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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Conference Held at Washington
+for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884., by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884.
+ Protocols of the Proceedings
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 12, 2006 [EBook #17759]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Joseph Myers, Richard J.
+Shiffer and the Online Distributed Proofreading team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
+
+HELD AT WASHINGTON
+
+FOR THE PURPOSE OF FIXING
+
+A PRIME MERIDIAN
+
+AND
+
+A UNIVERSAL DAY.
+
+OCTOBER, 1884.
+
+
+PROTOCOLS OF THE PROCEEDINGS.
+
+
+WASHINGTON, D. C.
+
+GIBSON BROS., PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS.
+
+1884.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+ Page
+
+ I. Protocol, October 1, 1884 1
+
+ II. Protocol, October 2, 1884 13
+
+ III. Protocol, October 6, 1884 35
+
+ IV. Protocol, October 13, 1884 73
+
+ V. Protocol, October 14, 1884 113
+
+ VI. Protocol, October 20, 1884 151
+
+ VII. Protocol, October 22, 1884 195
+
+ VIII. Protocol, November 1, 1884 205
+
+ Final Act 199
+
+ Act of Congress authorizing the President of the
+ United States to invite the Conference (ANNEX I) 209
+
+ Act of Congress making appropriation for expenses
+ (ANNEX II) 209
+
+ Circular to United States representatives abroad
+ bringing the subject to the attention of foreign
+ governments (ANNEX III) 210
+
+ Circular to United States ministers extending
+ invitation to foreign governments (ANNEX IV) 211
+
+
+
+
+International Meridian Conference
+
+HELD IN THE
+
+CITY OF WASHINGTON.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 1, 1884.
+
+
+The Delegates to the International Meridian Conference, who assembled
+in Washington upon invitation addressed by the Government of the
+United States to all nations holding diplomatic relations with it,
+"for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning throughout the
+globe," held their first conference to-day, October 1, 1884, in the
+Diplomatic Hall of the Department of State.
+
+The following delegates were present:
+
+ On behalf of Austria-Hungary--
+
+ Baron IGNATZ VON SCHÆFFER,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Brazil--
+
+ Dr. LUIZ CRULS,
+ _Director of the Imperial Observatory of Rio Janeiro_.
+
+ On behalf of Colombia--
+
+ Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN, _U. S. Navy_,
+ _Superintendent U. S. Naval Observatory_.
+
+ On behalf of Costa Rica--
+
+ Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA,
+ _Civil Engineer_.
+
+ On behalf of France--
+
+ Mr. A. LEFAIVRE,
+ _Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul-General_.
+ Mr. JANSSEN, _of the Institute_,
+ _Director of the Physical Observatory of Paris_.
+
+ On behalf of Germany--
+
+ Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Great Britain--
+
+ Captain Sir F. J. O. EVANS,
+ _Royal Navy_.
+
+ Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ _Director of the Cambridge Observatory_.
+
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY,
+ _Member of the Council of India_.
+
+ Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING,
+ _Representing the Dominion of Canada_.
+
+ On behalf of Guatemala--
+
+ M. MILES ROCK,
+ _President of the Boundary Commission_.
+
+ On behalf of Hawaii--
+
+ Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER,
+ _Surveyor-General_.
+
+ Hon. LUTHER AHOLO,
+ _Privy Counsellor_.
+
+ On behalf of Italy--
+
+ Count ALBERT DE FORESTA,
+ _First Secretary of Legation_.
+
+ On behalf of Japan--
+
+ Professor KIKUCHI,
+ _Dean of the Scientific Dep't of the University of Tokio_.
+
+ On behalf of Mexico--
+
+ Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ,
+ _Civil Engineer_.
+ Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO,
+ _Director of the National Observatory of Mexico_.
+
+ On behalf of Paraguay--
+
+ Captain JOHN STEWART,
+ _Consul-General_.
+
+ On behalf of Russia--
+
+ Mr. C. DE STRUVE,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+ Major-General STEBNITZKI,
+ _Imperial Russian Staff_.
+ Mr. J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF,
+ _Conseiller d'État actuel_.
+
+ On behalf of San Domingo--
+
+ Mr. M. DE J. GALVAN,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Salvador--
+
+ Mr. ANTONIO BATRES,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Spain,
+
+ Mr. JUAN VALERA,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+ Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL,
+ _Naval Attaché to the Spanish Legation_.
+ Mr. JUAN PASTORIN,
+ _Officer of the Navy_.
+
+ On behalf of Sweden--
+
+ Count CARL LEWENHAUPT,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Switzerland--
+
+ Colonel EMILE FREY,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of the United States--
+
+ Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _U. S. Navy_.
+
+ Mr. LEWIS M. RUTHERFURD.
+
+ Mr. W. F. ALLEN,
+ _Secretary Railway Time Conventions_.
+
+ Commander W. T. SAMPSON,
+ _U. S. Navy_.
+
+ Professor CLEVELAND ABBE,
+ _U. S. Signal Office_.
+
+ On behalf of Venezuela--
+
+ Señor Dr. A. M. SOTELDO,
+ _Chargé d'Affaires_.
+
+ The following delegates were not present:
+
+ On behalf of Chili--
+
+ Mr. FRANCISCO VIDAL GORMAS,
+ _Director of the Hydrographic Office_.
+
+ Mr. ALVARO BIANCHI TUPPER,
+ _Assistant Director_.
+
+ On behalf of Denmark--
+
+ Mr. CARL STEEN ANDERSEN DE BILLE,
+ _Minister Resident and Consul-General_.
+
+ On behalf of Germany--
+
+ Mr. HINCKELDEYN,
+ _Attaché of the German Legation_.
+
+ On behalf of Liberia--
+
+ Mr. WILLIAM COPPINGER,
+ _Consul-General_.
+
+ On behalf of the Netherlands--
+
+ Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Turkey--
+
+ RUSTEM EFFENDI,
+ _Secretary of Legation_.
+
+The delegates were formally presented to the Secretary of State of the
+United States, the Honorable FREDERICK T. FRELINGHUYSEN, in his office
+at 12 o'clock. Upon assembling in the Diplomatic Hall, he called the
+Conference to order, and spoke as follows:
+
+ GENTLEMEN: It gives me pleasure, in the name of the
+ President of the United States, to welcome you to this
+ Congress, where most of the nations of the earth are
+ represented. You have met to discuss and consider the
+ important question of a prime meridian for all nations. It
+ will rest with you to give a definite result to the
+ preparatory labors of other scientific associations and
+ special congresses, and thus make those labors available.
+
+ Wishing you all success in your important deliberations, and
+ not doubting that you will reach a conclusion satisfactory
+ to the civilized world, I, before leaving you, take the
+ liberty to nominate, for the purpose of a temporary
+ organization, Count Lewenhaupt.
+
+ It will afford this Department pleasure to do all in its
+ power to promote the convenience of the Congress and to
+ facilitate its proceedings.
+
+By the unanimous voice of the Conference the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+LEWENHAUPT, took the chair, and said that, for the purpose of
+proceeding to a permanent organization, it was necessary to elect a
+President, and that he had the honor to propose for that office the
+chairman of the delegation of the United States of America, Admiral C.
+R. P. Rodgers.
+
+The Conference agreed unanimously to the proposition thus made,
+whereupon Admiral RODGERS took the chair as President of the
+Conference, and made the following address:
+
+ GENTLEMEN: I beg you to receive my thanks for the high honor
+ you have conferred upon me in calling me, as the chairman of
+ the delegation from the United States, to preside at this
+ Congress. To it have come from widely-separated portions of
+ the globe, delegates renowned in diplomacy and science,
+ seeking to create a new accord among the nations by agreeing
+ upon a meridian proper to be employed as a common zero of
+ longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the
+ world. Happy shall we be, if, throwing aside national
+ preferences and inclinations, we seek only the common good
+ of mankind, and gain for science and for commerce a prime
+ meridian acceptable to all countries, and secured with the
+ least possible inconvenience.
+
+ Having this object at heart, the Government of the United
+ States has invited all nations with which it has diplomatic
+ relations to send delegates to a Congress to assemble at
+ Washington to-day, to discuss the question I have indicated.
+ The invitation has been graciously received, and we are here
+ this morning to enter upon the agreeable duty assigned to us
+ by our respective governments.
+
+ Broad as is the area of the United States, covering a
+ hundred degrees of longitude, extending from 66° 52' west
+ from Greenwich to 166° 13' at our extreme limit in Alaska,
+ not including the Aleutian Islands; traversed, as it is, by
+ railway and telegraph lines, and dotted with observatories;
+ long as is its sea coast, of more than twelve thousand
+ miles; vast as must be its foreign and domestic commerce,
+ its delegation to this Congress has no desire to urge that a
+ prime meridian shall be found within its confines.
+
+ In my own profession, that of a seaman, the embarrassment
+ arising from the many prime meridians now in use is very
+ conspicuous, and in the valuable interchange of longitudes
+ by passing ships at sea, often difficult and hurried,
+ sometimes only possible by figures written on a black-board,
+ much confusion arises, and at times grave danger. In the use
+ of charts, too, this trouble is also annoying, and to us who
+ live upon the sea a common prime meridian will be a great
+ advantage.
+
+ Within the last two years we have been given reason to hope
+ that this great desideratum may be obtained, and within a
+ year a learned Conference, in which many nations were
+ represented, expressed opinions upon it with singular
+ unanimity, and in a very broad and catholic spirit.
+
+ I need not trespass further upon your attention, except to
+ lay before you the subject we are invited to discuss: the
+ choice of "a meridian to be employed as a common zero of
+ longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the
+ world;" and I shall beg you to complete our organization by
+ the election of a Vice-President, and the proper Secretaries
+ necessary to the verification of our proceedings.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate from France, stated that on behalf of his
+colleague he would suggest that all motions and addresses made in
+English should be translated into French.
+
+The PRESIDENT inquired whether the proposition made by the Delegate
+for France met with the approval of the Conference, when it was
+unanimously agreed to.
+
+The PRESIDENT thereupon said that he was ready to lay before the
+Conference the subject of the election of Vice-President.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, the Delegate of Sweden, stated that elections in
+such large bodies were always difficult, and inquired whether it was
+necessary to have a Vice-President. He further said that for his part
+he had every reason to hope and to expect that the services of a
+Vice-President would not be required.
+
+It was thereupon agreed that a Vice-President should be dispensed
+with.
+
+The PRESIDENT then stated that the next business was the election of
+Secretaries; but suggested, in view of the proceedings already had,
+and of the necessity of some consultation in regard to the matter,
+that the election might be postponed till to-morrow.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, stated that he saw no reason why the
+nomination of Secretaries could not be made just as well at present as
+at any future time.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, inquired what would be the functions
+of the Secretaries.
+
+The PRESIDENT in reply said that an acting Secretary had been
+appointed by the Secretary of State, who was at the same time a
+stenographer, and that the principal labor of keeping the records of
+the Conference would devolve upon him; that nevertheless regular
+Secretaries of the Conference had to be appointed, for the purpose of
+examining and verifying the protocols from day to day, which would be
+the more important in the event of the records of the Conference being
+made in two or three different languages, and that these Secretaries
+ought no doubt to be members of the Conference, in order to give the
+requisite authenticity to the acts thereof, and, in view of the
+character of the proceedings, should be specialists and informed as to
+the subjects under discussion.
+
+Mr. SOTELDO, Delegate of Venezuela, said that he thought the
+Conference should adjourn until to-morrow, as they had done already
+enough to-day in settling its organization; that by adjourning over it
+would give an opportunity to the delegates to consult as to the
+functions of the Secretaries, and who would be most likely to be
+qualified for those functions; that there were gentlemen from
+different countries who were not familiar with the English language,
+and by to-morrow the Conference could determine as to the languages in
+which the proceedings should be had, although, as it seemed to him,
+that the proceedings should be recorded in French and English. He then
+moved that the Conference adjourn until to-morrow.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he agreed with what had
+been said by the President, that the Conference should have
+Secretaries who were specialists, and that the proceedings should be
+recorded in two languages. By adjourning till to-morrow he thought
+that the delegates would have an opportunity to reflect upon the
+subject, and to come back prepared to vote upon it.
+
+The PRESIDENT then stated that if any delegates wished to make
+propositions in regard to the proceedings to-morrow it would be in the
+power of the Conference to proceed to the consideration of those
+subjects after the election of the Secretaries, and he suggested to
+the Delegate of Venezuela (Mr. Soteldo) that the motion to adjourn be
+withdrawn for the present.
+
+The Delegate of Venezuela thereupon withdrew his motion.
+
+Mr. FREY, Delegate of Switzerland, said that, in his opinion, the
+order of proceedings to-morrow should be first a general discussion.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, stated that he thought the proceedings
+should be recorded in two languages at least, and that Secretaries
+conversant with these languages and specially acquainted with the
+subject matter pending before the Conference should be selected; that,
+in order to have the record of the proceedings accurate, officers
+qualified in this way were requisite, and that it would be preferable
+to elect these officers after consultation among the members of the
+Conference, which could be had between now and the meeting to-morrow.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, said that he saw no difficulty
+in deciding now that the order of proceedings to-morrow would be first
+the election of the Secretaries and then a general discussion, and he
+moved that this proposition be adopted.
+
+The Conference then unanimously agreed to the proposition.
+
+Professor ABBE, Delegate of the United States, inquired whether it
+would not facilitate the action of the Conference to-morrow if the
+President appointed a committee now who could nominate the
+Secretaries.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied by asking whether it would not be better to
+select this committee at a subsequent meeting, rather than at the
+first meeting, which was held to-day.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then gave notice
+that at the session to-morrow he would bring before the Conference the
+question whether the meetings shall be open to the public or not, and
+that he would, at the proper time, also make a motion for the purpose
+of determining the sense of the Conference as to the propriety of
+inviting distinguished scientists, some of whom are now in Washington,
+and who may desire to be present at the meetings of this Conference,
+to take part in the discussion of the questions pending.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that in regard to the first
+proposition--that is, as to making the proceedings public, he would
+object, inasmuch as he thought that by opening the doors of this
+Conference to the public nothing could be gained, while the
+proceedings might be embarrassed or delayed by such a course.
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of England, stated that he did not favor the
+first proposition to make the proceedings of this Conference public,
+but he did agree with the second proposition, and thought it was a
+very important and valuable one.
+
+The PRESIDENT remarked that the propositions made by the Delegate of
+the United States of America were merely in the nature of a notice,
+and that they were not before the Conference at the present time, and,
+consequently, were not the subject of discussion; still he thought
+that much good could be elicited from this interchange of opinions in
+a preliminary way.
+
+Captain STEWART, Delegate of Paraguay, said that he thought that it
+would be a very good thing, in view of the proposition to make the
+meetings public, to invite all the world to the Capitol for the
+discussion of these subjects.
+
+Professor ABBE, Delegate of the United States, stated that it would be
+perfectly practicable to have the discussions of the Conference
+printed in full from day to day for our own official use, and that the
+public might thereby be made familiar with the proceedings if it were
+necessary.
+
+The PRESIDENT announced that arrangements had been made by the State
+Department whereby the proceedings of each day would be printed and
+furnished in time for the examination of the members of the Conference
+before the next meeting, and that they would be printed in two
+languages, French and English; but that these records or protocols
+could not be regularly verified until the Conference shall have
+appointed duly authorized Secretaries.
+
+Baron VON SCHÆFFER, Delegate of Austro-Hungary, asked that a list of
+the delegates be presented to each of the members of the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that he would instruct the acting Secretary (Mr.
+Peddrick) to have the list prepared.
+
+Upon the motion of Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, the Conference
+then adjourned until to-morrow, (Thursday,) the second instant, at one
+o'clock p. m.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 2, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austria-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHÆFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANSEL ANGUIANO.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL,
+ and Mr. JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY, Professor HIRSCH.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFORD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Señor Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Denmark: Mr. O. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Liberia: Mr. WM. COPPINGER.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that the first business before the Conference was
+the election of Secretaries.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, stated that it was his opinion that
+it would be very difficult to elect Secretaries by a direct vote, and
+he proposed that the selection of the Secretaries be left to a
+Committee to be appointed by the President; that the Committee present
+the names of the officers selected to the Conference, and that these
+Secretaries be four in number.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, stated that it was generally
+understood among the delegates that Mr. Hirsch, one of the delegates
+from Switzerland, should be elected a Secretary, as he was a Secretary
+of the Conference held at Rome, but as he has not yet arrived, he
+proposed that the Conference elect only three Secretaries to-day.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, stated that he believed that Mr.
+Hirsch would soon arrive, and he accepted the amendment just offered.
+
+The original motion, as modified by the amendment, was thereupon
+unanimously agreed to.
+
+The Chair appointed the Delegate of Russia, Mr. de Struve, the
+Delegate from Spain, Mr. Valera, the Delegate from France, Mr.
+Lefaivre, and the Delegate from Sweden, Count Lewenhaupt, as the
+Committee to select the Secretaries.
+
+The Conference thereupon took a recess, to enable the Committee to
+consult and report.
+
+Upon the reassembling of the Conference, the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+Lewenhaupt, announced that the Committee had selected for Secretaries
+the Delegate from Great Britain, Lieut.-General Strachey, the Delegate
+of France, Mr. Janssen, and the Delegate from Brazil, Dr. Cruls.
+
+The report of the Committee was then unanimously adopted by the
+Conference, and the Delegates named as Secretaries signified their
+acceptance of the office.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, moved that the President direct the
+Acting Secretary to arrange the seats of the Delegates according to
+the alphabetical order of the countries represented. He added that it
+would be a great convenience to the members to have their seats
+permanently fixed.
+
+The motion was unanimously agreed to.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then presented the
+following resolution:
+
+ _Resolved_, That the Congress invite Prof. Newcomb,
+ Superintendent of the United States Nautical Almanac; Prof.
+ Hildgard, Superintendent of the United States Coast and
+ Geodetic Surveys; Professor A. Hall; Professor De
+ Valentiner, Director of the Observatory at Karlsruhe; and
+ Sir William Thomson, to attend the meetings of this
+ Congress.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of England, stated that, as he understood
+this resolution, it would not necessarily authorize the parties
+invited to take any part in the discussions.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that the resolution seems merely to invite the
+gentlemen to be present.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that he thought it
+necessary to clear up this matter a little; that if the gentlemen
+invited could not address the Conference, it seemed very little use to
+have them invited; that it was not for their own advantage but for
+that of the Conference that the invitations were extended to those
+scientific gentlemen, and therefore he thought it was the intention in
+inviting them to have the benefit of any information which they might
+desire from time to time to express on the subjects before the
+Congress. He thought that if any remarks on the part of these
+gentlemen were presented to the Conference, with the assent of the
+Congress, through the President, that would doubtless meet all the
+requirements of the case.
+
+The PRESIDENT inquired whether the Delegate of Great Britain meant
+that the remarks should be presented in writing.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, replied that that would
+not necessarily be the case.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, inquired whether the
+persons named in the resolution were the only ones to be invited.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that it was so, so far as the Chair was
+informed, but that it would be in order at any time to add new names
+in the same way.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, stated that this was a
+matter which he had very much at heart, and he would like to observe
+that some of the nations which were invited to send Delegates to this
+Conference had failed to do so, and that it would be a courtesy to
+invite persons of those nations to be present.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, stated that after
+consulting with a number of the delegates he drew the resolution, and
+that it was suggested to him this very morning that possibly there
+might be a difference of opinion as to whether these gentlemen should
+take part in the discussion, and that that was the reason why the
+first resolution merely proposed to invite them to be present. He
+stated that he proposed subsequently to submit another resolution
+authorizing these gentlemen to take part in the discussion; that he
+thought that the original intention was to confer an honor on certain
+distinguished scientists, and that it would be well for the Conference
+to limit the invitation to gentlemen of that character.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he was opposed to the
+proposition to admit to the deliberations of this Conference
+gentlemen, no matter how distinguished or eminent they might be, who
+were not specially delegated by their Governments as members of this
+body. He questioned the power of the Conference to admit to its
+discussions persons who were not regularly appointed to vote upon the
+subject at issue; that this was an international conference created
+for the purpose of obtaining an interchange of views from the
+representatives of the different Governments; that it would extend the
+scope of the work before this body to entertain the views and opinions
+of persons not authorized to speak for the Governments whose Delegates
+are here; that there would be a great divergence of opinion among such
+men, and the result would be rather to embarrass than to help this
+Conference to an accord. He insisted that the matter was exclusively
+governmental, and, while he would be happy to extend any courtesy to
+men distinguished in science, such as the gentlemen who are proposed
+to be invited, he felt constrained to oppose the proposition under the
+circumstances.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he understood that the resolution did not
+propose to confer a vote upon the gentlemen invited, but simply to
+enable them to lay any information before the Conference which they
+might have upon the matter at issue.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, contended that the resolution was
+intended to authorize these gentlemen to deliberate, and he thought
+that the inconvenience would be very great of extending this privilege
+to persons not authorized to represent their Governments. He did not
+think it was reasonable or fair that his opinions should be questioned
+or opposed by the opinions of men not authorized to speak for their
+Governments.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, said that as he had taken
+upon himself to make some remarks both as to the manner in which the
+gentlemen should be invited and the extent of their rights when
+invited, he wished to say that while he agreed with much that had been
+said by the Delegate of France, he held that these gentlemen should
+have an opportunity of expressing their views; that they were not to
+come here merely to listen to the proceedings, but that they should
+themselves be heard.
+
+The PRESIDENT directed that the resolution be read in French, and then
+put it to the vote, when it was unanimously adopted.
+
+Commander SAMPSON. Delegate of the United States, then offered the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the gentlemen who have just been invited
+ to attend the meetings of the Conference be permitted to
+ take part in the discussion of all scientific questions."
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate for France, then stated that it was not in
+accordance with the object of this Conference that private
+individuals, not authorized by their respective Governments, should be
+permitted to influence the decision of this body, and that, while it
+was very proper to extend courtesy to such learned gentlemen as were
+invited, it surely was never intended that they should participate in
+our proceedings.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, said that it would, perhaps,
+save trouble if he stated his views on the point under discussion,
+which he apprehended were generally in accordance with those of the
+representative from France. He said that, if he were permitted, he
+would read a resolution, which he suggested might be accepted as a
+substitute for that pending before the Conference, and it was as
+follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the President be authorized, with the
+ concurrence of the Delegates, to request an expression of
+ the opinions of the gentlemen invited to attend the Congress
+ on any subject on which their opinion may be likely to be
+ valuable."
+
+The PRESIDENT inquired in what way they would express it.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that it would be
+orally.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that the resolution undoubtedly read that way.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that the language,
+"to take part in the discussion," employed in the resolution of
+Commander Sampson, would mean that the persons invited would be in a
+position, of their own motion, either to reply to remarks made, or to
+state their own views, or to take part in the discussion just as the
+Delegates are entitled to do.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he hoped that the
+proposition of the Delegate of Great Britain would not be pressed
+until a vote was had upon the original resolution.
+
+The PRESIDENT then put the resolution to a vote; but, being unable to
+determine from the _viva voce_ vote whether it was carried or not, he
+stated that the roll would be called.
+
+Mr. FREY, Delegate of Switzerland, stated that he thought before the
+vote was taken a decision should be had upon the question, how the
+Delegates were to vote--whether as nations or as individuals.
+
+The PRESIDENT announced that it had been the custom in all such
+conferences to vote as nations, each nation casting one vote, and that
+no other way seemed practicable; and that in conformity with this
+ruling the roll would be called and the vote taken by nations.
+
+The roll was then called, when the following States voted in the
+affirmative:
+
+ Costa Rica, Guatemala,
+ Italy, Mexico,
+ San Domingo, Salvador,
+ Switzerland, Venezuela.
+
+And the following in the negative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Brazil,
+ Colombia, France,
+ Germany, Great Britain,
+ Hawaii, Japan,
+ Paraguay, Russia,
+ Spain, Sweden.
+ United States,
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the ayes were 8 and the noes 13, and
+that the resolution was lost.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, then renewed his resolution,
+which was as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the President be authorized, with the
+ concurrence of the Delegates, to request an expression of
+ the opinions of the gentlemen invited to attend the Congress
+ on any subject on which their opinion may be likely to be
+ valuable."
+
+No discussion arose upon this resolution, and it was adopted.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then offered the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the meetings of this Congress be open to
+ interested visitors."
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he considered this a
+subject of grave importance; that this was an official and
+confidential body; scientific, it was true, but also diplomatic; that
+it was empowered to confer about matters with which the general public
+have now nothing to do; that to admit the public to the meetings would
+destroy their privacy and subject the Conference to the influence of
+an outside pressure which might prove very prejudicial to its
+proceedings, and that he would object to this resolution absolutely.
+
+No further discussion being had, the PRESIDENT, after a _viva voce_
+vote of doubtful result, ordered the roll to be called, when the
+following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Colombia, Costa Rica,
+ Guatemala, Paraguay,
+ Salvador, Spain.
+ Venezuela,
+
+ And the following States in the negative.
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Brazil,
+ France, Germany,
+ Great Britain, Hawaii,
+ Italy, Japan,
+ Mexico, Russia,
+ San Domingo, Sweden,
+ Switzerland, United States.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the ayes were 7 and the noes 14, and
+that the resolution was therefore lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT then said that there would doubtless be some preliminary
+general discussion on the subject before the Conference, and suggested
+that if Delegates desired to be heard upon the subject it would be
+expedient to give an intimation to the Secretary.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, then said: I have been
+requested to present to the Conference the communication that I hold
+in my hand, and in doing so wish to offer the following resolution:
+
+ "Whereas several persons desire to submit to this Conference
+ inventions, devices, and systems of universal time:
+ therefore,
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference will acknowledge the
+ receipt of such communications, but will abstain from any
+ expression of opinion as to their respective merits."
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain, said that the Conference
+should be very cautious in admitting the devices and schemes of people
+who have no connection with this body; that there are, no doubt, many
+inventors and many people who have plans and schemes which they wish
+to press upon the Conference, and that it was probable that the
+Conference would be subjected to very great inconvenience if they took
+upon themselves even the burden of acknowledging the receipt of these
+communications.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he had received several Communions of this
+character, one proposing that Jerusalem should be taken as the prime
+meridian.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, proposed that the Conference should
+appoint a committee to examine the different papers submitted by
+outside parties, and to make such suggestions as they might deem
+proper after examining the papers.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, said that it seemed to him the proper
+course of proceeding for the Conference was to take up the subject
+article by article, and treat it in that order; that there were
+presented to the Conference certain well-defined propositions, and
+that besides these there were the resolutions which had been adopted
+by the Conference at Rome, which could be used as a basis for the
+discussions of this Conference; that in that way the Delegates would
+have before them some precise subject-matter, and after discussion, if
+any proposition needed to be altered or amended it would be in the
+power of the Conference to do so, but that unless some regular method
+of proceeding were adopted the sessions would be prolonged
+indefinitely, and the Conference would be confused by a multitude of
+irrelevant propositions that might be presented to them.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, stated that it seemed
+to him that to invite a general discussion upon the subject, which has
+undoubtedly a great many heads, the best method would be the one just
+suggested; that by having a well-defined course much time would be
+saved, and there would be a precision in the proceedings, which
+undoubtedly is always valuable; that in this way the discussion could
+be kept within bounds, but unless there is some proposition pending
+before the Conference it is impossible to say whether any discussion
+is in order or out of order; that it seemed to him there should be
+some well-defined propositions laid before the Conference, and those
+propositions could easily be gathered, not only from what has gone
+before, not only from the Conference which has been held in Rome, but
+from the acts of Congress and the circulars of the Secretary of
+State, under which this body has been organized.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that if these communications from outside parties
+were brought before the Conference it would entail a great deal of
+labor.
+
+The resolution of the Delegate of the United States, Prof. ABBE, was
+then put to the vote, and was negatived.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then presented the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ represented the adoption as a standard meridian that of
+ Greenwich passing through the centre of the transit
+ instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich."
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, remarked that the proposed
+resolution seemed to him out of order, and that his colleague, Mr.
+Janssen, desired to address the Conference on the subject. He went on
+to say:
+
+The competence of the Conference can give rise to no long debate among
+us. Let us remark, in the first place, that no previous engagement
+exists, on the part of the Governments, to adopt the results of our
+discussions, and that consequently our decisions cannot be compared to
+those of a deliberative congress or an international commission acting
+according to definite powers.
+
+We have no definite powers, or rather, we have no executive power,
+since our decisions cannot be invoked executively by one Government
+towards others.
+
+Does this mean that our decisions will be wholly unauthoritative? An
+assembly which numbers so many eminent delegates, and in which there
+is so much scientific knowledge, must certainly be regarded with
+profound respect by all the Powers of the world. Its powers, however,
+must be of a wholly moral character, and will have to be balanced
+against rights and interests no less worthy of consideration, leaving
+absolutely intact the independence of each individual State.
+
+Under these circumstances, gentlemen, it seems to me that our course
+is already marked out for us. From our Conference is to be elicited
+the expression of a collective wish, a draft of a resolution, which is
+to be adopted by the majority of this assembly, and afterwards
+submitted to the approval of our respective Governments.
+
+This is our mission. It is a great one, and has a lofty international
+bearing. We must, however, realize its extent from the very outset,
+and not go beyond its limits.
+
+An appeal has been made to the decisions of the Conference held at
+Rome. But, gentlemen, I beg leave to remark that that Conference was
+composed entirely of specialists, and that it did not meet for the
+purpose of examining the question in an international point of view.
+This Conference is composed of various elements, among which are
+scientists of the highest standing, but also functionaries of high
+rank, who are not familiar with scientific subjects, and who are
+charged with an examination of this question from a political
+stand-point. It is, moreover, our privilege to be philosophers and
+cosmopolitans, and to contemplate the interests of mankind not only
+for the present, but for the most distant future.
+
+You see, gentlemen, that we enjoy absolute freedom, and that we are in
+nowise bound by the decisions of the Conference held at Rome. It is
+even desirable that those precedents should be appealed to as little
+as possible, inasmuch as we have scientists among us who are regarded
+as authorities in both the Old and the New World, and who are
+perfectly capable of directing us in technical matters, and of
+furnishing all the information that we can desire. I will say even
+more than this: The results of the Conference held at Rome are by no
+means regarded as possessing official authority by the Governments
+that have accredited us; for if those results had been taken as a
+starting point, there would be no occasion for our Conference, and our
+Governments would simply have to decide with regard to the acceptance
+or rejection of the resolutions adopted by the Geodetic Congress at
+Rome.
+
+Everything, however, is intact, even the scientific side of the
+question, and that is the reason why we have so many Delegates
+possessing technical knowledge among us.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he considered the resolution entirely in
+order, and likely to bring about a discussion upon the very point for
+which this Conference was called together; that the resolution was
+open to any amendment that might be offered, could be altered from
+time to time if necessary, and, if it did not meet the sense of the
+Conference, could be defeated.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, inquired whether this proposition
+did not demand an immediate solution.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, replied that no such
+thing was contemplated.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, then spoke as follows:
+
+GENTLEMEN: I formally request that the resolution just proposed by my
+eminent colleague and friend, Mr. Rutherford, be held in reserve, and
+that it may not now be pressed for discussion.
+
+It is wholly undesirable that a proposition of so grave a character,
+which forestalls one of the most important resolutions that we shall
+be called upon to adopt, should be put to the vote while our meeting
+has scarcely been organized, and before any discussion relative to the
+true merits of the questions to be considered has taken place.
+
+This would be inverting the proper order of things and reaching a
+conclusion before having examined the subject before us.
+
+Before discussing the question of the selection of a meridian which is
+to serve as a common zero of longitude for all the nations of the
+world, (if the Congress shall think proper to discuss that point,) it
+is evident that we must first decide the question of principle which
+is to govern all our proceedings; that is to say, whether it is
+desirable to fix upon a common zero of longitude for all nations. I
+therefore formally ask for the withdrawal of Mr. Rutherford's
+proposition.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that as something had been said about the
+Conference at Rome, he desired to say that he had carefully abstained
+from any allusion to it, and that the delegation of the United States
+found no allusions to it in their instructions; that, so far as the
+Chair understood the resolution offered by the Delegate of the United
+States, it was simply to bring before the Conference the consideration
+of the subject of a prime meridian; that he did not understand that
+even the Delegate who presented the motion offered it as an expression
+of his own opinion on the subject, but that he had carefully stated,
+when he had brought the resolution before the Conference, that it was
+for the purpose of enabling the Delegates to proceed to an immediate
+discussion. He added, further, that the resolution was quite open to
+amendment in case the Delegates from France desired to amend it.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, stated that he
+wished to offer the following as a substitute for the resolution
+already pending:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That it is the opinion of this Congress that it
+ is desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all
+ nations in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians
+ which now exist."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then announced that he
+accepted this substitution in place of the first resolution.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of England, stated that if he rightly
+understood the remarks made by the Delegate of France, Mr. LEFAIVRE,
+he thought that it was intended to call attention to the ultimate form
+in which the resolutions of this Congress should be recorded. He
+referred to the address which the Secretary of State of the United
+States (Mr. FRELINGHUYSEN) made to the Delegates on their assembling,
+in which he said: "You have met to discuss and consider the important
+question of a prime meridian for all nations. It will rest with you to
+give a definite result to the preparatory labors of other scientific
+associations and special congresses, and thus make those labors
+available."
+
+He added that the object at which they should aim was to put together
+a series of resolutions which could be presented to the various
+Governments whose representatives are here present, with a view to
+inducing them to accept the decision which may be arrived at by this
+Conference, and, finally, to put that decision in a diplomatic form--a
+form which shall be more definite and precise than the mere
+resolutions which would be adopted by a purely scientific body; this
+he understood to be the position to be adopted by the Delegates to
+this Conference. He then said that it seemed to him that it would be
+necessary, after settling the original shape of the resolutions, that
+they should be reconsidered and afterwards put together in an orderly
+way, in a manner which would give a regular and satisfactory record of
+the proceedings; that it appeared almost certain to him that the
+discussions would be desultory in their nature, but that ultimately a
+revision would be had after the rough-hewing of the blocks out of
+which the edifice was to be formed; that he had no wish, at the
+present stage of the discussion, to go into the merits of the question
+presented; that, for his part, he thought it more prudent to abstain,
+but that with reference to the remarks of his honorable friends from
+France, he could not agree that they should set aside what occurred at
+Rome; that the discussions at Rome were most valuable; they went
+thoroughly into the whole question, and he apprehended that every
+gentleman in the Conference was possessed of the records of what
+occurred there.
+
+He continued by saying that he thought that the Delegate from France,
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, went a little beyond what was strictly right in saying
+that we should shut our eyes to what occurred there; that, for his own
+part, he was obliged to pay attention to what occurred there; that
+some of the most eminent scientific men to be found in any country met
+there and fully discussed the questions now before us, and that the
+Delegates here present were now called upon to revise what occurred
+there.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, said that the Delegate
+from France, Mr. LEFAIVRE, in his remarks, insisted that we should
+first establish for what purpose the Delegates were here assembled;
+that he wished to refer to the circulars sent out by the Government of
+the United States, under which this Conference was called together. He
+said that he could assert, without fear of contradiction, that in
+those communications the President stated that it was believed to be a
+foregone conclusion that a prime meridian was desirable; that that was
+the basis on which the President acted in giving his invitation; that
+how he came to that conclusion he does not state--whether or not the
+proceedings at Rome had anything to do with it, but he thought that
+they had a great influence on the mind of the President; that,
+doubtless, his action was not determined solely by that, and,
+therefore, that the Secretary of State first made a tentative
+application to see whether a proposition for another Conference was
+acceptable, and that he found all countries here represented answering
+the circular in the affirmative; that they agreed with him that a
+conference for this purpose was desirable.
+
+He continued by saying that the Secretary of State then sent a second
+invitation to the different nations to send Delegates, who were to
+assemble here on the first of October, 1884, for the purpose of
+establishing a prime meridian and a universal time. He added that it
+seemed to him a great loss of time to go over the question whether a
+prime meridian was or was not desirable; that the Delegates were sent
+here for the purpose of agreeing upon a prime meridian. He then asked
+why this Conference should lose time in discussing that question.
+
+The resolution offered by the Delegate of the United States, Commander
+SAMPSON, was then unanimously adopted as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That it is the opinion of this Congress that it
+ is desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all
+ nations in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians
+ which now exist."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then renewed his
+original resolution, as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ represented the adoption as a standard meridian that of
+ Greenwich, passing through the centre of the transit
+ instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich."
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, stated that he wished to reiterate
+the objections that he had already offered to the first resolution,
+and spoke as follows:
+
+GENTLEMEN: Mr. Lefaivre, my honorable colleague, and I are of the
+opinion that the mission of this Congress is chiefly to examine
+questions of principle.
+
+I consider that we shall do a very important thing if we proclaim the
+principle of the adoption of a meridian which shall be the same for
+all nations.
+
+The advantages of such a meridian have been felt by the geographers
+and navigators of all ages. France might claim the honor of having
+sought to accomplish this reform as early as the seventeenth century.
+It is not to be expected, therefore, that France, at this late day,
+will seek to place any obstacles in the way of the adoption of an
+improvement which would by this time have been adopted if the use of
+the meridian which she proposed, and which she had caused to be
+generally accepted, had been continued.
+
+We therefore fully agree with you, gentlemen, as to the principle of a
+common international meridian, impartially defined and wisely applied,
+and we think that if the Congress should cause a useful reform, which
+has been so long expected, to be finally adopted, it would render a
+great service to the world, and one that would do us the highest
+honor.
+
+This point being gained, is it proper for us to proceed to the
+adoption of such a meridian? We think not, unless we are assured by a
+previous declaration as to the principle which is to govern the
+selection of that meridian. Without such a declaration, we should have
+no power to begin a discussion on an undefined subject, and we are not
+authorized to pledge ourselves.
+
+I must even add that our acquiescence in the principle of an
+international meridian could not be maintained if the Congress
+proceeded to a choice at variance with the exclusively scientific
+principles which we are instructed to maintain. Thus, in the very
+interest of the great principle which we all desire to see adopted, it
+would, to my way of thinking, be wiser to confine ourselves to a
+general declaration which, by uniting the opinions of all, would
+sustain the principle with all the authority possible. The principle
+having once been adopted, our Governments would subsequently convoke a
+conference of a more technical character than this, at which questions
+of application would be more thoroughly examined.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, stated that it seemed to him the order
+of proceeding for this Conference was very well laid down in the
+invitations addressed by the President of the United States to the
+different countries and in the articles which were formulated at Rome;
+that if these were taken up one after the other and discussed there
+would be a clearly-defined line of action for the Delegates; that if
+an article was not satisfactory it could be altered or amended, or
+could be rejected; but if the propositions were taken up one at a time
+and the discussions directed to these propositions, the Conference
+would be more likely to reach a definite result than in any general
+discussion.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that, so far as he understood the proposition,
+there was no desire to press it to an immediate vote; that it was
+quite proper for the Delegate from France to offer any other
+proposition, as suggested by the Delegate of Spain, in lieu of the
+motion now pending; that so far as the Chair was concerned it seemed
+to him that the Conference could at once proceed to the discussion of
+the general subject of a prime meridian under the pending resolution;
+that if the Delegate from France desires to make any other
+proposition, or offer anything else in a distinct form, he will be
+listened to with great attention and with profound respect.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, remarked that the
+Delegate from France, his learned friend, Mr. JANSSEN, had expressed
+the opinion that the Delegates had not the power to decide upon any
+particular meridian, but that they were sent here merely to discuss
+this principle, namely, whether a general meridian was desirable. He
+added that he was, of course, not in possession of the instructions
+which the Delegates from France received from their own Government,
+but that he found among the instructions received by the Delegates of
+the United States from their Government a copy of one of the
+communications made by the President of the United States to France,
+as well as to the other nations, through the Secretary of State, in
+which was this language:
+
+ "I am accordingly directed by the President to request you
+ to bring the matter to the attention of the Government of
+ ----, through the Minister for Foreign Affairs, with a view
+ to learning, whether its appreciation of the benefits to
+ accrue to the intimate intercourse of civilized peoples from
+ the consideration and adoption of the suggested common
+ standard of time, so far coincides with that of this
+ Government as to lead it to accept an invitation to
+ participate in an International Conference at a date to be
+ designated in the near future."
+
+The Delegate of the United States continued by saying that the whole
+object of this Conference was not to establish the principle that it
+is desirable to have a prime meridian, but to fix that prime meridian;
+that that was the object of the meeting, and that it seemed to him
+that there must be some misapprehension on the part of the learned
+gentleman from France in thinking that this Conference has not the
+power to fix upon a prime meridian; that as to our organization, the
+Delegate of France (Mr. Lefaivre) spoke of its not being sufficiently
+complete to take up this subject at present, but that it seemed to him
+that the Delegates undoubtedly were ready to hear and express
+arguments _pro_ and _con_ in regard to that question; that he supposed
+that every Delegate had studied this matter before coming here, and
+that he did not think that any Delegate would be likely to come here
+unless he knew, or thought he knew, some thing about this matter.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate from Spain, announced that he had no power to
+pledge his country on this subject; that his authority merely extended
+to the power of recommending to his Government such resolutions as
+this Conference might adopt.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, then said: "I desire to state in
+the protocol that I have no power to engage my Government by my votes
+on the different questions which will be submitted to this Conference,
+and that, therefore, these votes must only be considered as an
+engagement on my part to recommend to my Government the decisions for
+which I vote."
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, said that in the name of
+the Delegates of Great Britain he wished to state that they were in
+the same position, but that would not prevent them or this Conference
+from forming an opinion and expressing it.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that on behalf of the Delegates from the United
+States they had no power except that of discussion and recommendation.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE made, on behalf of the Delegates of Russia, a
+declaration identical with that made by the Delegate of Sweden.
+
+Baron VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate from Germany, made the same
+announcement on behalf of his Government.
+
+Mr. FERNANDEZ, Delegate from Mexico, made the same announcement.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, remarked that this Conference was
+called together not merely to discuss the subject of a prime meridian,
+but to determine, so far as these Delegates were concerned, the
+propriety of adopting a particular prime meridian, and that his
+Government would decide afterwards whether it would accept what this
+Conference should recommend.
+
+Dr. CRULS, Delegate of Brazil, stated that his Government authorized
+him to take part in the discussion, but not to commit his Government
+to the adoption of any particular proposition.
+
+Mr. FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain, said that he would like to
+call the attention of the Conference to the language of the act of
+Congress calling this Conference together, and that language runs as
+follows:
+
+ "That the President of the United States be authorized and
+ requested to extend to the Governments of all nations in
+ diplomatic relations with our own an invitation to appoint
+ delegates to meet delegates from the United States in the
+ city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+ designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper
+ to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of
+ time-reckoning throughout the globe."
+
+He added that he thought the object of the Conference clearly was to
+determine and to recommend; that although the word "recommend" was not
+used in the body of the resolution, it was certainly understood, and,
+as a matter of fact, the title of the joint resolution passed by
+Congress contains the word "recommend." It reads as follows:
+
+ "An act to authorize the President of the United States to
+ call an international conference to fix on and recommend for
+ universal adoption a common prime meridian, to be used in
+ the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation of time
+ throughout the world."
+
+Baron von Schæffer, Delegate of Austria-Hungary, then moved that the
+Conference adjourn until Monday, the 6th instant, at one o'clock, to
+enable Delegates to confer on this subject.
+
+The proposition of the Delegate of Austria-Hungary was then agreed to,
+and the Conference adjourned to Monday, October 6, 1884, at 1 o'clock,
+p. m.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 6, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austro-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHÆFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Capt. Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROOK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ARGUIANO.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Mr.
+ JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, said that the
+resolution offered by him at the last meeting omitted to state that
+the proposed meridian was for longitude, and he would offer the
+following as a substitute therefor:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ here represented the adoption of the meridian passing
+ through the centre of the transit instrument at the
+ Observatory of Greenwich as the standard meridian for
+ longitude."
+
+The PRESIDENT then asked if the Conference would permit the
+substitution to be made, and it was unanimously agreed to.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, stated that he did not
+propose to press the resolution to an early vote, but that it was
+offered simply to elicit the opinions of Delegates on the subject. He
+further stated that, having heard that the Delegates of France, Mr.
+LEFAIVRE and Mr. JANSSEN, desired to present certain propositions, he
+would, for that purpose, move to withdraw for the time being the
+resolution offered by him.
+
+No objection being made, the resolution was temporarily withdrawn.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, then made the following statement:
+
+Our colleague, Mr. RUTHERFURD, having withdrawn his motion for the
+adoption of the meridian of Greenwich, we, the Delegates of France,
+after consultation with him, submit the following motion:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the initial meridian should have a
+ character of absolute neutrality. It should be chosen
+ exclusively so as to secure to science and to international
+ commerce all possible advantages, and in particular
+ especially should cut no great continent--neither Europe nor
+ America."
+
+Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain, then stated that he
+presumed the Conference could hardly pass by the important meeting
+held at Rome, where twelve of the thirty-eight Delegates were
+directors of national observatories, and where the subject of the
+conditions which should attach to a prime meridian were discussed
+without reference to any particular nationality; that these learned
+gentlemen came to the conclusion (which he thought was a very wise
+one) that the necessity existed for a prime meridian that it should
+pass through an astronomical observatory of the first order; that
+modern science demanded such precision, and therefore they excluded
+all ideas of a meridian being established on an island, in a strait,
+on the summit of a mountain, or as indicated by a monumental building.
+Looking at the subject in its various aspects, they came to the
+conclusion that there were only four great observatories which in
+their minds combined all the conditions, and this decision was
+unanimously received by that Conference. Those great observatories
+were Paris, Berlin, Greenwich, and Washington. He stated further that,
+having this in view, he thought this Conference should be particularly
+guarded, looking at the question from a scientific point of view, not
+to depart from the conditions laid down by the Conference at Rome;
+that he had no desire to advocate any one of the places enumerated,
+but merely mentioned them as satisfying all the conditions of science,
+which was so brilliantly represented at Rome.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then said:
+
+I can only attempt to anticipate the arguments which may be advanced
+by the learned Delegate from France in support of his resolution to
+adopt a neutral meridian. But it is our simple duty, in our present
+judicial capacity, to examine the question of a prime meridian from
+all points of view. With the object, then, of considering the question
+from another stand-point, I ask your attention for one moment. This
+Congress, at its last meeting, by a unanimous vote, declared its
+opinion that it was desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for the
+purpose of reckoning longitude. Further, it is fair to assume that the
+delegates here assembled, in answer to a specific invitation from the
+Government of the United States, and for a stated purpose, have come
+empowered by their respective governments to act upon the questions
+submitted for their consideration in the invitation.
+
+At the last meeting, the Delegates from France left us somewhat in
+doubt regarding their views upon this important question of the powers
+of the delegates, or at least of their own delegation. But as they
+have to-day advocated the adoption of a neutral meridian, we may
+conclude that they have the necessary delegated power to fully
+consider and determine the main question before us--the selection of a
+prime meridian.
+
+In the absence of any declared opinion to the contrary, we may take it
+for granted that the Delegates from all States here represented are
+deputed to "fix upon a meridian proper to be employed as a common zero
+of longitude throughout the globe," and to recommend the same for
+adoption to their respective Governments.
+
+If, then, we are of one mind as to the desirability of a single prime
+meridian, and if we are fully empowered to make the selection, which
+may be taken as another way of saying that we are directed by our
+respective Governments to make the selection, we may proceed directly
+to the performance of this duty.
+
+In the choice of a prime meridian, there is no physical feature of our
+earth which commends itself above others as the best starting point;
+nor does the form of the earth itself present any peculiarity which
+might be used as an initial point. If the refinements of geodesy
+should finally lead to the conclusion that the figure of the earth is
+an ellipsoid with three axes, yet the question of the direction of
+either of the equatorial axes must remain to such a degree uncertain
+that the extremity of the axis could not be assumed as the point of
+departure for counting longitude. Indeed, as an initial meridian must
+above all things be fixed in position, it would not answer to make its
+position depend upon any physical constant which is itself in the
+slightest degree uncertain; for in these days, when refinements in
+physical measurements are constantly leading to more and more accurate
+results, each advance in accuracy would necessitate an annoying change
+in the initial meridian, or, what would more probably result, the
+retention of the first chosen meridian, which would thus lose its
+dependence upon the original definition, and become as arbitrary as
+if taken by chance in the first instance.
+
+We may then say that, from a purely scientific point of view, any
+meridian may be taken as the prime meridian. But from the standpoint
+of convenience and economy there is undoubtedly much room for a
+choice.
+
+Considering this question of convenience in connection with the
+necessary condition of fixity already referred to, the prime meridian
+should pass through some well-established national observatory.
+
+In making the choice of a prime meridian which is to serve for a great
+period of time, it is important to so fix and define it that the
+natural changes of time may not render it in the least degree
+uncertain. To this end, the nation within whose borders the chosen
+point may fall should engage to establish it in the most enduring
+manner, and protect it against all possible causes of change or
+destruction.
+
+When taken in connection with other requirements, to be mentioned
+hereafter, this character of permanence will be best secured by making
+the adopted meridian pass through an observatory which is under the
+control of the Government.
+
+Such observatory should be in telegraphic communication with the whole
+world, in order that the differences of longitude from the prime
+meridian may be determined for any point. These conditions of
+convenience are so important that they may fairly be considered
+imperative. To fulfil them one of the national meridians now in use
+should be selected. To select any other than one of these meridians,
+or a meridian directly dependent upon one of them, and defined simply
+by its angular distance from one of these national meridians, would be
+to introduce endless confusion into all charts and maps now in use.
+
+To select as a prime meridian one which shall be a defined angular
+distance from one of the national meridians, must have for its object
+either to remove some inconvenience which results from the use of the
+national meridian itself, or it must be to satisfy a desire to deprive
+the selected meridian of any nationality.
+
+The inconvenience of east and west longitudes, which results from
+having the prime meridian pass through a thickly populated portion of
+the world, will be removed by reckoning the longitude continuously
+from O° to 360°. At the same time an important advantage is secured by
+having the prime meridian occupy a central position with regard to the
+most densely populated part of the earth; because the distances which
+will then separate the various points from the central observatory
+marking the initial meridian will be a minimum, and consequently less
+liable to error in determination. The selection of a meridian by
+calculation, defined as a certain number of degrees east or west of
+one of the national meridians, would not thereby deprive the meridian
+thus selected of a national character; for though we may reckon
+longitude from a meridian passing through the Atlantic or Pacific
+Ocean, yet the initial point from which all measurements of longitude
+must be made would still remain one of the national meridians. Again,
+if any other than one of the national meridians were selected, or a
+meridian dependent upon one of them, as, for example, a neutral
+meridian in the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, it would necessitate a
+change in all charts and maps.
+
+It is hardly necessary to say that no scientific or practical
+advantage is to be secured by adopting the meridian of the great
+pyramid, or by attempting to establish permanent meridian marks over a
+great length of the selected meridian, for even in the present
+advanced condition of astronomical and geodetic science it is not
+practicable to establish two points on the same meridian at a
+considerable distance from each other with such a degree of accuracy
+as would warrant the use of them indifferently as the initial point.
+
+As a matter of economy as well as convenience that meridian should be
+selected which is now in most general use. This additional
+consideration of economy would limit our choice to the meridian of
+Greenwich, for it may fairly be stated upon the authority of the
+distinguished Delegate from Canada that more than 70 per cent. of all
+the shipping of the world uses this meridian for purposes of
+navigation.
+
+The charts constructed upon this meridian cover the whole navigable
+globe. The cost of the plates from which these charts are printed is
+probably 75 per cent. of the cost of all plates in the world for
+printing mariners' charts, and is probably not less than ten millions
+of dollars. As a matter of economy, then, to the world at large, it
+would be better to permit those plates to remain unchanged which are
+engraved for the meridian of Greenwich and to make the necessary
+changes in all plates engraved for other meridians.
+
+A very natural pride has led the great nations to establish by law
+their own prime meridian within their own borders, and into this error
+the United States was led about 35 years ago.
+
+Should any of us now hesitate in the adoption of a particular
+meridian, or should any nation covet the honor of having the selected
+meridian within its own borders, it is to be remembered that when the
+prime meridian is once adopted by all it loses its specific name and
+nationality, and becomes simply the Prime Meridian.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, stated that he did not
+propose to take up much of the time of the Conference; that he had
+listened with great pleasure to the exhaustive speech of his
+colleague, Commander SAMPSON, but that he wished to say a few words
+about the conditions of permanence in the prime meridian to which
+allusion had just been made. He said that he would call attention to
+the fact that the observatory at Paris stands within the heart of a
+large and populous city; that it has already been thought by many of
+the principal French astronomers that it should no longer remain
+there; that it has been, interfered with by the tremors of the earth
+and emanations in the air, which prevent it from fulfilling its
+usefulness; that for several years past strenuous efforts have been
+made to remove the observatory from Paris to some other place where it
+may be free to follow out its course of usefulness, and that the only
+thing which keeps it there is the remembrance of the honorable career
+of that observatory in times past. He added that he was sure that
+there was no one here who failed to recognize its claims to
+distinction; that there was no one here acquainted with the past
+history of astronomy but looks with pride upon the achievements of the
+human intellect effected there. At the same time, however, if a
+change is to be made, if sentiment should give way to practical
+reason, a locality, no doubt, will be found which may be calculated to
+fulfil the requirements of a prime meridian better than that one.
+
+As to the fitness of Greenwich, he said that the observatory was
+placed in the middle of a large park under the control of the
+Government, so that no nuisance can come near it without their
+consent, and that it was in a position which speaks for itself; that
+he would only add one word more in regard to this matter, and that is,
+that the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian
+has not been sought after by Great Britain; that it was not her
+proposition, but that she consented to it after it had been proposed
+by other portions of the civilized world.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said: We do not put forward the
+meridian of the observatory of Paris as that to be chosen for the
+prime meridian; but if it were chosen, and we wished to compare it
+with that of Greenwich as to the accuracy with which it is actually
+connected with the other observatories of Europe, it would not lose by
+the comparison. The latest observations of the differences of
+longitude made by electricity by the Bureau of Longitudes of France
+and our officers have given very remarkable results of great accuracy.
+It is well known that what is important for a starting point in
+reckoning longitude is, above all things, that it should be accurately
+connected with points whose positions have been precisely fixed, such
+as the great observatories. There is, therefore, a slight confusion on
+the part of my eminent colleague, namely, that of not distinguishing
+between the conditions which require the exact connection of the
+starting point of longitudes with observatories, and the merits of the
+position of such a point in an astronomical aspect, which is here a
+matter of secondary importance.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, said that he did not not know if his
+observation was well founded, but it seemed to him that what the
+Delegates of France had proposed had not been contested, but that the
+arguments used had rather been those in favor of the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, said that the
+observations which he had made were merely to be regarded as a
+negative of the proposition made by the Delegates of France, and not
+as a statement of the arguments in favor of the adoption of Greenwich.
+
+The PRESIDENT said that the remarks of the Delegate of the United
+States were not out of order, inasmuch as they were intended to combat
+the proposition brought forward by the Delegate of France.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, then spoke as follows:
+
+GENTLEMEN: At the last session, when a proposition was made by my
+eminent colleague and friend, Mr. RUTHERFURD, to discuss and vote upon
+the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich as the common prime
+meridian, I thought it necessary to say that the proposal appeared to
+me prematurely made, and that we could not agree to the discussion
+proceeding in that manner. Mr. RUTHERFURD has informed me that he
+would withdraw his proposition for the present, in order to permit me
+to direct the discussion, in the first place, to the principle which
+should direct the choice of a common prime meridian. I here take the
+opportunity of thanking Mr. RUTHERFURD for his courtesy, and I no
+longer object to proceeding with the debate.
+
+What we ask is, that after the general declaration of the second
+session as to the utility of a common prime meridian, the Congress
+should discuss the question of the principle which should guide the
+choice of that meridian.
+
+Being charged to maintain before you, gentlemen, the principle of the
+neutrality of the prime meridian, it is evident that if that principle
+was rejected by the Congress it would be useless for us to take part
+in the further discussion of the choice of the meridian to be adopted
+as the point of departure in reckoning longitude.
+
+We think, gentlemen, that if this question of the unification of
+longitude is again taken up after so many unsuccessful attempts to
+settle it as are recorded in history, there will be no chance of its
+final solution unless it be treated upon an exclusively geographical
+basis, and that at any cost all national competition should be set
+aside. We do not advocate any particular meridian. We put ourselves
+completely aside in the debate, and thus place ourselves in a position
+of far greater freedom for expressing our opinion, and discussing the
+question exclusively in view of the interests affected by the proposed
+reform.
+
+The history of geography shows us a great number of attempts to
+establish a uniformity of longitude, and when we look for the reasons
+which have caused those attempts (many of which were very happily
+conceived) to fail, we are struck with the fact that it appears due to
+two principal causes--one of a scientific and the other of a moral
+nature. The scientific cause was the incapacity of the ancients to
+determine exactly the relative positions of different points on the
+globe, especially if it was a question of an island far from a
+continent, and which consequently could not be connected with that
+continent by itinerary measurements. For example, the first meridian
+of Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy, placed on the Fortunate Isles, in
+spite of its being so well chosen at the western extremity of the then
+known world, could not continue to be used on account of the
+uncertainty of the point of departure. That much to be regretted
+obstacle caused the method to be changed. It became necessary to fall
+back on the continent. But then, in place of a single common origin of
+longitude indicated by nature, the first meridians were fixed at
+capitals of countries, at remarkable places, at observatories. The
+second cause to which I just now alluded, the cause of a moral
+nature--national pride--has led to the multiplication of geographical
+starting-points where the nature of things would have required, on the
+contrary, their reduction to a single one.
