sugar                       |     2     | /  7     |\   ...  |    232
+  Cream                       |     4     |/         | \ .006  |    228
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |  57      |   .437  |  5,628
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Milk toast:                 |           |          |         |
+    Milk                      |  2  0     |\         | / .066  |    650
+    Bread                     |  1  2     | \ 18     |/  .107  |  1,356
+    Butter                    |     4     | /        |\   ...  |    869
+    Cornstarch                |     2     |/         | \  ...  |    238
+  Sliced cold pork            |     8     |    6     |   .071  |    670
+  Fried potatoes:             |           |          |         |
+    Potatoes                  |     8     |\   1     |/  .009  |    162
+    Lard                      |       1/2 |/         |\   ...  |    132
+  Cake                        |     6     |    4     |   .026  |    619
+  Coffee or tea               |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   32-1/2 |   .289  |  5,096
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |  134     |  1.048  | 16,209
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   33-1/2 |   .262  |  4,052
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU V.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Baked apples                |  2  0     |    2     |   .008  |    510
+  Boiled hominy               |     8     |\         | / .041  |    823
+  Milk                        |    10     | >  4-1/2 |<  .020  |    202
+  Sugar                       |     3     |/         | \  ...  |    350
+  Broiled sirloin             |    10     |   11     |   .099  |    650
+  Potatoes                    |     8     |    1     |   .009  |    162
+  Muffins:                    |           |          |         |
+    1 egg                     |     4     |\   5     |/  .032  |    162
+    2 cups flour              |     8     |/         |\  .057  |    820
+  Butter                      |     2     |    4     |    ...  |    435
+  Coffee                      |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   31     |   .276  |  4,524
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Tomato soup                 |  2  0     |    6     |   .036  |    370
+  Veal stew, shoulder         |  2  0     |   20     |   .332  |  1,350
+  Potatoes                    |  3  0     |    4-1/2 |   .054  |    975
+  Apple dumpling:             |           |          |         |
+    1 egg                     |     2     |\         | / .016  |     81
+    4 apples                  |  1  8     | \  8     |/  .006  |    382
+    1/2 cup lard              |     4     | /        |\   ...  |  1,055
+    1 cup flour               |     4     |/         | \ .028  |    410
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Sauce for dumpling:         |           |          |         |
+    Butter                    |     1     |\   3     |/   ...  |    217
+    Sugar                     |     4     |/         |\   ...  |    465
+  Bread                       |    12     |    3     |   .071  |    904
+  Butter                      |     1     |    2     |    ...  |    217
+  Coffee or tea               |   ...     |    3-1/2 |   .010  |    410
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+---------
+      Total                   |           |   50     |   .553  |  6,836
+                              |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper or lunch._          |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Dried canned corned beef    |     8     |    6     |   .142  |    560
+  Potato croquette            |     8     |    1     |   .009  |    162
+  Biscuit                     |    12     |    4     |   .070  |  1,297
+  Butter                      |     1-1/2 |    3     |    ...  |    325
+  Oranges, 4                  |  1  4     |    7     |   .007  |    400
+  Skim milk                   |  1  6     |    2     |   .046  |    234
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   23     |   .274  |  2,978
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |  104     |  1.103  | 14,338
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   26     |   .275  |  3,585
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU VI.--_For family equivalent to 4 Men at moderate
+muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Cornmeal, in mush or cake   |  0  5     |    1     |   .022  |    414
+  Milk                        |     6     |    1     |   .012  |     64
+  Sugar                       |     2     |      1/2 |    ...  |    232
+  Toast                       |    10     |    2-1/2 |   .059  |    753
+  Butter (24 cents per pound) |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |    8     |   .093  |  1,897
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef roll (for roasting)    |  3  0     |   15     |   .417  |  2,280
+  Potatoes                    |  1  8     |    2     |   .026  |    488
+  Beets                       |     8     |    1     |   .007  |     85
+  Bread                       |    10     |    2-1/2 |   .059  |    753
+  Butter                      |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   23-1/2 |   .509  |  4,040
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beans, baked                |  2  0     |    6     |   .446  |  3,180
+    Pork                      |    12     |    6     |   .012  |  2,556
+  Potatoes, fried             |  1  8     |    2     |   .026  |    488
+    Lard                      |     2     |    1     |    ...  |    537
+  Bread                       |    10     |    2-1/2 |   .059  |    753
+  Butter                      |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   20-1/2 |   .543  |  7,948
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for day           |           |   20-1/2 |  1.145  | 13,885
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   13     |   .285  |  3,471
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+MENU VII.--_For family equivalent to 4 men at moderate muscular work._
+
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |   Fuel
+        Food materials.       | Weight.   |   Cost.  | Protein.|  Value.