+
+In the seventeenth century, Cardinal Richelieu, in view of this
+confusion, desired to take up again the conception of Marinus of Tyre,
+and assembled at Paris French and foreign men of science, and the
+famous meridian of the Island of Ferro was the result of their
+discussions.
+
+Here, gentlemen, we find a lesson which should not be lost sight of.
+This meridian of Ferro, which at first had the purely geographical and
+neutral character which could alone establish and maintain it as an
+international first meridian, was deprived of its original
+characteristic by the geographer Delisle, who, to simplify the
+figures, placed it at 20 degrees in round numbers west of Paris. This
+unfortunate simplification abandoned entirely the principle of
+impersonality. It was no longer then an independent meridian; it was
+the meridian of Paris disguised. The consequences were soon felt. The
+meridian of Ferro, which has subsequently been considered as a purely
+French meridian, aroused national susceptibilities, and thus lost the
+future which was certainly in store for it if it had remained as at
+first defined. This was a real misfortune for geography. Our maps,
+while being perfected, would have preserved a common unit of origin,
+which, on the contrary, has altered more and more.
+
+If, as soon as astronomical methods had been far enough advanced to
+permit the establishment of relative positions with that moderate
+accuracy which is sufficient for ordinary geography, (and that could
+have been done at the end of the 17th century,) we had again taken up
+the just and geographical conception of Marinus of Tyre, the reform
+would have been accomplished two centuries sooner, and to-day we
+should have been in the full enjoyment of it. But the fault was
+committed of losing sight of the essential principles of the question,
+and the establishment of numerous observatories greatly contributed to
+this. Furnishing naturally very accurate relative positions, each one
+of these establishments was chosen by the nation to which it belonged
+as a point of departure for longitude, so that the intervention of
+astronomy in these questions of a geographical nature, an intervention
+which, if properly understood, should have been so useful, led us
+further away from the object to be attained.
+
+In fact, gentlemen, the study of these questions tends to show that
+there is an essential distinction between meridians of a geographical
+or hydrographical nature and meridians of observatories. The meridians
+of observatories should be considered essentially national. Their
+function is to permit observatories to connect themselves one with
+another for the unification of the observations made at them. They
+serve also as bases for geodetic and topographical operations carried
+on around them. But their function is of a very special kind, and
+should be generally limited to the country to which they belong.
+
+On the contrary, initial meridians for geography need not be fixed
+with quite such a high degree of accuracy as is required by astronomy;
+but, in compensation, their operation must be far reaching, and while
+it is useful to increase as much as possible the number of meridians
+of observatories, it is necessary to reduce as much as we can the
+starting points for longitudes in geography.
+
+Further, it may be said that as the position of an observatory should
+be chosen with reference to astronomical considerations, so an initial
+meridian in geography should only be fixed for geographical reasons.
+
+Gentlemen, have these two very different functions been always well
+understood, and has this necessary distinction been preserved? In no
+wise. As observatories, on account of the great accuracy of their
+operations, furnish admirable points of reference, each nation which
+was in a condition to do it connected with its principal observatory
+not only the geodetic or topographical work which was done at home--a
+very natural thing--but also general geographical or hydrographical
+work which was executed abroad, a practice which contained the germ of
+all the difficulties with which we are troubled to-day. Thus, as maps
+accumulated, the need of uniformity, especially in those that referred
+to general geography, was felt more and more.
+
+This explains why this question of a single meridian as a starting
+point has been so often raised of late.
+
+Among the assemblies which have occupied themselves with this
+question, the one which principally calls for our attention is that
+which was held at Rome last year; indeed, for many of our colleagues
+the conclusions adopted by the Congress of Rome settle the whole
+matter. These conclusions must, therefore, receive our special
+attention.
+
+In reading the reports of the discussions of that Congress, I was
+struck with the fact that in an assembly of so many learned men and
+eminent theorists it was the practical side of the question that was
+chiefly considered, and which finally determined the character of the
+resolutions adopted.
+
+Thus, instead of laying down the great principle that the meridian to
+be offered to the world as the starting-point for all terrestrial
+longitudes should, have above all things, an essentially geographical
+and impersonal character, the question was simply asked, which one of
+the meridians in use among the different observatories has (if I may
+be allowed to use the expression) the largest number of clients? In a
+matter which interests geography much more than hydrography, as most
+sailors acknowledge, because there exist really but two initial
+hydrographic meridians, Greenwich and Paris, a prime meridian has been
+taken, the reign (practical influence) of which is principally over
+the sea; and this meridian, instead of being chosen with reference to
+the configuration of the continents, is borrowed from an observatory;
+that is to say, that it is placed on the globe in a hap-hazard manner,
+and is very inconveniently situated for the function that it is to
+perform. Finally, instead of profiting by the lessons of the past,
+national rivalries are introduced in a question that should rally the
+good-will of all.
+
+Well, gentlemen, I say that considerations of economy and of
+established custom should not make us lose sight of the principles
+which must be paramount in this question, and which alone can lead to
+the universal acceptance and permanence of its settlement.
+Furthermore, gentlemen, these motives of economy and of established
+custom, which have been appealed to as a decisive argument, exist, it
+is true, for the majority in behalf of which they have been put
+forward, but exist for them only, and leave to us the whole burden of
+change in customs, publications, and material.
+
+Since the report considers us of so little weight in the scales, allow
+me, gentlemen, to recall briefly the past and the present of our
+hydrography, and for that purpose I can do no better than to quote
+from a work that has been communicated to me, and which emanates from
+one of our most learned hydrographers. "France," he says, "created
+more than two centuries ago the most ancient nautical ephemerides in
+existence. She was the first to conceive and execute the great
+geodetic operations which had for their object the construction of
+civil and military maps and the measurement of arcs of the meridian in
+Europe, America, and Africa. All these operations were and are based
+on the Paris meridian. Nearly all the astronomical tables used at the
+present time by the astronomers and the navies of the whole world are
+French, and calculated for the Paris meridian. As to what most
+particularly concerns shipping, the accurate methods now used by all
+nations for hydrographic surveys are of French origin, and our charts,
+all reckoned from the meridian of Paris, bear such names as those of
+Bougainville, La Pérouse, Fleurieu, Borda, d'Entrecasteaux, Beautemps,
+Beaupré, Duperrey, Dumont d'Urville, Daussy, to quote only a few among
+those who are not living.
+
+"Our actual hydrographic collections amount to more than 4,000 charts.
+By striking off those which the progress of explorations have rendered
+useless, there still remain about 2,600 charts in use. Of this number
+more than half represent original French surveys, a large part of
+which foreign nations have reproduced. Amongst the remainder, the
+general charts are the result of discussions undertaken in the Bureau
+of the Marine, by utilizing all known documents, French as well as
+foreign, and there are relatively few which are mere translations of
+foreign works. Our surveys are not confined to the coasts of France
+and of its colonies; there is scarcely a region of the globe for which
+we do not possess original work--Newfoundland, the coasts of Guiana,
+of Brazil, and of La Plata, Madagascar, numerous points of Japan and
+of China, 187 original charts relative to the Pacific. We must not
+omit the excellent work of our hydrographic engineers on the west
+coast of Italy, which was honored by the international jury with the
+great medal of honor at the Universal Exhibition of 1867. The
+exclusive use of the Paris meridian by our sailors is justified by
+reference to a past of two centuries, which we have thus briefly
+recalled.
+
+"If another initial meridian had to be adopted, it would be necessary
+to change the graduation of our 2,600 hydrographic plates; it would be
+necessary to do the same thing for our nautical instructions, (sailing
+directions,) which exceed 600 in number. The change would also
+necessarily involve a corresponding change in the _Connaissance des
+Temps_."
+
+These are titles to consideration of some importance. Well, if under
+these circumstances the projected reform, instead of being directed by
+the higher principles which ought to govern the subject, should take
+solely for its base the respect due to the established customs of the
+largest number and the absence on their part of all sacrifice,
+reserving to us alone the burden of the change and the abandonment of
+a valued and glorious past, are we not justified in saying that a
+proposition thus made would not be acceptable?
+
+When France, at the end of the last century, instituted the metre, did
+she proceed thus? Did she, as a measure of economy and in order to
+change nothing in her customs, propose to the world the "Pied de Roi"
+as a unit of measure? You know the facts. The truth is, everything
+with us was overthrown--both the established methods and instruments
+for measurement; and the measure adopted being proportioned only to
+the dimensions of the earth, is so entirely detached from everything
+French that in future centuries the traveller who may search the ruins
+of our cities may inquire what people invented the metrical measure
+that chance may bring under his eyes.
+
+Permit me to say that it is thus a reform should be made and becomes
+acceptable. It is by setting the example of self-sacrifice; it is by
+complete self-effacement in any undertaking, that opposition is
+disarmed and true love of progress is proved.
+
+I now hasten to say that I am persuaded that the proposition voted for
+at Rome was neither made nor suggested by England, but I doubt whether
+it would render a true service to the English nation if it be agreed
+to. An immense majority of the navies of the world navigate with
+English charts; that is true, and it is a practical compliment to the
+great maritime activity of that nation. When this freely admitted
+supremacy shall be transformed into an official and compulsory
+supremacy, it will suffer the vicissitudes of all human power, and
+that institution, (the common meridian,) which by its nature is of a
+purely scientific nature, and to which we would assure a long and
+certain future, will become the object of burning competition and
+jealousy among nations.
+
+All this shows, gentlemen, how much wiser it would be to take for the
+origin of terrestrial longitude a point chosen from geographical
+considerations only. Upon the globe, nature has so sharply separated
+the continent on which the great American nation has arisen, that
+there are only two solutions possible from a geographical point of
+view, both of them very natural.
+
+The first solution would consist in returning, with some small
+modification, to the solution of the ancients, by placing our meridian
+near the Azores; the second by throwing it back to that immense
+expanse of water which separates America from Asia, where on its
+northern shores the New World abuts on the old.
+
+These two solutions may be discussed; this has been often done, and
+again quite recently, by one of our ablest geologists, M. de
+Chancourtois.
+
+Each of these meridians combine the fundamental conditions which
+geography demands and upon which there has always been an agreement
+when national meridians are set aside from the discussion. As to the
+determination of the position of the point which may be adopted, the
+present excellent astronomical methods will give it with a degree of
+exactness as great as that which geography requires.
+
+But what is the necessity for a special and costly determination of
+the longitude of a point which can be fixed arbitrarily, provided this
+be done within certain limits, as for instance by satisfying the
+conditions of passing through a strait or an island. We may be content
+with fixing the position of the point adopted in an approximate
+manner. The position thus obtained would be connected with certain of
+the great observatories selected for the purpose from their being
+accurately connected one with another, and the relative positions thus
+ascertained would supply the definition of the first meridian. As to
+any material mark on the globe, if one be desired, though it is in no
+manner necessary, it would be established in conformity with this
+definition, and its position should be changed until it exactly
+complied with it.
+
+As to the question of the changes to be introduced in existing maps
+and charts which, by our proposition, would be imposed upon everybody,
+they could be very much reduced, especially if it were agreed--which
+would be sufficient at first--to draw upon existing charts only a
+subsidiary additional scale of graduation which would permit immediate
+use of the international meridian. Later, and as new charts were
+engraved, a more complete scale of graduation would be given; but I
+think that it would always be desirable to preserve in the manner now
+done in many atlases both systems of reckoning longitude--the national
+and international. If it be necessary at the present time to
+facilitate the external relations of all nations, it is also well to
+preserve among them all manifestations of personal life, and to
+respect the symbols which represent their traditions and past history.
+
+Gentlemen, I do not propose to dwell upon the details of the
+establishment of such a meridian. We have only to advocate before you
+the principle of its acceptance.
+
+If this principle be admitted by the Congress, we are instructed to
+say that you will find in it a ground for agreement with France.
+
+Without doubt, on account of our long and glorious past, of our great
+publications, of our important hydrographic works, a change of
+meridian would cause us heavy sacrifices. Nevertheless, if we are
+approached with offers of self-sacrifice, and thus receive proofs of a
+sincere desire for the general good, France has given sufficient
+proofs of her love of progress to make her co-operation certain.
+
+But we shall have to regret that we are not able to join a combination
+which to protect the interests of one portion of the contracting
+parties would sacrifice the more weighty scientific character of the
+meridian to be adopted, a character which in our eyes is indispensable
+to justify its imposition upon all, and to assure it permanent
+success.
+
+Prof. J. C. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that if he were
+allowed to offer a few observations upon the eloquent address made by
+his colleague, the representative of France, Mr. JANSSEN, he would
+remark that, so far as he could follow that discourse, it seemed to
+him to turn almost entirely on sentimental considerations; that it
+appeared to him that the Delegate of France had overlooked one great
+point which was correctly laid down by the President in his opening
+address, viz., that one of the main objects to be kept in view in the
+deliberations of this Conference would be, how best to secure the
+aggregate convenience of the world at large--how we should choose a
+prime meridian which would cause the least inconvenience by the change
+that would take place. Of course, any change would necessarily be
+accompanied by a certain amount of inconvenience, but our object, as
+he understood it, was to take care that that inconvenience should be
+as small in its aggregate amount as possible.
+
+He stated that if that were taken as the ground of consideration by
+this Conference, it appeared to him that the question was narrowed to
+one of fact rather than to be one of sentiment, which latter would
+admit of no solution whatever; for it was quite clear that if all the
+Delegates here present were guided by merely sentimental
+considerations, or by considerations of _amour propre_, the Conference
+would never arrive at any conclusion, because each nation would put
+its own interests on a level with those of every other.
+
+He added that if the Conference should be able to agree in the opinion
+that the adoption of one meridian (for his part he did not undertake
+to say what meridian) would be accompanied by a greater amount of
+convenience in the aggregate than the adoption of any other, he
+thought that this should be the predominant consideration in guiding
+the decision of this Conference, on the question referred to them, and
+it appeared to him that this is a consideration which the Delegate of
+France has not put before this Conference, at least not in a prominent
+way. It is clear that the inconvenience caused to any one nation by
+the adoption of a new neutral meridian would not be lessened by the
+fact that all other nations would suffer the same inconvenience.
+
+With respect to the question of a neutral meridian, Professor ADAMS
+wished to call the attention of the Congress to the fact that the
+Delegates here present are not a collection of representatives of
+belligerents; that they are all neutral as men should be in a matter
+purely scientific, or in any other matter which affects the
+convenience of the world at large, and that this Conference is not met
+here at the end of a war to see how territory should be divided, but
+in a friendly way, representing friendly nations.
+
+He stated that he hoped the Delegates would be guided in their
+decision by the main consideration, which was, What will tend to the
+greatest practical convenience of the world? That he need not address
+a word to the other part of the argument which he thought at first of
+commenting upon a little, for the Delegate of the United States,
+Commander SAMPSON, who spoke first, had put his views so clearly
+before the Conference that he (Professor ADAMS) would not detain it
+longer.
+
+He would add, however, that if the Conference is to take a neutral
+meridian they must either erect an observatory on the point selected,
+which might be very inconvenient if they should choose such a point as
+is alluded to by the Delegate of France, or if some such place was not
+selected, we should merely have a zero of longitude by a legal
+fiction, and that would not be a real zero at all; that they would
+have to select their zero with reference to a known observatory, and
+that, for instance, supposing they took a point for zero twenty
+degrees west of Paris, of course that would be really adopting Paris
+as the prime meridian; that it would not be so nominally, but in
+reality it would be, and he thought that we now-a-days should get rid
+of legal fictions as much as possible, and call things by their right
+names.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said:
+
+My eminent colleague, whose presence is an honor to this Congress,
+Professor ADAMS, thinks that I overlook too much the practical side of
+the question; namely, how a prime meridian can be established so as to
+cause the least inconvenience. He says that I pay too much attention
+to what he calls a question of sentiment, and he concludes by
+expressing the hope that all nations will lay aside their national
+pride and only be guided by this consideration: What meridian offers
+the greatest practical advantages? My reply is that I intend no more
+than Professor ADAMS to place the question upon the ground of national
+pride; but it is one thing to speak in the name of national pride and
+another to foresee that this sentiment common to all men, may show
+itself, and that we should avoid conclusions likely to arouse it, or
+we may compromise our success. That is all our argument; and the
+history of the great nation to which Professor ADAMS belongs furnishes
+us with examples of considerable significance, for the French meridian
+of Ferro was never adopted by the English, notwithstanding its happy
+geographical situation, and we all still awaiting the honor of seeing
+the adoption of the metrical system for common use in England.
+
+But let us put aside these questions which I would not have been the
+first to touch upon, and place ourselves upon the true ground of the
+importance of the proposed reform, which is the only one worthy of
+ourselves or of this discussion. We do not refuse to enter into an
+agreement on account of a mere question, of national pride, and the
+statement of the changes and expenses to which we should have to
+submit in order to accomplish the agreement is a sufficient proof of
+this.
+
+But we consider that a reform which consists in giving to a
+geographical question one of the worst solutions possible, simply on
+the ground of practical convenience, that is to say, the advantage to
+yourselves and those you represent, of having nothing to change,
+either in your maps, customs, or traditions--such a solution, I say,
+can have no future before it, and we refuse to take part in it.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, stated that the Delegate of
+France, Mr. JANSSEN, had made a very important proposition to the
+Conference: That the meridian adopted should be a neutral one. He said
+that he had endeavored to determine what a neutral meridian is. On
+what principle shall the Conference fix upon a neutral meridian, and
+what is a neutral meridian? Shall it be historical, geographical,
+scientific, or arithmetical? In what way shall it be fixed upon? He
+looked back a little into the history of an important system adopted
+some years ago. France determined to give us a neutral system of
+weights and measures, and the world now thanks her for it. She
+determined that the base of this neutral system should be the
+ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the meridian. She fixed it by
+measurement, and to-day we use the metre as the standard in all
+important scientific work; but is that metre part of a neutral
+system? Is our metric system neutral? It was intended to be, but it is
+not; we are using a French system. Had the English, or the Germans, or
+the Americans taken the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the
+meridian, they would have arrived at a slightly different measure, and
+there would have been an English, a German, and an American measure.
+We are using the French metric system. It was intended to be a neutral
+system, but it is a French system. We adopt it because it deserves our
+admiration, but it is not a neutral system. The various nations of the
+world might meet and agree upon some slight modification of this
+metric system which would agree with the results of all scientific
+investigations, and thus make it international instead of French; but
+we do not care to do that, and are willing to adopt one system, taking
+the standard of Paris as our standard. How shall we determine a
+neutral system of longitude? The expression "neutral system of
+longitude" is a myth, a fancy, a piece of poetry, unless you can tell
+precisely how to do it. He would vote for a neutral system if the
+French representatives can tell the Conference clearly how to decide
+that it is neutral, and satisfy them that it is not national in any
+way.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said:
+
+I perfectly understand the objection of my honorable colleague, Prof.
+ABBE. He asks what is a neutral meridian, and adds that the metre
+itself does not appear to him to be a neutral measure, but to be a
+French measure. He relies upon the consideration that if the English,
+the Americans, and Germans, in adopting a definition of the metre, had
+measured it for themselves, they would have arrived each at a slightly
+different result, which would have given us an English, American, and
+German metre; nevertheless, he adds, we use the French metre, because
+we find it so admirable.
+
+I would answer, first, that the metre, as far as the measure is
+derived from the dimensions of the earth, is not French, and it was
+precisely to take away this character of nationality that those who
+fixed on the metre sought to establish it on the dimensions of the
+earth itself. What is French is the particular metre of our national
+archives, which exhibits a very slight difference from that which our
+actual geodesy would have given us. Also, I think that if, at the time
+of the adoption of the Convention du Mêtre, in which the nations of
+Europe participated, we had slightly changed the length of our
+standard to make it agree with the result of actual geodetic
+measurements, we should have done an excellent thing in depriving this
+measure of any shadow of nationality. I agree with my honorable
+colleague that if a few slight changes adopted by common accord could
+perfect the metrical system, we French ought to have no motive for
+opposing it. We have the honor of having invented a system of measures
+which, being based upon considerations of a purely scientific nature,
+has been accepted by all. Therefore if it can be said with truth that
+the metre of the Archives of Paris is French, (not intentionally, but
+because it bears the mark of an error of French origin,) it is an
+international metre, by the same title that the discovery of the
+satellites of Mars made by my friend, Prof. Asaph Hall, whom I have
+the pleasure of seeing here, is scientific and of a universal nature.
+The metre--equal to the ten-millionth part of the distance from the
+equator to the pole--is no more French than that distance itself, and,
+nevertheless, if the Americans, English, or Germans had measured it,
+they would each have arrived at a slightly different metre.
+
+Now, my honorable colleague adds that a neutral meridian appears to
+him a myth, a fancy, a piece of poetry, so long as we have not exactly
+settled the method of determining it. I shall disregard the
+expressions which my honorable colleague has thus introduced into the
+discussion, because this discussion should be serious. It is plain
+that Prof. ABBE did not thoroughly apprehend the explanations which I
+gave of the proper methods of fixing the initial meridian, and of the
+conditions which make a meridian neutral; but I return to them, since
+I am invited to do so. Our meridian will be neutral if, in place of
+taking one of those which are fixed by the existing great
+observatories, to which, consequently, the name of a nation is
+attached, and which by long usage is identified with that nation, we
+choose a meridian based only upon geographical considerations, and
+upon the uses for which we propose to adopt it.
+
+Do you want a striking example of what differentiates a neutral
+meridian from a national meridian? In order to avoid the confusion
+which existed in geography at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century, on account of the multiplicity of initial meridians then in
+use, a congress of learned men, assembled in Paris at the instance of
+Richelieu to select a new common meridian, fixed its choice on the
+most eastern point of the Island of Ferro. This was a purely
+geographical meridian, being attached to no capital, to no national
+observatory, and consequently neutral, or, if you please, purely
+geographical. Later, Le père Feuillet, sent in 1724 by the Academy of
+Sciences to determine the exact longitude of the initial point, having
+given the figure 19° 55' 3" west of Paris, the geographer, Delisle,
+for the sake of simplicity, adopted the round number 20°; and, as I
+stated a little while ago, this alteration completely changed the
+character of this prime meridian. It ceased to be neutral, and became
+merely the meridian of Paris disguised, as has been truly said, and
+the English, notably, never adopted it. Here is the difference,
+gentlemen, between a neutral meridian and a national meridian.
+
+And, parenthetically, you see, gentlemen, how dangerous it is to
+awaken national susceptibilities on a subject of a purely scientific
+nature. Now allow me to add that, if in 1633 it was possible to find a
+neutral meridian, a purely geographical meridian, an independent
+meridian, it may easily be done in 1884 if we wish to do so; and that
+a point chosen on purely geographical considerations, either in
+Behring's Strait or in the Azores, could be much better determined now
+than was possible to Father Feuillet in 1724, and could take the
+position which the meridian of Ferro would not have lost had it not
+been confounded with the meridian of Paris.
+
+Professor J. C. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that he
+merely desired to refer to one subject touched on by the Delegate of
+France, Mr. JANSSEN, whose opinion he thought could hardly be
+supported, and that was that the question of longitude was purely one
+of geography. He desired to controvert that, and to hold that the
+question of longitude was purely one of astronomical observation. The
+difference of longitude between two places could not be determined by
+geodetic observations, because to do this you must take hypothesis as
+to the figure of the earth, and the figure of the earth is not a
+simple figure. You may take as hypothesis that the figure of the earth
+is spheroidal, and that the ratio of the axes is exactly defined. Now,
+in the first place, we are not agreed as to the exact ratio of the
+axes, nor are we agreed as to the exact figure of the earth. If an
+attempt is made to measure the difference of longitude between two
+points on the earth's surface, especially when they are a considerable
+distance from each other, it is necessary to depend upon astronomical
+observations. In attempting to deduce the difference of longitude from
+geodetic measures, you must assume that the true figure and dimensions
+of the earth are known, which is far from being the case. The theory
+that the prime meridian is a matter purely of a geographical nature is
+liable to the fatal objection that the determination of the difference
+of longitude between one place and the other is really the
+determination of the difference of time of the passage of a star
+across the meridian of the two places concerned. That is very
+definite. You observe the transit of the star at one place, and you
+observe the transit of the star at the other place, and by means of
+telegraphic communications you are able to determine their difference
+of longitude independent of the figure of the earth. He said, in
+conclusion, that he thought the honorable Delegate of France was
+mistaken upon the main point which he had just referred to, if,
+indeed, he had rightly understood him.
+
+M. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, replied as follows:
+
+I think that M. ADAMS entirely misunderstands me. I agree with him
+absolutely in thinking that longitudes cannot be determined,
+especially of places far apart, except by astronomical methods.
+Geodesy can only furnish it for short distances; in such cases, it is
+true, it supplies it with a degree of accuracy which meridianal
+observations cannot attain. So, if the question be to determine
+rigorously the difference of longitude in time between two places on
+the earth at considerable distances apart, it becomes one of
+astronomy, because here it is astronomy which gives the quickest and
+most accurate solution. For these reasons if, for instance, we should
+wish to connect a given observatory with a point situated on the other
+side of the ocean which had been chosen as the starting point of
+longitudes, it would become a question of astronomy. Astronomy here is
+an admirable instrument for the solution, but it should only be the
+instrument.
+
+On the contrary, the question becomes geographical, if it be that of
+determining where it will be most convenient to fix the origin of
+terrestrial longitudes. If the question be, for instance, to select
+one or another point, in some one or other ocean, astronomy has
+nothing to do with it, and when it wishes to impose upon us one of its
+observatories to fulfil such a function it tends to give an inaccurate
+solution.
+
+At first sight it may seem that any point might become a starting
+point for terrestial longitudes, but when we study the question a
+little more we see there may be great advantages in choosing some one
+point in preference to some other. Hence it is that all geographers
+have agreed to place initial meridians, when possible, in the oceans.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that, in accordance with the decision of the
+Conference, he had sent to the scientists named by them invitations to
+a seat upon this floor. The Chair sees several of these gentlemen here
+to-day, notably one of the most eminent astronomers of this country,
+to whom his countrymen are always ready to do homage, Professor
+Newcomb, Superintendent of the United States Nautical Almanac. If it
+be the pleasure of the Congress, the Chair will now request Professor
+Newcomb to give us his views upon the resolution now under discussion.
+
+No objection being made to the proposition of the President, Professor
+NEWCOMB arose and said:
+
+That in reference to the remarks of the distinguished Delegate of
+France, Professor JANSSEN, he would prefer, if the Conference would
+consent, to study his arguments more carefully when they should be in
+print.
+
+He remarked that some points raised by that argument have been already
+replied to, and he wished now more particularly to request that
+Professor JANSSEN would define precisely what he meant by "a neutral
+meridian;" that he had partially answered this question in reply to
+Professor ABEÉ; but that there was a more fundamental point, one of
+practice, which must be brought in and kept in mind at every step, and
+which was raised by Commander SAMPSON'S paper, to which he had
+listened with great interest. Commander SAMPSON held that it would be
+necessary to have a fixed observatory on the chosen prime meridian,
+but he (Professor NEWCOMB) did not concur in that view, but rather
+agreed to a limited extent with what Professor JANSSEN had said on
+that question.
+
+In choosing a meridian from which to count longitude, you meet a
+difficult problem. You have a point on the globe defined as the first
+meridian. This would be taken as the initial point of departure, and
+you are to determine the longitude of a certain place from that point.
+Now, doubtless, there is no other way to do this than to have an
+astronomical instrument and telegraphic communication. And if they
+chose the Azores or Behring's Strait, in neither case could they mount
+a transit instrument or have a system of telegraphic communication.
+Nor could we make a determination of longitude from a single fixed
+observatory in any case.
+
+He then stated that it was impracticable under any circumstances to
+have an absolutely neutral prime meridian; that the definition of the
+prime meridian must practically depend upon subsidiary considerations,
+no matter where it might be located. In the practical work of
+determining longitudes a connection with the prime meridian cannot be
+made in each case. What is really determined is the longitude from
+some intermediate point, generally in the same country, and in
+telegraphic communication with the place whose longitude we wish to
+know. This intermediate point would, for the time, be the practical
+prime meridian. But the longitude of this point itself must always be
+uncertain. Science is continually advancing in accuracy, and we find
+that we continually need to correct the longitude of our intermediate
+meridian, and hence of all points determined from it. How can this
+difficulty of constantly changing longitudes be avoided? He replied
+that each system of connected longitudes must rest upon its own basis.
+It must be referred to an assumed prime meridian, and the
+measurements must be made from that, even if it be found to be
+somewhat in error. If some such system had been adopted thirty or
+forty years ago, we would have avoided the confusion arising from the
+fact that the longitudes given on many maps do not refer at all to any
+absolute meridian. All that is known is that the astronomers
+determined the longitude of the place, and then the maps had to be
+corrected accordingly. The longitude of one place would be determined
+from Cambridge, and perhaps in the neighborhood is another place
+determined from the observatory at Washington. In either case we know
+nothing of the longitude of Cambridge or Washington which the observer
+assumed in his calculations.
+
+Generally, in determining longitude, the country adopts the principal
+place within its confines as a subsidiary prime meridian, and the
+assumed longitude of this place is necessarily selected somewhat
+arbitrarily. The longitude, for instance, of Washington was, thirty
+years ago, known to be nearly 5 hours 8 minutes and 12 seconds west
+from Greenwich. Had we adopted this difference by law, it would have
+amounted to choosing for our prime meridian a point 5 hours 8 minutes
+and 12 seconds east of Washington, whether we happened to strike the
+transit instrument at Greenwich or not. This would have fixed an
+assumed longitude for the Cambridge observatory and for all points
+within our telegraphic net-work. We should have had a practical
+system, which might, however, require to be corrected from time to
+time, if some slight error were found in the assumed longitude of
+Washington.
+
+In the present state of astronomical observation these little errors
+are of no consequence except in some very refined astronomical
+discussions. For all geographical and perhaps geodetical purposes the
+error may be regarded as zero, and it may be said, in regard to
+astronomical work, that it will always be independent of any meridian
+that might be chosen.
+
+But even if this difficulty were avoided, he could not see how they
+could have any place which would come within the definition of a
+neutral meridian. Supposing they took the Azores, they belong to
+Portugal; then certainly they would have a Portuguese prime meridian,
+belonging to the Portuguese nation. Thus they would no longer have a
+neutral point, if he (Professor NEWCOMB) rightly understood the
+meaning of Professor JANSSEN.
+
+He said that the Delegate of Great Britain, Professor ADAMS, had
+expressed very clearly his (Professor NEWCOMB'S) ideas, and the
+difficulty we have in meeting the propositions of the French
+Delegates; that what he had said would apply very properly to any
+neutral meridian that might be chosen in accordance with the plans of
+Professor JANSSEN. Whatever that meridian might be, we must always
+assume for it a certain number of degrees from the capital of the
+country, where the place to be determined is located, and then take
+that imaginary meridian instead of a real point on the surface of the
+globe.
+
+It is true that this is perfectly practicable, and on that theory
+there might not be any necessity of having an astronomical
+observatory. But why we should go to this trouble and expense Mr.
+JANSSEN did not make very clear; his considerations were purely
+sentimental, as was remarked by the Delegate of Great Britain,
+Professor ADAMS, and he (Prof. NEWCOMB) did not see what advantage
+would be gained by a neutral meridian in preference to one fixed by
+convenience.
+
+In order that a discussion may proceed, it is necessary to agree on a
+given basis from which to start, and it is extremely difficult to
+agree upon a basis if there are considerations of sentiment
+introduced, because such considerations are peculiar to each person.
+
+He therefore wished to propose this question again to the Delegate of
+France, namely, what advantages can we derive from fixing upon a
+neutral meridian?
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said:
+
+Professor NEWCOMB asks me to point out the advantages of a neutral
+meridian. These advantages are of two kinds--they are of a
+geographical nature and a moral nature. Let us examine the first. By
+placing the initial meridian between Asia and America, we get away
+from the centres of population, which is almost indispensable in view
+of the change of dates. We divide the world into two parts, the Old
+World and the New. The advantage of drawing the prime meridian
+through the ocean has always been understood, and it was precisely for
+this reason that Marinus of Tyre, during the first century, placed it
+at the Fortunate Isles, west of the African Continent. It is idle to
+urge the difficulty of fixing such a meridian as an objection.
+Astronomy is so far advanced in our day as to enable us to make this
+calculation with all desirable accuracy.
+
+As to the methods of obtaining this meridian exactly, there are
+several. I have already spoken of them, but I return to the subject,
+since more details are desired. These methods fall under two principal
+heads. We can, and that is the ancient idea, choose some remarkable
+physical point--as, for instance, the extremity of an island, a
+strait, the summit of a mountain--and determine approximately the
+distance in longitude of this point from the points of reference,
+which are at present the observatories. This method, if all the
+precision that science can now attain is required, would be costly in
+certain cases. For the Azores the expense would be small, because of
+the proximity of the telegraphic cables; it would be much greater for
+Behring Straits. On the hypothesis of the employment of this method,
+it would evidently be necessary to place our meridian at the Azores.
+
+According to the other method, it is not the physical point which is
+fixed, but simply the distance of the assumed origin from the points
+of comparison. For example, admit that the general definition of our
+prime meridian was that it should pass through the middle of Behring
+Straits. To obtain its theoretical definition, we should obtain a
+position of this point, either by summary observations of the nature
+of hydrographic surveys, or by the aid of existing information, and
+the longitude thus obtained would be connected with the observatories
+best connected with each other. A list of the differences of longitude
+would become the definition of our meridian, and not the physical
+point in the sea which marks the exact middle of the strait. If, now,
+we absolutely wished for a physical point, we have the Island of St.
+Lawrence, which is cut towards its eastern part by such a meridian,
+and we could put a point of reference there, subject to the condition
+that the position of this point should conform to the definition, and
+that it should be removed, in one direction or the other, until it did
+conform to it. As to the very slight errors which might still affect
+the relative positions of the great observatories actually connected
+by electricity, they do not concern geography. If I am not mistaken,
+the eminent Superintendent of the American Nautical Almanac
+acknowledges that we could thus avoid the difficulties which might
+result from the changes to which the perfecting of science would in
+the course of time give rise in the statement of longitudes.
+
+In this manner the expense would be nothing or small. Thus, also, the
+meridian would be truly neutral, both by reason of its position in the
+ocean between the continents, and by reason of its definition, since
+the zero of longitude would then be so placed as to occupy a point not
+identified with any nation. This illustration appears to me to answer
+the demands of Professor NEWCOMB. I have taken it only for that
+reason, for I maintain no particular method, but only the principle of
+neutrality.
+
+Finally, I must return again to those sentimental reasons which my
+eminent and friendly opponents so often call to my attention. If I do
+not err, the very warmth of these interesting discussions shows me
+that the honor of being personally connected with a great reform
+touches us more than we are willing to admit, or than practical
+interests alone could effect.
+
+Professor ADAMS himself supplies an illustration of this. He should
+remember the lively discussions of the English and French press on the
+occasion of the magnificent discovery of Neptune, and on the claims of
+the two illustrious competitors who were then the objects of universal
+admiration. If we go back in history, do we not see the friends of
+Newton and of Leibnitz equally contesting with asperity the discovery
+of the infinitesimal calculus. The love of glory is one of the noblest
+motives of men; we must bow before it, but we must also be careful not
+to permit it to produce bad fruits.
+
+When our men of science sought, a hundred years ago, to determine a
+new measure of length, some one proposed the length of the seconds
+pendulum at Paris. This measure was rejected, because it introduced
+the idea of time in a measure of length, and also because it was
+peculiar to Paris, and because a measure acceptable to the whole world
+was desired. It is important not to introduce questions of national
+rivalries into a scientific reform intended to be accepted by all, and
+history shows us precisely on this question of prime meridians what
+active rivalries there are. There was a time when almost every nation
+which had a large observatory had a meridian, and that meridian was
+considered an object of national pride. There were the meridians of
+Paris, of Rome, of Florence, of London, and so on, and no nation was
+willing to abandon its meridian for that of another. If you please to
+adopt either the meridian of Greenwich, Washington, Paris, Berlin,
+Pulkowa, Vienna, or Rome, our reform may be accepted for the moment,
+especially if it offers immediate advantages in economy; but it will
+contain within it a vice which will prevent its becoming definitive,
+and we are not willing to participate in action which will not be
+definitive.
+
+Whatever we may do, the common prime meridian will always be a crown
+to which there will be a hundred pretenders. Let us place the crown on
+the brow of science, and all will bow before it.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, said that he thought
+that the Delegate of France, Professor JANSSEN, had explained very
+fully the advantages of a neutral meridian, but he thought that he had
+not explained how we are to determine the neutral meridian. He added
+that he quite agreed with Professor ADAMS and Professor NEWCOMB, that
+to establish a prime meridian it is necessary to refer its position to
+an astronomical observatory.
+
+He stated further that if a meridian were selected passing through the
+Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, it must be referred to some initial point
+whose longitude is known, and the consequence of that would be, it
+seemed to him, that the prime meridian selected would still be
+dependent upon some national observatory, and that to select a
+meridian at random without reference to any observatory would lead to
+the utmost confusion, and, he had no doubt, would not be entertained
+by any one.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. When my honorable colleague,
+Commander SAMPSON, reads the remarks which I have just made, he will
+see that I have very fully shown what characterizes a neutral or
+geographical meridian, as contradistinguished from those meridians
+which, passing through capitals and observatories of different
+countries, bear the names of nations, whilst geographical meridians
+bear geographical names, such as the meridian of Ferro, of the Azores,
+Behring's Strait, &c. Of course it would be necessary to connect the
+places selected with observatories, either by calculation or in some
+other effective manner. I said all this a few moments ago.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then remarked that in
+addition to what had been said he would merely call attention to the
+fact that after that neutral point had been established it would cease
+to be a neutral meridian; that if the Azores be chosen they belong to
+Portugal, and he did not know any island in the Pacific which would
+serve the purpose, and at the same time not be subject to this
+objection; that perhaps Behring's Strait, mentioned by the French
+Delegate, might be less objectionable than any other place. He added
+that it is absolutely necessary that there should be some means of
+determining the difference between this adopted place and the other
+places, or else no use could be made of it. We must know how far other
+places are from the prime meridian, and for that reason it is
+necessary that it should be on land. Now, that land must belong to
+some country, and after we have fixed upon it it would cease to be a
+neutral meridian, and it would have to be connected by telegraphic
+wires with all the great observatories in the world.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. My honorable friend, Mr.
+RUTHERFURD, says that from the time the prime meridian was chosen it
+would cease to be neutral. I reply that he confounds a scientific
+principle with a question of property in the soil. If, for reasons of
+a geographical nature, we should fix upon a point in the Azores, that
+meridian would be neutral, because it would have been chosen on
+scientific grounds alone. The equator is neutral because geographical
+conditions give it that character; and, nevertheless, the countries
+along it belong to various nations, do they not? As to the manner of
+connecting the prime meridian with the system of observatories, I have
+already explained how this may be done in my former speech.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of England, remarked that he had rather
+hesitated about saying anything on the subject, after the expression
+of so many opinions of persons better qualified to speak than himself,
+but he felt that he ought to make a few remarks as to the distinction
+which Prof. JANSSEN had attempted to establish between astronomical
+and geographical longitude. It appeared to him that longitude was
+longitude. It would never do if, for geographic purposes, we are to
+have a second or third-class longitude and for astronomical purposes a
+first-class longitude. He said that as a geographer he repudiated any
+such idea. When you come to the practical application of the
+determination of longitude at sea for maritime purposes, it is true
+that a much less accurate determination suffices than would suffice
+for the determination of longitude for astronomical observatories;
+but, for all that, what is the object of a ship desiring to know what
+its place at sea is? Obviously to arrive at the port to which it is
+destined, and the object to be obtained is such a determination of the
+longitude as to enable that ship to arrive at its port without danger.
+You obtain a comparatively imperfect determination of longitude, but
+it is sufficiently accurate to prevent you from striking on the solid
+earth. But how is the longitude of the port to be determined?
+Certainly, as has been properly said, by astronomical observations,
+which can only be made with certainty on the earth. Consequently, it
+seemed to him that it is absolutely essential for fixing an initial
+meridian for the determination of longitude that it should be placed
+at an astronomical observatory which can be connected with other
+places by astronomical observations and by telegraph wires, and that
+the idea of fixing a neutral meridian is nothing more than the
+establishment of an ideal meridian really based upon some point at
+which there is located an observatory. This has been repeated once or
+twice before, and I need not enlarge upon it.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. My honorable colleague, General
+STRACHEY, thinks that longitude is longitude, and that there is not an
+astronomical longitude and a geographical longitude. I answer, that
+this is, nevertheless, what the nature of things indicates. The
+longitude of observatories, or rather the difference of longitude
+between those establishments, must be fixed with an accuracy which is
+never sufficiently great. In the Bureau of Longitude of France we are
+occupied with the differences of longitude of European observatories,
+and we adopt for these calculations all the latest scientific
+improvements, and especially the employment of electricity. Geography,
+especially for general purposes, does not require this great accuracy,
+which could not be expressed on maps. All geographers agree upon that
+subject. A statement of the longitude is like the statement of a
+weight, of a measure, or of anything, and its precision must vary
+according to the purpose to which it is applied. Is not a weighing
+necessary to determine a chemical equivalent of an entirely different
+kind from that of a commercial weighing? Yet it is still a weight. Is
+it necessary to insist on this further? It is entirely a secondary
+question. If General STRACHEY, whom I had the pleasure of meeting in
+India, demands that the prime meridian should be connected with
+observatories with rigorous accuracy, this can be done if it be
+desired; the astronomical and electrical methods at our disposal will
+permit of it.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, said that he was quite
+interested in the determination, if possible, of what is a neutral
+meridian. We are precisely in the condition in which we were years
+ago, when the French Institute determined that the basis of the metric
+system should be the one ten-millionth of the quadrant of the globe.
+Having settled upon that ideal basis, they spent years of labor, and
+finally legalized a standard metre, which is still preserved at Paris.
+We have now the same problem to solve. We have before us the idea of a
+neutral meridian, and, if it be adopted, we must see that there be
+embodied in the system the distance of certain other important places
+with reference to it. The only suggestion given as to the location of
+this neutral meridian is Behring's Strait. This is said to be a
+neutral meridian, because it lies between Russia and America; but how
+long will it remain so? Perhaps a year or two, or perhaps fifty years.
+Who knows when Russia will step over and reconquer the country on this
+side of Behring's Strait? Who knows when America will step over and
+purchase half of Siberia? At any rate, that point is not cosmopolitan;
+something must be found which is fixed, either within the sphere of
+the earth or in the stars above the earth--something that is above all
+human considerations--otherwise we shall fail in securing a neutral
+meridian.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, said that he would
+like to ask the Delegate from France, Mr. JANSSEN, where he would
+place the neutral meridian.
+
+The PRESIDENT said that the Delegate of the United States, Commander
+SAMPSON, puts a question which seems to be somewhat categorical.
+
+At this point in the proceedings the PRESIDENT stated that it would be
+convenient if the Conference would take a short recess to enable the
+Secretaries, with himself, to consult upon the subject of the
+preparation and approval of the protocols.
+
+A recess was thereupon taken.
+
+After the recess, the Delegate from France, Prof. JANSSEN, presented
+the following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the decision upon the motion of the French
+ Delegates, in regard to the choice of a neutral meridian, be
+ postponed to the next meeting of the Conference."
+
+He said that as he must speak French, and as several of his colleagues
+could, perhaps, not entirely grasp the meaning of the discussion, he
+asked for the adjournment of the vote until the next meeting, so that
+the protocol of this meeting may be printed and distributed to the
+members of the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that as far as he understood this resolution it
+merely amounted to this: that no vote shall be taken upon the original
+resolution of the French Delegate--namely, as to the adoption of a
+neutral meridian--until the next meeting of the Conference, when the
+protocols in both languages will have been printed and distributed.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, inquired whether, if
+this resolution were adopted, it would be necessary to vote upon the
+original question at the next meeting.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that was not necessarily the case. The Delegate
+of France simply desires that no vote shall be taken to-day. The
+original subject will come up and be open for debate at the next
+meeting, but it seemed to the Chair that it should be as far as
+possible exhausted to-day, so that the Delegates could have the whole
+matter before them at the next meeting.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate from France, said that the arguments already
+presented will require time for careful consideration. Consequently he
+asked for the adjournment of the vote, and he hoped that none of his
+colleagues would object to it.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he would venture to suggest, for the purpose
+of preventing delay, that so far as was possible any arguments that
+are to be offered should be made now, so that in the protocol of this
+day's proceedings, which will be of considerable length, these
+arguments may be incorporated.
+
+Mr. RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey, stated that it would be
+impossible to prepare a proper protocol of this Conference without the
+assistance of a French stenographer, and he therefore suggested that
+such a stenographer be secured as early as possible.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that efforts had been made to obtain a French
+stenographer, but without success, and that if any Delegate knows of
+such a stenographer and will communicate with the Chair it will be
+happy to take the necessary steps to secure his services.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, then made the following
+statement:
+
+I beg to propose that the Conference adjourn at the call of the
+President, that the time and hour for the next meeting be communicated
+to the Delegates 24 hours before the meeting, and that at the same
+time a proof-copy of the protocols of the present meeting be
+forwarded.
+
+He added that by giving the Delegates 24 hours after the protocols are
+printed time would be allowed them to revise the protocols and make
+such corrections as they thought necessary, and those corrections
+could be reported to the Secretaries and made in the printed text. The
+protocol can then be finally and definitively printed and approved at
+the beginning of the next meeting of the Conference.
+
+The proposition of the Delegate of Sweden was then adopted.
+
+The Conference then adjourned at 5 o'clock p. m., subject to the call
+of the President.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 13, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall, in
+the State Department, at one o'clock P. M.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austria-Hungary: Baron I. VON SCHÆFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Colombia: Commodore FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. J. F. ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE and Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN and Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS, Lieut.
+ General STRACHEY, and Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER and Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. WILLIAM COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ and Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, and
+ Mr. J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. M. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, and
+ Mr. JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: Mr. RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, and Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Salvador: Mr. A. BATRES.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In view of the many communications addressed to the
+President of this Conference, having reference to the business before
+it, presenting statements and arguments in relation thereto, the Chair
+asks that a committee be appointed, to which shall be referred all
+such communications, and that the committee be instructed to make such
+report upon them as it may deem advisable.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I beg leave to propose to the
+Conference that the appointment of this committee be left to the
+President.
+
+Mr. SOTELDO, Delegate of Venezuela. I second the motion of the
+Delegate of Sweden.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. I entertain the same opinion, and I
+support the motion.
+
+The motion was then unanimously adopted.
+
+The PRESIDENT. I will name as the members of the Committee the
+Delegate of Great Britain, Professor ADAMS; the Delegate of Germany,
+Mr. HINCKELDEYN; the Delegate of the United States, Professor ABBE;
+the Delegate of Japan, Mr. KIKUCHI; and the Delegate of Costa Rica,
+Mr. ECHEVERRIA.
+
+PRESIDENT. Alter a discussion of only three hours this Conference
+adjourned a week ago to-day, subject to the call of its President.
+Owing to the want of a French stenographer to report the words that
+were spoken in French, there has been much delay in preparing the
+protocol, which has not yet been completed. Fortunately, an
+experienced French stenographer has been procured through the kind
+intervention of Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, of the delegation from Great
+Britain, and Mr. WILLIAM SMITH, Deputy Minister of Marine for the
+Dominion of Canada. We may now hope to have a fairly accurate report
+of what is said, both in French and English, needing only slight
+verbal corrections, and the Chair trusts that delegates may find it
+convenient to make the corrections very promptly, so that the
+protocols may be printed and verified as speedily as possible.
+
+Should any delegate, who has not yet spoken, desire to address the
+Conference upon the resolution of the Delegate from France, his
+remarks will now be received, and when the mover of the resolution
+shall close the debate, the vote will be taken, if such be the
+pleasure of the Conference.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I have listened with
+great attention and deep interest to the remarks which have fallen
+from the several gentlemen who have spoken, and I desire your kind
+indulgence for a few moments while I explain the views I have formed
+on the motion of the distinguished Delegates from France.
+
+I feel that the important question which this Conference has to
+consider must be approached in no narrow spirit. It is one which
+affects every nationality, and we should endeavor, in the common
+interest, to set aside any national or individual prejudices we
+possess, and view the subject as members of one community--in fact, as
+citizens of the world. Acting in this broad spirit, we cannot fail to
+arrive at conclusions which will promote the common good of mankind.
+
+In deliberating on the important subject before us, it seems to me
+there are two essential points which we should constantly bear in
+mind.
+
+1. We should consider what will best promote the general advantage,
+not now only, but for all future years, while causing at the present
+time as little individual and national inconvenience as possible.
+
+2. We should, in coming to a determination on the main question for
+which this Conference is called, leave nothing undone to avoid
+offence, now or hereafter, to the sensitiveness of individual nations.
+
+The motion is, that the initial meridian to be chosen should be
+selected on account of its neutrality. This undoubtedly involves the
+selection of an entirely new meridian, one which has never previously
+been used by any nation, as all initial meridians in use are more or
+less national, and, as such, would not be considered neutral in the
+sense intended by the honorable Delegates from France.
+
+Let us suppose that this Conference adopted the motion. Let us
+suppose, further, that we found a meridian quite independent of and
+unrelated to any existing initial meridian. Would we then have
+accomplished the task for which we are met? I ask, would the
+twenty-six nations here represented accept our recommendation to adopt
+the neutral meridian? I greatly fear that the passing of the
+resolution would not in the least promote the settlement of the
+important question before the Conference. The world has already at
+least eleven different first meridians. The adoption of the new
+meridian contemplated by the Delegates from France would, I apprehend,
+simply increase the number and proportionately increase the difficulty
+which so many delegates from all parts of the earth are assembled here
+to remove.
+
+This would be the practical effect of the passing of the resolution.
+If it had any effect, it would increase the difficulty, and I need not
+say that is not the object which the different Governments had in view
+when they sent delegates to this Conference. The President has well
+pointed out in his opening address the advantages which would be
+gained, and the great dangers which, at times, would be avoided by
+seafaring vessels having one common zero of longitude. Besides the
+benefits which would accrue to navigation, there are advantages of
+equal importance in connection with the regulation of time, to spring,
+I trust, from our conclusions.
+
+It does not appear to me that the adoption of the motion would in any
+way advance these objects. I do not say that the principle of a
+neutral meridian is wrong, but to attempt to establish one would, I
+feel satisfied, be productive of no good result. A neutral meridian is
+excellent in theory, but I fear it is entirely beyond the domain of
+practicability. If such be the case, it becomes necessary to consider
+how far it would be practicable to secure the desired advantages by
+adopting as a zero some other meridian which, while related to some
+existing first meridian, would not be national in fact, and would have
+the same effect as a perfectly neutral meridian in allaying national
+susceptibilities.
+
+The selection of an initial meridian related to meridians now in use
+gives us a sufficiently wide choice. Allow me to read the following
+list, showing the number and the total tonnage of vessels using the
+several meridians named, in ascertaining their longitude.
+
+======================================================================
+ | SHIPS OF ALL KINDS. | PER CENT.
+ INITIAL MERIDIANS. +---------------------+--------------------
+ | Number. | Tonnage. | Ships. | Tonnage.
+---------------------------+---------+-----------+--------+-----------
+Greenwich..................| 37,663 |14,600,972 | 65 | 72
+Paris......................| 5,914 | 1,735,083 | 10 | 8
+Cadiz......................| 2,468 | 666,602 | 5 | 3
+Naples.....................| 2,263 | 715,448 | 4 | 4
+Christiana.................| 2,128 | 695,988 | 4 | 3
+Ferro......................| 1,497 | 567,682 | 2 | 3
+Pulkova....................| 987 | 298,641 | 11/2 | 11/2
+Stockholm..................| 717 | 154,180 | 11/2 | 1
+Lisbon.....................| 491 | 164,000 | 1 | 1
+Copenhagen.................| 435 | 81,888 | 1 | 1/2
+Rio de Janeiro.............| 253 | 97,040 | 1/2 | 1/2
+Miscellaneous..............| 2,881| 534,569 | 41/2 | 21/2
+ |---------+-----------+--------+-----------
+ Total ...............| 57,697|20,312,093 | 100 | 100
+---------------------------+---------+-----------+--------+-----------
+
+It thus appears that one of these meridians, that of Greenwich, is
+used by 72 per cent. of the whole floating commerce of the world,
+while the remaining 28 per cent. is divided among ten different
+initial meridians. If, then, the convenience of the greatest number
+alone should predominate, there can be no difficulty in a choice; but
+Greenwich is a national meridian, and its use as an international zero
+awakens national susceptibilities. It is possible, however, to a great
+extent, to remove this objection by taking, for a zero of longitude
+and time, the meridian farthest distant from Greenwich. This being on
+the same great circle as Greenwich, it would not require the
+establishment of a new observatory; its adoption would produce no
+change in charts or nautical tables, beyond the notation of longitude.
+It would possess all the advantage claimed for the Greenwich meridian
+in connection with navigation, and as a zero for regulating time it
+would be greatly to be preferred to the Greenwich meridian. This
+Pacific meridian being accepted as the common zero, and longitude
+being reckoned continuously in one direction, there would be an end to
+the necessity of any nation engraving on its charts the words
+"longitude east or west of Greenwich." The one word "longitude" would
+suffice. The zero meridian would be international and in no respect
+national. Even on British charts all reference to Greenwich would
+disappear.
+
+This view of the question is sustained by many distinguished men. I
+shall only ask permission to read the opinion of Mr. Otto Struvé,
+Director of the Imperial Observatory at Pulkova, than whom there is no
+higher authority.
+
+"The preference given to the Greenwich meridian was based, on one
+side, on the historical right of the Royal Observatory of England,
+acquired by eminent services rendered by this establishment during the
+course of two centuries, to mathematical geography and navigation; on
+the other side, considering that the great majority of charts now in
+use upon all the seas are made according to this meridian, and about
+90 per cent. of the navigators of long standing are accustomed to take
+their longitude from this meridian. However, an objection against this
+proposition is, that the meridian of Greenwich passes through two
+countries of Europe, and thus the longitude would be reckoned by
+different signs in different portions of our own continent and also of
+Africa.
+
+"Moreover, the close proximity of the meridian of Paris, to which,
+perhaps, some French geographers and navigators of other nations would
+still hold to, from custom, from a spirit of contradiction or from
+national rivalry, might easily cause sad disaster. To obviate these
+inconveniences, I have proposed to choose as prime meridian another
+meridian, situated at an integral number of hours east or west of
+Greenwich, and among the meridians meeting this condition, I have
+indicated, in the first place, the meridian proposed to-day by
+scientific Americans, as that which would combine the most favorable
+conditions for its adoption. Thus the meridian situated 180° from
+Greenwich presents the following advantages:--
+
+"1. It does not cross any continent but the eastern extremity of the
+North of Asia, inhabited by people very few in number and little
+civilized, called Tschouktschis.
+
+"2. It coincides exactly with that line where, after the custom
+introduced by a historical succession of maritime discoveries, the
+navigator makes a change of one unit in the date, a difference which
+is made near a number of small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
+discovered during the voyages made to the east and west. Thus the
+commencement of a new date would be identical with that of the hours
+of cosmopolitan time.
+
+"3. It makes no change to the great majority of navigators and
+hydrographers, except the very simple addition of twelve hours, or of
+180° to all longitudes.
+
+"4. It does not involve any change in the calculations of the
+Ephemerides most in use amongst navigators, viz., the English Nautical
+Almanac, except turning mid-day into midnight, and _vice versa_. In
+the American Nautical Almanac there would be no other change to
+introduce. With a cosmopolitan spirit, and in the just appreciation of
+a general want, the excellent Ephemerides published at Washington,
+record all data useful to navigators calculated from the meridian of
+Greenwich.
+
+"For universal adoption, as proposed by the Canadian Institute, it
+recommends itself to the inhabitants of all civilized countries, by
+reason of the great difference in longitude, thus removing all the
+misunderstandings and uncertainties concerning the question, as to
+whether, in any case, cosmopolitan or local time was used.
+
+"In answer to the first question offered by the Institute at Toronto,
+I would, therefore, recommend the Academy to pronounce without
+hestation in favor of the universal adoption of the meridian situated
+180° from Greenwich, as Prime Meridian of the globe."
+
+I quote from the report of M. Otto Struvé to the Imperial Academy of
+Sciences of St. Petersburg, 30th Sept., 1880.
+
+I respectfully submit, we have thus the means of solving the problem
+presented to us, without attempting to find such a meridian as that
+contemplated in the motion of the honorable delegates. Whatever its
+origin, the Pacific meridian referred to would soon be recognized as
+being as much neutral as any meridian could possibly be. If, on the
+other hand, we adopt the motion, I very greatly fear that the great
+object of this Conference will be defeated, and the settlement of a
+question so pregnant with advantages to the world will be indefinitely
+postponed.