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Breakfast._                |Lbs. Oz.   | Cents.   | Pounds. | Calories.
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Oatmeal                     |  0  6     |    2     |   .059  |    697
+  Skim milk, 1 pint           |  1  0     |    1-1/2 |   .034  |    170
+  Sugar                       |     2     |      1/2 |    ...  |    232
+  Bread (homemade)            |  1  0     |    3     |   .095  |  1,205
+  Sausage                     |    10     |    6     |   .080  |  1,358
+  Butter (24 cents per pound) |     1     |    1-1/2 |    ...  |    217
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   14-1/2 |   .268  |  3,879
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Dinner._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef flank, stew            | 2   8     |   15     |   .430  |  2,988
+  Potatoes (60 cents per      |           |          |         |
+    bushel)                   | 3   0     |    3     |   .054  |    975
+  Cabbage                     |    12     |    1     |   .013  |    105
+  Cornmeal pudding:           |           |          |         |
+    Cornmeal                  |     4     |      1/2 |   .022  |    414
+    Skim milk, 1 quart        | 2   0     |    3     |   .068  |    340
+    Molasses                  |    12     |    1     |   .020  |    987
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   22-1/2 |   .604  |  5,889
+                              |           |          |         |
+  _Supper._                   |           |          |         |
+                              |           |          |         |
+  Beef, warmed in gravy       | 1   8     |    3     |   .086  |    598
+  Hot biscuit                 | 2   0     |    6     |   .340  |  2,600
+  Butter                      |     2     |    3     |    ...  |    434
+  Milk, 1 quart               | 2   0     |    6     |   .033  |    325
+                              |-----------+----------+---------+----------
+      Total                   |           |   18     |   .259  |  3,957
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total per day           |           |   55     |  1.134  |  3,645
+                              |===========|==========|=========|==========
+      Total for one man       |           |   14     |   .285  |  3,411
+  ----------------------------+-----------+----------+---------+----------
+
+
+DISCUSSION OF THE MENUS.
+
+These menus attempt to give, as nearly as convenient, the range of
+food materials and the variety of combination which might be found in
+the average well-to-do household. Some of the menus are more varied
+and costly than others, and a few are given showing the effect of the
+use of more milk, and also how a diet might easily become one-sided.
+The quantities of the different foods used per meal will not, it is
+believed, be found out of proportion to each other, though of course
+they will not suit every family. The weights of all materials,
+oatmeal and other cereals, meat, vegetables, etc., are for these
+substances as purchased.
+
+The calculation of the quantities of nutrients contained in the
+different foods is based upon the average percentage composition of
+these materials. Inasmuch as the fats and carbohydrates are used
+simply as fuel they are not shown in the menus, only the quantity of
+protein and the fuel value of the food being of interest.
+
+The cost of the different food materials must of necessity be more or
+less of a varying quantity, depending upon the season of the year, the
+character of the markets, large or small, city or country, etc. Of the
+more important food materials the assumed price per pound is as
+follows: Beef loin, 18 to 25 cents; shoulder, 12 cents; round, 14
+cents; chicken, 15 cents; mutton loin, 16 cents; lamb leg, 20 cents;
+bacon, 16 cents; sausage, 10 cents; milk, 3 cents (6 cents per quart);
+skim milk, 1-1/2 cents (3 cents per quart); butter, 32 cents; cheese,
+16 cents; eggs, 16 cents (24 cents per dozen); flour and meal, 2-1/2
+to 3 cents; cereals, 5 to 8 cents; bread, 4 cents; potatoes and other
+vegetables, 1-1/2 cent (90 cents per bushel); bananas, about 8 cents
+(20 cents per dozen); oranges, about 7 cents (25 to 40 cents per
+dozen); apples, 1-1/2 cent per pound (90 cents per bushel).