+
+Dr. CRULS, Delegate of Brazil. Gentlemen. Since the opening of this
+discussion more authoritative voices than mine--among others that of
+the Honorable Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain, who has
+just expressed his opinion upon the question--have been heard upon the
+important subject which we are now called upon to discuss, and of
+which we should endeavor to find a full and final solution. The
+various aspects of the projected reform--viz., the unification of
+longitude, which numerous international interests recommend to our
+care--appear to me to have been examined, and that relieves me of the
+task of taking up again the question in its details, and permits me to
+abridge very much the considerations which I think it is my duty to
+present in order to explain my vote. Upon to the present moment we
+have settled one point, gentlemen, and it is one of great importance;
+that is, the necessity of adopting a common prime meridian. This point
+has obtained the support of all the Delegates present at the
+Conference. This necessity being recognized, it is proper to take
+another step towards the solution of the problem presented to us, and
+to decide what that meridian shall be. It is this choice, gentlemen,
+which at this moment forms the subject of our discussion, and upon
+which we have to decide.
+
+My honorable colleague, Mr. RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United
+States, has presented a motion proposing the adoption of the meridian
+of Greenwich, a motion which is again made, having been withdrawn
+temporarily from our discussion with the consent of its proposer. The
+motion which was presented at the last session, and which has formed
+the subject of numerous interesting discussions is that made by my
+honorable colleague, Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, who proposes
+that the meridian adopted should have a neutral character, and should
+not cross either of the great continents of Europe or America. This
+proposition, gentlemen, has been strongly resisted by the Delegates of
+Great Britain and the United States, and firmly maintained by the
+Delegates of France, and the debates which followed gave us an
+opportunity of being present at a scientific tournament of the highest
+interest. The speakers whom we have had the honor of hearing seem to
+me to have exhausted all the arguments for and against, and at the
+present stage of the discussion I presume that these debates have
+permitted each one of us to form, with a full knowledge of the case,
+an opinion upon the question on which we are called to vote.
+
+For my part, gentlemen, I desire to state clearly the attitude that
+Brazil, in my opinion, must take in this Conference. That attitude is
+one of absolute neutrality, inasmuch as the question is whether or not
+to choose a national meridian which may provoke among certain nations
+very legitimate rivalries. From the point of view only of the
+interests of Brazil, the choice of one meridian rather than any other
+is recommended to me by no consideration. Our local charts are
+referred to the nearest meridian, that of the observatory of Rio
+Janeiro, which is the point of departure in the geodetic or
+hydrographic operations in course of execution in Brazil, and which
+all are connected with that same meridian. The marine charts of the
+coast most in use are the result of the hydrographic works executed by
+the Commandant MOUCHEZ, now admiral and director of the observatory of
+Paris. As to the telegraphic determination of the longitude of the
+observatory of Rio, we owe it to the American Commission, directed by
+Commandant GREEN, of the United States Navy. Now, gentlemen, up to the
+day on which the Conference met for the first time, I had hoped that
+these discussions entered upon under the influence of a generous
+rivalry, and having for their only purpose the establishment of a
+measure, the necessity of which is strongly sought by many interests
+of a diverse nature, would lead to a complete and final solution of
+the problem. Unfortunately, and I regret to be obliged to add it, the
+differences of opinion which have manifested themselves in this
+Congress permit scarcely a hope of this result. For my part,
+gentlemen, I cannot lose sight of the fact that it is indispensable
+that the question for which this Congress is assembled should receive
+a complete settlement; if not, the purpose of the Congress will not be
+attained. Since the Delegates of France have manifested from the
+begining of our discussions their opposition to the adoption of any
+meridian which had a national character, which has given rise to the
+motion presented by Mr. JANSSEN, it follows that every measure voted
+by the Congress tending to the adoption of a national meridian, will
+be, by the very fact of the abstention of France, an incomplete
+measure, and which will not answer the purpose sought by the
+Conference. I hasten to add, in order to avoid all erroneous
+interpretations which could be given to my words, that it would be the
+same, if, for instance, the meridian of Paris was proposed, and any
+great maritime nation, such as England, the United States, or any
+other, should abstain from voting for its adoption. In that case,
+also, the measure adopted would not be complete, and in that case,
+also, my line of conduct would be the same.
+
+To resume, I would say that the great benefits that the whole world
+will receive from the adoption of a common prime meridian will not be
+fully produced unless the measure is unanimously accepted by all the
+most important maritime nations. In any other event, I am, for my
+part, absolutely convinced that the measure adopted will be partly
+inefficacious, its adoption not being general, and everything will
+have to be done over again in the not distant future. The discussions
+at which we have been present abundantly prove to me that it will
+always be so, as long as the meridian of some great nation is
+proposed. In the face of this difficulty, which appears to me
+insurmountable, the only solution which, by its very nature, will not
+raise exciting questions of national pride is that of a meridian
+having a character of absolute neutrality. If the adoption of such a
+meridian was admitted in principle, I am certain that a discussion
+based upon pure science, and following the best conditions which it
+should realize, would conduct us rapidly to a practical settlement of
+the question.
+
+In such a discussion the arguments which ought to prevail should be,
+before everything, drawn from science, the only source of truth which
+alone can enlighten us, so as to permit us to form a sound judgment,
+and to decide solely upon considerations of a purely scientific
+nature.
+
+In addition to these considerations, I am not ignorant that there are
+others. I refer to questions of economy of which it is necessary to
+take count. As to political interests, if there are any, our eminent
+colleagues who represent so worthily the diplomatic element in this
+assembly would see that they had due weight, and, thanks to this
+assembly of men distinguished, some in science and others in
+diplomacy, there was every reason to hope that the final practical
+solution of the question which we are seeking would not be long in
+being made clear to us all by the discussions.
+
+Moreover, this practical solution appears to me already to follow from
+what our honorable colleague, M. JANSSEN, has told us on that subject.
+The principle of the neutral meridian once adopted, there would still
+to be discussed the conditions which it should fulfil and the
+determination of its position. Two things must be considered, either
+the meridian will be exclusively over the ocean, and then, by its very
+nature, it will be neutral, or it will cut some island, and in that
+case nothing would prevent an international diplomatic convention
+making neutral the plot of land on which it was desirable to establish
+an observatory, which would in reality be a very small matter. Of
+these two solutions, both of which satisfy the conditions which the
+meridian ought to fulfil in its character of neutrality and by the
+requirements of science, I prefer the second. I wish merely to suggest
+by what I have said how it would be possible to arrive at a practical
+solution of the question, since now I am only speaking of the adoption
+of the principle of the neutral meridian.
+
+I conclude, gentlemen, by declaring that I shall vote in favor of the
+adoption of a meridian with a character of absolute neutrality, and in
+doing so I hope to contribute my share to giving our resolutions such
+a character of independence as is necessary to make them generally
+acceptable in the future, and to unite in their support, at present,
+scientific men without distinction of nationality who are now awaiting
+our decision.
+
+Professor JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Gentlemen, I have listened with
+a great deal of attention to the discourse of the Delegate of England,
+Mr. FLEMING, and if we had not had such an exhaustive discussion last
+session, at which, I believe, all the reasons for and against were
+given, I would certainly have asked permission to answer it. But I
+believe that on all sides we are sufficiently enlightened on the
+question, and I desire above all to declare that it is not our
+intention of making this debate eternal. It is now for you, gentlemen,
+to decide. I am the more inclined to act thus, as my honorable
+colleague, the Delegate of Brazil, Dr. L. CRULS, who is an astronomer
+like myself, appears to me to have recapitulated the question with a
+loftiness of views, and in such happy language, that, in truth, we may
+take his arguments as our own. Before concluding, I wish to thank my
+colleagues for the kind attention that they have been good enough to
+accord me.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question recurs upon the resolution offered by the
+Delegates of France. The resolution is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the initial meridian should have a
+ character of absolute neutrality. It should be chosen
+ exclusively so as to secure to science and to international
+ commerce all possible advantages, and especially should cut
+ no great continent--neither Europe nor America."
+
+The PRESIDENT. Is the Conference ready for the question? No objection
+being made, the roll was called, with the following result:
+
+ _Ayes_.
+
+ Brazil, San Domingo.
+ France,
+
+ _Noes_.
+ Austria, Germany,
+ Chili, Great Britain,
+ Colombia, Guatemala,
+ Costa Rica, Hawaii,
+ Italy, Spain,
+ Japan, Sweden,
+ Liberia, Switzerland,
+ Mexico, Turkey,
+ Netherlands, United States,
+ Paraguay, Venezuela.
+ Russia,
+
+
+Twenty-one noes and three ayes.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The resolution is, therefore, lost.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, in
+presenting again the resolution which was withdrawn by me to give
+place to the resolution offered by our colleagues from France, having
+taken the advice from several members of the Conference with whom I
+consulted, it was thought best to offer a system of resolutions which
+should be responsive to the mandate under which we act. With the view
+of bringing the subject to the notice of all the members of the
+Conference, I caused copies of the resolutions which I hold in my hand
+to be sent to them.
+
+I have since heard that is has been held that these resolutions had
+been irregularly so communicated; that is, that the communication was
+made in a semi-official manner. I beg to express an entire disclaimer
+of anything of that sort. It was merely my individual action, and I
+desired to give notice of certain resolutions, with the sole view of
+having them fully understood before we met and to save time. I hope,
+therefore, that this excuse and explanation will be understood and
+accepted.
+
+These resolutions are founded, as far as may be, upon those adopted at
+Rome. They differ from them only in two points. In the counting of
+longitude the Conference at Rome proposed that it should take place
+around the globe in one direction. This counting was to be in the
+direction from west to east.
+
+Very singularly, I find in the report of the proceedings of the Roman
+Conference no discussion on that subject. No questions were asked, nor
+were any reasons given, why it should be so counted, and yet it was an
+entire divergence from the usage of the world at that time. The
+wording of the resolution of the Conference at Rome is substantially
+this: That the counting of longitude should take place from the
+meridian of Greenwich in the single direction of west to east.
+
+It being my desire to avail myself, as far as possible, of the work of
+the Conference at Rome, I consulted with my colleagues here, and found
+that there was a great diversity of opinion. In the first place, some
+said we have always counted longitude both ways, east to west and west
+to east. Shall we cease to do that? Those who claimed that it was a
+more scientific way to count all around the globe immediately differed
+on the direction in which the longitude should be counted. Without
+going into any argument as to which of these methods would be the best
+or most convenient, I propose, by the second resolution, that we
+should go on in the old way, and count longitude from the initial
+meridian in each direction.
+
+One of the objects of the third resolution is to make the new
+universal day coincide with the civil day rather than with the
+astronomical day. In the Conference at Rome the universal day was made
+to coincide with the astronomical day. It seems to me that the
+inconvenience of that system would be so great that we ought to
+hesitate before adopting it. For us in America, perhaps the
+inconvenience would not be so very great, but for such countries as
+France and England, and those lying about the initial meridian, the
+inconvenience would be very great, for the morning hours would be one
+day, and the afternoon hours would be another day. That seems to me to
+be a very great objection.
+
+It was simply, therefore, to obviate this difficulty that this
+resolution was offered. I hope, notwithstanding, that some day, not
+far distant, all these conflicting days, the local, the universal, the
+nautical, and the astronomical, may start from some one point. This
+hope I have the greater reason to cherish since I have communicated
+with the distinguished gentlemen who are here present, and it was with
+that hope before me that I framed the resolution so that the beginning
+of the day should be the midnight at the initial meridian, and not the
+mid-day. With this explanation, I now again move the adoption of the
+first resolution, which is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ here represented the adoption of the meridian passing
+ through the centre of the transit instrument at the
+ Observatory of Greenwich as the initial meridian for
+ longitude."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Conference has heard the resolution. Any remarks
+are now in order.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I think, sir, the
+resolution goes a little too far at a single leap. I beg leave,
+therefore, to move an amendment in harmony with the resolution, at the
+same time leaving it to be settled by a subsequent resolution, whether
+the zero be at Greenwich or at the other side of the globe.
+
+ "That a meridian proper, to be employed as a common zero in
+ the reckoning of longitude and the regulation of time
+ throughout the world, should be a great circle passing
+ through the poles and the centre of the transit instrument
+ at the Observatory of Greenwich."
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I desire merely
+to state, in reference to the amendment brought forward by one of our
+delegates, that the remaining delegates of Great Britain are by no
+means of the opinion expressed in that amendment, and that it is their
+intention, if it should come to a vote, to vote against it.
+
+The proposition to count longitude from a point 180 degrees from the
+meridian of Greenwich appears to them not to be accompanied by any
+advantage whatever. On the contrary, it must lead to inconvenience.
+You do not, by adopting the meridian opposite Greenwich, get rid of
+the nationality of the meridian. If there is objection to the meridian
+of Greenwich on account of its nationality, the meridian of 180
+degrees from Greenwich is subject to the same objection. The one half
+is just as national as the other half.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The chair would say that no specific meridian is
+mentioned in the amendment.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. That is true, but, at the same
+time, it should be said that the meridian described is ambiguous. It
+is the meridian that passes through the poles and the centre of the
+transit instrument of the Observatory of Greenwich. That is the
+language of the amendment. But it is intended to apply to only
+one-half of the great circle passing through the poles, that is to the
+distant half of the meridian rather than to the nearer half. Unless it
+defines which half it is intended to take, the amendment is ambiguous,
+and it is not proper to be voted on.
+
+Mr. MILES ROCK, Delegate of Guatemala. Mr. President, It may be well
+to hear the words of the original resolution, in order that we can
+clearly see the relation of the amendment to that resolution.
+
+The original resolution of the Delegate of the United States was then
+read.
+
+Baron VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate of Germany. Mr. President, I think
+that in this amendment offered by the Delegate of Great Britain two
+questions are mixed up together. The first thing for us to do is to
+fix upon a prime meridian; the second thing to settle is the question
+whether the adoption of a universal day is desirable or not. If we
+adopt this amendment, these two questions are involved in one vote.
+Therefore, I think that they should be divided, for they are not
+appropriate in the form in which they are presented.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain. I ask permission to speak, in order to
+explain my vote. The Government which I represent here has told me to
+accept the Greenwich meridian as the international meridian for
+longitudes, but I think it my duty to say that, though the question
+does not arise in this debate, that Spain accepts this in the hope
+that England and the United States will accept on their part the
+metric system as she has done herself. I only wish to state this, and
+I have no intention of making it a subject of discussion. I shall only
+add that I believe Italy is similarly situated with Spain in this
+matter.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would say with great deference to the
+distinguished Delegate from Spain that the question of weights and
+measures is beyond the scope of this Conference. The invitation given
+by the Government of the United States to the nations here represented
+was for a distinct and specific purpose, the selection of a prime
+meridian, a zero of longitude throughout the world and a standard of
+time-reckoning. So far as the Chair is informed, it would not be in
+order at this Conference to discuss a question of metric system.
+
+Mr. JUAN VALERA, Delegate of Spain. My only intention in making these
+remarks was to verify a fact. I know very well that we have not to
+discuss that question. Besides, the Government which I represent
+expresses only a hope, and I know we do not insert any hopes in our
+protocols; but I thought it my duty to make this declaration.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. I desire to make some remarks on the
+question when it is put to a vote; for the time being I shall only say
+a few words on the remarks of my honorable colleague, the Delegate of
+Spain, Mr. Valera. I believe that though the question of weights and
+measures is not before the Conference, it is allowable for a member to
+state, in the name of his Government, the conditions to which his vote
+has been subordinated. Even though the question is not under
+discussion, it may appear from such an explanation that the vote is
+conditional, instead of being a simple affirmation. If my honorable
+colleague has received from his Government instructions to subordinate
+his vote to such or such a condition, even when the question to which
+it is subordinated is not submitted to the Conference, it follows from
+it, according to me, and everybody will admit it, that the
+consequences of that vote are at least conditional.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain. My Government has charged me to express
+here its hopes and desires, but the vote which I have given is not, in
+my opinion, conditional; for I have received instructions to pronounce
+in favor of the Greenwich meridian to measure the degrees of
+longitude. However, it was necessary for me to say at the same time
+that it was with the hope that England and the United States would
+adopt the French weights and measure.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. While I entirely agree
+with the view which the Chair has taken of the question whether the
+adoption of metrical weights and measures is before this
+Conference--namely, that it is beyond our competence to discuss
+it--yet I am glad to have the opportunity of saying that I am
+authorized to state that Great Britain, after considering the opinions
+which were expressed at Rome, has desired that it may be allowed to
+join the Convention du mètre. The arrangements for that purpose, when
+I left my country, were either completed, or were in course of
+completion, so that, as a matter of fact, Great Britain henceforth
+will be, as regards its system of weights and measures, exactly in the
+same position as the United States.
+
+In Great Britain the use of metrical weights and measures is
+authorized by law. Contracts can be made in which they are used, and
+the department which regulates the weights and measures of Great
+Britain is charged, consequently, with the duty of providing properly
+authenticated standard metric weights and measures for purposes of
+verification. It is quite true that the Government of England does not
+hold out any expectation that she will adopt the compulsory use of the
+metric system, either at the present time, or, so far as that goes, at
+any future time; but it is a well known fact--and in saying this I
+shall be supported, I have no doubt, by the views of the eminent
+scientific men of my own country who are here present--that there is a
+strong feeling on the part of scientific men of England that, sooner
+or later, she will be likely to join in the use of that system, which,
+no doubt, is an extremely good one, and which, so far as purely
+scientific purposes are concerned, is largely in use at the present
+time.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain. I desire to thank the honorable
+Delegate of England, General Strachey, for the friendly words which he
+has just pronounced, and to felicitate myself for having manifested
+the desire and hope of my Government that England should accept the
+weights and measures which have been accepted in Spain and in other
+parts of the European continent.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. Mr. Chairman, I cannot pretend to
+make any suggestion of any technical value on the question now before
+us. I only rise to add a few words to the views which have been so
+authoritatively expounded to you by Prof. JANSSEN, in order to explain
+clearly the situation of the French Government in this important
+discussion.
+
+It is henceforth evident, after the instructive debate at which we
+have just assisted, that the meridian of Greenwich is not a scientific
+one, and that its adoption implies no progress for astronomy, geodesy,
+or navigation; that is to say, for all the branches and pursuits of
+human activity interested in the unification at which we aim.
+
+Thus, science is absolutely disinterested in the selection which we
+are now discussing and that fact I wish to emphasize particularly, as
+we are about to take a vote which we can easily anticipate by the one
+we had a few minutes ago, in order that the opponents of the
+resolution may not be accused of obstructing progress and the great
+aims of science for private interests.
+
+If, on the contrary, any conclusion is to be drawn from the
+instructive debate at which we have assisted, it is that the
+principal, I will say more, the only merit of the Greenwich
+meridian--and our colleague from Great Britain just now reminded us of
+it by enumerating with complacency the tonnage of British and American
+shipping--is that there are grouped around it, interests to be
+respected, I will acknowledge it willingly, by their magnitude, their
+energy, and their power of increasing, but entirely devoid of any
+claim on the impartial solicitude of science. To strengthen my
+assertion, gentlemen, I fall back upon the arguments brought forward
+by Mr. Hirsch in his remarkable report to the Geodetic Conference at
+Rome, arguments that evidently carried the vote of that assembly.
+
+The Greenwich meridian, says that report, corresponds to an empire
+that embraces twenty million square kilometres and a population of two
+hundred and fifty millions. Her merchant marine, which counts 40,000
+ships of a tonnage from six to nine million tons, and crews of
+370,000 men, surpasses in importance all the other marines put
+together. Other States, equally important by their merchant marine,
+especially the United States, make use of the Greenwich meridian.
+Well, gentlemen, if we weigh these reasons--the only ones that have
+been set forth, the only ones that at present militate for the
+Greenwich meridian--is it not evident that these are material
+superiorities, commercial preponderances that are going to influence
+your choice? Science appears here only as the humble vassal of the
+powers of the day to consecrate and crown their success. But,
+gentlemen, nothing is so transitory and fugitive as power and riches.
+All the great empires of the world, all financial, industrial, and
+commercial prosperities of the world, have given us a proof of it,
+each in turn.
+
+So long as there are not in polities or commerce any scientific means
+by which to fix, to enchain fortune, I see no reason to fix, to
+enchain, to subordinate, so to say, science to their fate.
+
+The character of the proposed determination of the initial meridian is
+so evident, that the reporter of the Conference at Rome, Mr. Hirsch,
+admits it implicitly, for recognizing that the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich is a sacrifice for France, he asks that England
+should respond by a similar concession, by favoring the definitive
+adoption of the metric system, and by acceding to the Convention of
+the metre which furnishes to all States metric standards rigorously
+compared. Thus, Mr. Hirsch, in a spirit of justice, wished to make for
+each a balance of profit and loss--evident proof that the question was
+of a commercial, and of no scientific advantage. I am not aware, and
+my mission is not to discover, whether the bargain might have been
+accepted by France. However, it is with great pleasure that I heard
+our colleague from England declare that his Government was ready to
+join the international metric convention, but I notice, with sorrow,
+that our situation in this Congress is not as favorable as that of
+Rome, since the total abandonment of our meridian is proposed without
+any compensation.
+
+At Rome the adoption of the metric system of weights and measures, of
+which France had the glorious initiative, was held out to us, but here
+we are simply invited to sacrifice traditions dear to our navy, to
+national science, by adding to that immolation pecuniary sacrifices.
+
+We are assuredly very much flattered that there should be attributed
+to us sufficient abnegation to elevate us to that double heroism. We
+wish that we were able to justify such a flattering opinion, and
+especially we should like to be encouraged by examples. There are at
+this very moment magnificent transformations to be realized for
+the progress of science, and of the friendly relations of
+nations--unification of weights and measures, adoption of a common
+standard of moneys, and many other innovations of a well recognized
+utility, infinitely more pressing and more practical than that of
+meridians. When the discussion of these great questions is begun, let
+each nation come and bring its share of sacrifices for this
+international progress. France, according to her usage, I may say so
+without vain glory as without false modesty, France will not remain
+behind. For the present we decline the honor of immolating ourselves
+alone for progress of a problematic, and eminently secondary order;
+and it is with perfect tranquillity of conscience that we declare that
+we do not concur in the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich,
+persuaded as we are that France does not incur the reproach of
+retarding and of obstructing the march of science by abstaining from
+participating in this decision.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Unless some other Delegate desires to speak, the
+question will be put upon the amendment of the Delegate of Great
+Britain, Mr. FLEMING.
+
+The question was then put, and the amendment was lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair sees upon the floor to-day, as the guest of
+this Conference, one of the most distinguished scientists, who was
+invited to be present at our meetings, Sir WILLIAM THOMSON, whose name
+is known the world over in connection with subjects kindred to this we
+are now discussing. If it be the pleasure of the Conference to ask Sir
+WILLIAM THOMSON briefly to express his views, the Chair would be very
+happy to make the invitation.
+
+The Chair, hearing no dissent, takes pleasure in introducing Sir
+WILLIAM THOMSON.
+
+Sir WILLIAM THOMSON. Mr. President and Gentlemen, I thank you for
+permitting me to be present on this occasion, and I thank you also for
+giving me the opportunity of expressing myself in reference to the
+subject under discussion. I only wish that the permission which you
+have so kindly given me may conduce to the objects of this Conference
+more than I can hope any words of mine can do.
+
+The question immediately under discussion is, I understand, the
+proposal that the meridian passing through the centre of the
+instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich shall be adopted as the
+initial meridian of longitude, and it does seem to me that this is a
+practical question; that this resolution expresses a practical
+conclusion that it is expected by the world the present Conference may
+reach. It is expected that the resolutions adopted will be for the
+general convenience, and not for the decision of a scientific
+question. It is the settlement of a question which is a matter of
+business arrangement. The question is, what will be most convenient,
+on the whole, for the whole world.
+
+It cannot be said that one meridian is more scientific than another,
+but it can be said that one meridian is more convenient for practical
+purposes than another, and I think that this may be said pre-eminently
+of the meridian of Greenwich.
+
+I do most sincerely and fervently hope that the Delegates from France
+and from the other nations who voted for the preceding resolution will
+see their way to adopt the resolution that is now before the
+Conference. It does seem to me that it is a question of sacrifice, and
+I do trust that the honorable Delegate from France who spoke last, Mr.
+LEFAIVRE, will see that France is not being asked to make any
+sacrifice that it was not prepared to make.
+
+In the admirable and interesting addresses which Mr. JANSSEN has given
+to this Conference, (which I had not the pleasure or satisfaction of
+hearing, but which I have read with great interest,) the readiness of
+France to make a much greater sacrifice than that which is now
+proposed was announced. The amount of sacrifice involved in making
+any change from an existing usage must always be more or less great,
+because it cannot be said that it is a matter of no trouble to make
+such a change; but what I may be allowed to suggest is that the
+sacrifice which France was ready to make would be very much greater
+than that which would be made by adopting the resolution now pending.
+
+If the resolution for a neutral meridian had been adopted, all nations
+would have to make the sacrifice necessary for a change to a meridian
+not actually determined, and the relations of which could not be so
+convenient with those meridians already adopted as are the relations
+between the meridians now in use with that of Greenwich. It does seem
+to me that if the Delegates of France could see their way to adopt
+this resolution, they would have no occasion whatever to regret it.
+
+I sympathize deeply with what has been said in regard to a common
+metrical system. I have a very strong opinion upon this subject, which
+I will not express, however, if it meets any objection from the Chair;
+but it seems to me that England is making a sacrifice in not adopting
+the metrical system. The question, however, cannot be put in that way.
+We are not here to consider whether England would gain or lose by
+adopting the metrical system. That is not the way to view this
+question at all, because whether England should adopt the metrical
+system is a matter for its own convenience and use, and whether it
+adopts it or not, other nations are not affected by its course. It
+would not at all be for the benefit or the reverse of other nations.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would be very glad to hear Sir WM. THOMSON'S
+views on this subject if it were before the Conference for discussion,
+but it is not.
+
+Sir WILLIAM THOMSON. I beg pardon for having mentioned it.
+
+I would repeat that the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich is one
+of convenience. The difference of other meridians from it is readily
+ascertained, and therefore it seems to me that the minimum of trouble
+will be entailed on the world by the general adoption of the meridian
+of Greenwich. This would require the minimum of change, and,
+furthermore, the changes which would be necessary are already wholly
+ascertained.
+
+I would inquire of the Chair whether it would be in order for me to
+allude to the resolutions number 2 and 3, which have been read?
+
+The PRESIDENT. I think that we must confine ourselves to the subject
+immediately under discussion--the adoption of a prime meridian.
+
+Sir WILLIAM THOMSON. Then I have only to thank you and the Delegates
+for allowing me to speak, and to express my very strong approbation of
+the resolution that has been proposed.
+
+Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain, then made the following
+remarks:
+
+In view of the interesting information furnished to the Congress by M.
+JANSSEN on the hydrographic labors of France, past and present, and of
+the results as represented by the number of Government charts; it has
+appeared to myself--as having held the office of hydrographer to the
+Admiralty of Great Britain for many years--in which opinion I am
+supported by my colleagues, that I should place at the disposal of the
+Congress certain statistical facts bearing on the great interests of
+navigation and commerce, as illustrated by the number of marine
+charts, of sailing directions, and of nautical almanacs annually
+produced under the authority of the British Government, and of their
+distribution.
+
+I would wish to disclaim any comparison in this respect with the
+labors of other countries. From personal knowledge I am aware that all
+nations--with only one or two exceptions--are, and especially so in
+the last few years, diligent in the development of hydrography, and
+that a cordial interchange of the results unfettered by any conditions
+is steadily being pursued.
+
+With this preface I would lay before you the following statements,
+observing that the shores of the whole navigable parts of the globe
+are embraced in the series of Admiralty charts referred to:
+
+The number of copper chart plates in constant use is between 2,850 and
+2,900. This number keeps up steadily. About 60 new plates are added
+every year.
+
+Average number of copper plates annually receiving correction amount
+to 2,700.
+
+Total number of charts annually printed for the daily use of the ships
+of Her Majesty's fleet in commission, and for sale to the general
+public, has for some years ranged between 180,000 and 230,000.
+
+The sale of Admiralty charts to the public through an authorized
+agent, both in London and at other commercial ports in the kingdom,
+has been for the last seven years as follows:
+
+ 1877................................104,562
+ 1878................................109,881
+ 1879................................103,943
+ 1880................................114,430
+ 1881................................118,542
+ 1882................................131,801
+ 1883................................157,325
+
+Of these numbers, about one-fifth have been purchased by the
+governments or agents of Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Russia,
+Turkey, and the United States. The appended list, which was furnished
+to me by the Admiralty Chart agent during the present year, gives the
+more precise particulars.
+
++-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+| | |Ger- |United | | | | | |
+|Years. |France.|many. |States.|Italy.|Russia.|Turkey.|Austria.|Total. |
++-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+|1877 ..| 2,039 | 5,184| 2,067 | 1,518| 11,763| | | 22,561|
+|1878 ..| 5,741 | 3,381| 2,641 | 2,645| 5,651| | 600 | 20,529|
+|1879 ..| 3,340 | 6,425| 5,185 | 802| 9,354| | 641 | 25,747|
+|1880 ..| 5,793 | 5,280| 1,879 | 797| 10,145| 519 | 376 | 24,788|
+|1881 ..| 4,418 | 3,640| 1,273 | 2,694| 3,406| 1,160 | 996 | 17,587|
+|1882 ..| 7,454 | 5,656| 1,716 | 2,569| 4,245| 115 | 1,197 | 22,952|
+|1888 ..| 5,592 | 7,882| 6,174 | 2,607| 6,280| 2,368 | 2,158 | 32,961|
+|1884 | | | | | | | | |
+|(1st | | | | | | | | |
+|quar.) | 1,367 | 2,261| 2,942 | 908| 2,186| 429 | 677 | 10,670|
+| +-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+| |35,741 |39,679|23,867 |14,440| 52,930| 4,591 | 6,544 |177,795|
++-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+
+But the chart resources of the British Admiralty, great as they are,
+do not suffice to meet the requirements of the smaller class ships of
+the mercantile marine of Great Britain. There are three commercial
+firms in London who publish special charts, based, however, on
+admiralty documents, to satisfy this demand. On inquiry I found that
+these firms publish 640 charts, which, from their large size, require
+about 930 copper plates. I am not able to furnish the number of charts
+sold by these firms, but it is large.
+
+Supplementary to the Admiralty Charts, there are 51 volumes of Sailing
+Directions. Several of these volumes exceed 500 pages, and have passed
+through several editions. Private commercial firms also, in addition
+to their charts, publish directions for many parts of the globe. These
+include regions with which the Admiralty have not yet, notwithstanding
+great diligence, been able to deal.
+
+The annual sales of nautical almanacs for the past seven years have
+been:
+
+ 1877................................18,439
+ 1878................................16,408
+ 1879................................16,290
+ 1880................................14,561
+ 1881................................15,870
+ 1882................................15,071
+ 1883................................15,535
+
+I think, sir, that these are salient points, which will assist the
+Conference in coming to a clearer view of the great interest which
+navigation and commerce have in the charts of a particular country.
+
+The question was then put on the adoption of the resolution offered by
+the Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, as follows:
+
+ "That the Conference proposes to the Governments here
+ represented the adoption of the meridian passing through the
+ transit instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich as the
+ initial meridian for longitude."
+
+The roll was called, and the different States voted as follows:
+
+In the affirmative--
+
+ Austria, Mexico,
+ Chili, Netherlands,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Columbia, Russia,
+ Germany, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Sweden,
+ Guatemala, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, Venezuela,
+ Japan, United States.
+ Liberia,
+
+In the negative--
+
+ San Domingo.
+
+Abstaining from voting--
+
+ Brazil, France.
+
+The result was then announced, as follows:
+
+Ayes, 21; noes, 1; abstaining from voting, 2.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the resolution was passed.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. In the name of the Delegates for
+Russia I have now, at this point of the discussion, to say a few
+words.
+
+If we had to consider the scientific side alone of the questions,
+which have already been discussed and resolved by the prominent
+scientists of the different countries at the General Conference of the
+International Geodetical Association at Rome, in 1883, we might as
+well simply adhere to the resolutions of the Roman Conference, and
+limit our work to the shaping of these resolutions into the form of a
+draft of an international convention, to be submitted for approbation
+to our respective Governments. But, as we have, besides, to consider
+the application of the intended reform to practical life, we beg to
+submit the following suggestions to the kind attention of the
+Conference.
+
+It is important to find for the more densely populated countries the
+simplest mode possible of transition from local to universal time, and
+_vice versa_; and we believe, therefore, that it would be convenient
+for the practical purposes of the question to adopt for the beginning
+of the universal day the midnight of Greenwich, and not the noon, as
+was deemed advisable by the Conference of Rome.
+
+This modification would offer for the whole of Europe and for the
+greatest part of America the advantage of avoiding the double date in
+local and universal time during the principal business hours of the
+day, and would afford great facilities in the transition from local
+time to universal.
+
+In adopting the universal time for the astronomical almanacs and for
+astronomical ephemerides, and in counting the beginning of the day
+from the midnight of Greenwich, there would be, it is true, a
+modification of the astronomical chronology, as heretofore used; but
+we think it easier for the astronomers to change the starting point,
+and to make allowance for these 12 hours of difference in their
+calculations, than it would be for the public and for the business
+men, if the date for the universal time began at noon, and not at
+midnight.
+
+The Conference at Rome proposes to count the longitudes from O° to
+360° in the direction from west to east. It seems to us that this
+system can lead to misunderstanding in the local and universal
+chronology for the countries beyond the 180° east of Greenwich.
+
+We believe that a more practical result of the reform could be easily
+obtained by modifying the clause IV of the resolutions of the Roman
+Conference, and by maintaining the system already in use for a long
+time, which is to count the longitudes from 0° to 180° to east and
+west, adopting the sign + for eastern longitudes, and the sign - for
+western longitudes Thus the transition from universal to local time
+could be exactly expressed by the formula:
+
+Universal time = Local time - Longitude.
+
+The adoption of this modification would necessitate that the change of
+the day of the week, historically established on or about the
+anti-meridian of Greenwich, should henceforth take place exactly on
+that meridian.
+
+We are in favor of the adoption of the universal time (clause V of the
+resolutions of the Roman Conference) side by side with the local time,
+for international telegraphic correspondence, and for through
+international lines by railroads and steamers.
+
+We fully accept the resolution of the Roman Conference concerning the
+introduction of the system of counting the hours of the universal day
+from 0 to 24; and we think it desirable that the same system should be
+introduced for counting the hours in ordinary life. This would greatly
+contribute to the disappearance of the arbitrary division of the day
+into two parts, a. m. and p. m., and to an easier transition from
+local to universal time.
+
+We think it advisable to mark on all general maps the meridians in
+time as well as in degrees of longitude, which would render the reform
+familiar to the public, and facilitate its introduction in the
+education of the young.
+
+On maritime charts the longitudes ought to be given in degrees, as
+these are necessary for the determination of distances in maritime
+miles.
+
+The topographical maps may maintain temporarily their national
+meridian, in consequence of the difficulties of the modification of
+the co-ordinates for plates already engraved; but it would be
+necessary to mark on every sheet the difference between the national
+and the initial universal meridian in degrees of longitude.
+
+It would be most desirable to have in all new geographical catalogues
+of astronomical and geodetical points the longitudes given in degrees
+as well as in time, and that in these new catalogues the new initial
+meridian be taken as the starting point for the longitudes.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair has listened with great interest and pleasure
+to the paper which has just been read by the Delegate of Russia, Mr.
+DE STRUVE, but the Chair begs to state that there is no resolution
+before the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair will now direct the second resolution to be
+read.
+
+The resolution was read, as follows:
+
+ "From this meridian" (_i.e._, the meridian passing through
+ the centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory at
+ Greenwich) "longitude shall be counted in two directions up
+ to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus and west longitude
+ minus."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, In
+submitting this resolution to the Conference, I wish to say that the
+remarks of the Delegate of Russia have increased my confidence in the
+belief of its propriety.
+
+Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, the
+establishment of a prime meridian has, from the force of
+circumstances, become of practical importance to certain interests
+entrusted with vast responsibilities for the safety of life and
+property. These interests bear an important relation to the commerce
+of the world, and especially to the internal commerce of an extent of
+country embracing within its limits about sixty-five degrees of
+longitude. Exactness of time reckoning is an imperative necessity in
+the conduct of business.
+
+On November 18, 1883, the several railway companies of the United
+States and the Dominion of Canada united in the adoption of the mean
+local times of the seventy-fifth, ninetieth, one hundred and fifth,
+and one hundred and twentieth meridians, west from Greenwich, as the
+standards of time for the operation of their roads. The system under
+which they have since been working has proved satisfactory. They have
+no desire to make any further change. A large majority of the people
+in the several sections of the country through which the railways pass
+have either by mutual consent or special legislation adopted for their
+local use, for all purposes, the standards of time employed by the
+adjacent roads. Upon the public and working railway time-tables
+generally the fact has been published that the trains are run by the
+time of the seventy-fifth or ninetieth, etc., meridians, as the case
+may be.
+
+The same standards are used by the Railway Mail Service of the United
+States Post-office Department, which had previously used Washington
+time exclusively for through schedules.
+
+It will at once be apparent how undesirable any action would be to the
+transportation interests of this country, which should so locate the
+prime meridian as to require these time-standard meridians to be
+designated by other than exact degrees of longitude. That these
+standard meridians should continue to be designated as even multiples
+of fifteen degrees from Greenwich is regarded as decidedly preferable.
+To change to different standards, based upon exact degrees of some
+other prime meridian, would require an amount of legislation very
+difficult to obtain.
+
+At a convention of the managers of many important railway lines which
+control through their connections fully three-fourths of the entire
+railway system of this country, held in Philadelphia on October 9,
+1884, certain action was taken, of which I have the honor to present a
+duly attested copy.
+
+ "At a meeting of the _General Railway Time Convention_, held
+ in _Philadelphia, October 9th, 1884_, the following minute
+ was unanimously adopted:
+
+ "_Whereas_, An International Conference is now in session at
+ Washington, D. C., for the purpose of fixing upon a prime
+ meridian and standard of time-reckoning; and
+
+ "_Whereas_, The railway companies of the United States and
+ Canada have adopted a system of time standards based,
+ respectively, upon the mean local times of the 75th, 90th,
+ 105th, and 120th meridians west from Greenwich, and this
+ system has proved so satisfactory in its working as to
+ render any further change inexpedient and unnecessary;
+ therefore
+
+ "_Resolved_, That it is the opinion of this Convention that
+ the selection of any prime meridian which would change the
+ denomination of these governing meridians from even degrees
+ and make them fractional in their character would be
+ disturbing in no small measure to the transportation lines
+ of the United States and Canada.
+
+ "_Resolved_, That a duly attested copy of these resolution
+ be presented to the Conference."
+
+ P. P. WRIGHT,
+ _Chairman._
+
+ Attest: HENRY B. STONE,
+ _Secretary pro tempore_.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. Mr. President, I propose as an
+amendment to the resolution just offered the fourth resolution adopted
+by the Congress at Rome:
+
+ "It is proper to count longitude from the meridian of
+ Greenwich in one direction from west to east."
+
+Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate of Germany. Mr. President, I beg to
+state that I think that this is only a question of detail; and, if the
+question is put to the Conference, I shall not be able to vote, and I
+shall abstain from voting.
+
+The PRESIDENT. May I ask the Delegate from Germany whether his remark
+applies to the amendment?
+
+Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate of Germany. Yes, sir; to the
+amendment, and to the resolution, also.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of England. Mr. President, I must say that I am
+very much inclined to agree with the Delegate of Germany in the
+opinion that this is only a question of detail.
+
+It is a mere matter of convenience whether we count longitudes in one
+direction only, or in two opposite directions, considering longitudes
+measured in one direction as positive and in the opposite direction as
+negative. These two methods are nominally different from each other,
+but in reality there is no contradiction between them.
+
+In the mathematical reckoning of angles we may agree to begin at zero,
+and reckon in one direction round the entire circumference of 360
+degrees, but this does not prevent a mathematician, if he finds it
+convenient for any purpose, from reckoning angles as positive when
+measured in one direction, and negative when measured in the opposite
+direction.
+
+If angles be considered positive when reckoned towards the east, it is
+quite consistent with this usage that they should be considered
+negative when reckoned towards the west.
+
+It is much more convenient to consider all angles as positive in
+astronomical tables, but for other purposes it may be more convenient
+to employ negative angles also, especially when, by so doing, you
+avoid the use of large numbers.
+
+In comparatively small countries, like Great Britain for instance, it
+is more convenient when giving the longitude of a place in the west of
+England to consider it as being a few degrees west of Greenwich,
+rather than 350 and some degrees to the east of that meridian.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, while
+I think the question of reckoning longitude is a matter of detail, I
+think it devolves upon us to decide it one way or the other.
+Navigators are more interested in the question than mathematicians,
+and the longitudes must be engraved upon our hydrographic charts.
+
+Now, as the learned Delegate of Great Britain, Prof. ADAMS, who has
+just spoken, has stated, the principle involved is the same, whether
+we reckon east or west, or reckon continuously in the same direction.
+It seems to me, however, that when we come to consider the reckoning
+of longitude in connection with the adoption of a universal day, we
+should then make a decided choice in favor of counting longitude from
+zero to 360 degrees. If we adopt the resolution which my friend, the
+Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, has offered, it will be
+in perfect conformity with the habits of the world. For that reason,
+and it is a very strong reason, I think it might be adopted; but a
+little consideration will show that if we reckon the longitude from
+zero to 360 degrees, east to west, then we will change the existing
+practice of reckoning longitude; but, of course, only in one
+hemisphere, and that will be eastward of the prime meridian; but, as
+we shall all remember, to the eastward of the prime meridian we have
+the main portions of the continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa, and
+in all the navigable water lying in the other hemisphere the longitude
+will continue to be reckoned as now. To navigators of the water lying
+to the eastward of the prime meridian there will be a change in the
+method of counting longitude both ways, it would be necessary to adopt
+two different rules for converting local into universal time.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Oh! no; by no means.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. For although one
+rule would answer, by having regard to the algebraical sign affecting
+the longitude, it must be remembered that this rule is to be applied
+by many who are not accustomed to distinguishing east and west
+longitudes by a difference of sign, and who would therefore require
+one rule when the longitude is east and another when it is west. If,
+however, we adopt the method of reckoning from zero to 360 degrees,
+from east to west, the relation existing between the local and the
+universal time becomes the simplest possible. To obtain the universal
+date and hour, under these circumstances, it only becomes necessary to
+add the longitude to the local time, understanding by local time the
+local date as well as the local hour. I think, for this reason, it
+will be preferable to reckon the longitude in one direction from east
+to west, instead of west to east.
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. I would like to
+present a few words on behalf of seamen. There is clearly an important
+change proposed by the amendment. In the resolution before us it is
+simply a question of the reckoning of longitude as now employed by
+seamen of all nations, and I think it would be well to keep that fact
+separate from the reckoning of time.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair begs to state that the discussion is now upon
+the amendment of the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, to adopt
+the fourth resolution of the Congress at Rome.
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. Then I consider that,
+in the interest of seamen, it would be very undesirable to accept the
+amendment. We must recollect that an immense deal of the world's
+traffic is carried around the world entirely by sea, and that this
+proposed dislocation of the methods of seamen by reckoning longitude
+in one direction only would, to say the least, be extremely
+inconvenient, and it would require considerable time for them to get
+into the habit of doing so. I think, however, that as to the question
+of time, there would be no difference of opinion; doubtless, it is the
+easier method; but, as we have to look at the practical side of this
+calculation of longitude, I must certainly disagree with the amendment
+and vote for the original resolution.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain, then presented the following
+amendment:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ here represented that longitude shall be counted from the
+ prime meridian westward, in the direction opposite to the
+ terrestrial rotation, and reckoned from zero degrees to 360
+ degrees, and from zero hours to 24 hours."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question before the Conference now is the amendment
+of the Delegate of Sweden. If the Delegate of Spain desires to offer
+his resolution as an amendment to the amendment already offered, the
+Chair will place it before the Conference.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain. I am in accord with the views
+expressed by our colleague, Commander SAMPSON, and I propose the
+resolution which I have just presented.
+
+Mr. VALERA, the Delegate of Spain. I believe the amendment proposed by
+my colleague, Mr. PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain, does not apply to the
+amendment of the Delegate of Sweden, but to the original resolution.
+In order to avoid all ambiguity it would be much better to discuss
+them one after the other. Therefore let us decide the question whether
+it is better to count up to 180° in each direction or up to 360°
+continuously. Then we can go on to something else.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In order to meet the views expressed by Mr. VALERA, the
+Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN will withdraw his amendment, and the
+Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, will propose the substance of
+his original resolution so modified in form that its details may be
+considered separately.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain. In conformity with the statement
+of the President, I now withdraw my amendment.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I beg to offer the following
+propositions in the form of amendments to the original resolution
+offered by the Delegate of the United States; these may be discussed
+in succession:
+
+ "1. That from this prime meridian (the Greenwich meridian)
+ longitude shall be counted in one direction."
+
+ "2. That such longitude shall be counted from west to east."
+ Or, in place of No. 2--
+
+ "3. That such longitude shall be counted from east to west."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Delegates from Sweden and Spain have agreed as to
+the first part of the resolution, that longitude shall be counted in
+one direction--that is, from zero to 360 degrees. The question before
+the Conference is now upon the first clause of the resolution, and the
+other two will be subsequently discussed.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. I think it is impossible
+to proceed to a vote upon these propositions without bearing in mind
+what is to be decided as to the universal day. That day, as it appears
+to me, will have to be determined with reference to the initial
+meridian in such manner as to prevent, as far as possible,
+inconvenience from discontinuity of local time and date in passing
+around the world.
+
+No matter how longitude is calculated, you must necessarily arrive at
+discontinuity at some point in passing around the great circle of the
+earth. It seems to me that the most convenient way of counting both
+longitude and time is that the discontinuity in both shall take place
+on the same point on the earth. Now, certainly, as was observed at
+Rome, it will be far less inconvenient if the discontinuity of date
+takes place on the meridian of 180 degrees from Greenwich. Then the
+reckoning of local time all around the world, going from west to east
+in the direction of the earth's rotation, will be continuous.
+
+In any other way, as far as I can see, there will be a discontinuity
+at some point on the inhabited part of the earth. If the
+discontinuity were to take place on the meridian of Greenwich, as has
+been proposed by the Conference at Rome, the dates will change there
+during the daytime. That, as it appears to me, will be extremely
+inconvenient.
+
+In order to harmonize what I have called the discontinuity of date
+with the discontinuity in the reckoning of longitude, it appears to me
+that it will be best to reckon the longitude in both directions. There
+will be no discontinuity then except on the 180th meridian. It would
+be very inconvenient for a great part of the civilized world if the
+resolution which has been offered should be adopted, if, as I presume
+it would do, it caused discontinuity both in longitude and local time
+in Europe.
+
+After all, what are we here to endeavor to do? Notwithstanding what
+has been said in the other direction, for my part I must say that the
+great object before us is to secure the greatest convenience of the
+whole civilized world, and it seems to me that we should try to obtain
+it.
+
+If there is no very strong reason for altering the existing system of
+counting longitudes, it appears to me that this is a very excellent
+reason in favor of maintaining it. I do not see myself that, for any
+practical purpose, anything would be gained by reckoning longitude
+from zero to 360 degrees. There may be some special scientific
+purposes for which it may be convenient, but the object which this
+resolution is intended to meet is of another character.
+
+What we want is longitude for ordinary purposes, and on that hangs the
+reckoning of universal time, which, of course, should be for the
+general use of the whole world.
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I doubt
+whether I should trouble the Conference in reference to this point. I
+think, however, that it is a matter of little importance whether we
+consider longitude as positive, when reckoned toward the east, and
+negative, when reckoned to the west, or go on in one direction from
+zero to 360 degrees; it amounts, mathematically speaking, to the same
+thing. We never can consider mathematical lines or angles as positive
+in one direction, without implying that in the opposite direction
+they are negative. One of these is merely the complement of the other.
+
+For myself, I would say that there is no use in the Conference
+resolving that we should count longitude only in the eastwardly
+direction. The Conference may say that if longitude is reckoned
+towards the east, it shall be considered positive, and, if reckoned
+towards the west, negative; and that is all we should say. I do not
+think it is within the competence of the Conference to say that
+mathematicians shall reckon longitude only in one direction. Whether
+you choose to reckon right through to 360 degrees or not is a matter
+of detail, and of no importance in a scientific point of view. You can
+adopt one style or the other, according to which is found the more
+convenient in practice.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I would suggest that
+this matter of detail can very well be discussed and arranged by a
+committee, otherwise, it may take up the whole time of the Conference.
+I move, therefore, that a committee be appointed to take up this
+matter and report upon it at the next meeting.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair desires only to carry out the wish of the
+Conference, but it does not see clearly what we should gain by a
+committee. Still, if it be the desire of the Conference to order a
+committee, then the question will arise as to the organization of that
+committee, and the Chair would feel some hesitation in appointing it.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, if this
+was a new question, in regard to which we had heard no discussion, it
+would be eminently proper that we should put it into the hands of a
+committee to formalize and thereby to shorten our deliberations; but
+it seems to me that the appointment of a committee now would not help
+us at all. When the report of that committee came in, we should have
+to proceed exactly as we do now.
+
+There are only three questions before the Conference, and they come
+within very narrow limits. First, shall we count longitude both ways?
+Second, shall we count it all around the 360 degrees? Third, if so, in
+which direction is the counting to take place?
+
+These are the only three questions, and, after all, they are questions
+of convenience. We are just as capable of voting upon these
+propositions now as we should be after the appointment of a committee.
+
+Baron VON SCHÆFFER, Delegate of Austria-Hungary. Mr. President, I move
+that we adjourn until to-morrow at one o'clock P.M.
+
+The question upon the motion to adjourn was then put and adopted, and
+the Conference accordingly adjourned at 3.45 P.M. until Tuesday, the
+14th inst., at one o'clock P.M.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 14, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met, pursuant to adjournment, in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austro-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHÆFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. O. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. Wm. COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Salvador: Mr. ATONIO BATRES.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Mr.
+ JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Mr. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Señor Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+
+The PRESIDENT:
+
+The Chair begs leave to announce that, in the regular order of
+business, the first matter before the Conference to-day would have
+been the proposition of the Delegate of Great Britain, Mr. SANDFORD
+FLEMING, that a committee be appointed to consider a report upon the
+resolution offered by him yesterday. The Chair understood, however,
+from Mr. FLEMING this morning that he had no desire to press that
+proposition, and, therefore, it may be considered as withdrawn.
+
+The question then would be upon the amendment offered by the Delegate
+of Spain, Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, and if that amendment be withdrawn upon
+the amendment offered by the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT. The
+Chair understands that both of those gentlemen desire to withdraw
+their propositions temporarily, and, in that event, the first action
+to be taken will be upon the resolution offered by the Delegate of the
+United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD.
+
+Mr. RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey. In voting yesterday in favor
+of the resolutions proposed by the Hon. Delegate of the United States,
+I wish to have it well understood that my vote does not bind my
+Government. I am, indeed, obliged to vote against any proposition
+which would tend to bind it in any way, for I desire to leave it free
+to act in the matter.
+
+I engage to submit to my Government the result of our deliberations
+and to recommend their adoption, but that is all. In other words, I
+have only voted "_ad referendum_," and I ask that my statement be
+entered in the protocol.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would inform the Delegate who has just
+spoken that the same statement was made by several delegates at a
+former meeting of the Conference.
+
+M. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. I believe that the very correct
+doctrine just enunciated by the Delegate of Turkey, Mr. RUSTEM
+EFFENDI, is the one adopted by all the members of the Congress, and
+that we have all voted "_ad referendum_."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair so understood the general sense of the
+Conference as expressed at one of our former meetings, when many of
+the delegates made the same declaration.
+
+Mr. ANTONIO BATRES, Delegate of Salvador. Mr. President, I could not
+be present yesterday, on account of illness, and I now request
+permission to register my name in favor of the resolution adopting the
+meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Delegate of Salvador, Mr. BATRES, informs the Chair
+that he was not able to be present yesterday, on account of illness,
+and he desires that his name may be recorded as voting for the
+meridian of Greenwich. If there be no objection to the request of the
+Delegate to Salvador, his vote will be so entered.
+
+No objection being made, the President instructed the Secretary to
+make the proper entry in the protocol.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN, has withdrawn his
+amendment, and the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, has also
+withdrawn the amendment which he offered to the resolution of the
+Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD. The resolution
+originally offered will now be read.
+
+The Secretary then read the resolution, as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That from this meridian [_i.e._, the meridian
+ of Greenwich] longitude shall be counted in two directions
+ up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus, and west
+ longitude minus."
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain, representing the
+Dominion of Canada. I wish to offer some observations on the
+resolution before the Conference, but I am unable to separate the
+particular question from the general question. To my mind, longitude
+and time are so related that they are practically inseparable, and
+when I consider longitude, my thoughts naturally revert to time, by
+which it is measured. I trust, therefore, I may be permitted to extend
+my remarks somewhat beyond the immediate scope of the resolution. I
+agree with those who think that longitude should be reckoned in one
+direction only, and I am disposed to favor a mode of notation
+differing in other respects from that commonly followed.
+
+If a system of universal time be brought into use, advantages would
+result from having the system of time and the system of terrestrial
+longitude in complete harmony. The passage of time is continuous, and,
+therefore, I think longitude should be reckoned continuously. To
+convey my meaning fully, however, it is necessary that I should enter
+into explanations at some length.
+
+Ten days back I ventured informally to place my views, with a series
+of recommendations on this subject, before the delegates. I hope I may
+now be permitted to submit them to the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would inquire of the Conference whether the
+recommendations and remarks which were sent in print to the Delegates
+a few days ago by Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, the Delegate of Great Britain,
+may be entered upon the protocol as presented to-day. Each member was,
+it is understood, furnished with a copy of these papers.
+
+Mr. TUPPER, Delegate of Chili. The Delegates of Chili have not
+received them.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair will take care that they are sent.
+
+No objection was made to the request of the Delegate of Great Britain,
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, who continued as follows:
+
+The adoption of a Prime Meridian, common to all nations, admits of the
+establishment of a system of reckoning time equally satisfactory to
+our reason and our necessities.
+
+At present we are without such a system. The mode of notation followed
+by common usage from time immemorial, whatever its applicability to
+limited areas, when extended to a vast continent, with a net-work of
+lines of railway and telegraph, has led to confusion and created many
+difficulties. Further, it is insufficient for the purposes of
+scientific investigation, so marked a feature of modern inquiry.
+
+Taking the globe as a whole, it is not now possible precisely to
+define when a year or a month or a week begins. There is no such
+interval of time as the commonly defined day everywhere and
+invariable. By our accepted definition, a day is local; it is limited
+to a single meridian. At some point on the earth's surface one day is
+always at its commencement and another always ending. Thus, while the
+earth makes one diurnal revolution, we have continually many days in
+different stages of progress on our planet.
+
+Necessarily the hours and minutes partake of this normal irregularity.
+Clocks, the most perfect in mechanism, disagree if they differ in
+longitude. Indeed, if clocks are set to true time, as it is now
+designated, they must, at least in theory, vary not only in the same
+State or county, but to some extent in the same city.
+
+As we contemplate the general advance in knowledge, we cannot but feel
+surprised that these ambiguities and anomalies should be found,
+especially as they have been so long known and felt. In the early
+conditions of the human race, when existence was free from the
+complications which civilization has led to; in the days when tribes
+followed pastoral pursuits and each community was isolated from
+the other; when commerce was confined to few cities, and
+intercommunication between distant countries rare and difficult; in
+those days there was no requirement for a common system of uniform
+time. No inconvenience was felt in each locality having its own
+separate and distinct reckoning. But the conditions under which we
+live are no longer the same. The application of science to the means
+of locomotion and to the instantaneous transmission of thought and
+speech have gradually contracted space and annihilated distance. The
+whole world is drawn into immediate neighborhood and near
+relationship, and we have now become sensible to inconveniences and to
+many disturbing influences in our reckoning of time utterly unknown
+and even unthought of a few generations back. It is also quite
+manifest that, as civilization advances, such evils must greatly
+increase rather than be lessened, and that the true remedy lies in
+changing our traditional usages in respect to the notation of days and
+hours, whatever shock it may give to old customs and the prejudices
+engendered by them.
+
+In countries of limited extent, the difficulty is easily grappled
+with. By general understanding, an arrangement affecting the
+particular community may be observed, and the false principles which
+have led to the differences and disagreements can be set aside. In
+Great Britain the time of the Observatory at Greenwich is adopted for
+general use. But this involves a departure from the principles by
+which time is locally determined, and hence, if these principles be
+not wrong, every clock in the United Kingdom, except those on a line
+due north and south from Greenwich, must of necessity be in error.
+
+On the continent of North America efforts have recently been made to
+adjust the difficulty. The steps taken have been in a high degree
+successful in providing a remedy for the disturbing influences
+referred to, and, at the same time, they are in harmony with
+principles, the soundness of which is indisputable.