+
+It is probable that the above figures represent more nearly the
+average prices of the different food materials in the eastern part of
+the country than in the central and western portions, where meats,
+cereals, and many other products are somewhat cheaper. It is also to
+be borne in mind that by observing the markets many food materials can
+be purchased much cheaper than here indicated, while on the other
+hand there may be times when they will be much more expensive. The
+choice of vegetables and fruits will naturally be governed by their
+abundance and cost.
+
+Another point that must not be overlooked is that the quantities, and
+consequently the costs, here given are for four working men; that is
+to say, men engaged in moderately hard muscular labor. Of course,
+different individuals differ greatly in their needs for food. These
+figures express only general averages and are based upon the best
+information accessible.
+
+
+A FEW POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED IN PLANNING MEALS.
+
+Dietetic authorities advise people who are engaged in active muscular
+work to partake of the more substantial meal in the middle of the day,
+leaving such articles of food as soup--which is a valuable stimulant
+after a day of hard work--fruit, cake, etc., for the evening meal,
+when the system is too much exhausted to digest the more concentrated
+foods. When men are obliged to take cold lunches in the middle of the
+day the housewife should see that the lunch basket contains the
+necessary nourishment in the form of cheese, cold meat, meat or fish
+sandwiches, hard boiled eggs, a fish or vegetable salad, cold pork and
+beans, rice pudding, whole wheat bread and butter, a bottle of milk or
+_strained_ tea or coffee, pie, doughnuts, etc.
+
+Remember, a man working in the open air or in a large building
+requires food which will not oxidize too quickly, or in other words,
+food which will keep up the fuel and force necessary for his work.
+Supper in such cases should consist of a good broth or well made
+soup, and the lighter foods; but breakfast and dinner should be more
+substantial. It is a question of economy to provide suitable food for
+the wage-earner. The children may be equally well nourished on a less
+expensive diet, such as whole wheat bread and butter, milk puddings,
+fruit, green vegetables, cereals, milk, and meat once a day.
+
+On the other hand the individual engaged in sedentary employment, such
+as book-keeping, teaching, needlework, etc., should dine later in the
+day, as it leaves a longer interval for digestion, which is much
+slower when the individual is confined in a close office or work-room,
+and where little exercise is taken.[5] Care should be taken in
+planning meals for this class to avoid food which requires much
+oxygen, such as fresh pork, fried food, sausage, warm bread, pastry,
+griddle cakes, etc. The mid-day meal of a brain worker or business man
+should be light; a soup, glass of milk (hot or cold), fruit, bread and
+butter, vegetable salad, a broiled chop or steak, etc., are suitable
+for luncheon.
+
+Special attention should be given to the diet of school children. (See
+p. 153.)
+
+Students and children who are obliged to study at night should, as a
+rule, take some light nourishment before retiring; a biscuit, a piece
+of bread and butter, or a glass of hot milk, is sufficient.
+
+Young girls, who are employed in shops, factories, etc., frequently
+hurry away to their work in the morning without taking a substantial
+breakfast. It is needless to say that such action is sure to be
+followed by a physical breakdown. A glass of hot milk or an egg beaten
+and added to a glass of milk will serve as an occasional substitute
+for a more substantial meal, but is not enough to sustain active
+exercise for any length of time.
+
+Another point to consider in the planning of meals is economy of fuel.
+The thoughtful housekeeper will arrange to have food requiring long,
+slow cooking, such as stews, soup stock, bread, etc., and ironing done
+by the same fuel. Broiling, toasting, omelets, etc., require a quick
+fire. It is in the careful consideration of details that economy in
+both food and fuel may be exercised.
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[5] The teacher may make this clear by comparing the digestion of the
+two classes to the action of the air upon coal in a range with the
+drafts open and closed, the more rapid combustion, effect of oxygen,
+etc.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS.
+
+In giving instruction in Domestic Science, the teacher must be careful
+to explain the meaning of any words used which the pupils would not be
+likely to understand; for instance, oxidation, combustion, solubility,
+etc., and many of the terms used in the analysis, such as
+fermentation, casein of milk, albumen, cellulose, etc. In order to
+keep the attention of pupils fixed on a subject, frequent
+illustrations and comparisons should be made.
+
+Questioning is one of the best methods of riveting attention, and as
+every teacher has not the faculty of asking questions, a few
+suggestive ones are given which may prove helpful.
+
+
+Why do we eat food?
+
+What is nitrogenous food?