+
+When we examine into time in the abstract, the conviction is forced
+upon us that it bears no resemblance to any sort of matter which comes
+before our senses; it is immaterial, without form, without substance,
+without spiritual essence. It is neither solid, liquid, nor gaseous.
+Yet it is capable of measurement with the closest precision.
+Nevertheless, it may be doubted if anything measurable could be
+computed on principles more erroneous than those which now prevail
+with regard to it.
+
+What course do we follow in reckoning time? Our system implies that
+there are innumerable conceptions designated "time." We speak of
+solar, astronomical, nautical, and civil time, of apparent and mean
+time. Moreover, we assign to every individual point around the
+surface of the earth separate and distinct times in equal variety. The
+usages inherited by us imply that there is an infinite number of
+times. Is not all this inconsistent with reason, and at variance with
+the cardinal truth, that there is one time only?
+
+Time may be compared to a great stream forever flowing onward. To us,
+nature, in its widest amplitude, is a unity. We have but one earth,
+but one universe, whatever its myriad component parts. That there is
+also but one flow of time is consistent with the plain dictates of our
+understanding. That there can be more than one passage of time is
+inconceivable.
+
+From every consideration, it is evident that the day has arrived when
+our method of time-reckoning should be reformed. The conditions of
+modern civilization demand that a comprehensive system should be
+established, embodying the principle that time is one abstract
+conception, and that all definite portions of it should be based on,
+or be related to, one unit measure.
+
+On these grounds I feel justified in respectfully asking the
+consideration of the Conference to the series of recommendations which
+I venture to submit.
+
+The matter is undoubtedly one in which every civilized nation is
+interested. Indeed, it may be said that, more or less, every human
+being is concerned in it. The problem is of universal importance, and
+its solution can alone be found in the general adoption of a system
+grounded on principles recognized as incontrovertible.
+
+Such principles are embodied in the recommendations which I am
+permitted to place before the Conference. They involve, as an
+essential requirement, the determination of a unit of measurement, and
+it is obvious that such a unit must have its origin in the motion of
+the heavenly bodies. No motion is more uniform than the motion of the
+earth on its axis. This diurnal revolution admits of the most delicate
+measurement, and, in all respects, is the most available for a unit
+measure. It furnishes a division of time definite and precise, and one
+which, without difficulty, can be made plain and manifest.
+
+A revolution of the earth, denoted by the mean solar passage at the
+Prime or Anti-prime Meridian, will be recognizable by the whole world
+as a period of time common to all. By general agreement this period
+may be regarded as the common unit by which time may be everywhere
+measured for every purpose in science, in commerce, and in every-day
+life.
+
+The scheme set forth in the recommendations has in view three
+principal objects, viz:
+
+1. To define and establish an universal day for securing chronological
+accuracy in dates common to the whole world.
+
+2. To obtain a system of universal time on a basis acceptable to all
+nations, by which, everywhere, at the same time, the same instant may
+be observed.
+
+3. To establish a sound and rational system of reckoning time which
+may eventually be adopted for civil purposes everywhere, and thus
+secure uniformity and accuracy throughout the globe.
+
+But, in the inauguration of a scheme affecting so many individuals, it
+is desirable not to interfere with prevailing customs more than
+necessary. Such influences as arise from habit are powerful and cannot
+be ignored. The fact must be recognized that it will be difficult to
+change immediately the usages to which the mass of men have been
+accustomed. In daily life we are in the habit of eating, sleeping, and
+following the routine of our existence at certain periods of the day.
+We are familiar with the numbers of the hours by which these periods
+are known, and, doubtless, there will be many who will see little
+reason in any attempt to alter their nomenclature, especially those
+who take little note of cause and effect, and who, with difficulty,
+understand the necessity of a remedy to some marked irregularity
+which, however generally objectionable, does not bear heavily upon
+them individually.
+
+For the present, therefore, we must adapt a new system, as best we are
+able, to the habits of men and women as we find them. Provision for
+such adaptation is made in the recommendations by which, while local
+reckoning would be based on the principles laid down, the hours and
+their numbers need not appreciably vary from those with which we are
+familiar. Thus, time-reckoning in all ordinary affairs in every
+locality may be made to harmonize with the general system.
+
+Standard time throughout the United States and Canada has been
+established in accord with this principle. Its adoption has proved the
+advantages which may be attained generally by the same means. On all
+sides these advantages have been widely appreciated, and no change
+intimately bearing upon common life was ever so unanimously accepted.
+Certainly, it is an important step towards the establishment of one
+system of universal time, or, as it is designated in the
+recommendations, Cosmic time.
+
+The alacrity and unanimity with which the change has been accepted in
+North America encourages the belief that the introduction of cosmic
+time in every-day life is not unattainable. The intelligence of the
+people will not fail to discover, before long, that the adoption of
+correct principles of time-reckoning will in no way change or
+seriously affect the habits they have been accustomed to. It will
+certainly sweep away nothing valuable to them. The sun will rise and
+set to regulate their social affairs. All classes will soon learn to
+understand the hour of noon, whatever the number on the dial, whether
+six, as in Scriptural times, or twelve, or eighteen, or any other
+number. People will get up and retire to bed, begin and end work, take
+breakfast and dinner at the same periods of the day as at present, and
+our social habits and customs will remain without a change, depending,
+as now, on the daily returning phenomena of light and darkness.
+
+The one alteration will be in the notation of the hours, so as to
+secure uniformity in every longitude. It is to be expected that this
+change will at first create some bewilderment, and that it will be
+somewhat difficult to be understood by the masses. The causes for such
+a change to many will appear insufficient or fanciful. In a few years,
+however, this feeling must pass away, and the advantages to be gained
+will become so manifest that I do not doubt so desirable a reform will
+eventually commend itself to general favor, and be adopted in all the
+affairs of life.
+
+Be that as it may, it seems to me highly important that a
+comprehensive time system should be initiated to facilitate scientific
+observations, and definitely to establish chronological dates; that it
+should be designed for general use in connection with railways and
+telegraphs, and for such other purposes for which it may be found
+convenient.
+
+The Cosmic day set forth in the recommendations would be the date for
+the world recognizable by all nations. It would theoretically and
+practically be the mean of all local days, and the common standard to
+which all local reckoning would be referable.
+
+With regard to the reckoning of longitude, I submit that longitude and
+time are so intimately related that they may be expressed by a common
+notation. Longitude is simply the angle formed by two planes passing
+through the earth's axis, while time is the period occupied by the
+earth in rotating through that angle. If we adopt the system of
+measuring time by the revolution of the earth from a recognized zero,
+one of these planes--that through the zero--may be considered fixed;
+the other--that through the meridian of the place--being movable, the
+longitudinal angle is variable. Obviously the variable angle ought to
+be measured from the fixed plane as zero, and as the motion of the
+earth by which the equivalent time of the angle is measured is
+continuous, the longitude ought to be reckoned continuously in one
+direction. The direction is determined by the notation of the hour
+meridians, viz., from east to west.
+
+If longitude be so reckoned and denoted by the terms used in the
+notation of cosmic time, the time of day everywhere throughout the
+globe would invariably denote the precise longitude of the place
+directly under the mean sun. Conversely, at the epoch of mean solar
+passage at any place, the longitude being known, cosmic time would be
+one and the same with the longitude of the place.
+
+The advantages of such a system of reckoning and nomenclature, as
+suggested in the recommendations which I now submit, will be, I think,
+self-evident.
+
+ RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE REGULATION OF TIME AND THE RECKONING
+ OF LONGITUDE
+
+ 1. _That a system of universal time be established, with the
+ view of facilitating synchronous scientific observations,
+ for chronological reckonings, for the purpose of trade and
+ commerce by sea and land, and for all such uses to which it
+ is applicable._
+
+ 2. _That the system be established for the common observance
+ of all peoples, and of such a character that it may be
+ adopted by each separate community, as may be found
+ expedient._
+
+ 3. _That the system be based on the principle that for all
+ terrestrial time reckonings there be one recognized unit of
+ measurement only, and that all measured intervals of time be
+ directly related to the one unit measure._
+
+ 4. _That the unit measure be the period occupied by the
+ diurnal revolution of the earth, defined by the mean solar
+ passage at the meridian twelve hours from the Prime Meridian
+ established through Greenwich._
+
+ 5. _That the unit measure defined as above be held to be a
+ day absolute, and designated a Cosmic Day._
+
+ 6. _That such Cosmic Day be held as the chronological date
+ of the earth, changing with the mean solar passage at the
+ anti-meridian of Greenwich._
+
+ 7. _That all divisions and multiples of the Cosmic Day be
+ known as Cosmic Time._
+
+ 8. _That the Cosmic Day be divided into hours, numbered in a
+ single series, one to twenty-four, (1 to 24,) and that the
+ hours be subdivided, as ordinary hours, into minutes and
+ seconds. Note.--As an alternative means of distinguishing
+ the cosmic hours from the hours in local reckonings, they
+ may be denoted by the letters of the alphabet, which,
+ omitting I and V, are twenty-four in number._
+
+ 9. _That until Cosmic Time be admitted as the recognized
+ means of reckoning in the ordinary affairs of life, it is
+ advisable to assimilate the system to present usages and to
+ provide for the easy translation of local reckonings into
+ Cosmic Time, and vice versa; that, therefore, in theory, and
+ as closely as possible in practice, local reckonings be
+ based on a known interval in advance or behind Cosmic Time._
+
+ 10. _That the surface of the globe be divided by twenty-four
+ equidistant hour meridians, corresponding with the hours of
+ the Cosmic Day._
+
+ 11. _That, as far as practicable, the several hour meridians
+ be taken according to the longitude of the locality, to
+ regulate local reckonings, in a manner similar to the
+ system in use throughout North America._
+
+ 12. _That, in all cases where an hour meridian is adopted as
+ the standard for regulating local reckonings, in a
+ particular section or district, the civil day shall be held
+ to commence twelve hours before and end twelve hours after
+ the mean solar passage of such hour meridian._
+
+ 13. _That the civil day, based on the Prime Meridian of
+ Greenwich, shall coincide and be one with the Cosmic Day.
+ That civil days on meridians east of Greenwich shall be
+ (according to the longitude) a known number of hours, or
+ hours and minutes in advance of Cosmic Time, and to the west
+ of Greenwich the contrary._
+
+ 14. _That the surface of the globe being divided by
+ twenty-four equidistant meridians (fifteen degrees apart)
+ corresponding with the hours of the Cosmic Day, it is
+ advisable that longitude be reckoned according to these hour
+ meridians._
+
+ 15. _That divisions of longitude less than an hour (fifteen
+ degrees) be reckoned in minutes and seconds and parts of
+ seconds._
+
+ 16. _That longitude be reckoned continuously towards the
+ west, beginning with zero at the Anti-prime meridian, twelve
+ hours from Greenwich._
+
+ 17. _That longitude, generally, be denoted by the same terms
+ as those applied to Cosmic Time._
+
+I submit these recommendations suggestively, and without any desire
+unduly to press them. I shall be content if the leading principles
+laid down be recognized by the Conference.
+
+With regard to the more immediate question, I have come to the firm
+conviction that extreme simplicity of reckoning and corresponding
+benefits would result if longitude be notated in the same manner, and
+denoted by the same terms as universal time. If, therefore, the
+Conference adopts the motion of the distinguished Delegate of the
+United States, which, I apprehend, is designed to cause as little
+change as possible in the practices of sea-faring men, I trust the
+claims of other important interests will not be overlooked. I refer to
+all those interests, so deeply concerned in securing accurate time on
+land, and in having easy means provided for translating any one local
+reckoning into any other local reckoning, or into the standard
+universal time. In this view I trust the Conference will give some
+expression of opinion in favor of extending around the globe the
+system of hour meridians which has proved so advantageous in North
+America. In an educational aspect alone it seems to me important that
+the hour meridians, one to twenty-four, numbered from the anti-prime
+meridian continuously toward the west, should be conspicuously marked
+on our maps and charts.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, Mr. President, to
+express my entire adhesion to the proposition which has been made by
+the Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD. It seems to me to
+satisfy one of the principal conditions that we have had before us to
+guide our decision; that is, that we should pursue a course which will
+produce the least possible inconvenience.
+
+Now, I think if we keep that in mind, we shall have very little
+difficulty in coming to the conclusion that we should reckon longitude
+eastward, as positive or plus, and westward as negative or minus. This
+mode of reckoning would be attended with the least inconvenience; in
+fact, it will not be attended with any inconvenience at all, because
+it will keep to the present mode of reckoning. For my part, I see no
+adequate reason for changing that. There is no scientific reason, and
+certainly there is no practical reason. There is no scientific reason,
+because, as I stated yesterday, if in mathematics you measure from the
+zero a distance in one direction and consider that positive, you must,
+by the very nature of the case, consider the distance measured in the
+opposite direction from the same zero as negative. One follows
+mathematically and necessarily from the other, and by adopting this
+resolution you thus include both in one general formula.
+
+It seems to me quite as scientific, to say the least, to start from
+zero and go in both directions, distinguishing the longitudes by the
+signs plus and minus, according as the directions are taken east or
+west, as to reckon longitudes in one direction only from zero to 360
+degrees. It is, I say, just as scientific to do this, and practically
+it is more convenient. Because if you go on reckoning from zero to
+360 degrees continuously, you have to make a break at 360 degrees. You
+do not count on after you have completed one revolution, but have to
+drop the 360 degrees and start again at zero. But this is attended
+with great inconvenience, because this break in counting occurs in
+countries which are thickly inhabited. The longitude would be a little
+less than 360 degrees on one side of the prime meridian, and on the
+other side the longitude would be a small angle. This seems to me very
+inconvenient.
+
+On the other hand, if you count longitudes in one direction from zero
+to 180 degrees as positive, and in the opposite direction from zero to
+180 degrees as negative, you are, no doubt, obliged to make a break in
+passing abruptly from plus 180 degrees to minus 180 degrees. But the
+break would then occur where it would cause the least inconvenience,
+viz., in mid-ocean, where there is very little land and very few
+inhabitants, and where we are accustomed to make the break now. This
+will require no change in the habits and customs of the people, and no
+inconvenience whatever would be caused by the action of the Conference
+if it decides on this method, which also has the minor advantage of
+not requiring the use of such large numbers as the other. But to adopt
+the reckoning of longitude from zero to 360 degrees would involve a
+very considerable change, and I think it may be doubted whether it
+would be generally accepted. Under the circumstances, I think the
+resolution contains the most expedient course for us to adopt. I do
+not object to anybody who chooses to do so reckoning on, for certain
+purposes, from zero to 360 degrees, but I do not think it would be
+well to make it compulsory.
+
+With regard to the proposal of the Delegate of Great Britain, Mr.
+FLEMING, I would say that it would be attended with great
+inconvenience, because it departs from the usages and habits now
+existing. That, to my mind, is a very great and insuperable objection,
+and I do not see any countervailing advantage.
+
+With regard to the subject of time that Mr. Fleming is anxious to take
+into consideration, I think that nothing can be simpler, if I may be
+allowed to deal with the question of time, than the relation between
+time and longitude which is proposed to be created by the resolution
+of Mr. RUTHERFURD.
+
+By that resolution the longitude indicates the relation between the
+local time and the universal time in the simplest possible way. What
+can be easier than the method involved in the resolution of Mr.
+Rutherfurd? It is this: Local time at any place is equal to universal
+time plus the longitude of the place, plus being understood always in
+a mathematical sense. The longitude is to be added to the universal
+time if it is positive, and subtracted if it is negative. That is very
+simple, the whole being involved in one general formula.
+
+Now, I think it is perfectly impossible for Mr. Fleming to make a more
+simple formula than that. The formula laid down in the proceedings of
+the Roman Conference was far less simple, as it involved an odd twelve
+hours. You got the universal time equal to the local time, minus the
+longitude, plus twelve hours. This is far from simple. It makes the
+calculation more complicated, and it seems to me that for other
+reasons it is objectionable.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I do not
+propose to take up the time of the Conference in reiterating the very
+conclusive remarks in favor of this resolution made by the Delegate of
+Great Britain. I wish, however, to allude, for a moment, to another
+view of this question. Suppose we do not adopt this resolution. What
+is the course before the Conference? We shall then be called upon, no
+doubt, to decide that longitude shall be counted all around the world
+from zero to 360 degrees.
+
+That general proposition is one which would not probably meet with
+violent opposition, but the next point is one that will divide us very
+materially, and perhaps disastrously. Which way shall we count? Shall
+it be towards the east or towards the west?
+
+My conversations with the gentlemen here present have lead me to know
+that there is a very great difference of opinion upon this point, and
+I believe that if we should not adopt this resolution and should
+decide to count longitude from zero to 360 degrees, a preference to
+count it in one direction rather than the other would be established
+only by a very close vote, nearly annulling the whole moral influence
+of the Conference, and we should go back to our Governments without
+much, if any, authority on the point in question.
+
+And I doubt whether our resolutions would be accepted by these
+Governments if we show ourselves to be divided upon a question of so
+much practical importance.
+
+It is simply a question of practice--of convenience. We all bowed to
+the rule of convenience in selecting the meridian of Greenwich. And
+why? Because seven-tenths of the civilized nations of the world use
+this meridian, not that it was intrinsically better than the meridian
+of Paris, or Washington, or Berlin, or St. Petersburg. Nobody claimed
+any scientific preference among these meridians. It was simply because
+seven-tenths of the civilized world were already using the meridian of
+Greenwich.
+
+If we accept this argument in favor of the first resolution for
+selecting the initial meridian, why should we not be equally inclined
+to recognize the fact that all the civilized world count longitude in
+both ways? There is no difference of opinion on that point. There is
+no difference of usage. Shall we break that usage? Shall we introduce
+a new system, which may or may not be found practical or agreeable?
+Shall we not rather adopt the rule of all nations, already in use
+among their practised astronomers and navigators, by saying continue
+to do as you have already done?
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. Having for many years
+mixed among the practical seamen of more than one nation, I confess I
+look with some dismay on any other system for the notation of
+longitude being adopted than the one proposed in this resolution.
+
+My colleague, Mr. FLEMING, made the remark that he could not
+disassociate longitude from time. If he had mixed with seamen, he
+would have found out that there is very frequently a well-defined
+difference between the two in their minds. Longitude with seamen
+means, independently of time, space, distance. It indicates so many
+miles run in an east or west direction. Consequently, I am not able to
+look upon longitude and time as being identical.
+
+Under these circumstances, this resolution also, as I understand it,
+should be considered on practical grounds.
+
+The question of universal time will come on for consideration
+hereafter, and how that may be settled seems to me a matter of
+indifference compared with the decision on this resolution. I
+question, for myself, whether any other plan than that it proposes
+would be generally accepted. That is what I am afraid of. Whatever
+respect nations may have for this Conference, public opinion would be
+very strong upon the point now at issue. When you further recollect
+that all around the globe, in all these various seas, there are
+colonies with histories; that their geographical positions and
+boundaries were originally recorded by longitude according to the
+notation of which I have spoken, I think it is to be over sanguine to
+expect that those colonies will accept a new notation of longitude
+without greater proof of the positive necessity of the change. It
+would not be the fiat of this Conference, or the fiat of any
+government, that would bring about the change. I say this with all
+deference to the opinions of those who have advocated a change.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. At the risk of repeating
+somewhat my remarks made to the Congress when we last met, I would add
+a few words to what has now been said. It is our wish that the points
+of real difference should, as far as possible, be clearly brought out
+before the Conference comes to a vote.
+
+As regards the counting of longitude in two directions, and the degree
+of advantage or disadvantage that may arise in starting from zero and
+treating east longitude as positive or plus, and west longitude as
+negative or minus, let me ask the attention of the Congress to the
+fact that longitude is already counted in these two directions, and
+that, as a matter of fact also, latitude is counted in the same way,
+in both directions from the equator, north latitude being plus and
+south latitude minus. Nobody, so far as I have heard, has ever
+proposed that we should abolish this method of reckoning latitude, and
+substitute for it North or South polar distance, to be counted right
+round the earth; and yet there is the same _quasi_ scientific
+objection to the present method of counting in the one case as in the
+other. As already stated, it seems to me that, for purposes of
+practical convenience, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible,
+to separate the ideas on which the reckoning of longitude must be
+based, from those which must regulate the reckoning of time, and
+especially the reckoning of time in the sense of adopting a universal
+day over the whole world. Now, it appears to me that, as regards the
+acceptance of the universal day, it certainly will be anything but
+convenient, if it begins and ends otherwise than when the sun passes
+the 180th meridian. On the contrary, I think it will be extremely
+inconvenient. I think that if the world were to adopt the meridian of
+Greenwich as the origin of longitude, the natural thing for it to do
+would be to have the international day, the universal day, begin from
+the 180th meridian from Greenwich--that is, to coincide with the
+Greenwich civil day. That meridian passes, as I said before, outside
+of New Zealand, and outside of the Fijee Islands; it goes over only a
+very small portion of inhabited country. It appears to me, therefore,
+that inasmuch as there must be an absolute break or discontinuity in
+time in passing round the earth--a break of twenty-four hours--it is
+much more convenient that this break should take place in the
+uninhabited part of the earth than in the very centre of civilization.
+
+If we adopt the universal day which coincides with the civil day at
+Greenwich, then you will be able to have complete continuity of local
+time over the whole earth, in harmonious relation with the universal
+day, except at the break which necessarily takes place on the 180th
+meridian. Otherwise this will not be possible. For instance, according
+to the system proposed by the resolution, the local time
+corresponding, say, to 0 hours of Monday at Greenwich, would, in
+passing round the earth to the eastward from the 180th meridian,
+gradually change from 12 hours of Sunday to 12 hours of Monday; and,
+on returning to that meridian, the break of time would occur, and one
+day would appear to be lost. But complete continuity both in the days
+and hours, and harmony with the universal day, that is, the Greenwich
+civil day, would be preserved for the whole earth, excepting on
+crossing the 180th meridian.
+
+The result of the system which was proposed at Rome would be to cause
+the break of dates to take place at Greenwich at noon, so that the
+morning hours of the civil day would have a different universal date
+from the afternoon hours, and this would be the case all over Europe.
+But if the universal day be made to correspond to the civil day of
+Greenwich, and the longitude is counted east in one direction and west
+in another direction to the 180th meridian, these difficulties would
+be overcome, and a perfectly simple rule would suffice for converting
+local into universal time. As regards what was said upon the subject
+of longitude being plus or minus, according as you move to the east or
+west, it appears to me that there is a positive, clear, and rational
+reason for calling longitude eastward plus and longitude westward
+minus. The time is later to the east, and therefore the hour is
+indicated by a higher number. In converting universal into local time,
+if the place is east of Greenwich, you add the longitude to the
+universal time, and therefore increase the number of the hour; if the
+place be west of Greenwich, you subtract the longitude, and therefore
+diminish the number of the hour. It is natural, therefore, to call
+east longitude positive and the other negative.
+
+It appears to me also that the passage of the sun over the meridian
+is, in reality, what may be called the index of the day, the day
+consisting of 24 hours, distributed equally on either side of the
+meridian. Noon of the universal day would thus coincide with the time
+of the sun passing the initial meridian. There is perfect consistency,
+therefore, in adopting the reckoning of longitude and time that is
+proposed in the resolution before us. It is a rational and symmetrical
+method.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, the Delegate of Spain. I listened with great
+pleasure to the observations which our honorable colleague, the
+Delegate of England, General STRACHEY, has just made.
+
+I am not sufficiently acquainted with the English tongue to make a
+speech, though I know it well enough to follow the debate. Moreover,
+as I had beforehand studied the subject which is now before us, I have
+quite well understood all that has been said on this point. I proposed
+an amendment yesterday, in order to obtain what I consider the most
+simple formula for converting local time into cosmical time. This
+formula is not, perhaps, the most suitable for astronomers and
+sailors, but they form the minority, and it is, I am sure, the easiest
+for the mass of the people. This formula would be based on the
+considerations which are now under discussion. I am not sufficiently
+familiar with the language to give the reasons upon which I based my
+amendment, but, as I demonstrated in the pamphlet which I had the
+honor of addressing to my learned colleagues, the means, in my
+opinion, of obtaining the simplest and the most suitable formula is to
+make the beginning of civil time and of dates on the first meridian
+coincide with the cosmical time and date, and to count longitude
+continuously in the same direction from the initial meridian. This is
+what I proposed to obtain by my amendment.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. Mr. President, I now propose
+that the Conference take a recess for a few moments before a vote is
+taken upon the resolution.
+
+No objection being made to the motion, the President announced that a
+recess would be taken until the Chair called the Conference to order.
+
+THE PRESIDENT, having called the Conference to order, said. The recess
+has given an opportunity for an interchange of opinion upon the
+subject pending, and if the Conference be ready the vote will now be
+taken.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I
+think that the informal discussion which we have had upon this
+question of the method of counting longitude must lead to the
+conclusion that there is a great difference of opinion. So far as I
+have been able to learn, many of the delegates have come here
+instructed to favor the resolution adopted by the Roman Conference. It
+is my own opinion that the recommendation to count longitude
+continuously from the prime meridian from west to east, as recommended
+by the conference at Rome, is not so good as the proposition now
+before us. Personally, however, I would prefer to see it counted
+continuously from east to west, as being more in conformity with
+present usage among astronomers. But, as it appears that so many
+delegates are instructed by their Governments to favor counting in the
+opposite direction, and as, if this Congress adopts any other plan
+than that proposed by the Conference at Rome, they will have to lay
+before their Governments as the action of this Congress something that
+will be opposed to the recommendation of the Roman Conference, and as
+these two recommendations would naturally tend to neutralize each
+other, I would favor the proposition which is now before us as being
+the most expedient.
+
+I would suggest, however, that, instead of making a positive
+declaration upon the question, we leave it as it now stands; that is
+to say, that longitude shall be counted east and west from the prime
+meridian, without specifying which direction shall be considered
+positive, and declare it to be the opinion of this Congress that it is
+not expedient to change the present method of counting longitude both
+ways from the prime meridian.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate from Sweden. In my opinion the delegates
+have not undertaken to recommend the resolutions adopted by a majority
+of the Conference, but only the resolutions for which they have
+themselves voted. As regards the fact that there may be great
+differences of opinion concerning the questions which remain for our
+consideration, I am unable to see in it any reason for our not
+proceeding to vote upon them. On the contrary it will be of great
+interest to our Governments to know the exact position taken by each
+of the delegates, and even if any delegate should abstain from voting,
+such abstention would be of interest in the event of future
+negotiations on the subject. I am therefore of opinion that we should
+proceed to vote on the remaining resolutions.
+
+The vote was then taken upon the resolution of the Delegate of the
+United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, which is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That from this meridian (_id est_, Greenwich)
+ longitude shall be counted in two directions up to 180
+ degrees, east longitude being plus and west longitude
+ minus."
+
+The following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Chili, Liberia,
+ Colombia, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Russia,
+ Guatemala, Salvador,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+
+The following States voted in the negative:
+
+ Italy, Sweden,
+ Netherlands, Switzerland.
+ Spain,
+
+The following States abstained from voting:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Germany,
+ Brazil, San Domingo,
+ France, Turkey.
+
+Ayes, 14; noes, 5; abstaining, 6.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the resolution was adopted.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I now
+propose to read the third resolution from the printed circular which
+has been furnished to the delegates. It is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local time where desirable. This universal day is to be a
+ mean solar day; is to begin for all the world at the moment
+ of midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the
+ beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is
+ to be counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+This resolution is somewhat complex, and in order to facilitate
+debate, I propose that we first occupy ourselves only with the first
+clause, namely:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local time where desirable."
+
+After having disposed of that clause we can proceed to dispose of the
+other parts of the resolution.
+
+The PRESIDENT. You propose, then, to divide the resolution as printed
+in the circular into two resolutions, and you now offer the first part
+for consideration.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. If that is the more
+convenient form of putting it, it meets my views. It will be more easy
+to discuss the subject, more easy to arrive at a decision, in that
+form.
+
+M. le Comte ALBERT DE FORESTA, Delegate of Italy. I propose as an
+amendment the fifth resolution of the Roman Conference, which reads as
+follows:
+
+ "The Conference recognizes, for certain scientific needs and
+ for the internal service of great administrations of ways of
+ communications, such as those of railroads, lines of
+ steamships, telegraphic and postal lines, the utility of
+ adopting a universal time, in connection with local or
+ national times, which will necessarily continue to be
+ employed in civil life."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question is now upon the amendment offered by the
+Delegate of Italy.
+
+Professor ABBE, Delegate of the United States. I would like to ask
+whether this amendment adds anything substantially to the resolution.
+I think it does not. It simply specifies the details of the resolution
+pending before us. That resolution "proposes the adoption of a
+universal day for all purposes for which it may be found convenient."
+That is general. The amendment merely specifies certain of these
+purposes. That is a matter of detail.
+
+Mr. ALLEN, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I desire to
+offer an amendment to the amendment, as follows:
+
+ "Civil or local time is to be understood as the mean time of
+ the approximately central meridian of a section of the
+ earth's surface, in which a single standard of time may be
+ conveniently used."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, it does
+not seem to me that it is within the competence of this Conference to
+define what is local time. That is a thing beyond us.
+
+Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Delegate of the United States, then said: Mr.
+President and gentlemen, all efforts to arrive at uniformity in
+scientific or every-day usage originate in a desire to attain greater
+convenience in practice. The multiplicity of coins of which the
+relative value can only be expressed by fractions, the various common
+standards of weights and of measures, are inconvenient both to the
+business man and the scientist. Alike inconvenient to both are the
+diverse standards of time by which the cities of the world are
+governed, differing, as they do, by all possible fractions of hours.
+
+All coins have a relative and interchangeable value based upon their
+weight and fineness. Weights and measures remain the same by whatever
+unit they may be expressed; but, primarily, time can only be measured
+by a standard actually or apparently in motion. Absolutely accurate
+mean local time, varying, as it does, by infinitesimal differences at
+every point in the circuit of the earth, may be shown on a stationary
+object, but cannot in general be kept by an individual or object in
+motion. The mean local time of some fixed point in each locality must
+be taken as the standard for practical use. The important question to
+be determined is, over what extent of territory, measuring east and
+west from such fixed point, its mean time may be employed for all
+ordinary purposes without inconvenience. This can be absolutely
+determined only by practical experience.
+
+Careful study of this phase of this subject led, perhaps, more
+directly than any one single cause, to the proposal of the detailed
+system of standard time which now satisfactorily controls the
+operations of one hundred and twenty thousand miles of railway in the
+United States and Canada, and governs the movements of fifty millions
+of people.
+
+Before the recent change there were a number of localities where
+standards of time were exclusively employed which varied as much as
+thirty minutes, both on the east and the west, from mean local time,
+without appreciable inconvenience to those using them. From this fact
+the conclusion was inevitable that within those limits a single
+standard might be employed. The result has proved this conclusion to
+have been well founded.
+
+No public reform can be accomplished unless the evil to be remedied
+can be made plainly apparent. That an improvement will be effected
+must be clearly demonstrated, or the new status of affairs which will
+exist after the change, must be shown to have been already
+successfully tried. Here, as in law, custom and precedent are all
+powerful. It would be a difficult task to secure the general adoption
+of any system of time-reckoning which cannot be employed by all
+classes of the community. Business men would refuse to regard as a
+reform any proposition which introduced diversity where uniformity now
+exists, nor would railway managers consent to adopt for their own use
+a standard of time not coinciding with or bearing a ready relation to
+the standard employed in other business circles. To adopt the time of
+a universal day for all transportation purposes throughout the world,
+and to use it collaterally with local time, would simply restore, and
+possibly still more complicate, the very condition of things in this
+country which the movement of last year was intended to and did to a
+great extent obviate. Railway managers desire that the time used in
+their service shall be either precisely the same as that used by the
+public, or shall differ from it at as few points as possible, and then
+by the most readily calculated differences. The public, on the other
+hand, have little use for absolutely accurate time, except in
+connection with matters of transportation, but will refuse to adopt a
+standard which would materially alter their accustomed habits of
+thought and of language in every-day life. That this position is
+absurd may be argued, and, perhaps, admitted, but it is a fact, and
+one which cannot be disregarded.
+
+The adoption of the universal day or any system of time-reckoning
+based upon infrequent--such as the great quadrant--meridians, to be
+used by transportation lines collaterally with local time, is,
+therefore, practically impossible.
+
+Shall it, then, be concluded that there is no hope of securing
+uniformity in time-reckoning for practical purposes? Or does the
+proposition for the general division of the earth's surface into
+specified sections, governed by standards based upon meridians fifteen
+degrees or one hour apart, supply the remedy? Objections have been
+urged against this proposition on account of difficulties encountered,
+or supposed to be encountered, in the vicinity of the boundary lines
+between the sections. It is argued that the contact of two sections
+with standards of time differing by one hour will cause numerous and
+insuperable difficulties. In railway business, in which time is more
+largely referred to than in any other, the experience of the past year
+has proved this fear to be groundless. It is true that the approximate
+local time of a number of cities near the boundary lines between the
+eastern and central sections in the United States is still retained. A
+curious chapter of incidents could be related which led to this
+retention, not affecting, however, the merits of the case; but the
+fact serves to show that changes much greater than thirty minutes from
+local time would not be acceptable.
+
+Adjacent to and on either side of all national boundary lines the
+inhabitants become accustomed to the standards of weights, measures,
+and money of both countries, and constantly refer to and use them
+without material inconvenience. In the readjustment of a boundary upon
+new lines of demarcation it must be expected that some temporary
+difficulties in business transactions will be encountered, but all
+history shows that such difficulties soon adjust themselves. Legal
+enactments will finally determine the precise boundaries of the
+several sections. If different laws respecting many other affairs of
+life may exist on either side of a State or national boundary line,
+with positive advantage or without material inconvenience, why should
+laws respecting time-reckoning be an exception? Coins and measures are
+distinguished by their names. So, also, may standards of time be
+distinguished.
+
+The adoption of standard time for all purposes of daily life, based
+upon meridians fifteen degrees apart, would practically abolish the
+use of exact local time, except upon those meridians. Numerous
+circumstances might be related demonstrating how very inaccurate and
+undetermined was the local time used in many cities in this country
+before the recent change.
+
+Except for certain philosophical purposes, does the inherent advantage
+claimed in the use of even approximately accurate local time really
+exist? Would the proposed change affect any custom of undoubted value
+to the community? These questions have been answered in the negative
+by the experience of Great Britain since January 13, 1848, of Sweden
+since January 1, 1879, and of the United States and Canada since
+November 18, 1883.
+
+Greenwich time is exclusively used in Great Britain, and differs from
+mean local time about eight minutes on the east and about twenty-two
+and a half minutes on the west. In Sweden the time of the fifteenth
+degree of east longitude is the standard for all purposes. It differs
+from mean local time about thirty-six and a half minutes on the east
+and about sixteen minutes on the west. In the United States the
+standards recently adopted are used exclusively in cities like
+Portland, Me., (33,800 inhabitants,) and Atlanta, Ga., (37,400
+inhabitants,) of which the local times are, respectively, nineteen
+minutes and twenty two minutes faster than the standard, and at Omaha,
+Neb., (30,500 inhabitants,) and Houston, Tex., (16,500 inhabitants,)
+each twenty-four minutes slower. At Ellsworth, Me., a city of six
+thousand inhabitants, a change of twenty-six minutes has been made.
+Nearly eighty-five per cent. of the total number of cities in the
+United States of over ten thousand inhabitants have adopted the new
+standard time for all purposes, and it is used upon ninety-seven and a
+half per cent. of all the miles of railway lines.
+
+Let us now consider whether insuperable practical difficulties owing
+to geographical peculiarities will prevent the adoption of this system
+throughout the world.
+
+A table has been prepared, and accompanies this paper, upon which are
+designated the several governing meridians and names suggested for the
+corresponding sectional times. For the use of this table I am
+indebted to Mr. E. B. Elliott, of this city.
+
+On the North American continent, in the United States and Canada, the
+75th, 90th, 105th, and 120th west Greenwich meridians now govern time.
+In Mexico the 105th west meridian is approximately central, except for
+Yucatan, which is traversed by the 90th. For Guatemala, Salvador, and
+Costa Rica, the 90th west meridian is approximately central. San
+Domingo closely approaches and Cuba touches the 75th.
+
+In South America--the United States of Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, the
+western portion of Bolivia, and Chili would use the time of the 75th
+west meridian, while Venezuela, Guiana, western Brazil, including the
+Amazon River region, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the
+Argentine Republic, would be governed by the time of the 60th
+meridian. In eastern Brazil the 45th west meridian would govern.
+
+Passing to Europe, we find Great Britain already governed by the zero
+meridian time, which can also be used in the Netherlands, Belgium,
+France, Spain, and Portugal. The 15th east meridian, which is about as
+far east of Berlin as west of Vienna, and no more distant from Rome
+than from Stockholm, now governs all time in Sweden. This time could
+also be advantageously used in Denmark, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
+Switzerland, Italy, and Servia. The time of the 30th east meridian,
+which is nearly the mean between Constantinople and St. Petersburg
+times, could be used in Western Russia, Turkey, Roumania, Bulgaria,
+East Roumelia, and Greece. When the development of Eastern Russia in
+Europe shall require it, the division of that great country between
+the times of the 30th and 45th east meridians, upon lines of
+convenience similar to those employed in the United States, can
+doubtless be arranged. The governing meridians for Africa appear to
+present some advantages, especially for Egypt, and no insuperable
+difficulties; but for continents where the boundaries of countries are
+so loosely defined, the limits of time-reckoning cannot well and need
+not now be shown. They would ultimately adjust themselves.
+
+In Asia the 60th east meridian passes through Khiva. Bombay would use
+the 75th and Calcutta the 90th. The 105th east meridian touches Siam,
+the 120th is near Shanghai, and the 135th passes through Japan and
+near Corea. The 150th meridian of west longitude is sufficiently near
+Hawaii. In Australia the 150th, 135th, and 120th meridians of east
+longitude are admirably located for governing, respectively, the time
+of the eastern, central, and western divisions of that continent.
+
+In none of the localities defined or mentioned, would the standards
+proposed vary more from mean local time than has already been
+demonstrated to be practicable without detriment to any material
+interest. Convenience of use, based largely upon the direction of
+greater commercial intercourse, would determine the action of
+communities other than those mentioned, and probably somewhat modify
+the schedule proposed.
+
+That no practical difficulty of usage would prevent the universal
+adoption of the hour-section system of time-reckoning is apparent. Its
+convenience has been abundantly realized. In adopting it, practically
+no expense whatever is incurred. The alteration of the works or faces
+of watches or clocks is not required. Their hands are simply set to
+the new standard, and the desired result is accomplished.
+
+By the adoption of this system, the exact hours of time-reckoning,
+although called by different names in the several sections for
+every-day life, but specifically designated, if desired, for
+scientific purposes, would be indicated at the same moment of time at
+all points. The minutes and seconds would everywhere agree. The
+absolute time of the occurrence of any event could, therefore, be
+readily determined. The counting of the hour meridians should begin
+where the day begins at the transition line.
+
+It would then be one of the possibilities of the powers of electricity
+that the pendulum of a single centrally located clock, beating
+seconds, could regulate the local time-reckoning of every city on the
+face of the earth.
+
+_Table of Standards governing the Hour-Section System of
+Time-reckoning._
+
+======================================================================
+Longitude | HOUR MERIDIANS. |Simultaneous
+ from |----------------------------------------------| hours in
+Greenwich.| | | the several
+ |Proposed names of sectional times. | Numbers. | sections.
+----------+-----------------------------------+----------+------------
+_Degrees._| | |
+----------| | |
+180 |Transition time | 0 or 24th|12 midnight
+165 west |Alaskan | 1st......| 1 A. M.
+150 |Hawaii | 2d ......| 2
+135 |Sitka | 3d ......| 3
+120 |Pacific (Adopted in U.S. and Can.)| 4th......| 4
+105 |Mountain " " | 5th......| 5
+90 |Central (American) time " " | 6th......| 6
+75 |Eastern (or Coastwise) " " | 7th......| 7
+60 |La Plata | 8th......| 8
+45 |Brazilian | 9th......| 9
+30 |Central Atlantic |10th......|10
+15 |West African |11th......|11
+0 |Int'l or Unvs'l (Used in Gt. Brit.)|12th......|12 noon.
+15 east |Continental (Used in Sweden.) |13th......| 1 P. M.
+30 |Bosporus |14th......| 2
+45 |Caucasus |15th......| 3
+60 |Ural |16th......| 4
+75 |Bombay |17th......| 5
+90 |Central Asian |18th......| 6
+105 |Siam |19th......| 7
+120 |East Asian |20th......| 8
+135 |Japan |21st......| 9
+150 |East Australian |22d.......|10
+165 |New Caledonian |23d.......|11
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+I have no desire, however, to press on the Conference the
+consideration of the question of local time reckoning. But, as the
+system adopted in the United States and Canada has proved successful,
+and is now firmly established, I have deemed it proper that a
+statement of this fact and of the possibilities of the application of
+the system to other parts of the world should be made to the Congress.
+I will now, therefore, withdraw my amendment.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. The Delegate of Italy
+has moved, as an amendment to the first part of the resolution offered
+by me, the fifth resolution adopted in the Conference at Rome. Really,
+in spirit and in substance, there is little or no difference between
+them, except that the Conference at Rome has specified that the
+objects they had in view as suitable for regulation by universal time
+were these, namely: "For the internal service of the great
+administrations of means of communication, such as railways,
+steamships, telegraphs, and post-offices."
+
+Now, I submit that in the words used in my resolution all this is
+embraced, and a good deal more, for this universal day is to be
+adopted "for all purposes for which it may be found convenient." If it
+were desirable that every purpose for which the universal day may be
+found convenient should be specified, it would make a very long
+resolution. On the other hand, however, we might find in the end that
+we had omitted some of the purposes for which it was eminently
+convenient. It appears, also, that in this same fifth Roman resolution
+all questions of chronology of universal date, etc., are omitted,
+although they are brought forward and appear in the sixth resolution.
+It seems to me, Mr. President, that nothing would be gained by the
+adoption of this amendment, for everything that is embraced there is
+more comprehensively embraced in the original resolution.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. In explanation of the
+amendment offered by the Delegate of Italy, let me call attention to
+what really passed at the Roman Conference. I find, first of all, in
+the report of the Roman Conference, in the abstract of the discussion
+before the Special Committee, these words, (p. 49 of the reprint:)
+
+ "The fourth resolution, in favor of a universal hour for
+ certain scientific and practical purposes, is unanimously
+ adopted."
+
+There appears no discussion whatever upon it; not a word seems to have
+been said as to how it should be defined or acted upon. I then turn
+back to the report of the committee which prepared the resolutions,
+and there we see what, in reality, they had in their minds when they
+drew up that resolution. It is perfectly evident that they had no
+intention of tying the hands of anybody. This is what they say on page
+26 of the report:
+
+ "The administrations of railroads, of the great steamship
+ lines, telegraph lines, and postal routes, which would thus
+ secure for their relations with each other a uniform time,
+ excluding all complication and error, could nevertheless
+ not entirely avoid the use of local time in their relations
+ with the public. They would probably use the universal time
+ only in their internal service, for the rules of the road,
+ for the time-tables of their engineers and conductors, for
+ the connection of trains at frontiers, etc.; but the
+ time-tables for the use of the public could hardly be
+ expressed otherwise than in local or national time. The
+ depots or stations of the railroads, post-offices, and
+ telegraph offices, and the waiting-rooms, could exhibit
+ outwardly clocks showing local or national time, while
+ within the offices there would be, besides, clocks
+ indicating universal time. Telegraphic dispatches could show
+ in future the time of despatch and of receipt, both in local
+ and universal time."
+
+Now, I think that the subject of universal time is dealt with in a
+better manner in the proposition offered by Mr. RUTHERFURD than in the
+proposition which emanated from the Congress at Rome. This Conference
+cannot designate positively the manner in which local time may be best
+reckoned. We are concerned now only with universal time. It may,
+however, be proper that the resolution offered by Mr. RUTHERFURD in
+regard to the employment of universal time should be supplemented by
+something more specific--something, for instance, of this sort:
+
+ The Conference will not designate the system on which local
+ time may best be reckoned so as to conform, as far as
+ possible, to universal time; this should be determined by
+ each nation to suit its convenience.
+
+ The arrangements for adopting universal time for the use of
+ international telegraphs will be left for regulation by the
+ telegraph international congress.
+
+This last idea was expressed, I forget now by whom, but by one of the
+Delegates since the Conference met, and it appears to me that inasmuch
+as there is an international congress specially appointed to regulate
+all matters of international telegraphy, this subject can be left to
+them with the firm belief that it will be regulated satisfactorily.
+
+The question was then put to the vote; and upon the amendment offered
+by the Delegate of Italy the following States voted in the
+affirmative:
+
+ Colombia, Paraguay,
+ Italy, Spain,
+ Netherlands, Sweden.
+
+The following in the negative:
+
+ Brazil, Liberia,
+ Chili, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Russia,
+ France, Salvador,
+ Germany, San Domingo,
+ Great Britain, Switzerland,
+ Guatemala, Turkey,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+
+Austria-Hungary abstained from voting.
+
+Ayes, 6; noes, 18; abstaining, 1.
+
+So the amendment was lost.
+
+The question then recurred upon the original resolution.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, it has
+been represented to me that it may, perhaps, be found advantageous in
+different countries and different localities to use a time that would
+not be accurately described as local time. In one place the standard
+of time may be strictly local time; in another place it may be
+national time; in another place it may be railroad time.
+
+In order to meet this condition of things, I propose to alter the
+phraseology of the original resolution in this way: by inserting the
+words "or other," so that it shall read "which shall not interfere
+with the use of local or _other_ time where desirable."
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. May it not be better to
+put it in this way: "Which shall not interfere with the use of local
+or other _standard_ time where desirable."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. I accept the amendment
+offered by the Delegate of Great Britain.
+
+Mr. JEAN VALERA, Delegate of Spain. As I consider that both the
+amendment which was just rejected and the present proposition really
+signify the same thing, I shall vote for the proposition, as I before
+did for the amendment.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question is now upon the resolution, as modified.
+It will be read.
+
+The resolution was then read, as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local or other standard time where desirable."
+
+The following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, Salvador,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Sweden,
+ Guatemala, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Liberia,
+
+There were no negative votes.
+
+Germany and San Domingo abstained from voting.
+
+Ayes, 23; noes, 0; abstaining, 2.
+
+So the resolution was carried.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I now
+propose to offer the other portion of the resolution, or rather I
+propose to offer the other portion in the form of a distinct
+resolution. It will run as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That this universal day is to be a mean solar
+ day; is to begin for all the world at the moment of midnight
+ of the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginning of
+ the civil day and date of that meridian; and is to be
+ counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+This is, in substance, the resolution adopted by the Conference at
+Rome, with the exception that the Conference at Rome proposed that the
+universal day should coincide with the astronomical day instead of the
+civil day, and begin at Greenwich noon, instead of Greenwich midnight.
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. I desire to make one
+remark merely. Would it not be a little more correct if we said "at
+the moment of mean midnight?" I think I have mentioned this before,
+but, to be clear, I think it should be made.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD accepted Professor ADAMS'S suggestion.
+
+Mr. JUAN VALERA, Delegate of Spain. Mr. President, I wish to call
+special attention to the proposition now before us, on which we are
+called upon to vote, as it is of very great importance.
+
+As for me, I acknowledge that my mission is already fulfilled. The
+Government of Spain had directed me to admit the necessity or the
+usefulness of a common prime meridian, and also to accept the meridian
+of Greenwich as the universal meridian. I have attended to these
+directions.
+
+We have now to deal with a scientific question on which I cannot well
+express an opinion, as I do not feel that I am competent in such
+matters; besides, I am not authorized to do so. This may be due to my
+ignorance in matters of this kind, but I fear that extraordinary
+difficulties may arise in the adoption of this proposition, and if we
+proceed with too great haste, we run the risk of placing ourselves in
+contradiction to common sense. All the popular ideas of men for
+thousands of years past will, perhaps, be overturned. It may happen
+that when the day begins at Greenwich it will be 23 hours later at
+Berlin. The east will be confounded with the west, and the west with
+the east. If we made the day begin at the anti-meridian these
+questions would be avoided, and we should at one be with the rest of
+the human race. I believe that it would be better to adjourn till
+to-morrow to give us time to reflect; in this way we shall not risk by
+our devotion to science drawing upon ourselves popular criticism.
+
+I propose, therefore, that the vote on this question be put off till
+to-morrow.
+
+M. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. Not to-morrow.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I beg to propose as an amendment
+the sixth resolution adopted by the Conference at Rome, which is as
+follows:
+
+The Conference recommends as initial point for the universal hour and
+the cosmic day the mean midday of Greenwich, coinciding with the
+moment of midnight or the beginning of the civic day at the meridian
+12 hours or 180° from Greenwich.
+
+The universal hours are to be counted from 0 up to 24 hours.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair quite concurs with the Delegate of Spain in
+thinking that it would be very proper for us to take some time to
+consider this matter.
+
+A motion to adjourn would be in order, but before that motion is made,
+the Chair would like to read a communication which he has just
+received from the Assistant Secretary of State. It is this:
+
+ "The President of the United States will receive the members
+ of the Conference on Thursday, the 16th instant, at 12
+ o'clock, at the White House."
+
+The Assistant Secretary of State proposes that we shall meet here at a
+quarter before 12, and go to the White House from this hall.
+
+The PRESIDENT. If the Delegate of Spain will withdraw his motion to
+adjourn for one moment, the Delegate of Sweden desires to offer a
+resolution.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, then read the following
+proposal:
+
+ Hereafter the reports of the speeches, whether in English or
+ French, will be sent as soon as possible to the Delegates
+ who made them, and the proofs should be corrected and
+ returned by them without delay to the Secretary. No
+ correction will be allowed afterward, except such as are
+ considered necessary by the Secretaries, who will meet as
+ soon as possible after the first corrections shall have been
+ printed to prepare the protocols for the approval of the
+ Conference.
+
+The motion being put to a vote by the President, was unanimously
+carried.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would very informally state that he has
+received to-day a letter from Sir William Thomson, the distinguished
+scientist who addressed the Conference yesterday, expressing his
+regret that he did not then say something which he had in his mind and
+which he wished to say, namely, that the meridian of Greenwich passes
+directly through the great commercial port of Havre.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Since the Chairman refers to this
+subject, I may state to my colleagues that I have received a telegram
+from Sir William Thomson, in which he makes certain propositions of
+the nature described.
+
+Yet it is not possible to make out precisely, by this telegram, what
+are Sir William Thomson's ideas. All that I can say is, that whatever
+proceeds from such an eminent man should be treated with great
+consideration, and that is a reason for asking Sir W. Thomson to be
+good enough to explain to me his ideas more fully. If we could adjourn
+to Monday, I think that it would be better. The preparation of the
+protocols is very much behind-hand, and it is desirable that the
+members of the Conference be kept fully acquainted with all the
+discussions. I would, therefore, suggest that we adjourn till Monday.
+
+The PRESIDENT. There are several propositions to adjourn to different
+days. The Chair will take them up in order and will first put the
+question upon the motion to adjourn until Monday.
+
+The motion was carried, and at four o'clock the Conference adjourned
+until Monday, the 20th instant, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 20, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met, pursuant to adjournment, in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austro-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHÆFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Gautemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. Wm. COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Mr.
+ JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Hawaii: Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Some days ago a Committee was appointed to report on
+communications addressed to the Conference through the Chair. All
+communications that have been received from time to time, and they
+have been numerous, have been referred to this committee, of which the
+Delegate from England, Prof. ADAMS, is the chairman. He now informs
+the Chair that he is prepared to make a report.
+
+The Delegate of England, Prof. ADAMS, then read the following report:
+
+ _Letter from the President of the Conference._
+
+ INTERNATIONAL MERIDIAN CONFERENCE,
+ DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, _Oct. 14, 1884_.
+
+ SIR: I have the honor to submit to the Committee of which
+ you are the Chairman the following communications:
+
+ No. 1. Letters from Mr. Roumanet du Cailland, through Mr.
+ Hunter, Ass't Sec. of State.
+
+ No. 2. Letter and communication from Mr. C. M.
+ Raffensparger.
+
+ No. 3. Letter from Mr. A. S. de Chancourtois, accompanying
+ books from Paris.
+
+ No. 4. Letter from Mr. A. W. Spofford, enclosing letter of
+ Mr. J. W. Stolting, of Dobbs' Ferry.
+
+ No. 5. Letter from Mr. B. Aycrigg, Passaic, N. J.
+
+ No. 6. Letter from J. T. Field, St. Louis, Mo.
+
+ No. 7. Letter and two enclosures from Mr. Theodor Pæsche.
+
+ No. 8. Description of the Universal Time-Piece of Dr. A. M.
+ Cory.
+
+ No. 9. Letter and enclosure from Mr. E. R. Knorr.
+
+ No. 10. Letter from Mr. J. E. Hilgard, of the U. S. Coast
+ Survey and Geodetic Survey.
+
+ No. 11. Arguments by Committee of New York and New Jersey
+ branch, and other papers relating to weights and measures.
+
+ No. 12. Letter from Lt. C. A. S. Totten, U.S.A., in relation
+ to a Standard Meridian.
+
+ No. 13. Letter from Mr. J. P. Merritt, in relation to the
+ Metric System.
+
+ No. 14. Postal card from W. H. Yates, in relation to the
+ Mercator Projection.
+
+ No. 15. A New System of Mensuration, by Lawrence S. Benson.
+
+ No. 16. Letter of T. C. Octman, of Hope Mills, N. C.,
+ calling attention to the fact that the meridian of Greenwich
+ passes through Havre.
+
+ No. 17. Letter from Dr. H. K. Whitner, explaining his
+ notation of 24 hours.
+
+ I am, sir, with great respect, your obedient servant,
+
+ C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _President International Meridian Conference_.
+
+ Prof. J. C. ADAMS.
+
+
+ _Report of the Committee._
+
+ The Committee on communications respectfully reports as
+ follows:
+
+ We have carefully examined all of the communications
+ referred to us, as enumerated in the letter of President
+ Rodgers, with the following results:
+
+ No. 1 recommends that the meridian of Bethlehem be adopted
+ as the initial meridian. This question has been already
+ disposed of by the Conference; therefore further
+ consideration of the proposition is unnecessary.
+
+ No. 2 refers to an invention, the author of which states
+ that "a patent has been applied for," consequently your
+ Committee does not feel called upon to express any opinion
+ upon it.
+
+ No. 3 is a letter from M. de Chancourtois, accompanying a
+ work by him which contains an elaborate program of a system
+ of geography based on decimal measures, both of time and of
+ angles, and on the adoption of an international meridian.
+
+ The work also contains copious historical notices on the
+ metric system and on the initial meridian.
+
+ A copy of this work was presented to each of the Delegates
+ prior to the discussions of the Conference with regard to
+ the choice of an initial meridian, and therefore no special
+ report of the author's views on this subject appears to your
+ committee to be necessary. These views are nearly identical
+ with those which were so ably laid before the Conference by
+ Professor Janssen, but which failed to meet with their
+ approval.
+
+ The author further proposes to supersede the present mode of
+ measuring both angles and time by a system in which the
+ entire circumference and the length of the day should each
+ be first divided into four equal parts, and then each of
+ these parts should be subdivided decimally.
+
+ However deserving of consideration these proposals may be,
+ in the abstract, your Committee are clearly of the opinion
+ that they do not fall within the limits indicated by the
+ instructions which we have received from our respective
+ governments, and that, therefore, any discussion of them
+ would only be of a purely academical character, and could
+ lead to no practical result. Such a discussion would be sure
+ to elicit great differences of opinion, and would,
+ therefore, occupy a considerable time.
+
+ Hence, your Committee think that it would be very
+ undesirable for the Conference to enter upon it.
+
+ No. 4 is a letter from Mr. Spofford, Librarian of Congress,
+ including a communication of Mr. J. W. Stolting, Dobbs'
+ Ferry, N. Y. The author recommends the adoption of the
+ meridian 162° W. from Greenwich as the prime meridian; he
+ proposes further, not to say east or west, but first or
+ second half, and also recommends the adoption of a universal
+ time, not to interfere with local or other standard time,
+ and to reckon from "1 to 24." He expresses no opinion as to
+ whether the day should begin at noon or midnight. There
+ seems to be nothing in the communication to influence the
+ decisions of the Conference.
+
+ No. 5. See report as to letter No. 1.
+
+ No. 6 suggests that the prime meridian should be 180° from
+ Greenwich, and that longitude should be reckoned from 0° to
+ 360°. This proposition has been already considered and
+ rejected by the Conference.
+
+ No. 7. This communication proposes "to adopt as the prime
+ meridian the frontier line between Russia and the United
+ States, as defined in the treaty of March 30, 1867." As the
+ initial meridian has already been agreed to by the
+ Conference, this proposition needs no further notice.
+
+ No. 8. This communication refers to an invention which has
+ no bearing on the question before the Conference. The
+ committee therefore abstain from expressing an opinion as to
+ its merits.
+
+ No. 9. Two letters from Mr. E. R. Knorr, of Washington,
+ D.C., advocating the advisability of reckoning longitude
+ "westward from 0° to 359°," and marking them on charts by
+ time instead of by degrees. The Conference has already taken
+ action on the question involved.