+
+What is its chief office?
+
+Where is it to be found?
+
+In what section of vegetable kingdom is this compound abundant?
+
+What is the chief nitrogenous compound in meat and eggs?
+
+Of what is it composed?
+
+Why do we call these compounds nitrogenous?
+
+Do they serve any other purpose besides building up flesh?
+
+Which are the most important heat-giving compounds?
+
+What is the proportion in food they should bear to the flesh-forming
+compounds?
+
+What other compounds are necessary to form a perfect food?
+
+Give their use?
+
+Where are they to be found?
+
+What is common salt?
+
+Where is it found?
+
+Why do we use it?
+
+Give the three digestive juices.
+
+What kind of mineral matter do we find in vegetables?
+
+Why should potato parings, leaves and stalks of cabbage not be put in
+the dust bin or garbage pail?
+
+What should be done with them?
+
+Which are the most important warmth-giving foods?
+
+Give another name for these foods?
+
+Why are they so called?
+
+What is combustion?
+
+How do these foods produce force, etc.?
+
+What other elements do these foods contain?
+
+Why are fats and oils more valuable as heat-givers than starch or
+sugar?
+
+What elements unite and form water?
+
+What is the proportion of water in the body?
+
+Give its use?
+
+Explain the difference in the digestion of starch and fat?
+
+Why does starch need cooking?
+
+To what kingdom does it belong?
+
+Which section is of most value?
+
+How is starch changed into sugar?
+
+What changes food into blood?
+
+What gives the red color to blood?
+
+What mineral helps digestion most?
+
+What is sugar?
+
+What causes sugar to ferment?
+
+What is the result?
+
+Where is it to be found?
+
+What are food adjuncts?
+
+Of what value are they?
+
+Give the names of combustible nutrients.
+
+Give the names of incombustible nutrients.
+
+For a substance to undergo combustion, what must it contain?
+
+What supports combustion?
+
+What is chemically pure water?
+
+What causes the hardness of water?
+
+What is gluten?
+
+What is dextrine?
+
+Where is it found?
+
+In what way does dextrine differ from starch?
+
+What is decomposition?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+SCHEDULE OF LESSONS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASSES.
+
+LESSON.
+
+I. Information regarding the conduct of classes. Practice in
+measuring. Practice in lighting gas-burners and oven. Practice in
+lighting and regulating a range.
+
+II. Fruit--Applesauce. Coddled apples. Stewed prunes.
+
+III. Starch--Boiled rice. Potatoes, boiled and mashed.
+
+IV. Starch--Thickening liquids with flour.
+
+V. Starch--Practice in No. 4.
+
+VI. Vegetables--Onions, cabbage, parsnips, etc.
+
+VII. Eggs--Boiled eggs. Poached eggs. Toast.
+
+VIII. Eggs and milk--Boiled and baked custard.
+
+IX. Flour mixtures--Popovers, griddle cake.
+
+X. Flour mixtures--Milk biscuits. Corn bread. Apple pudding.
+
+XI. Bread--Making sponge, kneading, and setting to rise.
+
+XII. Bread--Moulding and baking.
+
+XIII. Fish--Boiled and baked fish. Creamed fish and sauce.
+
+XIV. Review of theory and recipes.
+
+XV. Meat--Roasting meat. Soup stock.
+
+XVI. Meat--Stewed meat.
+
+XVII. Meat--Cold meat and broiling.
+
+XVIII. Salads.
+
+XIX. Beans.
+
+XX. Plain puddings.
+
+NOTE.--After this each teacher must arrange lessons according
+to circumstances, age of pupils, etc., alternating cooking with
+lessons in care of kitchen and utensils, and lectures on sanitary
+matters, laundry work, setting table, and serving.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+Outlines Nos. I and II, for class work, are contributed by Prof.
+Kinne, of Teachers' College, Columbia University, N.Y. City.
+
+
+OUTLINE I.
+
+The following outline is offered as a tentative plan of work, for an
+average class of girls, in the highest grades of the Public school.
+The exact order of lessons depends in a measure on the skill and
+interest of the pupils, and the special dishes selected to illustrate
+a principle, upon the circumstances of the pupils, and upon the season
+of the year.