+
+ No. 10. A letter from Prof. Hilgard, enclosing a pamphlet by
+ Lt. C. A. S. Totten on the metrology of the great pyramid, a
+ subject which does not fall within the scope of the subjects
+ presented for the consideration of this Conference. In the
+ enclosing letter Prof. Hilgard says: "I am purely and
+ squarely for Greenwich midnight as the beginning of the
+ universal day, and an east and west count of longitude; that
+ is, 180° each way."
+
+ No. 11 advocates the preservation of the Anglo-Saxon system
+ of weights and measures. This subject being foreign to the
+ questions under consideration by this Conference, the
+ Committee deems further comment unnecessary.
+
+ No. 12. A letter from Lieut. C. A. S. Totten, U.S.A.,
+ advocating a prime meridian through the great pyramid. The
+ proposition involved has already been decided by the
+ Conference.
+
+ No. 13 recommends redistribution of time according to the
+ decimal system. As already remarked under No. 3, this
+ proposition is clearly not within the limits indicated by
+ the instructions which we have received from our respective
+ governments.
+
+ No. 14 states that the author has a plan by which
+ "chronometers will record the longitude equably." This
+ proposition is foreign to the subjects under consideration
+ by the Conference.
+
+ No. 15 proposes a new system of mensuration; and, therefore,
+ this does not fall within the subjects for consideration by
+ the Conference.
+
+ No. 16. This communication suggests that as the prime
+ meridian passes through Havre, it should be allowable to
+ call it by that name. This Committee recommends that the
+ prime meridian be not named after the localities through
+ which it passes, but be called simply "The Prime Meridian."
+
+ No. 17 is the subject of a patent. The Committee does not
+ feel called upon to express an opinion respecting it.
+
+ This report is respectfully submitted to the Conference.
+
+ J. C. ADAMS,
+ _Chairman Committee on Communications._
+
+ WASHINGTON, _Oct. 18th, 1884_.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The report of the Committee is before the Conference.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United States. I move that the
+report be accepted, and its conclusions adopted.
+
+There being no objection, the report was adopted.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In the regular order of business to-day, the first
+subject before the Conference is the resolution offered on Saturday by
+the Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, with the amendment
+offered by the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT.
+
+The resolution is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That this universal day is to be a mean solar
+ day, is to begin for all the world at the moment of mean
+ midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the
+ beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is
+ to be counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+The amendment offered is as follows:
+
+ "The Conference recommends as initial point for the
+ universal hour and the cosmic day the mean mid-day of
+ Greenwich, coinciding with the moment of midnight or the
+ beginning of the civil day at the meridian 12 hours or 180°
+ from Greenwich.
+
+ "The universal hours are to be counted from 0 up to 24
+ hours."
+
+Mr. VALERA, the Delegate of Spain, said that he thought that the
+amendment of the Delegate of Sweden should be first discussed.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, the Delegate of France. At the last session I informed
+the Congress that I had received a telegram from Sir William Thomson
+upon the question of the meridian. Since then, that illustrious
+foreign member of the Institute of France has written me a very kind
+letter upon the subject, in which he expresses his complete
+appreciation of the disinterested attitude taken by France in this
+Congress. I thank Sir William Thomson for his sentiments towards
+France, and I am persuaded that, with such excellent feelings, we
+should arrive at an understanding, upon scientific bases, in which the
+moral and material interests of all would be equitably adjusted, as we
+have always understood them.
+
+But the question is not open now, and this Congress would, doubtless,
+not be disposed to reopen it. Sir William Thomson will understand,
+therefore, that in the present condition of affairs we have only to
+maintain the attitude which we have taken and the votes which we have
+given.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair will simply say to the Conference that he
+very informally alluded to the letter that he had received from Sir
+William Thomson, and the Chair would also say in answer to the Spanish
+Minister that the rule in this Conference, a simple one, is to discuss
+the last amendment offered and dispose of it, instead, as suggested by
+the Delegate of Spain, of taking up the one most important in its
+character. It would be somewhat difficult for the Chair to decide on
+all occasions which amendment is the most important. I think,
+therefore, as Chairman, that I will pursue the rule in force in this
+country, and, unless the Conference order otherwise, shall present the
+amendment which is the last offered.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. Mr. Chairman, the Spanish
+Minister has not referred to the most important amendment, but to the
+most radical. For instance, here there are several propositions to
+select a meridian; one of them must be considered, and it seems to me
+that my amendment, which is the most radical, is the one to be first
+presented to the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Unless the Conference shall direct otherwise, the Chair
+must pursue the principle on which it has acted hitherto, taking the
+amendments in the order in which they are offered, and presenting them
+inversely for the action of the Conference. The proposition before the
+Conference, therefore, is the amendment offered by the Delegate of
+Spain, Mr. ARBOL, which is as follows:
+
+ "Having accepted the meridian of Greenwich to account the
+ longitudes, as a general need for practical purposes, but
+ thinking that the introduction of any new system of
+ time-reckoning is far more scientific and important, and
+ liable to great difficulties and confusion in the future, we
+ propose the following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, The Congress, taking in consideration that
+ there is already a meridian tacitly accepted by almost all
+ the civilized nations as the origin of dates, the
+ anti-meridian of Rome, abstains from designating any other
+ meridian to reckon the universal time."
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. It is proposed to introduce an
+absolute universal or cosmopolitan system of time-reckoning, which, it
+is hoped, will, at a more or less distant day, be generally adopted,
+not only for scientific purposes, but for all the ordinary purposes of
+life for which it can possibly be used; and it is further proposed to
+designate a meridian at which this cosmopolitan time-reckoning is to
+begin. What I have to state is, that this method of absolute
+time-reckoning already exists, (although we do not use it,) as does
+this universal meridian which has been tacitly chosen by almost all
+civilized nations--that is to say, by all such as have adopted the
+Julian calendar, with or without the Gregorian correction. Thus it is
+that anything involving even a slight modification of our present
+system is nothing more than a chronological reform, which I do not
+feel certain that it will be well for us to introduce or recommend,
+and with regard to which I have my doubts whether it will be received
+with unanimous or hearty approval.
+
+In fact, gentlemen, all nations that have adopted the Julian and
+Gregorian systems of time-reckoning have necessarily accepted their
+consequences, and these consequences are, as Rome told us in the time
+of Caesar and in that of Gregory XIII, that we must reckon our days
+according to certain fixed dates; some part of the world had to reckon
+their dates before all the rest, and as Rome consented that countries
+situated to the east of it should reckon their date before it and
+countries situated to the west after it, it is evident that both
+reckonings had to meet at some point on some meridian, which was and
+could be no other than the anti-meridian of Rome. Nature itself seems
+to have lent its sanction to this, since the anti-meridian of Rome
+crosses no continent, and, probably, no land whatever.
+
+Let us suppose, for the sake of illustration, that it were agreed to
+abandon the Gregorian system of reckoning at a given moment, and to
+adopt another; that it were agreed to abandon it at all points on the
+globe when the hour should be twelve o'clock at noon at Greenwich, on
+the first day of January, 1885; and let us suppose that for historical
+or scientific purposes we were interested in knowing exactly how long
+the Gregorian system had been in use. Is it possible to ascertain
+this? It is; and very easily. Using that system of universal
+time-reckoning which it is proposed to establish, but logically
+referring it to the origin of that cosmopolitan reckoning which really
+exists, that is to say, to the anti-meridian of Rome, we shall find
+that 1885 years have been reckoned according to the Gregorian system,
+plus the difference of longitude between the anti-meridians of
+Greenwich and Rome. Nothing is more certain than this, and there is no
+other way of solving the problem. As I have already shown, when the
+Gregorian correction was made, the day which, according to the old
+mode of reckoning, would have been the 5th of October, was called the
+15th of October, 1582; the countries situated to the east of Rome had,
+however, previously begun to reckon according to the new system
+(previously in absolute time I mean,) and the countries situated to
+the west adopted it successively afterwards. Now, then, as that
+portion of the globe which lies to the east of any given point or
+meridian is nothing more or less than one hemisphere, and as that
+which lies to the west is another hemisphere, it is evident that, at
+the anti-meridian of Rome, the two meridians, which constantly differ
+by one day in their dates, are confounded, and that the anti-meridian
+of Rome, being the first one in the world that adopted the Julian and
+the Gregorian systems of reckoning, is the prime meridian of the
+world, the meridian by which we now reckon, and ought to reckon
+universal time, until the establishment of a different system. If we
+had, at the present time, to settle any question depending on dates,
+in the region where there is some confusion in regard to them, we
+should have to do so on this principle. If we desired to compel the
+entire world to keep a regular and logical account of dates, we should
+have to do so by compelling all the nations to the west of the
+anti-meridian of Rome to go on reckoning their dates uninterruptedly
+after they have begun to be reckoned at the said anti-meridian, and by
+forbidding all the nations to the east of it to reckon any date until
+it has been reckoned at the anti-meridian of Rome. For this reason I
+say that the express designation, for the reckoning of universal time,
+of the meridian of Greenwich or of any other than the anti-meridian of
+Rome, involves a chronological reform, inasmuch as it will involve the
+abandonment of the system to which we now adhere, and which we now use
+by common consent.
+
+This reform will cause a change of nearly 13 hours--that is to say, 12
+hours plus the difference of longitude between Rome and Greenwich, if
+the meridian of Greenwich is designated as the new initial point of
+the universal date. I do not believe, however, that you will adopt
+this choice irrevocably, since its curious and strange consequences
+may be shown by one example, which I will adduce: This table is of
+about sufficient extent to allow the difference between the
+geographical longitude of its two ends to be observed and appreciated.
+Let us suppose that these sessions were held at Greenwich, and that
+the table were placed east and west, so that the meridian intersected
+it lengthwise; let us further suppose that we had agreed to reckon the
+new universal time by this meridian--that is to say, by that of
+Greenwich--and that, in signing the protocol, we wished to set an
+example to the world by using the universal date, the present civil
+date and the future civil date, which, by the daily use of the
+universal date, the nations will or may finally accept, to the
+exclusion of all others, for the ordinary purposes of life. Well, now,
+gentlemen, we should bring our own choice into discredit. We could not
+sign, according to these three dates. As regards the last, we should
+find that half the table and half the Congress were under one date,
+and the other half under another; even our chairman, if seated in the
+middle, would find that he had been presiding over our sessions with
+his right side in one day and his left in the next.
+
+I may be told that this would happen, whatever might be the meridian
+chosen, but we could afford to allow it to happen at sea, or in some
+isolated and uninhabited region where congresses never sit, and where
+no ray of civilization ever penetrates.
+
+But to return to the reform, what are you going to do? I will say that
+if, instead of the meridian of Greenwich, you designate the
+anti-meridian for the reckoning of universal time and for the initial
+point of cosmopolitan dates for the present, but for the future as the
+initial point also of local dates, the reform will amount to about an
+hour only, but it will still be a reform. In a word, the anti-meridian
+of Rome is the one which now furnishes dates to the entire world, and
+you propose to make the meridian of Greenwich or the anti-meridian do
+so in future.
+
+I therefore tell you, if you desire a common hour for postal and
+commercial purposes, designate no meridian at all; let the railway and
+telegraph companies, the postal authorities and the governments make
+an arrangement and select an artificial hour, so to speak, whatever
+it be the hour of Rome, London, Paris, or even that of Greenwich, but
+do not make a premature declaration which will be an authoritative one
+as emanating from this Congress, an apparently insignificant reform,
+but in reality one of very great importance, since, giving the
+preference to determinate localities in the face of what is
+scientific, historical, and logical, you render difficult, in the
+future, the adoption of that very reform, which will, perhaps, then be
+more necessary, and which can perhaps then be introduced more
+intelligently.
+
+You see that I am not speaking in behalf of any special meridian, not
+even that of Rome, since I admit that the reform may be necessary. You
+see, and I assure you, that I have not the slightest wish that the
+meridian which is to be the initial point of universal time should
+bear the name of any observatory or place in Spain, although that
+nation discovered the New World in which this Congress is holding its
+sessions, and although it may be said of that nation that it
+discovered those very meridians concerning which we are now speaking,
+inasmuch as terrestial meridians were indefinite and unknown lines,
+and were even without form until one was given them by Sebastian
+Elcano. I therefore hope that if you do not honor my proposition by
+accepting it, you will at least do justice to my intentions.
+
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I shall be very
+short in any remarks which I may make upon the proposition before us.
+
+As far as I understand it, it is that, although we have adopted the
+meridian of Greenwich as a prime meridian from which to count
+longitudes, we should begin to count our time according to the
+meridian at Rome. I cannot consent to that proposition. It appears to
+me to be wanting in every element of simplicity, which should be our
+chief aim in this Conference. To count longitude from one meridian and
+time from another, is something that will never be adopted. I do not
+understand that that was at all the proposition recommended by the
+Roman Conference. On the contrary, I think that it was quite a
+different one.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. Mr. President, I do not in
+reality propose to adopt the meridian or anti-meridian of Rome. What I
+have been contending for is that we should abstain at present from
+adopting any meridian as a point of departure for the calculation of
+time; otherwise, we introduce a new element of confusion for the
+future. We should change the chronological reckoning which is now in
+vogue, and I contend that we have no right, scientific or historical,
+to make that change now. According to my views, the meridian of
+longitude is relatively an unimportant affair. It is a practical one;
+it cannot be changed in twenty years, probably, and it will take that
+time to correct all existing charts. But if you adopt a meridian for
+time, it will be very difficult to alter it in the future. I cannot
+now clearly see what the difficulties will be, but I apprehend that
+the application of this new principle to the various details of
+scientific and civil matters will necessarily be attended with great
+inconvenience, and may result in proving to be quite impracticable. I
+understand it very well that it is proposed to confine this principle
+to certain subjects, and that it is adopted for the purpose of
+avoiding dangers in communications, in navigation, in railways, and in
+transmitting telegrams, &c.; but this is purely an administrative
+matter, and can be left for settlement to other bodies.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would remind the Delegate of Spain, Mr. RUIZ
+DEL ARBOL, that at its last session the Conference resolved, with
+singular unanimity, that it was expedient to adopt "a universal day
+for all purposes for which it may be found convenient, and which shall
+not interfere with the local or other standard time where desirable."
+The Chair would politely suggest that the subject now under
+consideration is the adoption of the proposition recommended by the
+Conference at Rome, and which has been presented here by the Delegate
+of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. My proposition is to abstain
+from the adoption of any one meridian, and that we leave the matter to
+some other Congress, organized with the special object of regulating
+this question.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, as
+near as I can follow the Delegate of Spain, he seems to be under the
+apprehension that by the adoption of the universal day, which has been
+proposed here, we should either gain or lose time in our chronology;
+that we should skip 12 hours, more or less. But, of course, that is
+not the case. Any event which has occurred, or which will occur, at
+the time of the adoption of the universal day will be expressed just
+as exactly with reference to time as if the time had been calculated
+from the beginning of the Christian era. There will not only be no
+confusion, but it seems to me the adoption of the universal day will
+tend to avoid confusion hereafter, because confusion must exist where
+we have so many standards of time. Now, if any event which is taking
+place, or has taken place at any past time in the history of the
+world, is referred to the prime meridian, or is expressed in the time
+of any locality or of several localities, these times will all be
+different. The adoption of the universal day is to avoid any
+difficulty of that sort, and any event which has transpired will, when
+expressed in the time of the universal day--that is, according to the
+universal method--represent exactly the interval of time which has
+elapsed since the beginning of the Christian era. Nothing is gained or
+lost.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. It seems to me that the
+Congress having accepted the resolution to which reference was made a
+little while ago, adopting the universal day, it is incumbent upon us,
+in the nature of things, to determine when that universal day shall
+begin. The resolution presented by the Delegate of the United States
+proposes to define how that universal day shall be reckoned; that is,
+when it shall begin and how its hours shall be counted.
+
+It was explained by him that the difference between his proposition
+and the proposition made at Rome consisted in altering the time of the
+commencement of the so-called universal day from noon at Greenwich to
+the commencement of the civil day. Certainly what Commander SAMPSON
+just said is perfectly true. The adoption of this so-called universal
+day will not interfere in the smallest degree with any purpose for
+which time is employed in civil life. The two objects are entirely
+distinct. It is obvious that the conception of the necessity of having
+a universal day has arisen from the more clear conception of the fact
+that time on the globe is essentially local; that the time upon any
+given line (supposing it to be a meridian) is not the time at the same
+moment on either side of that line, however small the departure from
+it may be; and for scientific accuracy it has, therefore, been thought
+desirable to have some absolute standard to which days and hours can
+be referred. Up to the present time it has been the practice to say,
+in an indefinite way, that an event happened, say, on the 1st of
+January at 6 o'clock in the morning, and such a statement of the time
+has been considered sufficient; but, in truth, this does not
+completely describe a definite epoch of time, for if the event
+occurred at Madrid and was so reported, that report would not
+designate the same moment as a report of an event which was described
+to have occurred at precisely the same date and hour at Greenwich, or
+Rome, or Washington. What is required and desired is that we should
+have an absolute and definite standard for reckoning events of a
+certain description, for which complete precision is desirable. I
+consider, therefore, that the Delegate of Spain leads us astray in the
+proposition which he has offered, by which he virtually proposes to
+nullify the resolution already adopted. We have already decided that a
+universal day was expedient, and it is for the Conference to settle
+now when that universal day shall begin.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. I understand that the
+consequences, perhaps, would not be troublesome at first; but who can
+look into the future and say, if we take the meridian of Greenwich as
+the standard of time, what difficulties we may be driven into? Every
+country will be obliged to count both ways. They will have to use
+civil time and universal time. Perhaps all countries may get
+accustomed to this radical change sooner or later, but we cannot
+foresee the difficulty now. I have here a treatise (a book) on
+"Analytic Chronology," showing the rules by which to bring into accord
+different dates of different calendars and eras, and I do not know how
+they would be affected by this universal time; but it is unnecessary
+for me to speak of that, as I think you are acquainted with the
+subject.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain. The Congress has already come to
+very important decisions on the subject of the reckoning of longitude,
+and it will also certainly approve to-day those which have just been
+submitted on the subject of the universal day.
+
+I say certainly, because the result of the former votes being already
+known, it cannot be doubted on which side the majority will be, and
+because, from a scientific point of view, having chosen Greenwich as
+the prime meridian for the calculation of longitude, and having
+decided to reckon longitude in two directions from zero hours to
+twenty-four hours, with the sign plus towards the east and minus
+towards the west, it will be advantageous to make the civil day of
+Greenwich coincide with the universal day, if we would have an easy
+formula for passing from local to cosmic time.
+
+So many of the resolutions submitted to the Congress by Mr. RUTHERFURD
+having been approved one after another, the plan that our colleague
+has carefully studied will be accepted in its entirety; but it will be
+impossible for the Conference to know in all their details other plans
+which, perhaps, would not be less worthy of attention.
+
+Is the resolution adopted by a majority of the Congress the best?
+Should we reach the end of the reform in complete harmony with the
+hopes of all the governments represented here? On the contrary
+hypothesis, it seems to me, that the sessions of this Congress will
+only be another step towards that reform, but not the reform itself.
+
+If the majority of the Congress, in accordance with the logical
+consequence of its work, adopts as the cosmic time the civil time of
+Greenwich, that decision will be contrary to the most ancient ideas of
+the human race. For many centuries the day has been reckoned as
+starting from the east, and the world will not easily abandon the
+traditions of its predecessors.
+
+The civil day of the world commences near the anti-meridian of Rome,
+Greenwich, or Paris. Therefore it is not natural that one of these
+meridians should be chosen as the point of departure of dates.
+
+Really, one phenomenon cannot be the commencement of a series of
+phenomena if there is another which precedes it periodically.
+
+If the majority, as is logical, adopts the formula, "cosmic time=local
+time-longitude," and applies in the calculation longitude with the
+signs plus and minus, according as the longitude is east and west, the
+system will be source of frequent mistakes, and those, in their turn,
+will be the cause of disastrous accidents, especially on railroads.
+
+Let us take the 31st of December, for instance. It is three o'clock at
+a point nine hours east of Greenwich; at the same moment they will
+count at Greenwich eighteen civil hours of the 30th of the same month,
+after the actual manner of reckoning the civil day, and that civil
+time of Greenwich will be the cosmic time.
+
+Apply to the proposed example the formula which I suppose the majority
+of the Congress will adopt, and the result will be a negative
+quantity, minus six hours--a result not sufficiently comprehensible in
+itself, and one that could not be easily applied by the general
+public.
+
+Can a majority prevail in questions, such as those we are speaking of,
+simply by the force of numbers? The whole world for several centuries
+thought that the earth was the centre of our planetary system; in
+fact, until an insignificant minority rose against this theory, for a
+long time considered by their ancestors indisputable.
+
+I will conclude by expressing my opinion upon the subject with which
+the Congress is occupied. My opinion is not new, in spite of its
+having been modified in the course of our sitting. The works of our
+eminent colleague and indefatigable propagandist, Mr. SANDFORD
+FLEMING, the resolution of the Conference at Rome, the valuable
+opinions of Messrs. Faye, Otto Struve, Beaumont de Boutiller, Hugo
+Gyldén, the scientific work of Monsieur Chancourtois, and the report
+which M. Gaspari has just presented to the Academy of Sciences of
+Paris are the text upon which I base the simplest and most practical
+method of solving the problem, namely, to adopt as the prime meridian
+for cosmic time and longitude a meridian near the point at which our
+dates change, and to reckon longitude from zero hours to twenty-four
+hours towards the west, contrary to the movement of the earth. The
+formula would be then: Cosmic time = local time + longitude.
+
+I think that the best way of finding cosmic time in relation to local
+time and longitude is to add a quantity to the civil hour of each
+point of the globe.
+
+But as the majority of this Congress, so worthy of respect, admits no
+modifications of the system which we may call Greenwich, let us lay
+aside the question of longitude and consider cosmic time separately.
+
+I have the honor, therefore, to present the following resolutions, and
+I ask the Congress to consider them, and to accept them as a means of
+compromise:
+
+I. We agree to choose as the prime meridian for cosmic time that
+meridian near which the civil day of the world commences, namely, the
+anti-meridian of Rome, Greenwich, or Havre.
+
+II. The cosmic day consists of twenty-four hours, and commences at
+midnight of the prime meridian.
+
+III. The earth is divided from the initial meridian into twenty-four
+hour-spaces, counted in a direction contrary to the movement of the
+earth from _0h._ to _24h_.
+
+We shall, then, have the following formula: T = t + R, where R
+represents the difference reckoned from _0h._ to _24h_. between the
+local time of the prime meridian and the local time of each point of
+the globe; T the Cosmic Time and t the local time.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would ask the Delegate of Spain, Mr.
+PASTORIN, whether he offers his resolution as an amendment to that
+offered by his colleague, Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. Mr. Chairman, the amendment
+last offered is not intended to interfere with my proposition.
+
+The PRESIDENT then put the question to the Conference upon the
+amendment offered by the Delegate of Spain, Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL.
+
+Upon a vote being taken, the amendment was lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question now recurs upon the amendment offered by
+the Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN. That amendment runs as follows:
+
+ "I. We agree to choose as the prime meridian for cosmic time
+ that meridian near which the civil day of the world
+ commences, namely, the anti-meridian of Greenwich or Havre.
+
+ "II. The cosmic day consists of twenty-four hours, and
+ commences at midnight of the prime meridian.
+
+ "III. The earth is divided from the initial meridian into
+ twenty-four hour spaces, counted in a direction contrary to
+ the movement of the earth.
+
+ "We shall, then, have the following formula: F = A + R where
+ R represents the difference reckoned from 0h. to 24h.
+ between the local time of the prime meridian and the local
+ time of each point of the globe; F the cosmic time, and A
+ the local time."
+
+The PRESIDENT. In order that this amendment may be presented more
+clearly to the Conference, I would propose a recess for a few minutes.
+If there be no objection, a recess will be taken.
+
+No objection being made, the Conference took a recess.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The PRESIDENT having called the Conference to order stated that,
+unless further remarks were presented, the vote would be taken upon
+the resolution offered by the Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN.
+
+No objection being made, the vote was then taken upon the amendment,
+and it was lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question now recurs upon the resolution offered by
+the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, which will again be read.
+The resolution is as follows:
+
+ "The Conference recommends as initial point for the
+ universal hour and the cosmic day the mean mid-day of
+ Greenwich, coinciding with the moment of midnight or the
+ beginning of the civil day at the meridian 12 hours or 180°
+ from Greenwich. The universal hours are to be counted from
+ 0 up to 24 hours."
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I intended
+to speak on the resolution offered by the Delegate of the United
+States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, but the remarks which I have put together
+apply equally well to the amendment to that resolution now offered by
+the Delegate of Sweden, which is identical with one of the
+recommendations of the Conference at Rome, because, in fact, in my
+remarks I discuss these propositions alternatively. Therefore, with
+your permission, I will lay before you the observations which I wish
+to make.
+
+I beg leave to express my entire approval of the resolution which has
+been laid before the Conference by Mr. RUTHERFURD. There is only one
+point involved in the resolution which seems to call for or even to
+admit of any discussion.
+
+It appears evident that the universal day and date should coincide
+with the day and date of the initial meridian. The only question,
+therefore, which we have now to decide is, when shall this day of the
+initial meridian be considered to commence? And the proper answer to
+be given to this question does not appear to me in any degree
+doubtful.
+
+In modern times it is the universal practice to reckon dates by _days_
+and not by _nights_. The word "day" is used in two different
+significations, being sometimes applied to the period of daylight and
+sometimes to the period of 24 hours, including both day and night; but
+in whichever of these senses the word _day_ is employed, the term
+mid-day has one and the same signification, viz., the instant of noon
+or of the sun's passage over the meridian. In the present case, where
+we are concerned with mean time, mid-day means the instant of mean
+noon, or of the passage of the mean sun over the meridian.
+
+Accordingly, the civil day, by which all the ordinary affairs of life
+are regulated, begins and ends at midnight, and has its middle or
+mid-day at noon.
+
+It appears, then, most natural that the universal day should follow
+this example, and should begin and end at the instant of mean midnight
+on the initial meridian, and should have its middle at the instant of
+mean noon on the same meridian.
+
+I fail, therefore, to see the force of the reasons which induced the
+Conference at Rome to recommend that the universal day should commence
+at _noon_ on the initial meridian.
+
+The only ground for making this recommendation is that astronomers,
+instead of adopting the use of the civil day, like the rest of the
+world, are accustomed to employ a so-called astronomical day, which
+begins at noon. The advantage thus gained is that they avoid the
+necessity of changing the date in the course of the night, which is
+the time of their greatest activity; but this advantage is surely very
+small when compared with the inconvenience of having two conflicting
+methods of reckoning dates, and of being obliged to specify, in giving
+any date, which mode of reckoning is adopted. If this diversity is to
+disappear, it is plain that it is the astronomers who will have to
+yield. They are few in number compared with the rest of the world.
+They are intelligent, and could make the required change without any
+difficulty, and with very slight or no inconvenience.
+
+The requisite changes in the astronomical and nautical ephemerides
+would be easily made. As these ephemerides are published several years
+in advance, there would be plenty of time for navigators to become
+familiar with the proposed change in time-reckoning before they were
+called upon to employ it in their calculations.
+
+I believe that they would soon come to think it more convenient and
+natural to reckon according to civil time than according to the
+present astronomical time. I am told that this practice is already
+universally adopted in keeping the log on board ship. To avoid any
+chance of mistake, it should be prominently stated on each page of the
+ephemerides that mean time reckoned from mean _midnight_ is kept
+throughout.
+
+Whether or not astronomers agree to adopt the civil reckoning, I think
+we ought to adopt the instant of midnight on the initial meridian as
+the commencement of the universal day.
+
+The relation between the local time at any place and the universal
+time would then be expressed by the simple formula:
+
+Local time = universal time + longitude.
+
+Whereas, if the proposition of the Roman Conference were adopted, we
+should have to employ the less simple formula:
+
+Local time = universal time + longitude - 12 hours.
+
+In recommending the mean noon at Greenwich as the commencement of the
+universal day and of cosmopolitan dates, the Roman Conference refers
+to this instant as coinciding with the instant of midnight, or with
+the commencement of the civil day, under the meridian situated at 12
+h. or 180° from Greenwich. Now, this reference to the civil day and
+date on the meridian opposite to Greenwich appears not only to be
+unnecessary and to be wanting in simplicity, but it may also lead to
+ambiguity in the date, as expressed in universal days, unless this
+ambiguity be avoided by making an arbitrary assumption. No doubt the
+Greenwich mean noon of January 1 coincides with midnight on the
+meridian 12 h. from Greenwich, but with what midnight. What shall be
+its designation and the corresponding date given to the universal day?
+Shall we call the instant above defined the commencement of the
+universal day denoted by January 1 or by January 2? Each of these
+dates has equal claims to be chosen, and the choice between them must
+clearly be an arbitrary one, and may, therefore, lead to ambiguity.
+
+By adopting Greenwich mean midnight as the commencement of the
+universal day, bearing the same designation as the corresponding
+Greenwich civil day, all ambiguity is avoided, and there is no need to
+refer to the opposite meridian at all.
+
+Those are the ideas I wish to express with regard to the commencement
+of the universal day.
+
+I may mention in connection with this subject that Professor
+Valentiner is one of the gentlemen who were invited, a week or two
+ago, to attend the meetings of this Conference, in order that, if
+requested, they might express their opinions from a scientific
+standpoint upon the questions before it; but as Professor Valentiner
+had to leave Washington before our sessions were at an end, I thought
+it would be expedient to ask him for his opinion in writing upon the
+matter which is now pending before this Conference. He has written a
+letter in German, expressing his opinion. I have caused that letter to
+be translated into English, and if the Conference allows me I will
+read it.
+
+The PRESIDENT. If there be no objection to the proposition of the
+Delegate of Great Britain the letter will be read.
+
+No objection being made, Professor ADAMS continued: It is well known
+that Professor Valentiner is an eminent practical astronomer, and I
+think that any opinion coming from him on this subject, which
+interests astronomers very much, will be considered of great weight.
+The letter runs as follows:
+
+ CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA.,
+ _October 12th, 1884_.
+
+ HONORED SIR: You had the kindness to ask me for my views as
+ to the choice of the moment for the beginning of the day. As
+ I cannot remain longer in Washington, I allow myself thus
+ briefly to write to you.
+
+ When, as in the present case, the object is to introduce
+ uniformity in the time-reckoning of the astronomical and the
+ civil world, I am of the opinion that it is the astronomer
+ only that must give way. For all purposes of civil life one
+ cannot begin the day in the middle of the day-light--that is
+ to say, in the middle of that interval during which work is
+ prosecuted. In general it appears to me natural that the
+ middle of the day, and not the beginning of the day, should
+ be indicated by the highest position of the sun which
+ governs all civil life. In fact, it would in civil life be
+ simply impossible to bring about a change of date in the
+ middle of the daylight. For the astronomer there certainly
+ exist difficulties. His activity occurs mostly in the civil
+ night, and he, therefore, has to make the change of date in
+ the midst of his observations; and this difficulty is
+ increased, since he almost exclusively observes according to
+ sidereal time, so that often a computation must be made in
+ order to ascertain whether the observations were made before
+ or after the midnight or moment of change of date. However,
+ this difficulty can be overcome by habit, and I believe that
+ scarcely any doubt will occur as soon as a uniformnity of
+ expression has established itself through the astronomical
+ world. As regards the ephemerides, we already employ, in
+ fact, the beginning of the date at midnight, since the
+ places of planets and comets, are generally computed for 12
+ o'clock midnight of Berlin or Greenwich or other places.
+ But these are points that have themselves long since been
+ discussed.
+
+ I scarcely need to say anything further. I would not
+ hesitate for a moment to give the preference to making the
+ change of date take place at midnight, according to civil
+ reckoning, in order to establish a uniformity with the
+ customs of civil life.
+
+ It, perhaps, may be important to remark that we could not
+ introduce this change immediately, since the ephemerides are
+ already computed and published for three or four years in
+ advance. It would, therefore, be well to fix the epoch of
+ change of normal dates to some distant time, such as 1890.
+
+ I remain, very respectfully yours,
+
+ W. VALENTINER.
+
+I may also mention that the practice that prevails among astronomers
+at the present time of reckoning the day from noon is by no means
+without exceptions. There are very important astronomical tables which
+reckon the day from midnight; for instance, in Delambre's Tables of
+the Sun; in Burg's, Burckhardt's and Damoiseau's Tables of the Moon;
+in Bouvard's Tables of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, and in Damoiseau's
+Tables of Jupiter's Satellites, mean midnight is employed as the epoch
+of the tables. I may also mention that Laplace, in his Mécanique
+Celeste, adopts the mean midnight of Paris as the origin from which
+his day is reckoned. Hence there are great authorities, even among
+astronomers, in favor of commencing the day at midnight.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, I observe that a
+very eminent American authority is present in this room, I mean
+Professor Hilgard. As he was invited to attend the meeting of this
+Conference, I suggest that the views of the Conference may be taken,
+whether he may not be invited to express his opinion on the point now
+under consideration.
+
+The PRESIDENT. With the concurrence of the Conference, the Chair will
+be most happy to ask Professor Hilgard to do us the favor to give us
+his opinion upon the question now before the Conference.
+
+No objection was made to the proposition of the President.
+
+Professor HILGARD arose and said. I thank you and the Conference very
+much for this invitation, and General STRACHEY for having proposed it
+to the Conference, but my opinion has been squarely expressed both in
+French and English in the report of a certain committee, that I am in
+favor of midnight at Greenwich as the beginning of the universal day,
+and of longitude being calculated both ways from Greenwich. I really
+cannot add anything to what has been said in the arguments already
+presented by Professor ADAMS, and I do not think that I ought to
+detain this Conference a moment by repeating the opinion he has
+expressed to all the experts in this matter.
+
+I beg you will excuse me for not further ventilating my views. Absence
+from the city, I regret, has prevented me from availing myself of the
+invitation earlier.
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. I have the honor to
+address the Conference once more upon the practical aspect of the
+subject before us as affecting the large body of navigators. I wish to
+say upon this point that there appears to me, in the address of my
+colleague, Professor ADAMS, somewhat of a mixing together of two
+subjects.
+
+The question immediately before us, as I understand it, is whether the
+commencement of the universal day shall be midnight or noon of the
+initial meridian. That is what we practically have to decide. Now, I
+gather from Professor ADAMS' remarks that upon this question the
+ephemerides which we now employ have some important bearing. I do not
+think that that should influence us, for this reason, that the next
+resolution which will come before the Conference "expresses the hope
+that as soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical days
+will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight."
+
+This resolution, so far as I understand it, will be the warning to
+astronomers to begin to make the changes growing out of this
+resolution which may be necessary for seamen. Therefore, I consider
+that we may at once proceed to vote upon the question whether the day
+is to commence at midnight or noon, without any reference to the
+practice or interests of navigation. In reality, it does not appear to
+me to affect that subject at all.
+
+I have given some consideration to the practical bearings of this
+question--whether it should be midnight or noon. What we ought to
+decide is what will be the least inconvenience to the world at large.
+I have ascertained from two of my colleagues, who have given this
+matter the greatest consideration, that the adoption of midnight will
+really cause less confusion than noon, for this reason, that all the
+great colonies of the world would be less affected; that is to say,
+that the times they are using now would be less affected by midnight
+than by noon. That being so, it appears to me to be an essential point
+in coming to a settlement of this question.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. I have only to say that I have
+listened to the remarks about navigators changing the reckoning of
+time. I do not know whether there are many navigators here, but it is
+a fact that seamen reckon the day from noon.
+
+The PRESIDENT. I beg the pardon of the Delegate of Spain; but, in the
+United States navy, we reckon the day from midnight.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. I am speaking generally. Now,
+there is some reason for this rule among seamen, for the only way to
+find out the position of a ship is to observe the meridian altitude of
+the sun; and everybody requires to know, at sea, what has taken place
+in the course of every day, from the beginning to the last moment of
+the day; and I think that whatever the rule may be in the United
+States navy, navigators generally will count their time as they count
+it now.
+
+I think that navigators will not change the rule now in force, no
+matter what we may adopt in this Conference.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. I think, Mr.
+President and gentlemen, that the change to the adoption of the
+universal day, beginning at midnight, would be a very decided
+advantage to navigators. The quantities as now given in the nautical
+ephemerides are for noon of the meridian for which they are computed,
+as Washington, Greenwich, &c. It is very evident that every navigator,
+in making use of the quantities given in the nautical almanac, must
+find the corresponding time at Greenwich, wherever he may be on the
+surface of the earth. Consequently, if we suppose that navigators are
+pretty equally distributed, one-half on one side of the earth and
+one-half on the other side, the Greenwich day for one portion would be
+the local night for the other.
+
+The usual observations made by navigators at sea consist in a meridian
+observation of the sun for latitude, and a morning and possibly
+afternoon observation of the sun near the prime vertical for
+longitude. Consequently all navigators, when in the vicinity of the
+initial meridian, might have their day's work occurring in two
+astronomical days. On the other hand, those navigators who were in the
+neighborhood of the 180th meridian would have all their work of one
+day occurring in the same astronomical day. The first would have the
+advantage of interpolating for short intervals only, while the second
+would be obliged to interpolate for much larger intervals.
+
+Consequently, on the whole, it would make no difference to navigators
+whether the quantities given in the nautical almanacs were for noon or
+midnight of the initial meridian. Another consideration, however,
+would make it very advantageous to have the quantities given for
+midnight. That consideration is this: if midnight were chosen, then
+the universal day would be identical with the nautical almanac day,
+and navigators would have only ship time and universal time to deal
+with, while, if the quantities were given for noon, they would have
+astronomical time, in addition to the other two. This consideration I
+think a very important one.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question will be on the amendment offered by the
+Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, which has been read.
+
+The vote was then taken, as follows:
+
+States voting in the affirmative:
+
+ Austria, Sweden,
+ Italy, Switzerland,
+ Netherlands, Turkey.
+
+In the negative:
+
+ Brazil, Japan,
+ Chili, Liberia,
+ Colombia, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Russia,
+ Guatemala, United States,
+ Hawaii, Venezuela.
+
+Abstaining from voting:
+
+ France, San Domingo,
+ Germany, Spain.
+
+Ayes, 6; noes, 14; abstaining from voting, 4.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the amendment was lost.
+
+The question then recurred on the original resolution offered by the
+Delegate of the United States.
+
+RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey. Mr. President, I have listened
+with a great deal of interest and attention to the learned arguments
+bearing upon the proposition under discussion offered by the Hon. Mr.
+RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United States for the adoption of a
+universal hour.
+
+This question is of such high importance, and of such interest to
+every one, that I consider it my duty to make a few remarks upon the
+subject, as I wish to state clearly the position my government
+proposes to take in the matter.
+
+I do not pretend to discuss scientifically this subject, which has
+already been so ably treated by several of the gentlemen present. My
+task is of a different and inferior order. I merely propose to briefly
+examine the manner in which the proposition ought to be made, in order
+that it may be adopted by our respective governments.
+
+The question of a universal hour is not of equal interest and
+importance to all. The United States of America, although
+comparatively a young nation, have done so much in the pursuit of
+science and scientific investigation that they must have more than a
+common interest on the subject. The vast expanse of their country,
+stretching over sixty degrees of longitude, with a difference of time
+of more than four hours, almost compels them to adopt a universal
+hour. The thousands of miles of railroad tracts covering this
+continent, facilitating the intercourse between distant places,
+necessitate a uniform system to avoid confusion. It was, therefore,
+natural that the United States and Canada should have taken the lead
+in proposing such a reform, which would likewise benefit other
+countries, as, for instance, the British Empire, Russia, and Germany.
+But there are, at the same time, other countries, like France, Spain,
+Italy, Scandinavia, etc., that may content themselves with a national
+hour, owing to the small difference in time within their dominion. For
+them, the adoption of a universal hour would only be of secondary
+importance, because it would only affect their international
+relations.
+
+I hope I may be permitted to remind you of the conclusions arrived at
+by a commission consisting of scientists, railroad and telegraph
+officials, &c., appointed by the French Government to express their
+opinion upon this subject. If I am not mistaken, they recommended a
+universal hour, stating, however, at the same time, that the benefit
+to be derived from such an hour would be only of secondary importance
+for their country. The learned Delegate from France, Professor
+JANSSEN, will probably be kind enough to inform us whether I am right
+or not.
+
+The few remarks I have made bring me to the point I wanted to consider
+more specially. I mean that the originators of the pending
+proposition, and those directly interested in it, should be induced to
+modify their proposition somewhat if they wish it to be adopted by
+other countries. In other words, to leave to each country the greatest
+latitude possible in adopting a universal hour.
+
+With regard to the Ottoman Empire, I must state that it is placed in a
+somewhat exceptional position in this respect, and is, therefore,
+obliged to ask for more latitude even than the other countries
+concerned.
+
+In our country we have two modes of reckoning time: one from noon to
+noon, or from midnight to midnight, as everywhere else, (heure à la
+franque), the other (heure à la turque) from sundown to sundown. In
+this latter case the hours count from the moment when the disk of the
+sun is bisected by the horizon, and we count twice from _0h._ to
+_12h._, instead of counting without any interruption from _0h._ to
+_24h._ We are well aware of the inconveniences this system of counting
+produces, because _0h._ necessarily varies from day to day, for the
+interval of time between one sunset and the one following is not
+exactly 24 hours. According to the season the sun will set earlier or
+later, and our watches and clocks at Constantinople will be at most
+about three minutes fast or slow from day to day, according to the
+season.
+
+Reasons of a national and religious character prevent us, however,
+from abandoning this mode of counting our time. The majority of our
+population is agricultural, working in the fields, and prefer to count
+to sunset; besides, the hours for the Moslem prayers are counted from
+sundown to sundown.
+
+Therefore it is impossible for us to abandon our old system of time,
+although in our navy we generally use the customary reckoning or
+"heure à la franque."
+
+Finally, permit me to state that I am ready to cast my vote in favor
+of a universal hour, with the precise understanding that the universal
+hour will have to be limited to international transactions, and that
+will not interfere with the rules up to now in force in my own
+country.
+
+Before resuming my seat I wish to thank the President and the members
+of the Conference for their kind indulgence in having listened to my
+remarks.
+
+The PRESIDENT, The Chair would remind the Delegate of Turkey that the
+following resolution was passed at our last session:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference propose the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local or other standard time where desirable."
+
+The very difficulty which the Delegate of Turkey anticipates was thus
+carefully provided for in the resolution just read.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. To my mind it is of
+very great importance that this resolution should be adopted. I have
+already given generally my views on this question, and therefore I do
+not intend to trespass on the attention of the Conference beyond
+saying a very few words. From what I have already ventured to submit,
+it will be obvious that I hold that all our usages in respect to the
+reckoning of time are arbitrary. Of one thing there can be no doubt.
+There is only one, and there can only be one flow of time, although
+our inherited usages have given us a chaotic number of arbitrary
+reckonings of this one conception. There can be no doubt of another
+matter; the progress of civilization requires a simple and more
+rational system than we now have. We have, it seems to me, reached a
+stage when a unification of the infinite number of time-reckonings is
+demanded.
+
+This unification will be, to a large extent, accomplished if the
+resolution be adopted, and by adopting it, it seems to me to be in the
+power of the Conference to confer lasting benefits on the world.
+
+Universal time will in no way interfere with local time. Each separate
+community may continue the usages of the past in respect to local
+time, or may accept whatever change the peculiar conditions in each
+case may call for. But the use of universal time will not necessarily
+involve a change; it will rather be something added to what all now
+possess. It will be a boon to those who avail themselves of it.
+
+To the east of the prime meridian all possible local days will be in
+advance; to the west all possible days will be behind the universal
+day.
+
+The universal day, as defined by the resolution, will at once be the
+mean of all possible local days, and the standard to which they will
+all be related by a certain known interval, that interval being
+determined by the longitude.
+
+In my judgment, the resolution is an exceedingly proper one, and the
+Conference will act wisely in passing it.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In taking the vote upon the resolution, it is requested
+that the roll be called.
+
+The following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Brazil, Liberia,
+ Chili, Mexico,
+ Colombia, Netherlands,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Turkey,
+ Guatemala, United States,
+ Hawaii, Venezuela.
+ Japan,
+
+States voting in the negative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Spain.
+
+Abstaining from voting:
+
+ France, San Domingo,
+ Germany, Sweden,
+ Italy, Switzerland.
+ Netherlands,
+
+Ayes, 15; noes, 2; abstained, 7.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the resolution was passed.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I now
+present for the consideration of the Conference the following
+resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference expresses the hope that as
+ soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical
+ days will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight."
+
+Before action is taken upon this resolution, I would make a verbal
+correction. I think that the word "_mean_" ought to be introduced
+before the word "_midnight_" and I therefore alter my resolution in
+that way.
+
+The vote was then taken upon the resolution just offered, and it was
+carried without division.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair begs leave to state that the protocols in
+French and in English of the first and second sessions of the
+Conference, have been examined, and are now before the Conference for
+adoption. If any Delegate wishes to make any correction in these
+protocols, he can submit it to the Conference, and, if approved, it
+can be immediately made.
+
+No objection was raised, and the President put the question to the
+Conference on the adoption of the protocols of the first and second
+sessions in French and English, and they were unanimously adopted.
+
+M. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Mr. President, we have been directed
+to present for the approval of the Congress the desire that studies
+relative to the application of the decimal system to the division of
+angular space and of time should be resumed in order that this
+application may be extended to all cases--and they are numerous and
+important--where it presents real advantages.
+
+I would say that a similar desire upon the same subject was expressed
+by the Conference at Rome.
+
+You are aware, gentlemen, that at the time of the establishment of the
+metrical system the decimal division had been extended to the
+measurement of angular space and of time. Numerous instruments were
+even made according to the new system. As to time, the reform was
+introduced too abruptly, and, we might say, without enough discretion,
+and it came into conflict with old habits and was quickly abandoned;
+but as to the division of angular space, in which the decimal division
+presented many advantages, the reform sustained itself much better,
+and is still used for certain purposes. So, the division of the
+circumference into 400 parts was adopted by Laplace, and we find it
+constantly employed in the Mécanique Celeste. Delambre and Mechain
+used, for the measurement of the are of the meridian from which the
+metre was derived, repeating circles divided into "_grades_." Finally,
+in our own time, Colonel Perrier, Chief of the Geographical Division
+of our Department of War, has used instruments decimally divided, and
+at the present time logarithmic tables appropriate to that method of
+division are in course of calculation.
+
+But it is especially when it is a question of making long
+calculations of angular space that the decimal system presents great
+advantages. In this respect we find, so to speak, only one opinion
+expressed by scientists.
+
+The Conference at Rome, which brought together so many astronomers,
+geodetists, eminent topographers--that is to say, the men most
+competent and most interested in the question--expressed in respect to
+it a desire, the high authority of which it is impossible to mistake.
+
+It is, therefore, now evident that the decimal system, which has
+already done such good service in the measurements of length, volume,
+and weight, is called upon to render analagous services in the domain
+of angular dimensions and of time.
+
+I know that this question of the decimal division encounters
+legitimate doubts, principally as to its application to the
+measurement of time. It is feared that we want to destroy habits fixed
+for centuries, and upset established usages.
+
+In this respect, gentlemen, I think that we ought to be fully
+satisfied. The teachings of the past will be respected. It will be
+perceived that if we failed at the time of the Revolution, it is
+because we put forward a reform which was not limited to the domain of
+science, but which did violence to the habits of daily life. It is
+necessary to take the question up again, but with due regard to the
+limits which common sense and experience would prescribe to wise and
+well-informed men.
+
+I think that the character of the reform would be well defined by
+saying that it is intended especially to make a new effort towards the
+application of the decimal system in scientific matters.
+
+But, gentlemen, I have not to discuss here the bearing of the reforms
+which the study of this question will lead to. It is sufficient for me
+to show that there is in that direction an indispensable step to be
+made, and to ask you to express the desire that the question should be
+studied. I do not think that there is anybody here who would desire to
+oppose a request which does not in truth commit us to any specific
+solution of the question, and which appears so opportune at the
+present time. I would ask the President to be so kind as to submit the
+following proposition to the Conference:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference expresses the hope that the
+ studies designed to regulate and extend the application of
+ the decimal system to the division of angular space and of
+ time shall be resumed, so as to permit the extension of this
+ application to all cases where it presents real advantages."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair is of opinion that the Conference was called
+for a special and somewhat narrow purpose, and the consideration of
+the decimal system, proposed by the Delegate of France, seems to it
+foreign to that purpose and beyond the scope of the Conference. The
+President, however, simply acts for the Conference, and if the
+Conference shall decide to take the matter up, he will acquiesce, but
+it strikes the Chair that the resolution is out of order.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, I desire to express my
+personal views on this subject. I should be very happy to join the
+Delegate of France in voting for such a resolution, but I fear that
+there is a feeling among many of the delegates that it is not within
+our competence to discuss it. If that is so, I would suggest whether
+it might not be better that it should not be pressed to a vote. It
+would be a pity if there should be on the records of the proceedings
+of this Conference anything in the shape of a vote against the
+subject-matter of this resolution. I consequently think that if
+delegates have formed any decided opinion on the subject, they might
+express their opinion without voting; but I repeat that it would be a
+great pity if a negative vote should be taken on the subject of the
+decimal system of dividing the circle and time, particularly as it was
+received with unanimity in the Conference at Rome.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I may say that
+while I agree with Gen. STRACHEY in thinking that I should not like to
+vote against the proposition brought forward by our eminent colleague,
+Mr. JANSSEN, yet I feel it is somewhat beyond the scope of the
+subjects which we have to discuss, and, therefore, I should abstain
+from voting. I quite recognize that, for certain purposes, the decimal
+division of the circle is very valuable.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Unless the Conference decides to entertain this
+proposition, the Chair suggests that no discussion shall take place.
+If any member present desires to bring the matter up, he can do so by
+taking an appeal from the decision just made.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Do I understand, sir, that
+the subject is dropped?
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair has decided that the resolution offered by
+the Delegate of France is out of order, and unless a difference of
+opinion is expressed by the Conference, the subject will be dropped.
+The Chair wishes to treat with the most distinguished deference the
+Delegate of France, because we are all most happy to do honor to him
+in every way. Does the Chair understand that the Delegate of France
+appeals from its decision, and wishes to take the sense of the
+Conference upon it?
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, replied in the affirmative.
+
+Commodore FRANKLIN, Delegate of Colombia. Mr. President, I would like
+hear the resolution read again. If it be merely a suggestion to
+consider the subject of the decimal system, I should like to know it.
+
+The vote was then taken upon the appeal of the Delegate of France from
+the decision of the Chair.
+
+States voting in favor of the appeal:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Netherlands,
+ Brazil, San Domingo,
+ Chili, Spain,
+ France, Switzerland,
+ Italy, Turkey,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Mexico,
+
+States voting against the appeal:
+
+ Colombia, Hawaii,
+ Costa Rica, Liberia,
+ Germany, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, United States.
+ Guatemala,
+
+Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Russia, Sweden.
+
+Ayes, 13; noes, 9; abstained, 2.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The appeal from the decision of the Chair is sustained,
+and the proposition offered by the Delegate of France is now before
+the Conference. If no delegate wishes to speak upon the resolution,
+the vote will be taken.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Mr. President, before the definitive
+vote I desire to again call my colleague's attention to the fact that
+it is a question here of the much-needed extension of the decimal
+system, an extension desired by a large number of the highest
+scientific authorities and of the most distinguished observers. As I
+said only a moment ago, the Congress at Rome, whose high authority in
+the matters which have occupied us is acknowledged, was a still higher
+authority as to astronomy, geodesy, topography; that is to say, in the
+domain to which our proposition relates. At Rome a wish, similar to
+that which we ask you to formulate, was expressed. Besides, if we
+observe that it is a question here only of expressing the desire that
+studies should be resumed upon the matter in question, is there anyone
+among us who would wish to oppose the liberal proposition which
+prejudges nothing in the solution of the question, but which will
+surely lead to important progress. I do not doubt, then, that all our
+colleagues will desire to unite in a resolution, which by its object
+and by the manner in which it is expressed, ought, it appears to me,
+to unite the suffrages of all.
+
+No further remarks were made upon the resolution, and the vote was
+accordingly taken on the question whether it should be adopted.
+
+States voting in the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, San Domingo,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Liberia,
+
+ States voting in the negative: None.
+
+ Abstained from voting:
+
+ Germany, Sweden.
+ Guatemala,
+
+Ayes, 21; noes, 0; abstained, 3.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The resolution of the Delegate of France is, therefore,
+adopted.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, before concluding
+the session to-day, I hope that the Delegates will be in a position to
+listen to the two resolutions which I now desire to propose, and which
+I think will tend to clear up a good deal of the discussion which we
+have had. The first of these resolutions is as follows:
+
+ "The Conference adopts the opinion that, for the purposes of
+ civil life, it will be convenient to reckon time, according
+ to the local civil time at successive meridians destributed
+ round the earth, at time-intervals of either ten minutes, or
+ some integral multiple of ten minutes, from the prime
+ meridian; but that the application of this principle be
+ left to the various nations or communities concerned by it."
+
+This resolution, as it stands, embraces all the practical suggestions
+which have been made on the subject up to the present time. The only
+limitation it proposes to put upon the adoption of what may be called
+local standard time is that the breaks shall be at definite intervals
+of ten minutes or more.
+
+The second resolution which I propose is a very simple one. It is
+this:
+
+ "The arrangements for adopting the universal day in
+ international telegraphy should be left for the
+ consideration of the international telegraph congress."
+
+There has been established by an international arrangement a congress
+which meets every two years to settle questions of international
+telegraphy, and I think that the precise manner in which universal
+time may be adapted to telegraphy would very properly be left to that
+congress.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. On behalf of the Delegates of
+Russia, I beg to make the following remarks:
+
+We have already expressed the opinion that the universal time could be
+properly used for international postal, railway, and telegraphic
+communications. But it is to be understood that local or any other
+standard time, which is intimately connected with daily life, will
+necessarily be used side by side with the universal time.
+
+It has been proposed, in order to establish an easier connection
+between local and universal time, to accept twenty-four meridians at
+equal distances of 1 hour or 15°, or to divide the whole circumference
+of the earth by meridians at distances of 10 minutes of time or 21/2°.
+
+This question not yet having been made the subject of special and
+thorough investigation by the respective Governments, and not having
+been discussed at the International Conference at Rome, we believe
+that it would as yet be difficult to express, in regard to Europe, any
+positive opinion on the practical convenience of the above mentioned
+or other possible methods of dividing the globe into equal time-zones.
+
+We would suggest to recommend that the system of counting the hours of
+the universal day from 0 to 24, which probably will be adopted for the
+universal day, might also be introduced for counting the local time
+side by side with the old method of counting the hours of 0 to 12 A.
+M. and 0 to 12 p. m.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I have had the honor to transmit
+to the members of the Conference a résumé of a report on this subject
+made by Professor Gyldén, an eminent Swedish astronomer, whose name,
+no doubt, is familiar to many of the Delegates. The system proposed by
+Mr. Gyldén is similar to the one now proposed by the Delegate for
+Great Britain. The only difference is that Mr. Gyldén, in explaining
+the system, recommends the adoption of equidistant meridians,
+separated by intervals of 21/2°, or 10 minutes of time, while the
+proposition of the Delegate for Great Britain is so worded that this
+distance may be greater than 10 minutes. This difference is, however,
+only a question of detail. The basis of Mr. Gyldén's system is that
+time meridians should be separated from the standard initial meridian
+by either 10 or some integral multiple of 10 minutes. Therefore, I
+shall, with pleasure, vote for the resolution of the Delegate from
+Great Britain.
+
+I beg only permission of the Conference to insert Mr. Gyldén's report
+as part of my remarks:
+
+ _RÉSUMÉ OF A REPORT read before the Swedish Geographical
+ Society by Hugo Gyldén, Professor of Astronomy and member of
+ the Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, concerning the use of
+ Equidistant Meridians for the fixation of the Hour._
+
+ If we suppose the meridian passing through the Observatory
+ of Greenwich extended round the globe, this grand circle
+ will cut the equator, at 180° from Greenwich, at some place
+ a little east of New Zealand. This meridian falls almost
+ entirely in the Ocean, and cuts, in any case, not more than
+ a few small islands in the Pacific. If we suppose, further,
+ another great circle at 90° from the meridian of Greenwich,
+ the western half touches very nearly New Orleans, and the
+ eastern half passes a few minutes from Calcutta. If, now,
+ the hour is fixed according to these four meridians, we have
+ four cardinal times--one European, one American, one
+ Asiatic, and one Oceanic.
+
+ It will, however, be necessary to fix much more than one
+ civil time for Europe. Therefore I suppose for Europe a
+ whole system of meridians, which, however, ought not to be
+ closer together than 21/2°. The difference of time between
+ these meridians is then only 10 minutes, which, in general,
+ can be considered as an insignificant difference between the
+ civil and the true solar time. The starting point of this
+ system is the meridian of Greenwich. To the west the system
+ ought to extend 30 minutes; to the east 21/2 hours, or to a
+ meridian passing near Moscow.
+
+ I suppose as time zero the meridian of Greenwich. The next
+ meridian to the east is meridian 1. This meridian will not
+ pass far from the Observatory of Paris, because the
+ difference between this meridian 1 and the meridian of Paris
+ is only 40 seconds, an insignificant difference in civil
+ life. The meridian 1 can be called the meridian of Paris, or
+ French meridian.
+
+ The second meridian (to the east of Greenwich) does not
+ touch Utrecht, but will pass so close that the time of this
+ city could, without the least inconvenience, be regulated as
+ if the difference of time between Greenwich and Utrecht were
+ exactly 20 minutes. The second meridian would also pass
+ almost as close to Amsterdam, (22s.,) and would not be far
+ from Marseilles, (1m. 29s.) In the vicinity of the third
+ meridian we have, first, Bern, (16s.;) next, a little
+ further, Turin, (42s.) The fourth meridian is close to
+ Hamburg, Altona, and Gottingen, (respectively 6s. and 14s.)
+ Not far from the same meridian is Christiania, although at a
+ distance of a little over 2 minutes. The fifth meridian
+ passes also close to three large cities--Rome, (5s.,)
+ Leipzig, (26s.,) and Copenhagen, (20s.)
+
+ The sixth meridian does not touch any city of importance,
+ but it coincides very nearly with the meridian adopted for
+ the normal civil time in Sweden; the difference amounts only
+ to 15 seconds.
+
+ The seventh meridian touches the little town of Brieg, in
+ the vicinity of Breslau, and Königsberg is situated two
+ minutes from the eighth. The ninth meridian passes less than
+ one minute to the west of Abo, and is situated at a distance
+ of only a few seconds from Mistra, a town in Greece. The
+ tenth meridian almost touches Helsingfors in Finland. As
+ regards the eleventh meridian, I have not been able to find
+ any locality of importance exactly so situated that it
+ merits a place in this list, but I can, however, mention
+ the cities of Minsk and Jassy. The twelfth meridian is
+ situated 1m. 14s. to the west of the Academy of Sciences, in
+ St. Petersburg, and the distance from Kiew is about the
+ same. It is not necessary to continue the enumeration of the
+ other meridians to the east by intervals of 10 minutes, but
+ I will mention that Moscow is situated _2h. 30m. 17s._ to
+ the east of Greenwich, and in consequence the system would
+ be convenient with regard to this city.
+
+ If we pass to the west of Greenwich, we will find that the
+ first meridian west touches the little town of Almeria, in
+ the south of Spain, which country extends to equal distances
+ on both sides of this meridian, east and west, and the
+ situation of Portugal is the same with regard to the third
+ meridian west.
+
+ Then, in all the towns and localities given above, of which
+ the greater part are of some importance, the local time
+ coincides so closely with times differing from the Greenwich
+ time, by whole multiples of 10 minutes, that there is no
+ reason to fear any real inconvenience if these times were
+ taken to regulate local reckonings. If the different
+ countries in Europe should decide to adopt the system which
+ I have explained, the following system of normal times
+ would, perhaps, be found convenient:
+
+ EAST OF GREENWICH.
+
+ 1st Meridian, France.
+ 2d " Holland and Belgium.
+ 3d " Switzerland.
+ 4th " Norway, (and Western Germany.)
+ 5th " Denmark, Germany, and Italy.
+ 6th " Sweden and Austria.
+ 7th " Eastern Germany.
+ 8th " Hungary.
+ 9th " Poland and Greece.
+ 10th " Finland, Roumania, and Bulgaria,
+ 11th " European Turkey.
+ 12th " Western Russia.
+
+ WEST OF GREENWICH.
+
+ 1st Meridian, Spain.
+ 3d " Portugal.
+
+ It is, however, not at all necessary that each country
+ should adopt a single civil time for the whole of its
+ territory. If several normal times should be adopted, it is
+ still possible to use the system, provided only the several
+ times differ from Greenwich time by 10 minutes, 20 minutes,
+ &c.; but it would be necessary that the clocks should
+ indicate the times adopted with great precision, and that
+ the difference did not amount to even a few seconds, because
+ otherwise the advantages of the adoption of the system would
+ be materially reduced.
+
+ This circumstance, that it is possible for each country to
+ adopt the system, and at the same time to maintain a certain
+ independence with regard to the adoption of the most
+ convenient normal times, is of considerable importance with
+ regard to the possibility of introducing a system of this
+ kind. In fact, it is possible to arrive at the application
+ of the system in such a way that the transition would hardly
+ be observed by the great majority of the population. As
+ regards railroads and telegraphs, the advantages would be
+ the same as if the local times were everywhere identical,
+ because it is easy to remember the multiple of 10 minutes
+ which ought to be added to the time of a given country for
+ translation into the time of another country. The difference
+ of time between Sweden and Denmark would, for instance, be
+ 10 minutes--a circumstance which everybody would soon learn
+ to remember. A traveller leaving Sweden would then know that
+ his watch, if correct, shows exactly 10 minutes more than
+ the clocks of the Danish railroad stations, and if he
+ continued his voyage to Paris, he would know that the clocks
+ of Paris are exactly 50 minutes behind the clocks in Sweden.
+
+ I have tried to explain the advantages of this system for
+ the countries in Europe. I am not able to judge if similar
+ systems can be considered necessary in America and Asia. It
+ is possible that North America could be satisfied with one
+ single normal time, which, if America connects this time
+ with the European system, ought to be fixed exactly 6 hours
+ behind Greenwich. While starting from this normal meridian,
+ it is possible to establish a more or less elaborate system
+ of equidistant times analogous to the system which has been
+ proposed for Europe. The same can be said of the civil times
+ of Asia, which ought to be connected with a normal time 6
+ hours in advance of the time of Greenwich.
+
+ Africa ought to belong to the European system. The French
+ civil time could be adopted for Algeria and Tunis; the time
+ of Denmark, Germany, and Italy for Tripoli; for Egypt the
+ time of Russia; the Spanish time for Morocco; at the mouth
+ of the Congo where, no doubt, sooner or later, an important
+ centre of civilization will rise, the meridian of Sweden and
+ Austria could be used; the meridian of Hungary could be
+ adopted for the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+ It will not be possible to connect South America and
+ Australia with any of the four cardinal times mentioned, but
+ some other combination, into which it is not necessary to
+ enter on this occasion, can easily be found.
+
+The PRESIDENT. If the Chair hears no objection, the pamphlet referred
+by the Delegate of Sweden will be printed as proposed.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. Mr. President, I move that the
+Conference adjourn until Wednesday, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+The motion was put and agreed to, and the Conference thereupon
+adjourned at 4:30 p. m. until Wednesday, the 22d inst., at one o'clock
+p. m.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 22, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austria-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHÆFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. Y. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. E. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES BOOK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. WM. COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL,
+ and Mr. JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The first business before the Conference to-day is the
+resolutions offered by the Delegate of Great Britain, General
+STRACHEY; but before we proceed the Delegate of San Domingo, Mr.
+GALVAN, asks permission, as a matter of privilege, to read a
+communication to the Conference.
+
+Mr. GALVAN, the Delegate of San Domingo. Before the sessions of the
+Conference come to a close, I feel compelled to make a declaration
+which will be a tribute to the illustrious scientists who have
+directed the decisions of the majority of the Conference, and at the
+same time a reservation of future freedom of action to the country
+which I have the honor to represent.
+
+The negative vote of San Domingo on the principal question was
+entirely in consequence of the proposal by the Delegates of France of
+a neutral International Meridian, which was rejected by the
+Conference.
+
+San Domingo, which had no part in the various important interests
+connected with the meridian of Greenwich, was bound to regard equity
+alone on the occurrence of the disagreement produced by the proposal
+of the Delegates of France, a nation renowned for being one of the
+first in intellectual progress.
+
+At the last session I was glad that another proposal of the Delegates
+of France was accepted almost unanimously by the Conference. That fact
+should be considered as a good omen of a more complete and unanimous
+agreement at some future time in behalf of the general interest of
+science.
+
+That day will be saluted with a cordial _hosanna_ by the Republic of
+San Domingo, which is always ready freely to give its assent to the
+progress of civilization.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The resolutions offered by the Delegate of Great
+Britain, General STRACHEY, are now before the Conference, and will be
+read.
+
+The resolutions were then read, as follows:
+
+ "1. The Conference adopts the opinion that, for the purposes
+ of civil life, it will be convenient to reckon time
+ according to the local civil time at successive meridians
+ distributed round the earth, at time-intervals of either ten
+ minutes, or some integral multiple of ten minutes, from the
+ prime meridian; but that the application of this principle
+ be left to the various nations or communities concerned by
+ it."
+
+ "2. The arrangements for the use of the universal day in
+ international telegraphy should be left for the
+ consideration of the International Telegraph Congress."
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. In consequence of the
+opinions I have heard expressed regarding the resolutions which I
+brought forward at our last meeting, I feel constrained to say that I
+am not disposed to ask the Congress to proceed to a vote upon them. I
+find that, although I had reason to think that those resolutions, in
+substance, that is in their main features, would be acceptable, still
+there is extreme difficulty in finding precise expressions that shall
+meet the views of everybody, and there are divisions of opinion as to
+the exact manner in which these resolutions should be modified.
+
+My object in bringing forward the resolutions was mainly to obtain a
+decided expression of opinion on the part of the Congress, that the
+method of counting local time, so as to harmonize as far as possible
+with universal time, should be left for settlement locally; and that,
+at the utmost, all the Congress could do would be to suggest some
+general principle such as that embodied in my resolution. There was,
+of course, never any intention of employing the universal day so as to
+interfere with the use of local standard time; and as I shall, no
+doubt, elicit a further clear expression of opinion on the part of the
+delegates, that there is no intention of bringing about this
+interference, I will now, with the permission of the Conference,
+withdraw the resolutions.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I think
+that all of us appreciate the desire which moved the Delegate of Great
+Britain to present these resolutions. There is a wish on his part that
+we should not seem, in any way, by our action here, to interfere with
+the convenience of the world in the use of its present civil time, or
+any other time which it may be found convenient to adopt, while he
+recognizes that some of the proposals made as to local time are such
+as could not be objected to. Still, I cannot refrain from expressing
+my satisfaction that he has come to the conclusion that these
+resolutions are not necessary.
+
+I think the whole question is covered by the resolutions already
+adopted by this Congress; that our universal day is for those purposes
+only for which it may be found convenient, and that it is not to
+interfere in any way with the use of civil or other standard time
+where that may be found convenient. This seems to me to be so fully
+embodied in our resolutions that it is unnecessary to enunciate again
+in a negative form the same idea, and I therefore express my
+satisfaction that the resolutions are withdrawn.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I have
+a few words bearing on the subject before the Conference which I wish
+to express before any action is taken.
+
+The PRESIDENT. There will be no subject before the Congress if the
+resolutions of General STRACHEY are withdrawn, and the Chair
+understands that the object of General STRACHEY in withdrawing these
+resolutions was to avoid a discussion upon a subject that could hardly
+lead to any satisfactory conclusion.
+
+If, however, Mr. FLEMING desires to address the Conference, he will be
+at liberty to do so.
+
+Mr. FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I do not wish to intrude any
+new matter upon the Conference. What I had to say had a bearing upon
+the subject, but, if the resolutions are withdrawn and the Conference
+desires to end the matter, I shall not insist upon speaking.
+
+No objection being made, the resolutions offered by General STRACHEY
+at the last session of the Conference were then withdrawn.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate for Sweden, then proposed that the
+resolutions passed by the Conference should be formally recorded in a
+Final Act, stating the votes on each resolution that was adopted.
+
+The Conference took a recess, in order to allow the Delegates to
+examine the draft of the Final Act.
+
+After the recess the Final Act was unanimously adopted, as follows:
+
+ FINAL ACT.
+
+ The President of the United States of America, in pursuance
+ of a special provision of Congress, having extended to the
+ Governments of all nations in diplomatic relations with his
+ own, an invitation to send Delegates to meet Delegates from
+ the United States in the city of Washington on the first of
+ October, 1884, for the purpose of discussing, and, if
+ possible, fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+ common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+ throughout the whole world, this International Meridian
+ Conference assembled at the time and place designated; and,
+ after careful and patient discussion, has passed the
+ following resolutions:
+
+ I.
+
+ "That it is the opinion of this Congress that it is
+ desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all nations,
+ in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians which now
+ exist."
+
+ This resolution was unanimously adopted.
+
+ II.
+
+ "That the Conference proposes to the Governments here
+ represented the adoption of the meridian passing through the
+ centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory of
+ Greenwich as the initial meridian for longitude."
+
+ The above resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Chili, Netherlands,
+ Colombia, Paraguay,
+ Costa Rica, Russia,
+ Germany, Salvador,
+ Great Britain, Spain,
+ Guatemala, Sweden,
+ Hawaii, Switzerland,
+ Italy, Turkey,
+ Japan, United States,
+ Liberia, Venezuela.
+
+ In the negative:
+
+ San Domingo.
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Brazil, France.
+
+ Ayes, 22; noes, 1; abstaining, 2.
+
+ III.
+
+ "That from this meridian longitude shall be counted in two
+ directions up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus and
+ west longitude minus."
+
+ This resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Chili, Liberia,
+ Colombia, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Russia,
+ Guatemala, Salvador,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+
+ In the negative:
+
+ Italy, Sweden,
+ Netherlands, Switzerland.
+ Spain,
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Germany,
+ Brazil, San Domingo,
+ France, Turkey.
+
+ Ayes, 14; noes, 5; abstaining, 6.
+
+ IV.
+
+ "That the Conference proposes the adoption of a universal
+ day for all purposes for which it may be found convenient,
+ and which shall not interfere with the use of local or other
+ standard time where desirable."
+
+ This resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, Salvador,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Sweden,
+ Guatemala, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Liberia,
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Germany, San Domingo.
+
+ Ayes, 23; abstaining, 2.
+
+ V.
+
+ "That this universal day is to be a mean solar day; is to
+ begin for all the world at the moment of mean midnight of
+ the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginning of the
+ civil day and date of that meridian; and is to be counted
+ from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+ This resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Brazil, Liberia,
+ Chili, Mexico,
+ Colombia, Paraguay,
+ Costa Rica, Russia,
+ Great Britain, Turkey,
+ Guatemala, United States,
+ Hawaii, Venezuela.
+ Japan,
+
+ In the negative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Spain.
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ France, San Domingo,
+ Germany, Sweden,
+ Italy, Switzerland.
+ Netherlands,
+
+ Ayes, 15; noes, 2; abstaining, 7.
+
+ VI.
+
+ "That the Conference expresses the hope that as soon as may
+ be practicable the astronomical and nautical days will be
+ arranged everywhere to begin at mean midnight."
+
+ This resolution was carried without division.
+
+ VII.
+
+ "That the Conference expresses the hope that the technical
+ studies designed to regulate and extend the application of
+ the decimal system to the division of angular space and of
+ time shall be resumed, so as to permit the extension of this
+ application to all cases in which it presents real
+ advantages."
+
+ The motion was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, San Domingo,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Turkey,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Italy, Venezuela.
+ Japan,
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Germany, Sweden.
+ Guatemala,
+
+ Ayes, 21; abstaining, 3.
+
+ Done at Washington, the 22d of October, 1884.
+
+ C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _President_.
+
+ R. STRACHEY, J. JANSSEN, L. CRULS,
+ _Secretaries._
+
+
+The following resolution was then adopted unanimously:
+
+ "That a copy of the resolutions passed by this Conference
+ shall be communicated to the Government of the United States
+ of America, at whose instance and within whose territory the
+ Conference has been convened."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then presented the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference adjourn, to meet upon the
+ call of the President, for the purpose of verifying the
+ protocols."
+
+This resolution was then unanimously carried, and the Conference
+adjourned at half past three, to meet upon the call of the President.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+SESSION OF NOVEMBER 1, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met at the call of the President for the approval of
+the protocols, as arranged at the last meeting, in the Diplomatic Hall
+of the Department of State, at 1 o'clock p. m.
+
+The PRESIDENT having called the Conference to order, said: The
+protocols in French and English, having been examined by the
+Secretaries of the Conference, have been submitted to all of the
+delegates for perusal. If any delegate should desire to make any
+observation on them the opportunity is now given for his doing so.
+
+RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey, stated that he desired to change
+his vote on the fifth resolution of the Final Act, providing for the
+commencement of the universal day, from the affirmative to the
+negative.
+
+No objection being made, the change was ordered to be made.
+
+The PRESIDENT then said: No further observations having been made on
+the protocols, they will now be signed by the Secretaries and the
+President.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. Before the Conference terminates, I
+beg to express, in the name of my colleagues, our sincere gratitude
+for the hospitality extended to the Conference by the Government of
+the United States, and I beg to express our heartiest thanks to you,
+Mr. President, for the able and impartial manner in which you have
+presided over our deliberations. When we elected you, we unanimously
+elected the first Delegate of the United States. If we had to begin
+again, the personal feelings of all the delegates would supply
+powerful additional reasons for making the election equally
+unanimous.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE'S observation met with the unanimous approval of the
+Delegates.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Gentlemen, I am greatly honored by the kind expression
+of your good feeling towards me as the President of this Conference,
+and I thank you very heartily for it. The duty assigned to us all has
+not been free from difficulty, but our meetings and discussions have
+been characterized by great courtesy and kindness, and by a
+conciliatory spirit.
+
+With patience and devotion the Delegates to this Congress have sought
+to discharge the trust committed to them, and, as your Chairman, I beg
+you to receive my most cordial thanks for the courteous consideration
+I have received at your hands. The President of the United States and
+the Secretary of State desire me to renew to you their thanks for your
+presence here, and their best wishes for your safe and happy return
+each to his own home.
+
+I shall esteem myself very happy hereafter whenever I shall have the
+good fortune to meet any of my colleagues of the International
+Meridian Conference.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United States. Mr. President and
+gentlemen, I am sure that you will all unite with me in passing the
+resolution which I now propose to read:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the thanks of the Conference be presented
+ to the Secretaries for the able manner in which they have
+ discharged their arduous duties."
+
+The resolution was unanimously adopted.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, sir, as one of
+the Secretaries, to express my thanks for the manner in which my
+labors have been esteemed by the delegates present. All that I can say
+on the subject is, that however troublesome the duties of the
+Secretaries have been, I have not the least doubt that anybody else
+named instead of myself would equally have bestowed his best attention
+on the discharge of those duties.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, then said: Before the dissolution of
+the Conference, Mr. CRULS and I desire specially to thank our
+colleagues for the honor they have done us by entrusting to us the
+revision of the French version of the protocols. In order that we
+might fully respond to that honor, we have examined with all possible
+care the French translations of the remarks of our colleagues. Our
+only regret is that, in consequence of the desire of several of them
+to quit Washington, we have been obliged to leave portions of the
+translations, particularly of the last protocols, much in the state in
+which we received them from the official translators, not having had
+the time to correct these translations as we would have desired.
+
+Upon motion of Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, the Conference passed
+a vote of thanks to the delegate of Turkey for the aid he has rendered
+the Secretaries in the revision of the protocols.
+
+The PRESIDENT then said: Before our final adjournment I desire to
+express a very high appreciation of the ability, fidelity, and zeal
+with which Mr. W. F. PEDDRICK, the Secretary attached by the
+Department of State to this Conference, has performed his difficult
+duties, and to thank him for his services.
+
+The Conference expressed its cordial assent to these observations.
+
+The PRESIDENT then declared that the business of the Conference having
+been concluded, it would adjourn _sine die_.
+
+ C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _President._
+
+ R. STRACHEY, J. JANSSEN, L. CRULS,
+ _Secretaries._
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX I.
+
+
+ AN ACT to authorize the President of the United States to
+ call an International Conference to fix on and recommend for
+ universal adoption a common prime meridian, to be used in
+ the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation of time
+ throughout the world.
+
+_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
+United States of America in Congress assembled_, That the President of
+the United States be authorized and requested to extend to the
+governments of all nations in diplomatic relations with our own an
+invitation to appoint delegates to meet delegates from the United
+States in the city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be
+employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+throughout the globe, and that the President be authorized to appoint
+delegates, not exceeding three in number, to represent the United
+States in such International Conference.
+
+Approved August 3, 1882.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX II.
+
+
+ AN ACT making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of
+ the Government for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth,
+ eighteen hundred and eighty-five, and for other purposes.
+
+_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
+United States of America in Congress assembled_, That the following
+sums be, and the same are hereby, appropriated for the objects
+hereinafter expressed for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth,
+eighteen hundred and eighty-five, namely:
+
+Under the State Department:
+
+For expenses of the International Conference for fixing a common zero
+of longitude and standard of time-reckoning, including cost of
+printing and translations, to be expended under the direction of the
+Secretary of State, five thousand dollars; and the President is hereby
+authorized to appoint two delegates to represent the United States at
+said International Conference, in addition to the number authorized by
+the act approved August third, eighteen hundred and eighty-two, and
+who shall serve without compensation.
+
+Approved July 7, 1884.
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX III.
+
+
+Circular.]
+
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF STATE
+ WASHINGTON, _October 23, 1882_.
+
+SIR: On the 3d of August last the President approved an act of
+Congress, in the following words:
+
+ "_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives
+ of the United States of America in Congress assembled_, That
+ the President of the United States be authorized and
+ requested to extend to the governments of all nations in
+ diplomatic relations with our own an invitation to appoint
+ delegates to meet delegates from the United States in the
+ city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+ designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper
+ to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of
+ time-reckoning throughout the globe, and that the President
+ be authorized to appoint delegates, not exceeding three in
+ number, to represent the United States in such international
+ conference."
+
+It may be well to state that, in the absence of a common and accepted
+standard for the computation of time for other than astronomical
+purposes, embarrassments are experienced in the ordinary affairs of
+modern commerce; that this embarrassment is especially felt since the
+extension of telegraphic and railway communications has joined States
+and continents possessing independent and widely separated meridional
+standards of time; that the subject of a common meridian has been for
+several years past discussed in this country and in Europe by
+commercial and scientific bodies, and the need of a general agreement
+upon a single standard recognized; and that, in recent European
+conferences especially, favor was shown to the suggestion that, as the
+United States possesses the greatest longitudinal extension of any
+country traversed by railway and telegraph lines, the initiatory
+measures for holding an international convention to consider so
+important a subject should be taken by this Government.
+
+The President, while convinced of the good to flow eventually from the
+adoption of a common time unit, applicable throughout the globe,
+thinks, however, that the effort now to be made should be to reach by
+consultation a conclusion as to the advisability of assembling an
+International Congress with the object of finally adopting a common
+meridian. He, therefore, abstains from extending an invitation for a
+meeting at an assigned day, until he has ascertained the views of the
+leading Governments of the world as to whether such International
+Conference is deemed desirable.
+
+I am accordingly directed by the President to request you to bring the
+matter to the attention of the Government of ----, through the
+Minister of Foreign Affairs, with a view to learning whether its
+appreciation of the benefits to accrue to the intimate intercourse of
+civilized peoples from the consideration and adoption of the suggested
+common standard of time so far coincides with that of this Government
+as to lead it to accept an invitation to participate in an
+International Conference at a date to be designated in the near
+future.
+
+You may leave a copy of this instruction with the Minister for Foreign
+Affairs, and request the views of his Government thereon, at as early
+a day as may be conveniently practicable.
+
+I am, sir, your obedient servant,
+
+ FRED'K T. FRELINGHUYSEN.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX IV.
+
+
+Circular.]
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF STATE,
+ WASHINGTON, _December 1, 1883_.
+
+SIR: By a circular instruction of October 23, 1882, you were made
+acquainted with (the language of) an act of Congress, approved August
+3, 1882, authorizing and requesting the President to extend to other
+Governments an invitation to appoint delegates to meet in the city of
+Washington for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be
+employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+throughout the world; and you were instructed to bring the matter to
+the attention of the Government to which you are accredited and to
+inform it that the President deemed it advisable to abstain from the
+issuance of the formal invitation contemplated, until through
+preliminary consultation the views of the leading governments of the
+world as to the desirability of holding such an International
+Conference could be ascertained.
+
+In the year that has since elapsed this Government has received from
+most of those in diplomatic relations with the United States the
+approval of the project, while many have in terms signified their
+acceptance and even named their delegates.
+
+Besides this generally favorable reception of the suggestion so put
+forth, interest in the proposed reform has been shown by the
+Geographical Conference held at Rome in October last, which very
+decisively expressed its opinion in favor of the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich as the common zero of time longitude, and
+adjourned, leaving the discussion and final adoption of this or other
+equivalent unit, and the framing of practical rules for such adoption,
+to the International Conference to be held at Washington.
+
+The President therefore thinks the time has come to call the
+Convention referred to in my instruction of October 23, 1882. I am
+accordingly directed by the President to instruct you to tender to the
+Government of ----, through its Minister for Foreign Affairs, an
+invitation to be represented by one or more delegates (not exceeding
+three) to meet delegates from the United States and other nations in
+an international Conference to be held in the city of Washington on
+the first day of October next, 1884, for the purpose of discussing
+and, if possible, fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning throughout the
+globe.
+
+You will seek the earliest convenient occasion to bring this invitation
+to the attention of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of ---- by handing
+him a copy hereof and requesting that the answer of his Government may
+be made known to you.
+
+I am, sir, your obedient servant,
+
+ FRED'K T. FRELINGHUYSEN.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of International Conference Held at
+Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884., by Various
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of International Conference
+Held at Washington
+for the Purpose of Fixing
+a Prime Meridian
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Conference Held at Washington
+for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884., by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884.
+ Protocols of the Proceedings
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 12, 2006 [EBook #17759]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Joseph Myers, Richard J.
+Shiffer and the Online Distributed Proofreading team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="trans-note">
+<p class="center">Transcriber's Note:
+Text that has been changed to correct an obvious spelling error by the publisher
+is marked with a
+<ins class="correction" title="Original word would be shown here.">"hover note."</ins>
+</p>
+</div>
+
+<h1>INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE</h1>
+
+<h4>HELD AT WASHINGTON</h4>
+
+<h5>FOR THE PURPOSE OF FIXING</h5>
+
+<p class="title1">A PRIME MERIDIAN</p>
+
+<h5>AND</h5>
+
+<p class="title2">A UNIVERSAL DAY.<br /><br /></p>
+
+<h4>OCTOBER, 1884.<br /></h4>
+
+<hr class="tiny" />
+<h3>PROTOCOLS OF THE PROCEEDINGS.</h3>
+<hr class="tiny" />
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">WASHINGTON, D. C.</span><br />
+
+<span class="smcap">Gibson Bros., Printers and Bookbinders.</span><br />
+
+1884.</h5>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS" id="TABLE_OF_CONTENTS"></a>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<ol class="RU TOC">
+ <li><a href="#Page_1">Protocol, October 1, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></span></li>
+ <li><a href="#Page_13">Protocol, October 2, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></span></li>
+ <li><a href="#Page_35">Protocol, October 6, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></span></li>
+ <li><a href="#Page_73">Protocol, October 13, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></span></li>
+ <li><a href="#Page_113">Protocol, October 14, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></span></li>
+ <li><a href="#Page_151">Protocol, October 20, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></span></li>
+ <li><a href="#Page_195">Protocol, October 22, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></span></li>
+ <li><a href="#Page_205">Protocol, November 1, 1884</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></span></li>
+ <li class="NONE"><a href="#Page_199">Final Act</a>
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></span>
+ <p>Act of Congress authorizing the President of the
+ United States to invite the Conference (Annex I)
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></span></p>
+ <p>Act of Congress making appropriation for expenses
+ (Annex II)
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></span></p>
+ <p>Circular to United States representatives abroad
+ bringing the subject to the attention of foreign
+ governments (Annex III)
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></span></p>
+ <p>Circular to United States ministers extending
+ invitation to foreign governments (Annex IV)
+ <span class="ralign"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></span></p></li>
+</ol>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="International_Meridian_Conference" id="International_Meridian_Conference"></a>International Meridian Conference</h2>
+
+<h5>HELD IN THE</h5>
+
+<h4>CITY OF WASHINGTON.</h4>
+
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF OCTOBER 1, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Delegates to the International Meridian Conference, who assembled
+in Washington upon invitation addressed by the Government of the
+United States to all nations holding diplomatic relations with it,
+"for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning throughout the
+globe," held their first conference to-day, October 1, 1884, in the
+Diplomatic Hall of the Department of State.</p>
+
+<p>The following delegates were present:</p>
+
+
+<p>On behalf of Austria-Hungary&mdash;</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Baron <span class="sc">Ignatz von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Brazil&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Dr. <span class="sc">Luiz Cruls</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Director of the Imperial Observatory of Rio Janeiro</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Colombia&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Commodore <span class="sc">S. R. Franklin</span>, <i>U. S. Navy</i>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Superintendent U. S. Naval Observatory</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Costa Rica&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Juan Francisco Echeverria</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Civil Engineer</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+<p> On behalf of France&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">A. Lefaivre</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul-General</i>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Janssen</span>, <i>of the Institute</i>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Director of the Physical Observatory of Paris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Germany&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Baron <span class="sc">H. Von Alvensleben</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Great Britain&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Captain Sir <span class="sc">F. J. O. Evans</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Royal Navy</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Prof. <span class="sc">J. C. Adams</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Director of the Cambridge Observatory</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Lieut.-General <span class="sc">Strachey</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Member of the Council of India</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Sandford Fleming</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"> <i>Representing the Dominion of Canada</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Guatemala&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1"><span class="sc">M. Miles Rock</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>President of the Boundary Commission</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Hawaii&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Hon. <span class="sc">W. D. Alexander</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Surveyor-General</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Hon. <span class="sc">Luther Aholo</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Privy Counsellor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Italy&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Count <span class="sc">Albert de Foresta</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>First Secretary of Legation</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Japan&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Professor <span class="sc">Kikuchi</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Dean of the Scientific Dep't of the University of Tokio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Mexico&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Leandro Fernandez</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Civil Engineer</i>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Angel Anguiano</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Director of the National Observatory of Mexico</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Paraguay&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Captain <span class="sc">John Stewart</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Consul-General</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Russia&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">C. de Struve</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Major-General <span class="sc">Stebnitzki</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Imperial Russian Staff</i>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">J. de Kologrivoff</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Conseiller d'&Eacute;tat actuel</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of San Domingo&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">M. de J. Galvan</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Salvador&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Antonio Batres</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Spain,</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Juan Valera</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Emilio Ruiz del Arbol</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Naval Attach&eacute; to the Spanish Legation</i>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>Mr. <span class="sc">Juan Pastorin</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Officer of the Navy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Sweden&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Count <span class="sc">Carl Lewenhaupt</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Switzerland&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Colonel <span class="sc">Emile Frey</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of the United States&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Rear-Admiral <span class="sc">C. R. P. Rodgers</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>U. S. Navy</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Lewis M. Rutherfurd</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1"> Mr. <span class="sc">W. F. Allen</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Secretary Railway Time Conventions</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Commander <span class="sc">W. T. Sampson</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>U. S. Navy</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Professor <span class="sc">Cleveland Abbe</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>U. S. Signal Office</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Venezuela&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Se&ntilde;or Dr. <span class="sc">A. M. Soteldo</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Charg&eacute; d'Affaires</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The following delegates were not present:</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Chili&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Francisco Vidal Gormas</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Director of the Hydrographic Office</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Alvaro Bianchi Tupper</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Assistant Director</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Denmark&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">Carl Steen Andersen de Bille</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Minister Resident and Consul-General</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Germany&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr.<span class="sc"> Hinckeldeyn</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Attach&eacute; of the German Legation</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Liberia&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">William Coppinger</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Consul-General</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of the Netherlands&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Mr. <span class="sc">G. de Weckherlin</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary</i>.</p>
+
+<p>On behalf of Turkey&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1"><span class="sc">Rustem Effendi</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><i>Secretary of Legation</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p>The delegates were formally presented to the Secretary of State of the
+United States, the Honorable <span class="smcap">Frederick T. Frelinghuysen</span>, in
+his office at 12 o'clock. Upon assembling in the Diplomatic Hall, he
+called the Conference to order, and spoke as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Gentlemen</span>: It gives me pleasure, in the name of the
+President of the United States, to welcome you to this
+Congress, where most of the nations of the earth are
+represented. You have met to discuss and consider the
+important question of a prime meridian for all nations. It
+will rest with you to give a definite result to the
+preparatory labors of other scientific associations and
+special congresses, and thus make those labors available.</p>
+
+<p>Wishing you all success in your important deliberations, and
+not doubting that you will reach a conclusion satisfactory
+to the civilized world, I, before leaving you, take the
+liberty to nominate, for the purpose of a temporary
+organization, Count Lewenhaupt.</p>
+
+<p>It will afford this Department pleasure to do all in its
+power to promote the convenience of the Congress and to
+facilitate its proceedings.</p></blockquote><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By the unanimous voice of the Conference the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+<span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, took the chair, and said that, for the purpose of
+proceeding to a permanent organization, it was necessary to elect a
+President, and that he had the honor to propose for that office the
+chairman of the delegation of the United States of America, Admiral C.
+R. P. Rodgers.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference agreed unanimously to the proposition thus made,
+whereupon Admiral <span class="smcap">Rodgers</span> took the chair as President of the
+Conference, and made the following address:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">Gentlemen</span>: I beg you to receive my thanks for the
+high honor you have conferred upon me in calling me, as the
+chairman of the delegation from the United States, to
+preside at this Congress. To it have come from
+widely-separated portions of the globe, delegates renowned
+in diplomacy and science, seeking to create a new accord
+among the nations by agreeing upon a meridian proper to be
+employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time
+reckoning throughout the world. Happy shall we be, if,
+throwing aside national preferences and inclinations, we
+seek only the common good of mankind, and gain for science
+and for commerce a prime meridian acceptable to all
+countries, and secured with the least possible
+inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>Having this object at heart, the Government of the United
+States has invited all nations with which it has diplomatic
+relations to send delegates to a Congress to assemble at
+Washington to-day, to discuss the question I have indicated.
+The invitation has been graciously received, and we are here
+this morning to enter upon the agreeable duty assigned to us
+by our respective governments.</p>
+
+<p>Broad as is the area of the United States, covering a
+hundred degrees of longitude, extending from 66&deg; 52' west
+from Greenwich to 166&deg; 13' at our extreme limit in Alaska,
+not including the Aleutian Islands; traversed, as it is, by
+railway and telegraph lines, and dotted with observatories;
+long as is its sea coast, of more than twelve thousand
+miles; vast as must be its foreign and domestic commerce,
+its delegation to this Congress has no desire to urge that a
+prime meridian shall be found within its confines.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In my own profession, that of a seaman, the embarrassment
+arising from the many prime meridians now in use is very
+conspicuous, and in the valuable interchange of longitudes
+by passing ships at sea, often difficult and hurried,
+sometimes only possible by figures written on a black-board,
+much confusion arises, and at times grave danger. In the use
+of charts, too, this trouble is also annoying, and to us who
+live upon the sea a common prime meridian will be a great
+advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last two years we have been given reason to hope
+that this great desideratum may be obtained, and within a
+year a learned Conference, in which many nations were
+represented, expressed opinions upon it with singular
+unanimity, and in a very broad and catholic spirit.</p>
+
+<p>I need not trespass further upon your attention, except to
+lay before you the subject we are invited to discuss: the
+choice of "a meridian to be employed as a common zero of
+longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the
+world;" and I shall beg you to complete our organization by
+the election of a Vice-President, and the proper Secretaries
+necessary to the verification of our proceedings.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr.<span class="smcap"> Lefaivre</span>, Delegate from France, stated that on behalf of
+his colleague he would suggest that all motions and addresses made in
+English should be translated into French.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> inquired whether the proposition made by the
+Delegate for France met with the approval of the Conference, when it
+was unanimously agreed to.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> thereupon said that he was ready to lay before
+the Conference the subject of the election of Vice-President.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, the Delegate of Sweden, stated that
+elections in such large bodies were always difficult, and inquired
+whether it was necessary to have a Vice-President. He further said
+that for his part he had every reason to hope and to expect that the
+services of a Vice-President would not be required.</p>
+
+<p>It was thereupon agreed that a Vice-President should be dispensed
+with.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then stated that the next business was the
+election of Secretaries; but suggested, in view of the proceedings
+already had, and of the necessity of some consultation in regard to
+the matter, that the election might be postponed till to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain, stated that he saw no reason
+why the nomination of Secretaries could not be made just as well at
+present as at any future time.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, inquired what would be the
+functions of the Secretaries.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> in reply said that an acting Secretary had been
+appointed by the Secretary of State, who was at the same time a
+stenographer, and that the principal labor of keeping the records of
+the Conference would devolve upon him; that nevertheless regular
+Secretaries of the Conference had to be appointed, for the purpose of
+examining and verifying the protocols from day to day, which would be
+the more important in the event of the records of the Conference being
+made in two or three different languages, and that these Secretaries
+ought no doubt to be members of the Conference, in order to give the
+requisite authenticity to the acts thereof, and, in view of the
+character of the proceedings, should be specialists and informed as to
+the subjects under discussion.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Soteldo</span>, Delegate of Venezuela, said that he thought the
+Conference should adjourn until to-morrow, as they had done already
+enough to-day in settling its organization; that by adjourning over it
+would give an opportunity to the delegates to consult as to the
+functions of the Secretaries, and who would be most likely to be
+qualified for those functions; that there were gentlemen from
+different countries who were not familiar with the English language,
+and by to-morrow the Conference could determine as to the languages in
+which the proceedings should be had, although, as it seemed to him,
+that the proceedings should be recorded in French and English. He then
+moved that the Conference adjourn until to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, stated that he agreed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> with
+what had been said by the President, that the Conference should have
+Secretaries who were specialists, and that the proceedings should be
+recorded in two languages. By adjourning till to-morrow he thought
+that the delegates would have an opportunity to reflect upon the
+subject, and to come back prepared to vote upon it.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then stated that if any delegates wished to
+make propositions in regard to the proceedings to-morrow it would be
+in the power of the Conference to proceed to the consideration of
+those subjects after the election of the Secretaries, and he suggested
+to the Delegate of Venezuela (Mr. Soteldo) that the motion to adjourn
+be withdrawn for the present.</p>
+
+<p>The Delegate of Venezuela thereupon withdrew his motion.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Frey</span>, Delegate of Switzerland, said that, in his opinion,
+the order of proceedings to-morrow should be first a general
+discussion.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain, stated that he thought the
+proceedings should be recorded in two languages at least, and that
+Secretaries conversant with these languages and specially acquainted
+with the subject matter pending before the Conference should be
+selected; that, in order to have the record of the proceedings
+accurate, officers qualified in this way were requisite, and that it
+would be preferable to elect these officers after consultation among
+the members of the Conference, which could be had between now and the
+meeting to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden, said that he saw no
+difficulty in deciding now that the order of proceedings to-morrow
+would be first the election of the Secretaries and then a general
+discussion, and he moved that this proposition be adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference then unanimously agreed to the proposition.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States, inquired
+whether it would not facilitate the action of the Conference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+to-morrow if the President appointed a committee now who could
+nominate the Secretaries.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> replied by asking whether it would not be
+better to select this committee at a subsequent meeting, rather than
+at the first meeting, which was held to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, then gave
+notice that at the session to-morrow he would bring before the
+Conference the question whether the meetings shall be open to the
+public or not, and that he would, at the proper time, also make a
+motion for the purpose of determining the sense of the Conference as
+to the propriety of inviting distinguished scientists, some of whom
+are now in Washington, and who may desire to be present at the
+meetings of this Conference, to take part in the discussion of the
+questions pending.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, stated that in regard to
+the first proposition&mdash;that is, as to making the proceedings public,
+he would object, inasmuch as he thought that by opening the doors of
+this Conference to the public nothing could be gained, while the
+proceedings might be embarrassed or delayed by such a course.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of England, stated that he did not
+favor the first proposition to make the proceedings of this Conference
+public, but he did agree with the second proposition, and thought it
+was a very important and valuable one.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> remarked that the propositions made by the
+Delegate of the United States of America were merely in the nature of
+a notice, and that they were not before the Conference at the present
+time, and, consequently, were not the subject of discussion; still he
+thought that much good could be elicited from this interchange of
+opinions in a preliminary way.</p>
+
+<p>Captain <span class="smcap">Stewart</span>, Delegate of Paraguay, said that he thought
+that it would be a very good thing, in view of the proposition to make
+the meetings public, to invite all the world to the Capitol for the
+discussion of these subjects.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that it
+would be perfectly practicable to have the discussions of the
+Conference printed in full from day to day for our own official use,
+and that the public might thereby be made familiar with the
+proceedings if it were necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> announced that arrangements had been made by
+the State Department whereby the proceedings of each day would be
+printed and furnished in time for the examination of the members of
+the Conference before the next meeting, and that they would be printed
+in two languages, French and English; but that these records or
+protocols could not be regularly verified until the Conference shall
+have appointed duly authorized Secretaries.</p>
+
+<p>Baron <span class="smcap">von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>, Delegate of Austro-Hungary, asked that a
+list of the delegates be presented to each of the members of the
+Conference.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> replied that he would instruct the acting
+Secretary (Mr. Peddrick) to have the list prepared.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the motion of Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia, the
+Conference then adjourned until to-morrow, (Thursday,) the second
+instant, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF OCTOBER 2, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+<p>Present:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Austria-Hungary: Baron <span class="smcap">Ignatz von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Brazil: Dr. <span class="smcap">Luiz Cruls</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Colombia: Commodore <span class="smcap">S. R. Franklin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Costa Rica: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Francisco Echeverria</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">France: Mr. <span class="smcap">A. Lefaivre</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Germany: Baron <span class="smcap">H. von Alvensleben</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Hinckeldeyn</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Great Britain: Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Prof. <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">Lieut.-General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Guatemala: Mr. <span class="smcap">Miles Rock</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Hawaii: Hon. <span class="smcap">W. D. Alexander</span>, Hon. <span class="smcap">Luther Aholo</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Italy: Count <span class="smcap">Albert de Foresta</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Japan: Professor <span class="smcap">Kikuchi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mexico: Mr. <span class="smcap">Leandro Fernandez</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Ansel Anguiano</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Paraguay: Capt. <span class="smcap">John Stewart</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Russia: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. de Struve</span>, Major-General <span class="smcap">Stebnitzki</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">Kologrivoff</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">San Domingo: Mr. <span class="smcap">de J. Galvan</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Salvador: Mr. <span class="smcap">Antonio Batres</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Spain: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Emilio Ruiz del Arbol</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">and Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Sweden: Count <span class="smcap">Carl Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Switzerland: Col. <span class="smcap">Emile Frey</span>, Professor <span class="smcap">Hirsch</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">United States: Rear-Admiral <span class="smcap">C. R. P. Rodgers</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Lewis</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2">M. <span class="smcap">Rutherford</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Commander <span class="smcap">W. T.</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Professor <span class="smcap">Cleveland Abbe</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Venezuela: Se&ntilde;or Dr. <span class="smcap">A. M. Soteldo</span>.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Absent:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Chili: Mr. <span class="smcap">F. V. Gormas</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">A. B. Tupper</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Denmark: Mr. <span class="smcap">O. S. A. de Bille</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Liberia: Mr. <span class="smcap">Wm. Coppinger</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Netherlands: Mr. <span class="smcap">G. de Weckherlin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Turkey: <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that the first business before the
+Conference was the election of Secretaries.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia, stated that it was his
+opinion that it would be very difficult to elect Secretaries by a
+direct vote, and he proposed that the selection of the Secretaries be
+left to a Committee to be appointed by the President; that the
+Committee present the names of the officers selected to the
+Conference, and that these Secretaries be four in number.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden, stated that it was
+generally understood among the delegates that Mr. Hirsch, one of the
+delegates from Switzerland, should be elected a Secretary, as he was a
+Secretary of the Conference held at Rome, but as he has not yet
+arrived, he proposed that the Conference elect only three Secretaries
+to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia, stated that he believed
+that Mr. Hirsch would soon arrive, and he accepted the amendment just
+offered.</p>
+
+<p>The original motion, as modified by the amendment, was thereupon
+unanimously agreed to.</p>
+
+<p>The Chair appointed the Delegate of Russia, Mr. de Struve, the
+Delegate from Spain, Mr. Valera, the Delegate from France, Mr.
+Lefaivre, and the Delegate from Sweden, Count Lewenhaupt, as the
+Committee to select the Secretaries.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference thereupon took a recess, to enable the Committee to
+consult and report.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the reassembling of the Conference, the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+Lewenhaupt, announced that the Committee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> had selected for Secretaries
+the Delegate from Great Britain, Lieut.-General Strachey, the Delegate
+of France, Mr. Janssen, and the Delegate from Brazil, Dr. Cruls.</p>
+
+<p>The report of the Committee was then unanimously adopted by the
+Conference, and the Delegates named as Secretaries signified their
+acceptance of the office.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia, moved that the President
+direct the Acting Secretary to arrange the seats of the Delegates
+according to the alphabetical order of the countries represented. He
+added that it would be a great convenience to the members to have
+their seats permanently fixed.</p>
+
+<p>The motion was unanimously agreed to.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, then
+presented the following resolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Resolved</i>, That the Congress invite Prof. Newcomb, Superintendent of
+the United States Nautical Almanac; Prof. Hildgard, Superintendent of
+the United States Coast and Geodetic Surveys; Professor A. Hall;
+Professor De Valentiner, Director of the Observatory at Karlsruhe; and
+Sir William Thomson, to attend the meetings of this Congress.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of England, stated that, as he
+understood this resolution, it would not necessarily authorize the
+parties invited to take any part in the discussions.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that the resolution seems merely to
+invite the gentlemen to be present.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that he
+thought it necessary to clear up this matter a little; that if the
+gentlemen invited could not address the Conference, it seemed very
+little use to have them invited; that it was not for their own
+advantage but for that of the Conference that the invitations were
+extended to those scientific gentlemen, and therefore he thought it
+was the intention in inviting them to have the benefit of any
+information which they might desire from time to time to express on
+the subjects before the Congress. He thought that if any remarks on
+the part of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> gentlemen were presented to the Conference, with
+the assent of the Congress, through the President, that would
+doubtless meet all the requirements of the case.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> inquired whether the Delegate of Great Britain
+meant that the remarks should be presented in writing.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, replied that
+that would not necessarily be the case.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States, inquired whether
+the persons named in the resolution were the only ones to be invited.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> replied that it was so, so far as the Chair was
+informed, but that it would be in order at any time to add new names
+in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that this
+was a matter which he had very much at heart, and he would like to
+observe that some of the nations which were invited to send Delegates
+to this Conference had failed to do so, and that it would be a
+courtesy to invite persons of those nations to be present.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that
+after consulting with a number of the delegates he drew the
+resolution, and that it was suggested to him this very morning that
+possibly there might be a difference of opinion as to whether these
+gentlemen should take part in the discussion, and that that was the
+reason why the first resolution merely proposed to invite them to be
+present. He stated that he proposed subsequently to submit another
+resolution authorizing these gentlemen to take part in the discussion;
+that he thought that the original intention was to confer an honor on
+certain distinguished scientists, and that it would be well for the
+Conference to limit the invitation to gentlemen of that character.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, stated that he was opposed
+to the proposition to admit to the deliberations of this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> Conference
+gentlemen, no matter how distinguished or eminent they might be, who
+were not specially delegated by their Governments as members of this
+body. He questioned the power of the Conference to admit to its
+discussions persons who were not regularly appointed to vote upon the
+subject at issue; that this was an international conference created
+for the purpose of obtaining an interchange of views from the
+representatives of the different Governments; that it would extend the
+scope of the work before this body to entertain the views and opinions
+of persons not authorized to speak for the Governments whose Delegates
+are here; that there would be a great divergence of opinion among such
+men, and the result would be rather to embarrass than to help this
+Conference to an accord. He insisted that the matter was exclusively
+governmental, and, while he would be happy to extend any courtesy to
+men distinguished in science, such as the gentlemen who are proposed
+to be invited, he felt constrained to oppose the proposition under the
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that he understood that the resolution
+did not propose to confer a vote upon the gentlemen invited, but
+simply to enable them to lay any information before the Conference
+which they might have upon the matter at issue.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, contended that the
+resolution was intended to authorize these gentlemen to deliberate,
+and he thought that the inconvenience would be very great of extending
+this privilege to persons not authorized to represent their
+Governments. He did not think it was reasonable or fair that his
+opinions should be questioned or opposed by the opinions of men not
+authorized to speak for their Governments.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, said that as he had
+taken upon himself to make some remarks both as to the manner in which
+the gentlemen should be invited and the extent of their rights when
+invited, he wished to say that while he agreed with much that had been
+said by the Delegate of France, he held that these gentlemen should
+have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> an opportunity of expressing their views; that they were not to
+come here merely to listen to the proceedings, but that they should
+themselves be heard.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> directed that the resolution be read in French,
+and then put it to the vote, when it was unanimously adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>. Delegate of the United States, then
+offered the following resolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the gentlemen who have just been invited
+to attend the meetings of the Conference be permitted to
+take part in the discussion of all scientific questions."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate for France, then stated that it was
+not in accordance with the object of this Conference that private
+individuals, not authorized by their respective Governments, should be
+permitted to influence the decision of this body, and that, while it
+was very proper to extend courtesy to such learned gentlemen as were
+invited, it surely was never intended that they should participate in
+our proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, said that it would,
+perhaps, save trouble if he stated his views on the point under
+discussion, which he apprehended were generally in accordance with
+those of the representative from France. He said that, if he were
+permitted, he would read a resolution, which he suggested might be
+accepted as a substitute for that pending before the Conference, and
+it was as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the President be authorized, with the
+concurrence of the Delegates, to request an expression of
+the opinions of the gentlemen invited to attend the Congress
+on any subject on which their opinion may be likely to be
+valuable."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> inquired in what way they would express it.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that it
+would be orally.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> replied that the resolution undoubtedly read
+that way.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that the
+language, "to take part in the discussion," employed in the resolution
+of Commander Sampson, would mean that the persons invited would be in
+a position, of their own motion, either to reply to remarks made, or
+to state their own views, or to take part in the discussion just as
+the Delegates are entitled to do.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, stated that he hoped that
+the proposition of the Delegate of Great Britain would not be pressed
+until a vote was had upon the original resolution.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then put the resolution to a vote; but, being
+unable to determine from the <i>viva voce</i> vote whether it was carried
+or not, he stated that the roll would be called.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Frey</span>, Delegate of Switzerland, stated that he thought
+before the vote was taken a decision should be had upon the question,
+how the Delegates were to vote&mdash;whether as nations or as individuals.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> announced that it had been the custom in all
+such conferences to vote as nations, each nation casting one vote, and
+that no other way seemed practicable; and that in conformity with this
+ruling the roll would be called and the vote taken by nations.</p>
+
+<p>The roll was then called, when the following States voted in the
+affirmative:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Guatemala,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>San Domingo,</td><td>Salvador,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Switzerland,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>And the following in the negative:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Brazil,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>France,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Great Britain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Japan,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Paraguay,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spain,</td><td>Sweden.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>United States,</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then announced that the ayes were 8 and the
+noes 13, and that the resolution was lost.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, then renewed his
+resolution, which was as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the President be authorized, with the
+concurrence of the Delegates, to request an expression of
+the opinions of the gentlemen invited to attend the Congress
+on any subject on which their opinion may be likely to be
+valuable."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>No discussion arose upon this resolution, and it was adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, then
+offered the following resolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the meetings of this Congress be open to
+interested visitors."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, stated that he considered
+this a subject of grave importance; that this was an official and
+confidential body; scientific, it was true, but also diplomatic; that
+it was empowered to confer about matters with which the general public
+have now nothing to do; that to admit the public to the meetings would
+destroy their privacy and subject the Conference to the influence of
+an outside pressure which might prove very prejudicial to its
+proceedings, and that he would object to this resolution absolutely.</p>
+
+<p>No further discussion being had, the <span class="smcap">President</span>, after a <i>viva
+voce</i> vote of doubtful result, ordered the roll to be called, when the
+following States voted in the affirmative:</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Costa Rica,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Salvador,</td><td>Spain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Venezuela,</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>And the following States in the negative.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Brazil,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Germany,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Hawaii,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Japan,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mexico,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>San Domingo,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Switzerland,</td><td>United States.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then announced that the ayes were 7 and the
+noes 14, and that the resolution was therefore lost.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then said that there would doubtless be some
+preliminary general discussion on the subject before the Conference,
+and suggested that if Delegates desired to be heard upon the subject
+it would be expedient to give an intimation to the Secretary.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States, then said: I have
+been requested to present to the Conference the communication that I
+hold in my hand, and in doing so wish to offer the following
+resolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Whereas several persons desire to submit to this Conference
+inventions, devices, and systems of universal time:
+therefore,</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference will acknowledge the
+receipt of such communications, but will abstain from any
+expression of opinion as to their respective merits."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, said that the
+Conference should be very cautious in admitting the devices and
+schemes of people who have no connection with this body; that there
+are, no doubt, many inventors and many people who have plans and
+schemes which they wish to press upon the Conference, and that it was
+probable that the Conference would be subjected to very great
+inconvenience if they took upon themselves even the burden of
+acknowledging the receipt of these communications.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that he had received several Communions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+of this character, one proposing that Jerusalem should be taken as the
+prime meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, proposed that the
+Conference should appoint a committee to examine the different papers
+submitted by outside parties, and to make such suggestions as they
+might deem proper after examining the papers.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain, said that it seemed to him the
+proper course of proceeding for the Conference was to take up the
+subject article by article, and treat it in that order; that there
+were presented to the Conference certain well-defined propositions,
+and that besides these there were the resolutions which had been
+adopted by the Conference at Rome, which could be used as a basis for
+the discussions of this Conference; that in that way the Delegates
+would have before them some precise subject-matter, and after
+discussion, if any proposition needed to be altered or amended it
+would be in the power of the Conference to do so, but that unless some
+regular method of proceeding were adopted the sessions would be
+prolonged indefinitely, and the Conference would be confused by a
+multitude of irrelevant propositions that might be presented to them.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that it
+seemed to him that to invite a general discussion upon the subject,
+which has undoubtedly a great many heads, the best method would be the
+one just suggested; that by having a well-defined course much time
+would be saved, and there would be a precision in the proceedings,
+which undoubtedly is always valuable; that in this way the discussion
+could be kept within bounds, but unless there is some proposition
+pending before the Conference it is impossible to say whether any
+discussion is in order or out of order; that it seemed to him there
+should be some well-defined propositions laid before the Conference,
+and those propositions could easily be gathered, not only from what
+has gone before, not only from the Conference which has been held in
+Rome, but from the acts of Congress<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> and the circulars of the
+Secretary of State, under which this body has been organized.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that if these communications from
+outside parties were brought before the Conference it would entail a
+great deal of labor.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution of the Delegate of the United States, Prof.
+<span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, was then put to the vote, and was negatived.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, then presented
+the following resolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+represented the adoption as a standard meridian that of
+Greenwich passing through the centre of the transit
+instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, remarked that the proposed
+resolution seemed to him out of order, and that his colleague, Mr.
+Janssen, desired to address the Conference on the subject. He went on
+to say:</p>
+
+<p>The competence of the Conference can give rise to no long debate among
+us. Let us remark, in the first place, that no previous engagement
+exists, on the part of the Governments, to adopt the results of our
+discussions, and that consequently our decisions cannot be compared to
+those of a deliberative congress or an international commission acting
+according to definite powers.</p>
+
+<p>We have no definite powers, or rather, we have no executive power,
+since our decisions cannot be invoked executively by one Government
+towards others.</p>
+
+<p>Does this mean that our decisions will be wholly unauthoritative? An
+assembly which numbers so many eminent delegates, and in which there
+is so much scientific knowledge, must certainly be regarded with
+profound respect by all the Powers of the world. Its powers, however,
+must be of a wholly moral character, and will have to be balanced
+against rights and interests no less worthy of consideration, leaving
+absolutely intact the independence of each individual State.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances, gentlemen, it seems to me that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> our course
+is already marked out for us. From our Conference is to be elicited
+the expression of a collective wish, a draft of a resolution, which is
+to be adopted by the majority of this assembly, and afterwards
+submitted to the approval of our respective Governments.</p>
+
+<p>This is our mission. It is a great one, and has a lofty international
+bearing. We must, however, realize its extent from the very outset,
+and not go beyond its limits.</p>
+
+<p>An appeal has been made to the decisions of the Conference held at
+Rome. But, gentlemen, I beg leave to remark that that Conference was
+composed entirely of specialists, and that it did not meet for the
+purpose of examining the question in an international point of view.