+
+It should be noted that beginning with the third lesson, there are
+four lessons on the cooking of carbohydrates; then four on the cooking
+of nitrogenous foods; next the batters, combining the two, and
+introducing the use of fat, and so on. It is the purpose of this
+arrangement to enforce the effects produced by heat on the food
+principles, singly and in combination; to alternate the groups, so
+that there is a constant review of principles already established; and
+to give practical work of increasing difficulty.
+
+The course in cooking should be preceded by a few lessons in
+house-work; and at least one on the care of the kitchen. It is taken
+for granted that the lessons are accompanied by a study of food
+values, the cost of food, marketing, etc.
+
+1. Simple experiments in combustion--to illustrate the structure of
+stoves and the care of such stoves. Study of the fuel and apparatus
+to be used in the school kitchen; practice in using the apparatus;
+comparison with other apparatus.
+
+2. Utensils--what they are, of what materials, and why. It is well to
+have pupils make a list in note-book of simple kitchen furnishing.
+
+Experiments with the boiling of water, in Florence flask, in
+tea-kettle, and in covered saucepan, using thermometer. Use of double
+boiler. Compare with boiling water the temperature of fat hot enough
+for frying, and also that of the oven. To illustrate the two latter,
+croutons may be made.
+
+3. Measuring--experiment with the cooking of starch in water;
+cornstarch pudding, or tapioca or sago jelly. Develop the idea of the
+effect of the boiling temperature on the starch grains, the bursting
+of the grains, and the change in flavor due to continued cooking.
+
+4. A cereal and a fruit,--say, baked apples. In the cereal, in
+addition to the starch, is the cooking of the woody fibre. Note in
+both cereal and fruit the flavors developed by heat, the cooking being
+a continuation, as it were, of the ripening process.
+
+5. A starchy and a green vegetable; as, for instance, potatoes and
+cabbage. Here, again, are the two principles, cookery of starch and
+vegetable fibre; again the development of flavor by heat. Cookery of
+peas and beans would better be deferred until the pupils are familiar
+with the effect of water on nitrogenous substances.
+
+If time allows, a sauce may be made to serve with a vegetable, or this
+may be given in the next lesson.
+
+6. Vegetable soups, without meat stock. This is in part a review
+lesson. Opportunity is offered here for the study of proportions,
+several ingredients being used, how much vegetable pulp or juice to
+how much liquid; how much thickening, and how much salt to a quart of
+soup.
+
+7. Eggs. Experiments to show the coagulating point of the white and
+yolk, followed by soft and hard cooking of eggs, and possibly a plain
+omelet.
+
+8. Eggs and milk.
+
+9. Oysters.
+
+10. Fish.
+
+11, 12, 13. Batters. In these three lessons study especially
+proportions, methods of mixing and baking. A good sequence of batters
+is the following: popovers, griddle cakes, muffins, and baking powder
+biscuit; or a sweet batter in the form of a plain cake may be given
+for sake of variety.
+
+14. Tender meat. Pan broiling and broiling.
+
+15. Tender meat. Roasting and making of gravy.
+
+18. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
+
+19. Tough meat. Soups and stews.
+
+Made dishes of meat can be given in these two lessons also.
+
+20. Beverages.
+
+21. Salads.
+
+22. Desserts.
+
+23. A breakfast.
+
+24. A luncheon.
+
+25. A dinner; or, dinner and supper.
+
+Other topics, in addition to these, or in place of some of them;
+bacon, and trying out of fat; cheese dishes; canning and preserving;
+dishes for invalids; other desserts and made dishes.
+
+
+OUTLINE II.
+
+This outline has been found practical in a short course where it was
+advisable to give the pupils work in the preparation of simple meals.
+The plan can be followed in a longer course.
+
+_Introductory Lesson: Fire-making, Measuring, etc._
+
+1. A cereal and fruit.
+
+2. Eggs.
+
+3. Bacon, and the trying out of fat.
+
+4. Plain muffins, or griddle cakes. Coffee.
+
+5. A breakfast.
+
+6. Vegetables. Vegetable soup.
+
+7. A made dish of meat or fish.
+
+8. Salad and dressing.
+
+9. Muffins or biscuit.
+
+10. A luncheon or supper.
+
+11. Vegetables. Macaroni.
+
+12. Meat.
+
+13. Sauces and gravies. A dessert.
+
+14. Bread or rolls.
+
+15. A dinner.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Public School Domestic Science, by Mrs. J. Hoodless
+
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