+This Conference is composed of various elements, among which are
+scientists of the highest standing, but also functionaries of high
+rank, who are not familiar with scientific subjects, and who are
+charged with an examination of this question from a political
+stand-point. It is, moreover, our privilege to be philosophers and
+cosmopolitans, and to contemplate the interests of mankind not only
+for the present, but for the most distant future.</p>
+
+<p>You see, gentlemen, that we enjoy absolute freedom, and that we are in
+nowise bound by the decisions of the Conference held at Rome. It is
+even desirable that those precedents should be appealed to as little
+as possible, inasmuch as we have scientists among us who are regarded
+as authorities in both the Old and the New World, and who are
+perfectly capable of directing us in technical matters, and of
+furnishing all the information that we can desire. I will say even
+more than this: The results of the Conference held at Rome are by no
+means regarded as possessing official authority by the Governments
+that have accredited us; for if those results had been taken as a
+starting point, there would be no occasion for our Conference, and our
+Governments would simply have to decide with regard to the acceptance
+or rejection of the resolutions adopted by the Geodetic Congress at
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Everything, however, is intact, even the scientific side of the
+question, and that is the reason why we have so many Delegates
+possessing technical knowledge among us.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that he considered the resolution
+entirely in order, and likely to bring about a discussion upon the
+very point for which this Conference was called together; that the
+resolution was open to any amendment that might be offered, could be
+altered from time to time if necessary, and, if it did not meet the
+sense of the Conference, could be defeated.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, inquired whether this
+proposition did not demand an immediate solution.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, replied that
+no such thing was contemplated.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, then spoke as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gentlemen</span>: I formally request that the resolution just
+proposed by my eminent colleague and friend, Mr. Rutherford, be held
+in reserve, and that it may not now be pressed for discussion.</p>
+
+<p>It is wholly undesirable that a proposition of so grave a character,
+which forestalls one of the most important resolutions that we shall
+be called upon to adopt, should be put to the vote while our meeting
+has scarcely been organized, and before any discussion relative to the
+true merits of the questions to be considered has taken place.</p>
+
+<p>This would be inverting the proper order of things and reaching a
+conclusion before having examined the subject before us.</p>
+
+<p>Before discussing the question of the selection of a meridian which is
+to serve as a common zero of longitude for all the nations of the
+world, (if the Congress shall think proper to discuss that point,) it
+is evident that we must first decide the question of principle which
+is to govern all our proceedings; that is to say, whether it is
+desirable to fix upon a common zero of longitude for all nations. I
+therefore formally ask for the withdrawal of Mr. Rutherford's
+proposition.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that as something had been said about
+the Conference at Rome, he desired to say that he had carefully<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+abstained from any allusion to it, and that the delegation of the
+United States found no allusions to it in their instructions; that, so
+far as the Chair understood the resolution offered by the Delegate of
+the United States, it was simply to bring before the Conference the
+consideration of the subject of a prime meridian; that he did not
+understand that even the Delegate who presented the motion offered it
+as an expression of his own opinion on the subject, but that he had
+carefully stated, when he had brought the resolution before the
+Conference, that it was for the purpose of enabling the Delegates to
+proceed to an immediate discussion. He added, further, that the
+resolution was quite open to amendment in case the Delegates from
+France desired to amend it.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that
+he wished to offer the following as a substitute for the resolution
+already pending:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That it is the opinion of this Congress that it
+is desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all
+nations in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians
+which now exist."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, then announced
+that he accepted this substitution in place of the first resolution.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of England, stated that if he
+rightly understood the remarks made by the Delegate of France, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, he thought that it was intended to call attention
+to the ultimate form in which the resolutions of this Congress should
+be recorded. He referred to the address which the Secretary of State
+of the United States (Mr. <span class="smcap">Frelinghuysen</span>) made to the
+Delegates on their assembling, in which he said: "You have met to
+discuss and consider the important question of a prime meridian for
+all nations. It will rest with you to give a definite result to the
+preparatory labors of other scientific associations and special
+congresses, and thus make those labors available."</p>
+
+<p>He added that the object at which they should aim was to put together
+a series of resolutions which could be presented to the various
+Governments whose representatives are here<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> present, with a view to
+inducing them to accept the decision which may be arrived at by this
+Conference, and, finally, to put that decision in a diplomatic form&mdash;a
+form which shall be more definite and precise than the mere
+resolutions which would be adopted by a purely scientific body; this
+he understood to be the position to be adopted by the Delegates to
+this Conference. He then said that it seemed to him that it would be
+necessary, after settling the original shape of the resolutions, that
+they should be reconsidered and afterwards put together in an orderly
+way, in a manner which would give a regular and satisfactory record of
+the proceedings; that it appeared almost certain to him that the
+discussions would be desultory in their nature, but that ultimately a
+revision would be had after the rough-hewing of the blocks out of
+which the edifice was to be formed; that he had no wish, at the
+present stage of the discussion, to go into the merits of the question
+presented; that, for his part, he thought it more prudent to abstain,
+but that with reference to the remarks of his honorable friends from
+France, he could not agree that they should set aside what occurred at
+Rome; that the discussions at Rome were most valuable; they went
+thoroughly into the whole question, and he apprehended that every
+gentleman in the Conference was possessed of the records of what
+occurred there.</p>
+
+<p>He continued by saying that he thought that the Delegate from France,
+Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, went a little beyond what was strictly right in
+saying that we should shut our eyes to what occurred there; that, for
+his own part, he was obliged to pay attention to what occurred there;
+that some of the most eminent scientific men to be found in any
+country met there and fully discussed the questions now before us, and
+that the Delegates here present were now called upon to revise what
+occurred there.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, said that the
+Delegate from France, Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, in his remarks, insisted
+that we should first establish for what purpose the Delegates were
+here assembled; that he wished to refer to the circulars sent out by
+the Government of the United States, under which this Conference was
+called together. He said that he could assert,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> without fear of
+contradiction, that in those communications the President stated that
+it was believed to be a foregone conclusion that a prime meridian was
+desirable; that that was the basis on which the President acted in
+giving his invitation; that how he came to that conclusion he does not
+state&mdash;whether or not the proceedings at Rome had anything to do with
+it, but he thought that they had a great influence on the mind of the
+President; that, doubtless, his action was not determined solely by
+that, and, therefore, that the Secretary of State first made a
+tentative application to see whether a proposition for another
+Conference was acceptable, and that he found all countries here
+represented answering the circular in the affirmative; that they
+agreed with him that a conference for this purpose was desirable.</p>
+
+<p>He continued by saying that the Secretary of State then sent a second
+invitation to the different nations to send Delegates, who were to
+assemble here on the first of October, 1884, for the purpose of
+establishing a prime meridian and a universal time. He added that it
+seemed to him a great loss of time to go over the question whether a
+prime meridian was or was not desirable; that the Delegates were sent
+here for the purpose of agreeing upon a prime meridian. He then asked
+why this Conference should lose time in discussing that question.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution offered by the Delegate of the United States, Commander
+<span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, was then unanimously adopted as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That it is the opinion of this Congress that it
+is desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all
+nations in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians
+which now exist."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, then renewed
+his original resolution, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+represented the adoption as a standard meridian that of
+Greenwich, passing through the centre of the transit
+instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, stated that he wished to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+reiterate the objections that he had already offered to the first
+resolution, and spoke as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gentlemen</span>: Mr. Lefaivre, my honorable colleague, and I are of
+the opinion that the mission of this Congress is chiefly to examine
+questions of principle.</p>
+
+<p>I consider that we shall do a very important thing if we proclaim the
+principle of the adoption of a meridian which shall be the same for
+all nations.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of such a meridian have been felt by the geographers
+and navigators of all ages. France might claim the honor of having
+sought to accomplish this reform as early as the seventeenth century.
+It is not to be expected, therefore, that France, at this late day,
+will seek to place any obstacles in the way of the adoption of an
+improvement which would by this time have been adopted if the use of
+the meridian which she proposed, and which she had caused to be
+generally accepted, had been continued.</p>
+
+<p>We therefore fully agree with you, gentlemen, as to the principle of a
+common international meridian, impartially defined and wisely applied,
+and we think that if the Congress should cause a useful reform, which
+has been so long expected, to be finally adopted, it would render a
+great service to the world, and one that would do us the highest
+honor.</p>
+
+<p>This point being gained, is it proper for us to proceed to the
+adoption of such a meridian? We think not, unless we are assured by a
+previous declaration as to the principle which is to govern the
+selection of that meridian. Without such a declaration, we should have
+no power to begin a discussion on an undefined subject, and we are not
+authorized to pledge ourselves.</p>
+
+<p>I must even add that our acquiescence in the principle of an
+international meridian could not be maintained if the Congress
+proceeded to a choice at variance with the exclusively scientific
+principles which we are instructed to maintain. Thus, in the very
+interest of the great principle which we all desire to see adopted, it
+would, to my way of thinking, be wiser to confine ourselves to a
+general declaration which, by uniting the opinions of all, would
+sustain the principle with all the authority<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> possible. The principle
+having once been adopted, our Governments would subsequently convoke a
+conference of a more technical character than this, at which questions
+of application would be more thoroughly examined.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain, stated that it seemed to him
+the order of proceeding for this Conference was very well laid down in
+the invitations addressed by the President of the United States to the
+different countries and in the articles which were formulated at Rome;
+that if these were taken up one after the other and discussed there
+would be a clearly-defined line of action for the Delegates; that if
+an article was not satisfactory it could be altered or amended, or
+could be rejected; but if the propositions were taken up one at a time
+and the discussions directed to these propositions, the Conference
+would be more likely to reach a definite result than in any general
+discussion.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that, so far as he understood the
+proposition, there was no desire to press it to an immediate vote;
+that it was quite proper for the Delegate from France to offer any
+other proposition, as suggested by the Delegate of Spain, in lieu of
+the motion now pending; that so far as the Chair was concerned it
+seemed to him that the Conference could at once proceed to the
+discussion of the general subject of a prime meridian under the
+pending resolution; that if the Delegate from France desires to make
+any other proposition, or offer anything else in a distinct form, he
+will be listened to with great attention and with profound respect.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, remarked that
+the Delegate from France, his learned friend, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>,
+had expressed the opinion that the Delegates had not the power to
+decide upon any particular meridian, but that they were sent here
+merely to discuss this principle, namely, whether a general meridian
+was desirable. He added that he was, of course, not in possession of
+the instructions which the Delegates from France received from their
+own Government, but that he found among the instructions received by
+the Delegates of the United States from their Government a copy of one
+of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> communications made by the President of the United States to
+France, as well as to the other nations, through the Secretary of
+State, in which was this language:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"I am accordingly directed by the President to request you
+to bring the matter to the attention of the Government of
+&mdash;&mdash;, through the Minister for Foreign Affairs, with a view
+to learning, whether its appreciation of the benefits to
+accrue to the intimate intercourse of civilized peoples from
+the consideration and adoption of the suggested common
+standard of time, so far coincides with that of this
+Government as to lead it to accept an invitation to
+participate in an International Conference at a date to be
+designated in the near future."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The Delegate of the United States continued by saying that the whole
+object of this Conference was not to establish the principle that it
+is desirable to have a prime meridian, but to fix that prime meridian;
+that that was the object of the meeting, and that it seemed to him
+that there must be some misapprehension on the part of the learned
+gentleman from France in thinking that this Conference has not the
+power to fix upon a prime meridian; that as to our organization, the
+Delegate of France (Mr. Lefaivre) spoke of its not being sufficiently
+complete to take up this subject at present, but that it seemed to him
+that the Delegates undoubtedly were ready to hear and express
+arguments <i>pro</i> and <i>con</i> in regard to that question; that he supposed
+that every Delegate had studied this matter before coming here, and
+that he did not think that any Delegate would be likely to come here
+unless he knew, or thought he knew, some thing about this matter.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate from Spain, announced that he had no
+power to pledge his country on this subject; that his authority merely
+extended to the power of recommending to his Government such
+resolutions as this Conference might adopt.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden, then said: "I desire to
+state in the protocol that I have no power to engage my Government by
+my votes on the different questions which will be submitted to this
+Conference, and that, therefore,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> these votes must only be considered
+as an engagement on my part to recommend to my Government the
+decisions for which I vote."</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, said that in the
+name of the Delegates of Great Britain he wished to state that they
+were in the same position, but that would not prevent them or this
+Conference from forming an opinion and expressing it.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that on behalf of the Delegates from the
+United States they had no power except that of discussion and
+recommendation.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span> made, on behalf of the Delegates of Russia, a
+declaration identical with that made by the Delegate of Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>Baron <span class="smcap">von Alvensleben</span>, Delegate from Germany, made the same
+announcement on behalf of his Government.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Fernandez</span>, Delegate from Mexico, made the same
+announcement.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain, remarked that this Conference
+was called together not merely to discuss the subject of a prime
+meridian, but to determine, so far as these Delegates were concerned,
+the propriety of adopting a particular prime meridian, and that his
+Government would decide afterwards whether it would accept what this
+Conference should recommend.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. <span class="smcap">Cruls</span>, Delegate of Brazil, stated that his Government
+authorized him to take part in the discussion, but not to commit his
+Government to the adoption of any particular proposition.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, said that he would
+like to call the attention of the Conference to the language of the
+act of Congress calling this Conference together, and that language
+runs as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"That the President of the United States be authorized and
+requested to extend to the Governments of all nations in
+diplomatic relations with our own an invitation to appoint
+delegates to meet delegates from the United States in the
+city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper
+to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of
+time-reckoning throughout the globe."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>He added that he thought the object of the Conference clearly was to
+determine and to recommend; that although the word "recommend" was not
+used in the body of the resolution, it was certainly understood, and,
+as a matter of fact, the title of the joint resolution passed by
+Congress contains the word "recommend." It reads as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"An act to authorize the President of the United States to
+call an international conference to fix on and recommend for
+universal adoption a common prime meridian, to be used in
+the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation of time
+throughout the world."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Baron von Sch&aelig;ffer, Delegate of Austria-Hungary, then moved that the
+Conference adjourn until Monday, the 6th instant, at one o'clock, to
+enable Delegates to confer on this subject.</p>
+
+<p>The proposition of the Delegate of Austria-Hungary was then agreed to,
+and the Conference adjourned to Monday, October 6, 1884, at 1 o'clock,
+p. m.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF OCTOBER 6, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+<p>Present:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Austro-Hungary: Baron <span class="smcap">Ignatz von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Brazil: Dr. <span class="smcap">Luiz Cruls</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Colombia: Commodore <span class="smcap">S. R. Franklin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Costa Rica: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Francisco Echeverria</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">France: Mr. <span class="smcap">A. Lefaivre</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Germany: Baron <span class="smcap">H. von Alvensleben</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Hinckeldeyn</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Great Britain: Capt. Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Prof. <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">Lieut.-General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Guatemala: Mr. <span class="smcap">Miles Rook</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Hawaii: Hon. <span class="smcap">W. D. Alexander</span>, Hon. <span class="smcap">Luther Aholo</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Italy: Count <span class="smcap">Albert de Foresta</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Japan: Professor <span class="smcap">Kikuchi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mexico: Mr. <span class="smcap">Leandro Fernandez</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Angel Arguiano</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Paraguay: Capt. <span class="smcap">John Stewart</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Russia: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. de Struve</span>, Major-General <span class="smcap">Stebnitzki</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">Kologrivoff</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">San Domingo: Mr. <span class="smcap">de J. Galvan</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Salvador: Mr. <span class="smcap">Antonio Batres</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Spain: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Emilio Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Sweden: Count <span class="smcap">Carl Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Turkey: <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">United States: Rear-Admiral <span class="smcap">C. R. P. Rodgers</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Lewis</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">M. Rutherfurd</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Commander <span class="smcap">W. T.</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">Sampson</span>, Professor <span class="smcap">Cleveland Abbe</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Venezuela: Dr. <span class="smcap">A. M. Soteldo</span>.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, said that the
+resolution offered by him at the last meeting omitted to state that
+the proposed meridian was for longitude, and he would offer the
+following as a substitute therefor:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+here represented the adoption of the meridian passing
+through the centre of the transit instrument at the
+Observatory of Greenwich as the standard meridian for
+longitude."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then asked if the Conference would permit the
+substitution to be made, and it was unanimously agreed to.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that he
+did not propose to press the resolution to an early vote, but that it
+was offered simply to elicit the opinions of Delegates on the subject.
+He further stated that, having heard that the Delegates of France, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, desired to present certain
+propositions, he would, for that purpose, move to withdraw for the
+time being the resolution offered by him.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made, the resolution was temporarily withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, then made the following
+statement:</p>
+
+<p>Our colleague, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, having withdrawn his motion
+for the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich, we, the Delegates of
+France, after consultation with him, submit the following motion:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the initial meridian should have a
+character of absolute neutrality. It should be chosen
+exclusively so as to secure to science and to international
+commerce all possible advantages, and in particular
+especially should cut no great continent&mdash;neither Europe nor
+America."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, then stated
+that he presumed the Conference could hardly pass by the important
+meeting held at Rome, where twelve of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> thirty-eight Delegates were
+directors of national observatories, and where the subject of the
+conditions which should attach to a prime meridian were discussed
+without reference to any particular nationality; that these learned
+gentlemen came to the conclusion (which he thought was a very wise
+one) that the necessity existed for a prime meridian that it should
+pass through an astronomical observatory of the first order; that
+modern science demanded such precision, and therefore they excluded
+all ideas of a meridian being established on an island, in a strait,
+on the summit of a mountain, or as indicated by a monumental building.
+Looking at the subject in its various aspects, they came to the
+conclusion that there were only four great observatories which in
+their minds combined all the conditions, and this decision was
+unanimously received by that Conference. Those great observatories
+were Paris, Berlin, Greenwich, and Washington. He stated further that,
+having this in view, he thought this Conference should be particularly
+guarded, looking at the question from a scientific point of view, not
+to depart from the conditions laid down by the Conference at Rome;
+that he had no desire to advocate any one of the places enumerated,
+but merely mentioned them as satisfying all the conditions of science,
+which was so brilliantly represented at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, then said:</p>
+
+<p>I can only attempt to anticipate the arguments which may be advanced
+by the learned Delegate from France in support of his resolution to
+adopt a neutral meridian. But it is our simple duty, in our present
+judicial capacity, to examine the question of a prime meridian from
+all points of view. With the object, then, of considering the question
+from another stand-point, I ask your attention for one moment. This
+Congress, at its last meeting, by a unanimous vote, declared its
+opinion that it was desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for the
+purpose of reckoning longitude. Further, it is fair to assume that the
+delegates here assembled, in answer to a specific invitation from the
+Government of the United States, and for a stated purpose, have come
+empowered by their respective governments to act<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> upon the questions
+submitted for their consideration in the invitation.</p>
+
+<p>At the last meeting, the Delegates from France left us somewhat in
+doubt regarding their views upon this important question of the powers
+of the delegates, or at least of their own delegation. But as they
+have to-day advocated the adoption of a neutral meridian, we may
+conclude that they have the necessary delegated power to fully
+consider and determine the main question before us&mdash;the selection of a
+prime meridian.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of any declared opinion to the contrary, we may take it
+for granted that the Delegates from all States here represented are
+deputed to "fix upon a meridian proper to be employed as a common zero
+of longitude throughout the globe," and to recommend the same for
+adoption to their respective Governments.</p>
+
+<p>If, then, we are of one mind as to the desirability of a single prime
+meridian, and if we are fully empowered to make the selection, which
+may be taken as another way of saying that we are directed by our
+respective Governments to make the selection, we may proceed directly
+to the performance of this duty.</p>
+
+<p>In the choice of a prime meridian, there is no physical feature of our
+earth which commends itself above others as the best starting point;
+nor does the form of the earth itself present any peculiarity which
+might be used as an initial point. If the refinements of geodesy
+should finally lead to the conclusion that the figure of the earth is
+an ellipsoid with three axes, yet the question of the direction of
+either of the equatorial axes must remain to such a degree uncertain
+that the extremity of the axis could not be assumed as the point of
+departure for counting longitude. Indeed, as an initial meridian must
+above all things be fixed in position, it would not answer to make its
+position depend upon any physical constant which is itself in the
+slightest degree uncertain; for in these days, when refinements in
+physical measurements are constantly leading to more and more accurate
+results, each advance in accuracy would necessitate an annoying change
+in the initial meridian, or, what would more probably result, the
+retention of the first chosen meridian, which would thus lose its
+dependence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> upon the original definition, and become as arbitrary as
+if taken by chance in the first instance.</p>
+
+<p>We may then say that, from a purely scientific point of view, any
+meridian may be taken as the prime meridian. But from the standpoint
+of convenience and economy there is undoubtedly much room for a
+choice.</p>
+
+<p>Considering this question of convenience in connection with the
+necessary condition of fixity already referred to, the prime meridian
+should pass through some well-established national observatory.</p>
+
+<p>In making the choice of a prime meridian which is to serve for a great
+period of time, it is important to so fix and define it that the
+natural changes of time may not render it in the least degree
+uncertain. To this end, the nation within whose borders the chosen
+point may fall should engage to establish it in the most enduring
+manner, and protect it against all possible causes of change or
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>When taken in connection with other requirements, to be mentioned
+hereafter, this character of permanence will be best secured by making
+the adopted meridian pass through an observatory which is under the
+control of the Government.</p>
+
+<p>Such observatory should be in telegraphic communication with the whole
+world, in order that the differences of longitude from the prime
+meridian may be determined for any point. These conditions of
+convenience are so important that they may fairly be considered
+imperative. To fulfil them one of the national meridians now in use
+should be selected. To select any other than one of these meridians,
+or a meridian directly dependent upon one of them, and defined simply
+by its angular distance from one of these national meridians, would be
+to introduce endless confusion into all charts and maps now in use.</p>
+
+<p>To select as a prime meridian one which shall be a defined angular
+distance from one of the national meridians, must have for its object
+either to remove some inconvenience which results from the use of the
+national meridian itself, or it must be to satisfy a desire to deprive
+the selected meridian of any nationality.</p>
+
+<p>The inconvenience of east and west longitudes, which results<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> from
+having the prime meridian pass through a thickly populated portion of
+the world, will be removed by reckoning the longitude continuously
+from O&deg; to 360&deg;. At the same time an important advantage is secured by
+having the prime meridian occupy a central position with regard to the
+most densely populated part of the earth; because the distances which
+will then separate the various points from the central observatory
+marking the initial meridian will be a minimum, and consequently less
+liable to error in determination. The selection of a meridian by
+calculation, defined as a certain number of degrees east or west of
+one of the national meridians, would not thereby deprive the meridian
+thus selected of a national character; for though we may reckon
+longitude from a meridian passing through the Atlantic or Pacific
+Ocean, yet the initial point from which all measurements of longitude
+must be made would still remain one of the national meridians. Again,
+if any other than one of the national meridians were selected, or a
+meridian dependent upon one of them, as, for example, a neutral
+meridian in the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, it would necessitate a
+change in all charts and maps.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to say that no scientific or practical
+advantage is to be secured by adopting the meridian of the great
+pyramid, or by attempting to establish permanent meridian marks over a
+great length of the selected meridian, for even in the present
+advanced condition of astronomical and geodetic science it is not
+practicable to establish two points on the same meridian at a
+considerable distance from each other with such a degree of accuracy
+as would warrant the use of them indifferently as the initial point.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of economy as well as convenience that meridian should be
+selected which is now in most general use. This additional
+consideration of economy would limit our choice to the meridian of
+Greenwich, for it may fairly be stated upon the authority of the
+distinguished Delegate from Canada that more than 70 per cent. of all
+the shipping of the world uses this meridian for purposes of
+navigation.</p>
+
+<p>The charts constructed upon this meridian cover the whole navigable
+globe. The cost of the plates from which these charts are printed is
+probably 75 per cent. of the cost of all plates<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> in the world for
+printing mariners' charts, and is probably not less than ten millions
+of dollars. As a matter of economy, then, to the world at large, it
+would be better to permit those plates to remain unchanged which are
+engraved for the meridian of Greenwich and to make the necessary
+changes in all plates engraved for other meridians.</p>
+
+<p>A very natural pride has led the great nations to establish by law
+their own prime meridian within their own borders, and into this error
+the United States was led about 35 years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Should any of us now hesitate in the adoption of a particular
+meridian, or should any nation covet the honor of having the selected
+meridian within its own borders, it is to be remembered that when the
+prime meridian is once adopted by all it loses its specific name and
+nationality, and becomes simply the Prime Meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that he
+did not propose to take up much of the time of the Conference; that he
+had listened with great pleasure to the exhaustive speech of his
+colleague, Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, but that he wished to say a few
+words about the conditions of permanence in the prime meridian to
+which allusion had just been made. He said that he would call
+attention to the fact that the observatory at Paris stands within the
+heart of a large and populous city; that it has already been thought
+by many of the principal French astronomers that it should no longer
+remain there; that it has been, interfered with by the tremors of the
+earth and emanations in the air, which prevent it from fulfilling its
+usefulness; that for several years past strenuous efforts have been
+made to remove the observatory from Paris to some other place where it
+may be free to follow out its course of usefulness, and that the only
+thing which keeps it there is the remembrance of the honorable career
+of that observatory in times past. He added that he was sure that
+there was no one here who failed to recognize its claims to
+distinction; that there was no one here acquainted with the past
+history of astronomy but looks with pride upon the achievements of the
+human intellect effected<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> there. At the same time, however, if a
+change is to be made, if sentiment should give way to practical
+reason, a locality, no doubt, will be found which may be calculated to
+fulfil the requirements of a prime meridian better than that one.</p>
+
+<p>As to the fitness of Greenwich, he said that the observatory was
+placed in the middle of a large park under the control of the
+Government, so that no nuisance can come near it without their
+consent, and that it was in a position which speaks for itself; that
+he would only add one word more in regard to this matter, and that is,
+that the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian
+has not been sought after by Great Britain; that it was not her
+proposition, but that she consented to it after it had been proposed
+by other portions of the civilized world.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, said: We do not put forward
+the meridian of the observatory of Paris as that to be chosen for the
+prime meridian; but if it were chosen, and we wished to compare it
+with that of Greenwich as to the accuracy with which it is actually
+connected with the other observatories of Europe, it would not lose by
+the comparison. The latest observations of the differences of
+longitude made by electricity by the Bureau of Longitudes of France
+and our officers have given very remarkable results of great accuracy.
+It is well known that what is important for a starting point in
+reckoning longitude is, above all things, that it should be accurately
+connected with points whose positions have been precisely fixed, such
+as the great observatories. There is, therefore, a slight confusion on
+the part of my eminent colleague, namely, that of not distinguishing
+between the conditions which require the exact connection of the
+starting point of longitudes with observatories, and the merits of the
+position of such a point in an astronomical aspect, which is here a
+matter of secondary importance.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France, said that he did not not
+know if his observation was well founded, but it seemed to him that
+what the Delegates of France had proposed had not been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> contested, but
+that the arguments used had rather been those in favor of the adoption
+of the meridian of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, said that the
+observations which he had made were merely to be regarded as a
+negative of the proposition made by the Delegates of France, and not
+as a statement of the arguments in favor of the adoption of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> said that the remarks of the Delegate of the
+United States were not out of order, inasmuch as they were intended to
+combat the proposition brought forward by the Delegate of France.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, then spoke as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gentlemen</span>: At the last session, when a proposition was made
+by my eminent colleague and friend, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, to
+discuss and vote upon the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich as the
+common prime meridian, I thought it necessary to say that the proposal
+appeared to me prematurely made, and that we could not agree to the
+discussion proceeding in that manner. Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span> has
+informed me that he would withdraw his proposition for the present, in
+order to permit me to direct the discussion, in the first place, to
+the principle which should direct the choice of a common prime
+meridian. I here take the opportunity of thanking Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span> for his courtesy, and I no longer object to
+proceeding with the debate.</p>
+
+<p>What we ask is, that after the general declaration of the second
+session as to the utility of a common prime meridian, the Congress
+should discuss the question of the principle which should guide the
+choice of that meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Being charged to maintain before you, gentlemen, the principle of the
+neutrality of the prime meridian, it is evident that if that principle
+was rejected by the Congress it would be useless for us to take part
+in the further discussion of the choice of the meridian to be adopted
+as the point of departure in reckoning longitude.</p>
+
+<p>We think, gentlemen, that if this question of the unification of
+longitude is again taken up after so many unsuccessful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> attempts to
+settle it as are recorded in history, there will be no chance of its
+final solution unless it be treated upon an exclusively geographical
+basis, and that at any cost all national competition should be set
+aside. We do not advocate any particular meridian. We put ourselves
+completely aside in the debate, and thus place ourselves in a position
+of far greater freedom for expressing our opinion, and discussing the
+question exclusively in view of the interests affected by the proposed
+reform.</p>
+
+<p>The history of geography shows us a great number of attempts to
+establish a uniformity of longitude, and when we look for the reasons
+which have caused those attempts (many of which were very happily
+conceived) to fail, we are struck with the fact that it appears due to
+two principal causes&mdash;one of a scientific and the other of a moral
+nature. The scientific cause was the incapacity of the ancients to
+determine exactly the relative positions of different points on the
+globe, especially if it was a question of an island far from a
+continent, and which consequently could not be connected with that
+continent by itinerary measurements. For example, the first meridian
+of Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy, placed on the Fortunate Isles, in
+spite of its being so well chosen at the western extremity of the then
+known world, could not continue to be used on account of the
+uncertainty of the point of departure. That much to be regretted
+obstacle caused the method to be changed. It became necessary to fall
+back on the continent. But then, in place of a single common origin of
+longitude indicated by nature, the first meridians were fixed at
+capitals of countries, at remarkable places, at observatories. The
+second cause to which I just now alluded, the cause of a moral
+nature&mdash;national pride&mdash;has led to the multiplication of geographical
+starting-points where the nature of things would have required, on the
+contrary, their reduction to a single one.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century, Cardinal Richelieu, in view of this
+confusion, desired to take up again the conception of Marinus of Tyre,
+and assembled at Paris French and foreign men of science, and the
+famous meridian of the Island of Ferro was the result of their
+discussions.</p>
+
+<p>Here, gentlemen, we find a lesson which should not be lost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> sight of.
+This meridian of Ferro, which at first had the purely geographical and
+neutral character which could alone establish and maintain it as an
+international first meridian, was deprived of its original
+characteristic by the geographer Delisle, who, to simplify the
+figures, placed it at 20 degrees in round numbers west of Paris. This
+unfortunate simplification abandoned entirely the principle of
+impersonality. It was no longer then an independent meridian; it was
+the meridian of Paris disguised. The consequences were soon felt. The
+meridian of Ferro, which has subsequently been considered as a purely
+French meridian, aroused national susceptibilities, and thus lost the
+future which was certainly in store for it if it had remained as at
+first defined. This was a real misfortune for geography. Our maps,
+while being perfected, would have preserved a common unit of origin,
+which, on the contrary, has altered more and more.</p>
+
+<p>If, as soon as astronomical methods had been far enough advanced to
+permit the establishment of relative positions with that moderate
+accuracy which is sufficient for ordinary geography, (and that could
+have been done at the end of the 17th century,) we had again taken up
+the just and geographical conception of Marinus of Tyre, the reform
+would have been accomplished two centuries sooner, and to-day we
+should have been in the full enjoyment of it. But the fault was
+committed of losing sight of the essential principles of the question,
+and the establishment of numerous observatories greatly contributed to
+this. Furnishing naturally very accurate relative positions, each one
+of these establishments was chosen by the nation to which it belonged
+as a point of departure for longitude, so that the intervention of
+astronomy in these questions of a geographical nature, an intervention
+which, if properly understood, should have been so useful, led us
+further away from the object to be attained.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, gentlemen, the study of these questions tends to show that
+there is an essential distinction between meridians of a geographical
+or <ins class="correction" title="Text reads... hydrgraphical">hydrographical</ins> nature and meridians of observatories. The meridians
+of observatories should be considered essentially national. Their
+function is to permit observatories to connect themselves one with
+another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> for the unification of the observations made at them. They
+serve also as bases for geodetic and topographical operations carried
+on around them. But their function is of a very special kind, and
+should be generally limited to the country to which they belong.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, initial meridians for geography need not be fixed
+with quite such a high degree of accuracy as is required by astronomy;
+but, in compensation, their operation must be far reaching, and while
+it is useful to increase as much as possible the number of meridians
+of observatories, it is necessary to reduce as much as we can the
+starting points for longitudes in geography.</p>
+
+<p>Further, it may be said that as the position of an observatory should
+be chosen with reference to astronomical considerations, so an initial
+meridian in geography should only be fixed for geographical reasons.</p>
+
+<p>Gentlemen, have these two very different functions been always well
+understood, and has this necessary distinction been preserved? In no
+wise. As observatories, on account of the great accuracy of their
+operations, furnish admirable points of reference, each nation which
+was in a condition to do it connected with its principal observatory
+not only the geodetic or topographical work which was done at home&mdash;a
+very natural thing&mdash;but also general geographical or hydrographical
+work which was executed abroad, a practice which contained the germ of
+all the difficulties with which we are troubled to-day. Thus, as maps
+accumulated, the need of uniformity, especially in those that referred
+to general geography, was felt more and more.</p>
+
+<p>This explains why this question of a single meridian as a starting
+point has been so often raised of late.</p>
+
+<p>Among the assemblies which have occupied themselves with this
+question, the one which principally calls for our attention is that
+which was held at Rome last year; indeed, for many of our colleagues
+the conclusions adopted by the Congress of Rome settle the whole
+matter. These conclusions must, therefore, receive our special
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>In reading the reports of the discussions of that Congress, I was
+struck with the fact that in an assembly of so many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> learned men and
+eminent theorists it was the practical side of the question that was
+chiefly considered, and which finally determined the character of the
+resolutions adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, instead of laying down the great principle that the meridian to
+be offered to the world as the starting-point for all terrestrial
+longitudes should, have above all things, an essentially geographical
+and impersonal character, the question was simply asked, which one of
+the meridians in use among the different observatories has (if I may
+be allowed to use the expression) the largest number of clients? In a
+matter which interests geography much more than hydrography, as most
+sailors acknowledge, because there exist really but two initial
+hydrographic meridians, Greenwich and Paris, a prime meridian has been
+taken, the reign (practical influence) of which is principally over
+the sea; and this meridian, instead of being chosen with reference to
+the configuration of the continents, is borrowed from an observatory;
+that is to say, that it is placed on the globe in a hap-hazard manner,
+and is very inconveniently situated for the function that it is to
+perform. Finally, instead of profiting by the lessons of the past,
+national rivalries are introduced in a question that should rally the
+good-will of all.</p>
+
+<p>Well, gentlemen, I say that considerations of economy and of
+established custom should not make us lose sight of the principles
+which must be paramount in this question, and which alone can lead to
+the universal acceptance and permanence of its settlement.
+Furthermore, gentlemen, these motives of economy and of established
+custom, which have been appealed to as a decisive argument, exist, it
+is true, for the majority in behalf of which they have been put
+forward, but exist for them only, and leave to us the whole burden of
+change in customs, publications, and material.</p>
+
+<p>Since the report considers us of so little weight in the scales, allow
+me, gentlemen, to recall briefly the past and the present of our
+hydrography, and for that purpose I can do no better than to quote
+from a work that has been communicated to me, and which emanates from
+one of our most learned hydrographers. "France," he says, "created
+more than two centuries ago the most ancient nautical ephemerides in
+existence. She was the first to conceive and execute the great
+geodetic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> operations which had for their object the construction of
+civil and military maps and the measurement of arcs of the meridian in
+Europe, America, and Africa. All these operations were and are based
+on the Paris meridian. Nearly all the astronomical tables used at the
+present time by the astronomers and the navies of the whole world are
+French, and calculated for the Paris meridian. As to what most
+particularly concerns shipping, the accurate methods now used by all
+nations for hydrographic surveys are of French origin, and our charts,
+all reckoned from the meridian of Paris, bear such names as those of
+Bougainville, La P&eacute;rouse, Fleurieu, Borda, d'Entrecasteaux, Beautemps,
+Beaupr&eacute;, Duperrey, Dumont d'Urville, Daussy, to quote only a few among
+those who are not living.</p>
+
+<p>"Our actual hydrographic collections amount to more than 4,000 charts.
+By striking off those which the progress of explorations have rendered
+useless, there still remain about 2,600 charts in use. Of this number
+more than half represent original French surveys, a large part of
+which foreign nations have reproduced. Amongst the remainder, the
+general charts are the result of discussions undertaken in the Bureau
+of the Marine, by utilizing all known documents, French as well as
+foreign, and there are relatively few which are mere translations of
+foreign works. Our surveys are not confined to the coasts of France
+and of its colonies; there is scarcely a region of the globe for which
+we do not possess original work&mdash;Newfoundland, the coasts of Guiana,
+of Brazil, and of La Plata, Madagascar, numerous points of Japan and
+of China, 187 original charts relative to the Pacific. We must not
+omit the excellent work of our hydrographic engineers on the west
+coast of Italy, which was honored by the international jury with the
+great medal of honor at the Universal Exhibition of 1867. The
+exclusive use of the Paris meridian by our sailors is justified by
+reference to a past of two centuries, which we have thus briefly
+recalled.</p>
+
+<p>"If another initial meridian had to be adopted, it would be necessary
+to change the graduation of our 2,600 hydrographic plates; it would be
+necessary to do the same thing for our nautical instructions, (sailing
+directions,) which exceed 600 in number. The change would also
+necessarily involve a corresponding change in the <i>Connaissance des
+Temps</i>."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>These are titles to consideration of some importance. Well, if under
+these circumstances the projected reform, instead of being directed by
+the higher principles which ought to govern the subject, should take
+solely for its base the respect due to the established customs of the
+largest number and the absence on their part of all sacrifice,
+reserving to us alone the burden of the change and the abandonment of
+a valued and glorious past, are we not justified in saying that a
+proposition thus made would not be acceptable?</p>
+
+<p>When France, at the end of the last century, instituted the metre, did
+she proceed thus? Did she, as a measure of economy and in order to
+change nothing in her customs, propose to the world the "Pied de Roi"
+as a unit of measure? You know the facts. The truth is, everything
+with us was overthrown&mdash;both the established methods and instruments
+for measurement; and the measure adopted being proportioned only to
+the dimensions of the earth, is so entirely detached from everything
+French that in future centuries the traveller who may search the ruins
+of our cities may inquire what people invented the metrical measure
+that chance may bring under his eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Permit me to say that it is thus a reform should be made and becomes
+acceptable. It is by setting the example of self-sacrifice; it is by
+complete self-effacement in any undertaking, that opposition is
+disarmed and true love of progress is proved.</p>
+
+<p>I now hasten to say that I am persuaded that the proposition voted for
+at Rome was neither made nor suggested by England, but I doubt whether
+it would render a true service to the English nation if it be agreed
+to. An immense majority of the navies of the world navigate with
+English charts; that is true, and it is a practical compliment to the
+great maritime activity of that nation. When this freely admitted
+supremacy shall be transformed into an official and compulsory
+supremacy, it will suffer the vicissitudes of all human power, and
+that institution, (the common meridian,) which by its nature is of a
+purely scientific nature, and to which we would assure a long and
+certain future, will become the object of burning competition and
+jealousy among nations.</p>
+
+<p>All this shows, gentlemen, how much wiser it would be to take for the
+origin of terrestrial longitude a point chosen from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> geographical
+considerations only. Upon the globe, nature has so sharply separated
+the continent on which the great American nation has arisen, that
+there are only two solutions possible from a geographical point of
+view, both of them very natural.</p>
+
+<p>The first solution would consist in returning, with some small
+modification, to the solution of the ancients, by placing our meridian
+near the Azores; the second by throwing it back to that immense
+expanse of water which separates America from Asia, where on its
+northern shores the New World abuts on the old.</p>
+
+<p>These two solutions may be discussed; this has been often done, and
+again quite recently, by one of our ablest geologists, M. de
+Chancourtois.</p>
+
+<p>Each of these meridians combine the fundamental conditions which
+geography demands and upon which there has always been an agreement
+when national meridians are set aside from the discussion. As to the
+determination of the position of the point which may be adopted, the
+present excellent astronomical methods will give it with a degree of
+exactness as great as that which geography requires.</p>
+
+<p>But what is the necessity for a special and costly determination of
+the longitude of a point which can be fixed arbitrarily, provided this
+be done within certain limits, as for instance by satisfying the
+conditions of passing through a strait or an island. We may be content
+with fixing the position of the point adopted in an approximate
+manner. The position thus obtained would be connected with certain of
+the great observatories selected for the purpose from their being
+accurately connected one with another, and the relative positions thus
+ascertained would supply the definition of the first meridian. As to
+any material mark on the globe, if one be desired, though it is in no
+manner necessary, it would be established in conformity with this
+definition, and its position should be changed until it exactly
+complied with it.</p>
+
+<p>As to the question of the changes to be introduced in existing maps
+and charts which, by our proposition, would be imposed upon everybody,
+they could be very much reduced, especially if it were agreed&mdash;which
+would be sufficient at first&mdash;to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> draw upon existing charts only a
+subsidiary additional scale of graduation which would permit immediate
+use of the international meridian. Later, and as new charts were
+engraved, a more complete scale of graduation would be given; but I
+think that it would always be desirable to preserve in the manner now
+done in many atlases both systems of reckoning longitude&mdash;the national
+and international. If it be necessary at the present time to
+facilitate the external relations of all nations, it is also well to
+preserve among them all manifestations of personal life, and to
+respect the symbols which represent their traditions and past history.</p>
+
+<p>Gentlemen, I do not propose to dwell upon the details of the
+establishment of such a meridian. We have only to advocate before you
+the principle of its acceptance.</p>
+
+<p>If this principle be admitted by the Congress, we are instructed to
+say that you will find in it a ground for agreement with France.</p>
+
+<p>Without doubt, on account of our long and glorious past, of our great
+publications, of our important hydrographic works, a change of
+meridian would cause us heavy sacrifices. Nevertheless, if we are
+approached with offers of self-sacrifice, and thus receive proofs of a
+sincere desire for the general good, France has given sufficient
+proofs of her love of progress to make her co-operation certain.</p>
+
+<p>But we shall have to regret that we are not able to join a combination
+which to protect the interests of one portion of the contracting
+parties would sacrifice the more weighty scientific character of the
+meridian to be adopted, a character which in our eyes is indispensable
+to justify its imposition upon all, and to assure it permanent
+success.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that if
+he were allowed to offer a few observations upon the eloquent address
+made by his colleague, the representative of France, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, he would remark that, so far as he could follow that
+discourse, it seemed to him to turn almost entirely on sentimental
+considerations; that it appeared to him that the Delegate of France
+had overlooked one great point which was correctly laid down by the
+President in his opening<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> address, viz., that one of the main objects
+to be kept in view in the deliberations of this Conference would be,
+how best to secure the aggregate convenience of the world at
+large&mdash;how we should choose a prime meridian which would cause the
+least inconvenience by the change that would take place. Of course,
+any change would necessarily be accompanied by a certain amount of
+inconvenience, but our object, as he understood it, was to take care
+that that inconvenience should be as small in its aggregate amount as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>He stated that if that were taken as the ground of consideration by
+this Conference, it appeared to him that the question was narrowed to
+one of fact rather than to be one of sentiment, which latter would
+admit of no solution whatever; for it was quite clear that if all the
+Delegates here present were guided by merely sentimental
+considerations, or by considerations of <i>amour propre</i>, the Conference
+would never arrive at any conclusion, because each nation would put
+its own interests on a level with those of every other.</p>
+
+<p>He added that if the Conference should be able to agree in the opinion
+that the adoption of one meridian (for his part he did not undertake
+to say what meridian) would be accompanied by a greater amount of
+convenience in the aggregate than the adoption of any other, he
+thought that this should be the predominant consideration in guiding
+the decision of this Conference, on the question referred to them, and
+it appeared to him that this is a consideration which the Delegate of
+France has not put before this Conference, at least not in a prominent
+way. It is clear that the inconvenience caused to any one nation by
+the adoption of a new neutral meridian would not be lessened by the
+fact that all other nations would suffer the same inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the question of a neutral meridian, Professor
+<span class="smcap">Adams</span> wished to call the attention of the Congress to the
+fact that the Delegates here present are not a collection of
+representatives of belligerents; that they are all neutral as men
+should be in a matter purely scientific, or in any other matter which
+affects the convenience of the world at large, and that this
+Conference is not met here at the end of a war to see how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> territory
+should be divided, but in a friendly way, representing friendly
+nations.</p>
+
+<p>He stated that he hoped the Delegates would be guided in their
+decision by the main consideration, which was, What will tend to the
+greatest practical convenience of the world? That he need not address
+a word to the other part of the argument which he thought at first of
+commenting upon a little, for the Delegate of the United States,
+Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, who spoke first, had put his views so
+clearly before the Conference that he (Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>) would
+not detain it longer.</p>
+
+<p>He would add, however, that if the Conference is to take a neutral
+meridian they must either erect an observatory on the point selected,
+which might be very inconvenient if they should choose such a point as
+is alluded to by the Delegate of France, or if some such place was not
+selected, we should merely have a zero of longitude by a legal
+fiction, and that would not be a real zero at all; that they would
+have to select their zero with reference to a known observatory, and
+that, for instance, supposing they took a point for zero twenty
+degrees west of Paris, of course that would be really adopting Paris
+as the prime meridian; that it would not be so nominally, but in
+reality it would be, and he thought that we now-a-days should get rid
+of legal fictions as much as possible, and call things by their right
+names.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, said:</p>
+
+<p>My eminent colleague, whose presence is an honor to this Congress,
+Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, thinks that I overlook too much the
+practical side of the question; namely, how a prime meridian can be
+established so as to cause the least inconvenience. He says that I pay
+too much attention to what he calls a question of sentiment, and he
+concludes by expressing the hope that all nations will lay aside their
+national pride and only be guided by this consideration: What meridian
+offers the greatest practical advantages? My reply is that I intend no
+more than Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span> to place the question upon the
+ground of national pride; but it is one thing to speak in the name of
+national pride and another to foresee that this sentiment common to
+all men, may show itself, and that we should avoid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> conclusions likely
+to arouse it, or we may compromise our success. That is all our
+argument; and the history of the great nation to which Professor
+<span class="smcap">Adams</span> belongs furnishes us with examples of considerable
+significance, for the French meridian of Ferro was never adopted by
+the English, notwithstanding its happy geographical situation, and we
+all still awaiting the honor of seeing the adoption of the metrical
+system for common use in England.</p>
+
+<p>But let us put aside these questions which I would not have been the
+first to touch upon, and place ourselves upon the true ground of the
+importance of the proposed reform, which is the only one worthy of
+ourselves or of this discussion. We do not refuse to enter into an
+agreement on account of a mere question, of national pride, and the
+statement of the changes and expenses to which we should have to
+submit in order to accomplish the agreement is a sufficient proof of
+this.</p>
+
+<p>But we consider that a reform which consists in giving to a
+geographical question one of the worst solutions possible, simply on
+the ground of practical convenience, that is to say, the advantage to
+yourselves and those you represent, of having nothing to change,
+either in your maps, customs, or traditions&mdash;such a solution, I say,
+can have no future before it, and we refuse to take part in it.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States, stated that the
+Delegate of France, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, had made a very important
+proposition to the Conference: That the meridian adopted should be a
+neutral one. He said that he had endeavored to determine what a
+neutral meridian is. On what principle shall the Conference fix upon a
+neutral meridian, and what is a neutral meridian? Shall it be
+historical, geographical, scientific, or arithmetical? In what way
+shall it be fixed upon? He looked back a little into the history of an
+important system adopted some years ago. France determined to give us
+a neutral system of weights and measures, and the world now thanks her
+for it. She determined that the base of this neutral system should be
+the ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the meridian. She fixed it by
+measurement, and to-day we use the metre as the standard in all
+important scientific work; but is that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> metre part of a neutral
+system? Is our metric system neutral? It was intended to be, but it is
+not; we are using a French system. Had the English, or the Germans, or
+the Americans taken the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the
+meridian, they would have arrived at a slightly different measure, and
+there would have been an English, a German, and an American measure.
+We are using the French metric system. It was intended to be a neutral
+system, but it is a French system. We adopt it because it deserves our
+admiration, but it is not a neutral system. The various nations of the
+world might meet and agree upon some slight modification of this
+metric system which would agree with the results of all scientific
+investigations, and thus make it international instead of French; but
+we do not care to do that, and are willing to adopt one system, taking
+the standard of Paris as our standard. How shall we determine a
+neutral system of longitude? The expression "neutral system of
+longitude" is a myth, a fancy, a piece of poetry, unless you can tell
+precisely how to do it. He would vote for a neutral system if the
+French representatives can tell the Conference clearly how to decide
+that it is neutral, and satisfy them that it is not national in any
+way.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, said:</p>
+
+<p>I perfectly understand the objection of my honorable colleague, Prof.
+<span class="smcap">Abbe</span>. He asks what is a neutral meridian, and adds that the
+metre itself does not appear to him to be a neutral measure, but to be
+a French measure. He relies upon the consideration that if the
+English, the Americans, and Germans, in adopting a definition of the
+metre, had measured it for themselves, they would have arrived each at
+a slightly different result, which would have given us an English,
+American, and German metre; nevertheless, he adds, we use the French
+metre, because we find it so admirable.</p>
+
+<p>I would answer, first, that the metre, as far as the measure is
+derived from the dimensions of the earth, is not French, and it was
+precisely to take away this character of nationality that those who
+fixed on the metre sought to establish it on the dimensions of the
+earth itself. What is French is the particular metre of our national
+archives, which exhibits a very slight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> difference from that which our
+actual geodesy would have given us. Also, I think that if, at the time
+of the adoption of the Convention du M&ecirc;tre, in which the nations of
+Europe participated, we had slightly changed the length of our
+standard to make it agree with the result of actual geodetic
+measurements, we should have done an excellent thing in depriving this
+measure of any shadow of nationality. I agree with my honorable
+colleague that if a few slight changes adopted by common accord could
+perfect the metrical system, we French ought to have no motive for
+opposing it. We have the honor of having invented a system of measures
+which, being based upon considerations of a purely scientific nature,
+has been accepted by all. Therefore if it can be said with truth that
+the metre of the Archives of Paris is French, (not intentionally, but
+because it bears the mark of an error of French origin,) it is an
+international metre, by the same title that the discovery of the
+satellites of Mars made by my friend, Prof. Asaph Hall, whom I have
+the pleasure of seeing here, is scientific and of a universal nature.
+The metre&mdash;equal to the ten-millionth part of the distance from the
+equator to the pole&mdash;is no more French than that distance itself, and,
+nevertheless, if the Americans, English, or Germans had measured it,
+they would each have arrived at a slightly different metre.</p>
+
+<p>Now, my honorable colleague adds that a neutral meridian appears to
+him a myth, a fancy, a piece of poetry, so long as we have not exactly
+settled the method of determining it. I shall disregard the
+expressions which my honorable colleague has thus introduced into the
+discussion, because this discussion should be serious. It is plain
+that Prof. <span class="smcap">Abbe</span> did not thoroughly apprehend the explanations
+which I gave of the proper methods of fixing the initial meridian, and
+of the conditions which make a meridian neutral; but I return to them,
+since I am invited to do so. Our meridian will be neutral if, in place
+of taking one of those which are fixed by the existing great
+observatories, to which, consequently, the name of a nation is
+attached, and which by long usage is identified with that nation, we
+choose a meridian based only upon geographical considerations, and
+upon the uses for which we propose to adopt it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Do you want a striking example of what differentiates a neutral
+meridian from a national meridian? In order to avoid the confusion
+which existed in geography at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century, on account of the multiplicity of initial meridians then in
+use, a congress of learned men, assembled in Paris at the instance of
+Richelieu to select a new common meridian, fixed its choice on the
+most eastern point of the Island of Ferro. This was a purely
+geographical meridian, being attached to no capital, to no national
+observatory, and consequently neutral, or, if you please, purely
+geographical. Later, Le p&egrave;re Feuillet, sent in 1724 by the Academy of
+Sciences to determine the exact longitude of the initial point, having
+given the figure 19&deg; 55' 3" west of Paris, the geographer, Delisle,
+for the sake of simplicity, adopted the round number 20&deg;; and, as I
+stated a little while ago, this alteration completely changed the
+character of this prime meridian. It ceased to be neutral, and became
+merely the meridian of Paris disguised, as has been truly said, and
+the English, notably, never adopted it. Here is the difference,
+gentlemen, between a neutral meridian and a national meridian.</p>
+
+<p>And, parenthetically, you see, gentlemen, how dangerous it is to
+awaken national susceptibilities on a subject of a purely scientific
+nature. Now allow me to add that, if in 1633 it was possible to find a
+neutral meridian, a purely geographical meridian, an independent
+meridian, it may easily be done in 1884 if we wish to do so; and that
+a point chosen on purely geographical considerations, either in
+Behring's Strait or in the Azores, could be much better determined now
+than was possible to Father Feuillet in 1724, and could take the
+position which the meridian of Ferro would not have lost had it not
+been confounded with the meridian of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that
+he merely desired to refer to one subject touched on by the Delegate
+of France, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, whose opinion he thought could hardly
+be supported, and that was that the question of longitude was purely
+one of geography. He desired to controvert that, and to hold that the
+question of longitude was purely one of astronomical observation. The
+difference of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> longitude between two places could not be determined by
+geodetic observations, because to do this you must take hypothesis as
+to the figure of the earth, and the figure of the earth is not a
+simple figure. You may take as hypothesis that the figure of the earth
+is spheroidal, and that the ratio of the axes is exactly defined. Now,
+in the first place, we are not agreed as to the exact ratio of the
+axes, nor are we agreed as to the exact figure of the earth. If an
+attempt is made to measure the difference of longitude between two
+points on the earth's surface, especially when they are a considerable
+distance from each other, it is necessary to depend upon astronomical
+observations. In attempting to deduce the difference of longitude from
+geodetic measures, you must assume that the true figure and dimensions
+of the earth are known, which is far from being the case. The theory
+that the prime meridian is a matter purely of a geographical nature is
+liable to the fatal objection that the determination of the difference
+of longitude between one place and the other is really the
+determination of the difference of time of the passage of a star
+across the meridian of the two places concerned. That is very
+definite. You observe the transit of the star at one place, and you
+observe the transit of the star at the other place, and by means of
+telegraphic communications you are able to determine their difference
+of longitude independent of the figure of the earth. He said, in
+conclusion, that he thought the honorable Delegate of France was
+mistaken upon the main point which he had just referred to, if,
+indeed, he had rightly understood him.</p>
+
+<p>M. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, replied as follows:</p>
+
+<p>I think that M. <span class="smcap">Adams</span> entirely misunderstands me. I agree
+with him absolutely in thinking that longitudes cannot be determined,
+especially of places far apart, except by astronomical methods.
+Geodesy can only furnish it for short distances; in such cases, it is
+true, it supplies it with a degree of accuracy which meridianal
+observations cannot attain. So, if the question be to determine
+rigorously the difference of longitude in time between two places on
+the earth at considerable distances apart, it becomes one of
+astronomy, because<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> here it is astronomy which gives the quickest and
+most accurate solution. For these reasons if, for instance, we should
+wish to connect a given observatory with a point situated on the other
+side of the ocean which had been chosen as the starting point of
+longitudes, it would become a question of astronomy. Astronomy here is
+an admirable instrument for the solution, but it should only be the
+instrument.</p>
+
+<p>On the contrary, the question becomes geographical, if it be that of
+determining where it will be most convenient to fix the origin of
+terrestrial longitudes. If the question be, for instance, to select
+one or another point, in some one or other ocean, astronomy has
+nothing to do with it, and when it wishes to impose upon us one of its
+observatories to fulfil such a function it tends to give an inaccurate
+solution.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight it may seem that any point might become a starting
+point for terrestial longitudes, but when we study the question a
+little more we see there may be great advantages in choosing some one
+point in preference to some other. Hence it is that all geographers
+have agreed to place initial meridians, when possible, in the oceans.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that, in accordance with the decision of
+the Conference, he had sent to the scientists named by them
+invitations to a seat upon this floor. The Chair sees several of these
+gentlemen here to-day, notably one of the most eminent astronomers of
+this country, to whom his countrymen are always ready to do homage,
+Professor Newcomb, Superintendent of the United States Nautical
+Almanac. If it be the pleasure of the Congress, the Chair will now
+request Professor Newcomb to give us his views upon the resolution now
+under discussion.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made to the proposition of the President, Professor
+<span class="smcap">Newcomb</span> arose and said:</p>
+
+<p>That in reference to the remarks of the distinguished Delegate of
+France, Professor <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, he would prefer, if the Conference
+would consent, to study his arguments more carefully when they should
+be in print.</p>
+
+<p>He remarked that some points raised by that argument have been already
+replied to, and he wished now more particularly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> to request that
+Professor <span class="smcap">Janssen</span> would define precisely what he meant by "a
+neutral meridian;" that he had partially answered this question in
+reply to Professor <span class="smcap">Abe&eacute;</span>; but that there was a more
+fundamental point, one of practice, which must be brought in and kept
+in mind at every step, and which was raised by Commander
+<span class="smcap">Sampson's</span> paper, to which he had listened with great
+interest. Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span> held that it would be necessary
+to have a fixed observatory on the chosen prime meridian, but he
+(Professor <span class="smcap">Newcomb</span>) did not concur in that view, but rather
+agreed to a limited extent with what Professor <span class="smcap">Janssen</span> had
+said on that question.</p>
+
+<p>In choosing a meridian from which to count longitude, you meet a
+difficult problem. You have a point on the globe defined as the first
+meridian. This would be taken as the initial point of departure, and
+you are to determine the longitude of a certain place from that point.
+Now, doubtless, there is no other way to do this than to have an
+astronomical instrument and telegraphic communication. And if they
+chose the Azores or Behring's Strait, in neither case could they mount
+a transit instrument or have a system of telegraphic communication.
+Nor could we make a determination of longitude from a single fixed
+observatory in any case.</p>
+
+<p>He then stated that it was impracticable under any circumstances to
+have an absolutely neutral prime meridian; that the definition of the
+prime meridian must practically depend upon subsidiary considerations,
+no matter where it might be located. In the practical work of
+determining longitudes a connection with the prime meridian cannot be
+made in each case. What is really determined is the longitude from
+some intermediate point, generally in the same country, and in
+telegraphic communication with the place whose longitude we wish to
+know. This intermediate point would, for the time, be the practical
+prime meridian. But the longitude of this point itself must always be
+uncertain. Science is continually advancing in accuracy, and we find
+that we continually need to correct the longitude of our intermediate
+meridian, and hence of all points determined from it. How can this
+difficulty of constantly changing longitudes be avoided? He replied
+that each system of connected longitudes must rest upon its own basis.
+It must be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> referred to an assumed prime meridian, and the
+measurements must be made from that, even if it be found to be
+somewhat in error. If some such system had been adopted thirty or
+forty years ago, we would have avoided the confusion arising from the
+fact that the longitudes given on many maps do not refer at all to any
+absolute meridian. All that is known is that the astronomers
+determined the longitude of the place, and then the maps had to be
+corrected accordingly. The longitude of one place would be determined
+from Cambridge, and perhaps in the neighborhood is another place
+determined from the observatory at Washington. In either case we know
+nothing of the longitude of Cambridge or Washington which the observer
+assumed in his calculations.</p>
+
+<p>Generally, in determining longitude, the country adopts the principal
+place within its confines as a subsidiary prime meridian, and the
+assumed longitude of this place is necessarily selected somewhat
+arbitrarily. The longitude, for instance, of Washington was, thirty
+years ago, known to be nearly 5 hours 8 minutes and 12 seconds west
+from Greenwich. Had we adopted this difference by law, it would have
+amounted to choosing for our prime meridian a point 5 hours 8 minutes
+and 12 seconds east of Washington, whether we happened to strike the
+transit instrument at Greenwich or not. This would have fixed an
+assumed longitude for the Cambridge observatory and for all points
+within our telegraphic net-work. We should have had a practical
+system, which might, however, require to be corrected from time to
+time, if some slight error were found in the assumed longitude of
+Washington.</p>
+
+<p>In the present state of astronomical observation these little errors
+are of no consequence except in some very refined astronomical
+discussions. For all geographical and perhaps geodetical purposes the
+error may be regarded as zero, and it may be said, in regard to
+astronomical work, that it will always be independent of any meridian
+that might be chosen.</p>
+
+<p>But even if this difficulty were avoided, he could not see how they
+could have any place which would come within the definition of a
+neutral meridian. Supposing they took the Azores, they belong to
+Portugal; then certainly they would have a Portuguese prime meridian,
+belonging to the Portuguese nation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> Thus they would no longer have a
+neutral point, if he (Professor <span class="smcap">Newcomb</span>) rightly understood
+the meaning of Professor <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>.</p>
+
+<p>He said that the Delegate of Great Britain, Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>,
+had expressed very clearly his (Professor <span class="smcap">Newcomb's</span>) ideas,
+and the difficulty we have in meeting the propositions of the French
+Delegates; that what he had said would apply very properly to any
+neutral meridian that might be chosen in accordance with the plans of
+Professor <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>. Whatever that meridian might be, we must
+always assume for it a certain number of degrees from the capital of
+the country, where the place to be determined is located, and then
+take that imaginary meridian instead of a real point on the surface of
+the globe.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that this is perfectly practicable, and on that theory
+there might not be any necessity of having an astronomical
+observatory. But why we should go to this trouble and expense Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Janssen</span> did not make very clear; his considerations were
+purely sentimental, as was remarked by the Delegate of Great Britain,
+Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, and he (Prof. <span class="smcap">Newcomb</span>) did not see
+what advantage would be gained by a neutral meridian in preference to
+one fixed by convenience.</p>
+
+<p>In order that a discussion may proceed, it is necessary to agree on a
+given basis from which to start, and it is extremely difficult to
+agree upon a basis if there are considerations of sentiment
+introduced, because such considerations are peculiar to each person.</p>
+
+<p>He therefore wished to propose this question again to the Delegate of
+France, namely, what advantages can we derive from fixing upon a
+neutral meridian?</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, said:</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Newcomb</span> asks me to point out the advantages of a
+neutral meridian. These advantages are of two kinds&mdash;they are of a
+geographical nature and a moral nature. Let us examine the first. By
+placing the initial meridian between Asia and America, we get away
+from the centres of population, which is almost indispensable in view
+of the change of dates. We divide the world into two parts, the Old
+World and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> the New. The advantage of drawing the prime meridian
+through the ocean has always been understood, and it was precisely for
+this reason that Marinus of Tyre, during the first century, placed it
+at the Fortunate Isles, west of the African Continent. It is idle to
+urge the difficulty of fixing such a meridian as an objection.
+Astronomy is so far advanced in our day as to enable us to make this
+calculation with all desirable accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>As to the methods of obtaining this meridian exactly, there are
+several. I have already spoken of them, but I return to the subject,
+since more details are desired. These methods fall under two principal
+heads. We can, and that is the ancient idea, choose some remarkable
+physical point&mdash;as, for instance, the extremity of an island, a
+strait, the summit of a mountain&mdash;and determine approximately the
+distance in longitude of this point from the points of reference,
+which are at present the observatories. This method, if all the
+precision that science can now attain is required, would be costly in
+certain cases. For the Azores the expense would be small, because of
+the proximity of the telegraphic cables; it would be much greater for
+Behring Straits. On the hypothesis of the employment of this method,
+it would evidently be necessary to place our meridian at the Azores.</p>
+
+<p>According to the other method, it is not the physical point which is
+fixed, but simply the distance of the assumed origin from the points
+of comparison. For example, admit that the general definition of our
+prime meridian was that it should pass through the middle of Behring
+Straits. To obtain its theoretical definition, we should obtain a
+position of this point, either by summary observations of the nature
+of hydrographic surveys, or by the aid of existing information, and
+the longitude thus obtained would be connected with the observatories
+best connected with each other. A list of the differences of longitude
+would become the definition of our meridian, and not the physical
+point in the sea which marks the exact middle of the strait. If, now,
+we absolutely wished for a physical point, we have the Island of St.
+Lawrence, which is cut towards its eastern part by such a meridian,
+and we could put a point of reference there, subject to the condition
+that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> the position of this point should conform to the definition, and
+that it should be removed, in one direction or the other, until it did
+conform to it. As to the very slight errors which might still affect
+the relative positions of the great observatories actually connected
+by electricity, they do not concern geography. If I am not mistaken,
+the eminent Superintendent of the American Nautical Almanac
+acknowledges that we could thus avoid the difficulties which might
+result from the changes to which the perfecting of science would in
+the course of time give rise in the statement of longitudes.</p>
+
+<p>In this manner the expense would be nothing or small. Thus, also, the
+meridian would be truly neutral, both by reason of its position in the
+ocean between the continents, and by reason of its definition, since
+the zero of longitude would then be so placed as to occupy a point not
+identified with any nation. This illustration appears to me to answer
+the demands of Professor <span class="smcap">Newcomb</span>. I have taken it only for
+that reason, for I maintain no particular method, but only the
+principle of neutrality.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, I must return again to those sentimental reasons which my
+eminent and friendly opponents so often call to my attention. If I do
+not err, the very warmth of these interesting discussions shows me
+that the honor of being personally connected with a great reform
+touches us more than we are willing to admit, or than practical
+interests alone could effect.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span> himself supplies an illustration of this. He
+should remember the lively discussions of the English and French press
+on the occasion of the magnificent discovery of Neptune, and on the
+claims of the two illustrious competitors who were then the objects of
+universal admiration. If we go back in history, do we not see the
+friends of Newton and of Leibnitz equally contesting with asperity the
+discovery of the infinitesimal calculus. The love of glory is one of
+the noblest motives of men; we must bow before it, but we must also be
+careful not to permit it to produce bad fruits.</p>
+
+<p>When our men of science sought, a hundred years ago, to determine a
+new measure of length, some one proposed the length of the seconds
+pendulum at Paris. This measure was rejected,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> because it introduced
+the idea of time in a measure of length, and also because it was
+peculiar to Paris, and because a measure acceptable to the whole world
+was desired. It is important not to introduce questions of national
+rivalries into a scientific reform intended to be accepted by all, and
+history shows us precisely on this question of prime meridians what
+active rivalries there are. There was a time when almost every nation
+which had a large observatory had a meridian, and that meridian was
+considered an object of national pride. There were the meridians of
+Paris, of Rome, of Florence, of London, and so on, and no nation was
+willing to abandon its meridian for that of another. If you please to
+adopt either the meridian of Greenwich, Washington, Paris, Berlin,
+Pulkowa, Vienna, or Rome, our reform may be accepted for the moment,
+especially if it offers immediate advantages in economy; but it will
+contain within it a vice which will prevent its becoming definitive,
+and we are not willing to participate in action which will not be
+definitive.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever we may do, the common prime meridian will always be a crown
+to which there will be a hundred pretenders. Let us place the crown on
+the brow of science, and all will bow before it.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, said that
+he thought that the Delegate of France, Professor <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>,
+had explained very fully the advantages of a neutral meridian, but he
+thought that he had not explained how we are to determine the neutral
+meridian. He added that he quite agreed with Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>
+and Professor <span class="smcap">Newcomb</span>, that to establish a prime meridian it
+is necessary to refer its position to an astronomical observatory.</p>
+
+<p>He stated further that if a meridian were selected passing through the
+Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, it must be referred to some initial point
+whose longitude is known, and the consequence of that would be, it
+seemed to him, that the prime meridian selected would still be
+dependent upon some national observatory, and that to select a
+meridian at random without reference to any observatory would lead to
+the utmost confusion,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> and, he had no doubt, would not be entertained
+by any one.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. When my honorable
+colleague, Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, reads the remarks which I have
+just made, he will see that I have very fully shown what characterizes
+a neutral or geographical meridian, as contradistinguished from those
+meridians which, passing through capitals and observatories of
+different countries, bear the names of nations, whilst geographical
+meridians bear geographical names, such as the meridian of Ferro, of
+the Azores, Behring's Strait, &amp;c. Of course it would be necessary to
+connect the places selected with observatories, either by calculation
+or in some other effective manner. I said all this a few moments ago.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, then remarked
+that in addition to what had been said he would merely call attention
+to the fact that after that neutral point had been established it
+would cease to be a neutral meridian; that if the Azores be chosen
+they belong to Portugal, and he did not know any island in the Pacific
+which would serve the purpose, and at the same time not be subject to
+this objection; that perhaps Behring's Strait, mentioned by the French
+Delegate, might be less objectionable than any other place. He added
+that it is absolutely necessary that there should be some means of
+determining the difference between this adopted place and the other
+places, or else no use could be made of it. We must know how far other
+places are from the prime meridian, and for that reason it is
+necessary that it should be on land. Now, that land must belong to
+some country, and after we have fixed upon it it would cease to be a
+neutral meridian, and it would have to be connected by telegraphic
+wires with all the great observatories in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. My honorable friend, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, says that from the time the prime meridian was
+chosen it would cease to be neutral. I reply that he confounds a
+scientific principle with a question of property in the soil. If, for
+reasons of a geographical nature, we should fix<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> upon a point in the
+Azores, that meridian would be neutral, because it would have been
+chosen on scientific grounds alone. The equator is neutral because
+geographical conditions give it that character; and, nevertheless, the
+countries along it belong to various nations, do they not? As to the
+manner of connecting the prime meridian with the system of
+observatories, I have already explained how this may be done in my
+former speech.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of England, remarked that he had
+rather hesitated about saying anything on the subject, after the
+expression of so many opinions of persons better qualified to speak
+than himself, but he felt that he ought to make a few remarks as to
+the distinction which Prof. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span> had attempted to
+establish between astronomical and geographical longitude. It appeared
+to him that longitude was longitude. It would never do if, for
+geographic purposes, we are to have a second or third-class longitude
+and for astronomical purposes a first-class longitude. He said that as
+a geographer he repudiated any such idea. When you come to the
+practical application of the determination of longitude at sea for
+maritime purposes, it is true that a much less accurate determination
+suffices than would suffice for the determination of longitude for
+astronomical observatories; but, for all that, what is the object of a
+ship desiring to know what its place at sea is? Obviously to arrive at
+the port to which it is destined, and the object to be obtained is
+such a determination of the longitude as to enable that ship to arrive
+at its port without danger. You obtain a comparatively imperfect
+determination of longitude, but it is sufficiently accurate to prevent
+you from striking on the solid earth. But how is the longitude of the
+port to be determined? Certainly, as has been properly said, by
+astronomical observations, which can only be made with certainty on
+the earth. Consequently, it seemed to him that it is absolutely
+essential for fixing an initial meridian for the determination of
+longitude that it should be placed at an astronomical observatory
+which can be connected with other places by astronomical observations
+and by telegraph wires, and that the idea of fixing a neutral meridian
+is nothing more than the establishment of an ideal meridian really
+based<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> upon some point at which there is located an observatory. This
+has been repeated once or twice before, and I need not enlarge upon
+it.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. My honorable colleague,
+General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, thinks that longitude is longitude, and
+that there is not an astronomical longitude and a geographical
+longitude. I answer, that this is, nevertheless, what the nature of
+things indicates. The longitude of observatories, or rather the
+difference of longitude between those establishments, must be fixed
+with an accuracy which is never sufficiently great. In the Bureau of
+Longitude of France we are occupied with the differences of longitude
+of European observatories, and we adopt for these calculations all the
+latest scientific improvements, and especially the employment of
+electricity. Geography, especially for general purposes, does not
+require this great accuracy, which could not be expressed on maps. All
+geographers agree upon that subject. A statement of the longitude is
+like the statement of a weight, of a measure, or of anything, and its
+precision must vary according to the purpose to which it is applied.
+Is not a weighing necessary to determine a chemical equivalent of an
+entirely different kind from that of a commercial weighing? Yet it is
+still a weight. Is it necessary to insist on this further? It is
+entirely a secondary question. If General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, whom I
+had the pleasure of meeting in India, demands that the prime meridian
+should be connected with observatories with rigorous accuracy, this
+can be done if it be desired; the astronomical and electrical methods
+at our disposal will permit of it.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States, said that he was
+quite interested in the determination, if possible, of what is a
+neutral meridian. We are precisely in the condition in which we were
+years ago, when the French Institute determined that the basis of the
+metric system should be the one ten-millionth of the quadrant of the
+globe. Having settled upon that ideal basis, they spent years of
+labor, and finally legalized a standard metre, which is still
+preserved at Paris. We have now the same problem to solve. We have
+before us the idea of a neutral meridian, and, if it be adopted, we
+must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> see that there be embodied in the system the distance of certain
+other important places with reference to it. The only suggestion given
+as to the location of this neutral meridian is Behring's Strait. This
+is said to be a neutral meridian, because it lies between Russia and
+America; but how long will it remain so? Perhaps a year or two, or
+perhaps fifty years. Who knows when Russia will step over and
+reconquer the country on this side of Behring's Strait? Who knows when
+America will step over and purchase half of Siberia? At any rate, that
+point is not cosmopolitan; something must be found which is fixed,
+either within the sphere of the earth or in the stars above the
+earth&mdash;something that is above all human considerations&mdash;otherwise we
+shall fail in securing a neutral meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, said that
+he would like to ask the Delegate from France, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>,
+where he would place the neutral meridian.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> said that the Delegate of the United States,
+Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, puts a question which seems to be somewhat
+categorical.</p>
+
+<p>At this point in the proceedings the <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that it
+would be convenient if the Conference would take a short recess to
+enable the Secretaries, with himself, to consult upon the subject of
+the preparation and approval of the protocols.</p>
+
+<p>A recess was thereupon taken.</p>
+
+<p>After the recess, the Delegate from France, Prof. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>,
+presented the following resolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the decision upon the motion of the French
+Delegates, in regard to the choice of a neutral meridian, be postponed
+to the next meeting of the Conference."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>He said that as he must speak French, and as several of his colleagues
+could, perhaps, not entirely grasp the meaning of the discussion, he
+asked for the adjournment of the vote until the next meeting, so that
+the protocol of this meeting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> may be printed and distributed to the
+members of the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that as far as he understood this
+resolution it merely amounted to this: that no vote shall be taken
+upon the original resolution of the French Delegate&mdash;namely, as to the
+adoption of a neutral meridian&mdash;until the next meeting of the
+Conference, when the protocols in both languages will have been
+printed and distributed.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States, inquired
+whether, if this resolution were adopted, it would be necessary to
+vote upon the original question at the next meeting.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> replied that was not necessarily the case. The
+Delegate of France simply desires that no vote shall be taken to-day.
+The original subject will come up and be open for debate at the next
+meeting, but it seemed to the Chair that it should be as far as
+possible exhausted to-day, so that the Delegates could have the whole
+matter before them at the next meeting.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate from France, said that the arguments
+already presented will require time for careful consideration.
+Consequently he asked for the adjournment of the vote, and he hoped
+that none of his colleagues would object to it.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that he would venture to suggest, for
+the purpose of preventing delay, that so far as was possible any
+arguments that are to be offered should be made now, so that in the
+protocol of this day's proceedings, which will be of considerable
+length, these arguments may be incorporated.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>, Delegate of Turkey, stated that it would
+be impossible to prepare a proper protocol of this Conference without
+the assistance of a French stenographer, and he therefore suggested
+that such a stenographer be secured as early as possible.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> stated that efforts had been made to obtain a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+French stenographer, but without success, and that if any Delegate
+knows of such a stenographer and will communicate with the Chair it
+will be happy to take the necessary steps to secure his services.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden, then made the following
+statement:</p>
+
+<p>I beg to propose that the Conference adjourn at the call of the
+President, that the time and hour for the next meeting be communicated
+to the Delegates 24 hours before the meeting, and that at the same
+time a proof-copy of the protocols of the present meeting be
+forwarded.</p>
+
+<p>He added that by giving the Delegates 24 hours after the protocols are
+printed time would be allowed them to revise the protocols and make
+such corrections as they thought necessary, and those corrections
+could be reported to the Secretaries and made in the printed text. The
+protocol can then be finally and definitively printed and approved at
+the beginning of the next meeting of the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>The proposition of the Delegate of Sweden was then adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference then adjourned at 5 o'clock p. m., subject to the call
+of the President.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>IV.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF OCTOBER 13, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall, in
+the State Department, at one o'clock P. M.</p>
+
+<p>Present:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Austria-Hungary: Baron <span class="smcap">I. von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Brazil: Dr. <span class="smcap">Luiz Cruls</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Chili: Mr. <span class="smcap">F. V. Gormas</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">A. B. Tupper</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Colombia: Commodore <span class="smcap">Franklin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Costa Rica: Mr. <span class="smcap">J. F. Echeverria</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">France: Mr. <span class="smcap">A. Lefaivre</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Germany: Baron <span class="smcap">H. von Alvensleben</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Hinckeldeyn</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Great Britain: Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Prof. <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>, Lieut.</p>
+<p class="attendee2">General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, and Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Guatemala: Mr. <span class="smcap">Miles Rock</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Hawaii: Hon. <span class="smcap">W. D. Alexander</span> and Hon. <span class="smcap">Luther Aholo</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Italy: Count <span class="smcap">Albert de Foresta</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Japan: Professor <span class="smcap">Kikuchi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Liberia: Mr. <span class="smcap">William Coppinger</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mexico: Mr. <span class="smcap">Leandro Fernandez</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">Angel Anguiano</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Netherlands: Mr. <span class="smcap">G. de Weckherlin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Paraguay: Capt. <span class="smcap">John Stewart</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Russia: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. de Struve</span>, Major-General <span class="smcap">Stebnitzki</span>, and</p>
+<p class="attendee2">Mr. <span class="smcap">J. de Kologrivoff</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">San Domingo: Mr. <span class="smcap">M. de J. Galvan</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Spain: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Emilio Ruiz del Arbol</span>, and</p>
+<p class="attendee2">Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Sweden: Count <span class="smcap">Carl Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Switzerland: Col. <span class="smcap">Emile Frey</span>.</p>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+<p class="attendee1">Turkey: Mr. <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Venezuela: Dr. <span class="smcap">A. M. Soteldo</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">United States: Rear-Admiral <span class="smcap">C. R. P. Rodgers</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Lewis M.</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">Rutherfurd</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Commander <span class="smcap">W. T. Sampson</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">and Prof. <span class="smcap">Cleveland Abbe</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Absent:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Denmark: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. S. A. de Bille</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Salvador: Mr. <span class="smcap">A. Batres</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. In view of the many communications addressed
+to the President of this Conference, having reference to the business
+before it, presenting statements and arguments in relation thereto,
+the Chair asks that a committee be appointed, to which shall be
+referred all such communications, and that the committee be instructed
+to make such report upon them as it may deem advisable.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden. I beg leave to propose
+to the Conference that the appointment of this committee be left to
+the President.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Soteldo</span>, Delegate of Venezuela. I second the motion of
+the Delegate of Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia. I entertain the same
+opinion, and I support the motion.</p>
+
+<p>The motion was then unanimously adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. I will name as the members of the Committee
+the Delegate of Great Britain, Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>; the Delegate
+of Germany, Mr. <span class="smcap">Hinckeldeyn</span>; the Delegate of the United
+States, Professor <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>; the Delegate of Japan, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Kikuchi</span>; and the Delegate of Costa Rica, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Echeverria</span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">President</span>. Alter a discussion of only three hours this
+Conference adjourned a week ago to-day, subject to the call of its
+President. Owing to the want of a French stenographer to report the
+words that were spoken in French, there has been much delay in
+preparing the protocol, which has not yet been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> completed.
+Fortunately, an experienced French stenographer has been procured
+through the kind intervention of Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, of the
+delegation from Great Britain, and Mr. <span class="smcap">William Smith</span>, Deputy
+Minister of Marine for the Dominion of Canada. We may now hope to have
+a fairly accurate report of what is said, both in French and English,
+needing only slight verbal corrections, and the Chair trusts that
+delegates may find it convenient to make the corrections very
+promptly, so that the protocols may be printed and verified as
+speedily as possible.</p>
+
+<p>Should any delegate, who has not yet spoken, desire to address the
+Conference upon the resolution of the Delegate from France, his
+remarks will now be received, and when the mover of the resolution
+shall close the debate, the vote will be taken, if such be the
+pleasure of the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I have
+listened with great attention and deep interest to the remarks which
+have fallen from the several gentlemen who have spoken, and I desire
+your kind indulgence for a few moments while I explain the views I
+have formed on the motion of the distinguished Delegates from France.</p>
+
+<p>I feel that the important question which this Conference has to
+consider must be approached in no narrow spirit. It is one which
+affects every nationality, and we should endeavor, in the common
+interest, to set aside any national or individual prejudices we
+possess, and view the subject as members of one community&mdash;in fact, as
+citizens of the world. Acting in this broad spirit, we cannot fail to
+arrive at conclusions which will promote the common good of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>In deliberating on the important subject before us, it seems to me
+there are two essential points which we should constantly bear in
+mind.</p>
+
+<p>1. We should consider what will best promote the general advantage,
+not now only, but for all future years, while causing at the present
+time as little individual and national inconvenience as possible.</p>
+
+<p>2. We should, in coming to a determination on the main question for
+which this Conference is called, leave nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> undone to avoid
+offence, now or hereafter, to the sensitiveness of individual nations.</p>
+
+<p>The motion is, that the initial meridian to be chosen should be
+selected on account of its neutrality. This undoubtedly involves the
+selection of an entirely new meridian, one which has never previously
+been used by any nation, as all initial meridians in use are more or
+less national, and, as such, would not be considered neutral in the
+sense intended by the honorable Delegates from France.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose that this Conference adopted the motion. Let us
+suppose, further, that we found a meridian quite independent of and
+unrelated to any existing initial meridian. Would we then have
+accomplished the task for which we are met? I ask, would the
+twenty-six nations here represented accept our recommendation to adopt
+the neutral meridian? I greatly fear that the passing of the
+resolution would not in the least promote the settlement of the
+important question before the Conference. The world has already at
+least eleven different first meridians. The adoption of the new
+meridian contemplated by the Delegates from France would, I apprehend,
+simply increase the number and proportionately increase the difficulty
+which so many delegates from all parts of the earth are assembled here
+to remove.</p>
+
+<p>This would be the practical effect of the passing of the resolution.
+If it had any effect, it would increase the difficulty, and I need not
+say that is not the object which the different Governments had in view
+when they sent delegates to this Conference. The President has well
+pointed out in his opening address the advantages which would be
+gained, and the great dangers which, at times, would be avoided by
+seafaring vessels having one common zero of longitude. Besides the
+benefits which would accrue to navigation, there are advantages of
+equal importance in connection with the regulation of time, to spring,
+I trust, from our conclusions.</p>
+
+<p>It does not appear to me that the adoption of the motion would in any
+way advance these objects. I do not say that the principle of a
+neutral meridian is wrong, but to attempt to establish one would, I
+feel satisfied, be productive of no good result. A neutral meridian is
+excellent in theory, but I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> fear it is entirely beyond the domain of
+practicability. If such be the case, it becomes necessary to consider
+how far it would be practicable to secure the desired advantages by
+adopting as a zero some other meridian which, while related to some
+existing first meridian, would not be national in fact, and would have
+the same effect as a perfectly neutral meridian in allaying national
+susceptibilities.</p>
+
+<p>The selection of an initial meridian related to meridians now in use
+gives us a sufficiently wide choice. Allow me to read the following
+list, showing the number and the total tonnage of vessels using the
+several meridians named, in ascertaining their longitude.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="numbers" cellspacing="4" summary="" width="80%">
+<thead>
+<tr><td rowspan="2" align='center'>INITIAL MERIDIANS.</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> SHIPS OF ALL KINDS.</td><td colspan="2" align='center'> PER CENT.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'> Number.</td><td align='center'> Tonnage.</td><td align='center'> Ships.</td><td align='center'> Tonnage.</td></tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr><td align='right'>Greenwich</td><td align='right'> 37,663</td><td align='right'>14,600,972</td><td align='right'> 65</td><td align='right'> 72</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Paris</td><td align='right'> 5,914</td><td align='right'> 1,735,083</td><td align='right'> 10</td><td align='right'> 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Cadiz</td><td align='right'> 2,468</td><td align='right'> 666,602</td><td align='right'> 5</td><td align='right'> 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Naples</td><td align='right'> 2,263</td><td align='right'> 715,448</td><td align='right'> 4</td><td align='right'> 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Christiana</td><td align='right'> 2,128</td><td align='right'> 695,988</td><td align='right'> 4</td><td align='right'> 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Ferro</td><td align='right'> 1,497</td><td align='right'> 567,682</td><td align='right'> 2</td><td align='right'> 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Pulkova</td><td align='right'> 987</td><td align='right'> 298,641</td><td align='right'> 1&frac12;</td><td align='right'> 1&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Stockholm</td><td align='right'> 717</td><td align='right'> 154,180</td><td align='right'> 1&frac12;</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Lisbon</td><td align='right'> 491</td><td align='right'> 164,000</td><td align='right'> 1</td><td align='right'> 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Copenhagen</td><td align='right'> 435</td><td align='right'> 81,888</td><td align='right'> 1</td><td align='right'> &frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Rio de Janeiro</td><td align='right'> 253</td><td align='right'> 97,040</td><td align='right'> &frac12;</td><td align='right'> &frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Miscellaneous</td><td align='right'> 2,881</td><td align='right'> 534,569</td><td align='right'> 4&frac12;</td><td align='right'> 2&frac12;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>Total</td><td align='right'>57,697</td><td align='right'>20,312,093</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align='right'>100</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'></td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>It thus appears that one of these meridians, that of Greenwich, is
+used by 72 per cent. of the whole floating commerce of the world,
+while the remaining 28 per cent. is divided among ten different
+initial meridians. If, then, the convenience of the greatest number
+alone should predominate, there can be no difficulty in a choice; but
+Greenwich is a national meridian, and its use as an international zero
+awakens national susceptibilities. It is possible, however, to a great
+extent, to remove this objection by taking, for a zero of longitude
+and time, the meridian farthest distant from Greenwich. This being on
+the same great circle as Greenwich, it would not require the
+establishment of a new observatory; its adoption would produce no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+change in charts or nautical tables, beyond the notation of longitude.
+It would possess all the advantage claimed for the Greenwich meridian
+in connection with navigation, and as a zero for regulating time it
+would be greatly to be preferred to the Greenwich meridian. This
+Pacific meridian being accepted as the common zero, and longitude
+being reckoned continuously in one direction, there would be an end to
+the necessity of any nation engraving on its charts the words
+"longitude east or west of Greenwich." The one word "longitude" would
+suffice. The zero meridian would be international and in no respect
+national. Even on British charts all reference to Greenwich would
+disappear.</p>
+
+<p>This view of the question is sustained by many distinguished men. I
+shall only ask permission to read the opinion of Mr. Otto Struv&eacute;,
+Director of the Imperial Observatory at Pulkova, than whom there is no
+higher authority.</p>
+
+<p>"The preference given to the Greenwich meridian was based, on one
+side, on the historical right of the Royal Observatory of England,
+acquired by eminent services rendered by this establishment during the
+course of two centuries, to mathematical geography and navigation; on
+the other side, considering that the great majority of charts now in
+use upon all the seas are made according to this meridian, and about
+90 per cent. of the navigators of long standing are accustomed to take
+their longitude from this meridian. However, an objection against this
+proposition is, that the meridian of Greenwich passes through two
+countries of Europe, and thus the longitude would be reckoned by
+different signs in different portions of our own continent and also of
+Africa.</p>
+
+<p>"Moreover, the close proximity of the meridian of Paris, to which,
+perhaps, some French geographers and navigators of other nations would
+still hold to, from custom, from a spirit of contradiction or from
+national rivalry, might easily cause sad disaster. To obviate these
+inconveniences, I have proposed to choose as prime meridian another
+meridian, situated at an integral number of hours east or west of
+Greenwich, and among the meridians meeting this condition, I have
+indicated, in the first place, the meridian proposed to-day by
+scientific Americans, as that which would combine the most favorable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+conditions for its adoption. Thus the meridian situated 180&deg; from
+Greenwich presents the following advantages:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"1. It does not cross any continent but the eastern extremity of the
+North of Asia, inhabited by people very few in number and little
+civilized, called Tschouktschis.</p>
+
+<p>"2. It coincides exactly with that line where, after the custom
+introduced by a historical succession of maritime discoveries, the
+navigator makes a change of one unit in the date, a difference which
+is made near a number of small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
+discovered during the voyages made to the east and west. Thus the
+commencement of a new date would be identical with that of the hours
+of cosmopolitan time.</p>
+
+<p>"3. It makes no change to the great majority of navigators and
+hydrographers, except the very simple addition of twelve hours, or of
+180&deg; to all longitudes.</p>
+
+<p>"4. It does not involve any change in the calculations of the
+Ephemerides most in use amongst navigators, viz., the English Nautical
+Almanac, except turning mid-day into midnight, and <i>vice versa</i>. In
+the American Nautical Almanac there would be no other change to
+introduce. With a cosmopolitan spirit, and in the just appreciation of
+a general want, the excellent Ephemerides published at Washington,
+record all data useful to navigators calculated from the meridian of
+Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>"For universal adoption, as proposed by the Canadian Institute, it
+recommends itself to the inhabitants of all civilized countries, by
+reason of the great difference in longitude, thus removing all the
+misunderstandings and uncertainties concerning the question, as to
+whether, in any case, cosmopolitan or local time was used.</p>
+
+<p>"In answer to the first question offered by the Institute at Toronto,
+I would, therefore, recommend the Academy to pronounce without
+hestation in favor of the universal adoption of the meridian situated
+180&deg; from Greenwich, as Prime Meridian of the globe."</p>
+
+<p>I quote from the report of M. Otto Struv&eacute; to the Imperial Academy of
+Sciences of St. Petersburg, 30th Sept., 1880.</p>
+
+<p>I respectfully submit, we have thus the means of solving the problem
+presented to us, without attempting to find such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> a meridian as that
+contemplated in the motion of the honorable delegates. Whatever its
+origin, the Pacific meridian referred to would soon be recognized as
+being as much neutral as any meridian could possibly be. If, on the
+other hand, we adopt the motion, I very greatly fear that the great
+object of this Conference will be defeated, and the settlement of a
+question so pregnant with advantages to the world will be indefinitely
+postponed.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. <span class="smcap">Cruls</span>, Delegate of Brazil. Gentlemen. Since the opening
+of this discussion more authoritative voices than mine&mdash;among others
+that of the Honorable Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great
+Britain, who has just expressed his opinion upon the question&mdash;have
+been heard upon the important subject which we are now called upon to
+discuss, and of which we should endeavor to find a full and final
+solution. The various aspects of the projected reform&mdash;viz., the
+unification of longitude, which numerous international interests
+recommend to our care&mdash;appear to me to have been examined, and that
+relieves me of the task of taking up again the question in its
+details, and permits me to abridge very much the considerations which
+I think it is my duty to present in order to explain my vote. Upon to
+the present moment we have settled one point, gentlemen, and it is one
+of great importance; that is, the necessity of adopting a common prime
+meridian. This point has obtained the support of all the Delegates
+present at the Conference. This necessity being recognized, it is
+proper to take another step towards the solution of the problem
+presented to us, and to decide what that meridian shall be. It is this
+choice, gentlemen, which at this moment forms the subject of our
+discussion, and upon which we have to decide.</p>
+
+<p>My honorable colleague, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, the Delegate of the
+United States, has presented a motion proposing the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich, a motion which is again made, having been
+withdrawn temporarily from our discussion with the consent of its
+proposer. The motion which was presented at the last session, and
+which has formed the subject of numerous interesting discussions is
+that made by my honorable colleague, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of
+France, who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> proposes that the meridian adopted should have a neutral
+character, and should not cross either of the great continents of
+Europe or America. This proposition, gentlemen, has been strongly
+resisted by the Delegates of Great Britain and the United States, and
+firmly maintained by the Delegates of France, and the debates which
+followed gave us an opportunity of being present at a scientific
+tournament of the highest interest. The speakers whom we have had the
+honor of hearing seem to me to have exhausted all the arguments for
+and against, and at the present stage of the discussion I presume that
+these debates have permitted each one of us to form, with a full
+knowledge of the case, an opinion upon the question on which we are
+called to vote.</p>
+
+<p>For my part, gentlemen, I desire to state clearly the attitude that
+Brazil, in my opinion, must take in this Conference. That attitude is
+one of absolute neutrality, inasmuch as the question is whether or not
+to choose a national meridian which may provoke among certain nations
+very legitimate rivalries. From the point of view only of the
+interests of Brazil, the choice of one meridian rather than any other
+is recommended to me by no consideration. Our local charts are
+referred to the nearest meridian, that of the observatory of Rio
+Janeiro, which is the point of departure in the geodetic or
+hydrographic operations in course of execution in Brazil, and which
+all are connected with that same meridian. The marine charts of the
+coast most in use are the result of the hydrographic works executed by
+the Commandant <span class="smcap">Mouchez</span>, now admiral and director of the
+observatory of Paris. As to the telegraphic determination of the
+longitude of the observatory of Rio, we owe it to the American
+Commission, directed by Commandant <span class="smcap">Green</span>, of the United States Navy.
+Now, gentlemen, up to the day on which the Conference met for the
+first time, I had hoped that these discussions entered upon under the
+influence of a generous rivalry, and having for their only purpose the
+establishment of a measure, the necessity of which is strongly sought
+by many interests of a diverse nature, would lead to a complete and
+final solution of the problem. Unfortunately, and I regret to be
+obliged to add it, the differences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> of opinion which have manifested
+themselves in this Congress permit scarcely a hope of this result. For
+my part, gentlemen, I cannot lose sight of the fact that it is
+indispensable that the question for which this Congress is assembled
+should receive a complete settlement; if not, the purpose of the
+Congress will not be attained. Since the Delegates of France have
+manifested from the begining of our discussions their opposition to
+the adoption of any meridian which had a national character, which has
+given rise to the motion presented by Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, it follows
+that every measure voted by the Congress tending to the adoption of a
+national meridian, will be, by the very fact of the abstention of
+France, an incomplete measure, and which will not answer the purpose
+sought by the Conference. I hasten to add, in order to avoid all
+erroneous interpretations which could be given to my words, that it
+would be the same, if, for instance, the meridian of Paris was
+proposed, and any great maritime nation, such as England, the United
+States, or any other, should abstain from voting for its adoption. In
+that case, also, the measure adopted would not be complete, and in
+that case, also, my line of conduct would be the same.</p>
+
+<p>To resume, I would say that the great benefits that the whole world
+will receive from the adoption of a common prime meridian will not be
+fully produced unless the measure is unanimously accepted by all the
+most important maritime nations. In any other event, I am, for my
+part, absolutely convinced that the measure adopted will be partly
+inefficacious, its adoption not being general, and everything will
+have to be done over again in the not distant future. The discussions
+at which we have been present abundantly prove to me that it will
+always be so, as long as the meridian of some great nation is
+proposed. In the face of this difficulty, which appears to me
+insurmountable, the only solution which, by its very nature, will not
+raise exciting questions of national pride is that of a meridian
+having a character of absolute neutrality. If the adoption of such a
+meridian was admitted in principle, I am certain that a discussion
+based upon pure science, and following the best conditions which it
+should realize, would conduct us rapidly to a practical settlement of
+the question.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In such a discussion the arguments which ought to prevail should be,
+before everything, drawn from science, the only source of truth which
+alone can enlighten us, so as to permit us to form a sound judgment,
+and to decide solely upon considerations of a purely scientific
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these considerations, I am not ignorant that there are
+others. I refer to questions of economy of which it is necessary to
+take count. As to political interests, if there are any, our eminent
+colleagues who represent so worthily the diplomatic element in this
+assembly would see that they had due weight, and, thanks to this
+assembly of men distinguished, some in science and others in
+diplomacy, there was every reason to hope that the final practical
+solution of the question which we are seeking would not be long in
+being made clear to us all by the discussions.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, this practical solution appears to me already to follow from
+what our honorable colleague, <span class="smcap">M. Janssen</span>, has told us on that
+subject. The principle of the neutral meridian once adopted, there
+would still to be discussed the conditions which it should fulfil and
+the determination of its position. Two things must be considered,
+either the meridian will be exclusively over the ocean, and then, by
+its very nature, it will be neutral, or it will cut some island, and
+in that case nothing would prevent an international diplomatic
+convention making neutral the plot of land on which it was desirable
+to establish an observatory, which would in reality be a very small
+matter. Of these two solutions, both of which satisfy the conditions
+which the meridian ought to fulfil in its character of neutrality and
+by the requirements of science, I prefer the second. I wish merely to
+suggest by what I have said how it would be possible to arrive at a
+practical solution of the question, since now I am only speaking of
+the adoption of the principle of the neutral meridian.</p>
+
+<p>I conclude, gentlemen, by declaring that I shall vote in favor of the
+adoption of a meridian with a character of absolute neutrality, and in
+doing so I hope to contribute my share to giving our resolutions such
+a character of independence as is necessary to make them generally
+acceptable in the future, and to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> unite in their support, at present,
+scientific men without distinction of nationality who are now awaiting
+our decision.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. Gentlemen, I have
+listened with a great deal of attention to the discourse of the
+Delegate of England, Mr. <span class="smcap">Fleming</span>, and if we had not had such
+an exhaustive discussion last session, at which, I believe, all the
+reasons for and against were given, I would certainly have asked
+permission to answer it. But I believe that on all sides we are
+sufficiently enlightened on the question, and I desire above all to
+declare that it is not our intention of making this debate eternal. It
+is now for you, gentlemen, to decide. I am the more inclined to act
+thus, as my honorable colleague, the Delegate of Brazil, Dr. <span class="smcap">L.
+Cruls</span>, who is an astronomer like myself, appears to me to have
+recapitulated the question with a loftiness of views, and in such
+happy language, that, in truth, we may take his arguments as our own.
+Before concluding, I wish to thank my colleagues for the kind
+attention that they have been good enough to accord me.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The question recurs upon the resolution
+offered by the Delegates of France. The resolution is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the initial meridian should have a
+character of absolute neutrality. It should be chosen
+exclusively so as to secure to science and to international
+commerce all possible advantages, and especially should cut
+no great continent&mdash;neither Europe nor America."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. Is the Conference ready for the question? No
+objection being made, the roll was called, with the following result:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<caption><i>Ayes.</i></caption>
+<tr><td>Brazil,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>San Domingo.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td></tr>
+</table><br /></div>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<caption><i>Noes.</i></caption>
+<tr><td>Austria,</td><td>Germany,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Great Britain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Guatemala,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Hawaii,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Liberia,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mexico,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Netherlands,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Paraguay,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Twenty-one noes and three ayes.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The resolution is, therefore, lost.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+in presenting again the resolution which was withdrawn by me to give
+place to the resolution offered by our colleagues from France, having
+taken the advice from several members of the Conference with whom I
+consulted, it was thought best to offer a system of resolutions which
+should be responsive to the mandate under which we act. With the view
+of bringing the subject to the notice of all the members of the
+Conference, I caused copies of the resolutions which I hold in my hand
+to be sent to them.</p>
+
+<p>I have since heard that is has been held that these resolutions had
+been irregularly so communicated; that is, that the communication was
+made in a semi-official manner. I beg to express an entire disclaimer
+of anything of that sort. It was merely my individual action, and I
+desired to give notice of certain resolutions, with the sole view of
+having them fully understood before we met and to save time. I hope,
+therefore, that this excuse and explanation will be understood and
+accepted.</p>
+
+<p>These resolutions are founded, as far as may be, upon those adopted at
+Rome. They differ from them only in two points. In the counting of
+longitude the Conference at Rome proposed that it should take place
+around the globe in one direction. This counting was to be in the
+direction from west to east.</p>
+
+<p>Very singularly, I find in the report of the proceedings of the Roman
+Conference no discussion on that subject. No questions were asked, nor
+were any reasons given, why it should be so counted, and yet it was an
+entire divergence from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> usage of the world at that time. The
+wording of the resolution of the Conference at Rome is substantially
+this: That the counting of longitude should take place from the
+meridian of Greenwich in the single direction of west to east.</p>
+
+<p>It being my desire to avail myself, as far as possible, of the work of
+the Conference at Rome, I consulted with my colleagues here, and found
+that there was a great diversity of opinion. In the first place, some
+said we have always counted longitude both ways, east to west and west
+to east. Shall we cease to do that? Those who claimed that it was a
+more scientific way to count all around the globe immediately differed
+on the direction in which the longitude should be counted. Without
+going into any argument as to which of these methods would be the best
+or most convenient, I propose, by the second resolution, that we
+should go on in the old way, and count longitude from the initial
+meridian in each direction.</p>
+
+<p>One of the objects of the third resolution is to make the new
+universal day coincide with the civil day rather than with the
+astronomical day. In the Conference at Rome the universal day was made
+to coincide with the astronomical day. It seems to me that the
+inconvenience of that system would be so great that we ought to
+hesitate before adopting it. For us in America, perhaps the
+inconvenience would not be so very great, but for such countries as
+France and England, and those lying about the initial meridian, the
+inconvenience would be very great, for the morning hours would be one
+day, and the afternoon hours would be another day. That seems to me to
+be a very great objection.</p>
+
+<p>It was simply, therefore, to obviate this difficulty that this
+resolution was offered. I hope, notwithstanding, that some day, not
+far distant, all these conflicting days, the local, the universal, the
+nautical, and the astronomical, may start from some one point. This
+hope I have the greater reason to cherish since I have communicated
+with the distinguished gentlemen who are here present, and it was with
+that hope before me that I framed the resolution so that the beginning
+of the day should be the midnight at the initial meridian, and not the
+mid-day. With this explanation, I now again move the adoption of the
+first resolution, which is as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+here represented the adoption of the meridian passing
+through the centre of the transit instrument at the
+Observatory of Greenwich as the initial meridian for
+longitude."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Conference has heard the resolution. Any
+remarks are now in order.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I think,
+sir, the resolution goes a little too far at a single leap. I beg
+leave, therefore, to move an amendment in harmony with the resolution,
+at the same time leaving it to be settled by a subsequent resolution,
+whether the zero be at Greenwich or at the other side of the globe.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"That a meridian proper, to be employed as a common zero in
+the reckoning of longitude and the regulation of time
+throughout the world, should be a great circle passing
+through the poles and the centre of the transit instrument
+at the Observatory of Greenwich."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I
+desire merely to state, in reference to the amendment brought forward
+by one of our delegates, that the remaining delegates of Great Britain
+are by no means of the opinion expressed in that amendment, and that
+it is their intention, if it should come to a vote, to vote against
+it.</p>
+
+<p>The proposition to count longitude from a point 180 degrees from the
+meridian of Greenwich appears to them not to be accompanied by any
+advantage whatever. On the contrary, it must lead to inconvenience.
+You do not, by adopting the meridian opposite Greenwich, get rid of
+the nationality of the meridian. If there is objection to the meridian
+of Greenwich on account of its nationality, the meridian of 180
+degrees from Greenwich is subject to the same objection. The one half
+is just as national as the other half.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The chair would say that no specific meridian
+is mentioned in the amendment.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. That is true, but, at
+the same time, it should be said that the meridian described<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> is
+ambiguous. It is the meridian that passes through the poles and the
+centre of the transit instrument of the Observatory of Greenwich. That
+is the language of the amendment. But it is intended to apply to only
+one-half of the great circle passing through the poles, that is to the
+distant half of the meridian rather than to the nearer half. Unless it
+defines which half it is intended to take, the amendment is ambiguous,
+and it is not proper to be voted on.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Miles Rock</span>, Delegate of Guatemala. Mr. President, It may
+be well to hear the words of the original resolution, in order that we
+can clearly see the relation of the amendment to that resolution.</p>
+
+<p>The original resolution of the Delegate of the United States was then
+read.</p>
+
+<p>Baron <span class="smcap">von Alvensleben</span>, Delegate of Germany. Mr. President, I
+think that in this amendment offered by the Delegate of Great Britain
+two questions are mixed up together. The first thing for us to do is
+to fix upon a prime meridian; the second thing to settle is the
+question whether the adoption of a universal day is desirable or not.
+If we adopt this amendment, these two questions are involved in one
+vote. Therefore, I think that they should be divided, for they are not
+appropriate in the form in which they are presented.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain. I ask permission to speak, in
+order to explain my vote. The Government which I represent here has
+told me to accept the Greenwich meridian as the international meridian
+for longitudes, but I think it my duty to say that, though the
+question does not arise in this debate, that Spain accepts this in the
+hope that England and the United States will accept on their part the
+metric system as she has done herself. I only wish to state this, and
+I have no intention of making it a subject of discussion. I shall only
+add that I believe Italy is similarly situated with Spain in this
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair would say with great deference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> to
+the distinguished Delegate from Spain that the question of weights and
+measures is beyond the scope of this Conference. The invitation given
+by the Government of the United States to the nations here represented
+was for a distinct and specific purpose, the selection of a prime
+meridian, a zero of longitude throughout the world and a standard of
+time-reckoning. So far as the Chair is informed, it would not be in
+order at this Conference to discuss a question of metric system.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain. My only intention in
+making these remarks was to verify a fact. I know very well that we
+have not to discuss that question. Besides, the Government which I
+represent expresses only a hope, and I know we do not insert any hopes
+in our protocols; but I thought it my duty to make this declaration.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France. I desire to make some
+remarks on the question when it is put to a vote; for the time being I
+shall only say a few words on the remarks of my honorable colleague,
+the Delegate of Spain, Mr. Valera. I believe that though the question
+of weights and measures is not before the Conference, it is allowable
+for a member to state, in the name of his Government, the conditions
+to which his vote has been subordinated. Even though the question is
+not under discussion, it may appear from such an explanation that the
+vote is conditional, instead of being a simple affirmation. If my
+honorable colleague has received from his Government instructions to
+subordinate his vote to such or such a condition, even when the
+question to which it is subordinated is not submitted to the
+Conference, it follows from it, according to me, and everybody will
+admit it, that the consequences of that vote are at least conditional.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain. My Government has charged me
+to express here its hopes and desires, but the vote which I have given
+is not, in my opinion, conditional; for I have received instructions
+to pronounce in favor of the Greenwich meridian to measure the degrees
+of longitude. However, it was necessary for me to say at the same time
+that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> it was with the hope that England and the United States would
+adopt the French weights and measure.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. While I entirely
+agree with the view which the Chair has taken of the question whether
+the adoption of metrical weights and measures is before this
+Conference&mdash;namely, that it is beyond our competence to discuss
+it&mdash;yet I am glad to have the opportunity of saying that I am
+authorized to state that Great Britain, after considering the opinions
+which were expressed at Rome, has desired that it may be allowed to
+join the Convention du m&egrave;tre. The arrangements for that purpose, when
+I left my country, were either completed, or were in course of
+completion, so that, as a matter of fact, Great Britain henceforth
+will be, as regards its system of weights and measures, exactly in the
+same position as the United States.</p>
+
+<p>In Great Britain the use of metrical weights and measures is
+authorized by law. Contracts can be made in which they are used, and
+the department which regulates the weights and measures of Great
+Britain is charged, consequently, with the duty of providing properly
+authenticated standard metric weights and measures for purposes of
+verification. It is quite true that the Government of England does not
+hold out any expectation that she will adopt the compulsory use of the
+metric system, either at the present time, or, so far as that goes, at
+any future time; but it is a well known fact&mdash;and in saying this I
+shall be supported, I have no doubt, by the views of the eminent
+scientific men of my own country who are here present&mdash;that there is
+a strong feeling on the part of scientific men of England that, sooner
+or later, she will be likely to join in the use of that system, which,
+no doubt, is an extremely good one, and which, so far as purely
+scientific purposes are concerned, is largely in use at the present
+time.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain. I desire to thank the
+honorable Delegate of England, General Strachey, for the friendly
+words which he has just pronounced, and to felicitate myself for
+having manifested the desire and hope of my Government that England
+should accept the weights and measures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> which have been accepted in
+Spain and in other parts of the European continent.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France. Mr. Chairman, I cannot
+pretend to make any suggestion of any technical value on the question
+now before us. I only rise to add a few words to the views which have
+been so authoritatively expounded to you by Prof. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, in
+order to explain clearly the situation of the French Government in
+this important discussion.</p>
+
+<p>It is henceforth evident, after the instructive debate at which we
+have just assisted, that the meridian of Greenwich is not a scientific
+one, and that its adoption implies no progress for astronomy, geodesy,
+or navigation; that is to say, for all the branches and pursuits of
+human activity interested in the unification at which we aim.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, science is absolutely disinterested in the selection which we
+are now discussing and that fact I wish to emphasize particularly, as
+we are about to take a vote which we can easily anticipate by the one
+we had a few minutes ago, in order that the opponents of the
+resolution may not be accused of obstructing progress and the great
+aims of science for private interests.</p>
+
+<p>If, on the contrary, any conclusion is to be drawn from the
+instructive debate at which we have assisted, it is that the
+principal, I will say more, the only merit of the Greenwich
+meridian&mdash;and our colleague from Great Britain just now reminded us of
+it by enumerating with complacency the tonnage of British and American
+shipping&mdash;is that there are grouped around it, interests to be
+respected, I will acknowledge it willingly, by their magnitude, their
+energy, and their power of increasing, but entirely devoid of any
+claim on the impartial solicitude of science. To strengthen my
+assertion, gentlemen, I fall back upon the arguments brought forward
+by Mr. Hirsch in his remarkable report to the Geodetic Conference at
+Rome, arguments that evidently carried the vote of that assembly.</p>
+
+<p>The Greenwich meridian, says that report, corresponds to an empire
+that embraces twenty million square kilometres and a population of two
+hundred and fifty millions. Her merchant marine, which counts 40,000
+ships of a tonnage from six to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> nine million tons, and crews of
+370,000 men, surpasses in importance all the other marines put
+together. Other States, equally important by their merchant marine,
+especially the United States, make use of the Greenwich meridian.
+Well, gentlemen, if we weigh these reasons&mdash;the only ones that have
+been set forth, the only ones that at present militate for the
+Greenwich meridian&mdash;is it not evident that these are material
+superiorities, commercial preponderances that are going to influence
+your choice? Science appears here only as the humble vassal of the
+powers of the day to consecrate and crown their success. But,
+gentlemen, nothing is so transitory and fugitive as power and riches.
+All the great empires of the world, all financial, industrial, and
+commercial prosperities of the world, have given us a proof of it,
+each in turn.</p>
+
+<p>So long as there are not in polities or commerce any scientific means
+by which to fix, to enchain fortune, I see no reason to fix, to
+enchain, to subordinate, so to say, science to their fate.</p>
+
+<p>The character of the proposed determination of the initial meridian is
+so evident, that the reporter of the Conference at Rome, Mr. Hirsch,
+admits it implicitly, for recognizing that the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich is a sacrifice for France, he asks that England
+should respond by a similar concession, by favoring the definitive
+adoption of the metric system, and by acceding to the Convention of
+the metre which furnishes to all States metric standards rigorously
+compared. Thus, Mr. Hirsch, in a spirit of justice, wished to make for
+each a balance of profit and loss&mdash;evident proof that the question was
+of a commercial, and of no scientific advantage. I am not aware, and
+my mission is not to discover, whether the bargain might have been
+accepted by France. However, it is with great pleasure that I heard
+our colleague from England declare that his Government was ready to
+join the international metric convention, but I notice, with sorrow,
+that our situation in this Congress is not as favorable as that of
+Rome, since the total abandonment of our meridian is proposed without
+any compensation.</p>
+
+<p>At Rome the adoption of the metric system of weights and measures, of
+which France had the glorious initiative, was held out to us, but here
+we are simply invited to sacrifice traditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> dear to our navy, to
+national science, by adding to that immolation pecuniary sacrifices.</p>
+
+<p>We are assuredly very much flattered that there should be attributed
+to us sufficient abnegation to elevate us to that double heroism. We
+wish that we were able to justify such a flattering opinion, and
+especially we should like to be encouraged by examples. There are at
+this very moment magnificent transformations to be realized for the
+progress of science, and of the friendly relations of
+nations&mdash;unification of weights and measures, adoption of a common
+standard of moneys, and many other innovations of a well recognized
+utility, infinitely more pressing and more practical than that of
+meridians. When the discussion of these great questions is begun, let
+each nation come and bring its share of sacrifices for this
+international progress. France, according to her usage, I may say so
+without vain glory as without false modesty, France will not remain
+behind. For the present we decline the honor of immolating ourselves
+alone for progress of a problematic, and eminently secondary order;
+and it is with perfect tranquillity of conscience that we declare that
+we do not concur in the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich,
+persuaded as we are that France does not incur the reproach of
+retarding and of obstructing the march of science by abstaining from
+participating in this decision.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. Unless some other Delegate desires to speak,
+the question will be put upon the amendment of the Delegate of Great
+Britain, Mr. <span class="smcap">Fleming</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The question was then put, and the amendment was lost.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair sees upon the floor to-day, as the
+guest of this Conference, one of the most distinguished scientists,
+who was invited to be present at our meetings, Sir <span class="smcap">William
+Thomson</span>, whose name is known the world over in connection with
+subjects kindred to this we are now discussing. If it be the pleasure
+of the Conference to ask Sir <span class="smcap">William Thomson</span> briefly to
+express his views, the Chair would be very happy to make the
+invitation.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Chair, hearing no dissent, takes pleasure in introducing Sir
+<span class="smcap">William Thomson</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">William Thomson</span>. Mr. President and Gentlemen, I thank you
+for permitting me to be present on this occasion, and I thank you also
+for giving me the opportunity of expressing myself in reference to the
+subject under discussion. I only wish that the permission which you
+have so kindly given me may conduce to the objects of this Conference
+more than I can hope any words of mine can do.</p>
+
+<p>The question immediately under discussion is, I understand, the
+proposal that the meridian passing through the centre of the
+instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich shall be adopted as the
+initial meridian of longitude, and it does seem to me that this is a
+practical question; that this resolution expresses a practical
+conclusion that it is expected by the world the present Conference may
+reach. It is expected that the resolutions adopted will be for the
+general convenience, and not for the decision of a scientific
+question. It is the settlement of a question which is a matter of
+business arrangement. The question is, what will be most convenient,
+on the whole, for the whole world.</p>
+
+<p>It cannot be said that one meridian is more scientific than another,
+but it can be said that one meridian is more convenient for practical
+purposes than another, and I think that this may be said pre-eminently
+of the meridian of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>I do most sincerely and fervently hope that the Delegates from France
+and from the other nations who voted for the preceding resolution will
+see their way to adopt the resolution that is now before the
+Conference. It does seem to me that it is a question of sacrifice, and
+I do trust that the honorable Delegate from France who spoke last, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, will see that France is not being asked to make any
+sacrifice that it was not prepared to make.</p>
+
+<p>In the admirable and interesting addresses which Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>
+has given to this Conference, (which I had not the pleasure or
+satisfaction of hearing, but which I have read with great interest,)
+the readiness of France to make a much greater sacrifice than that
+which is now proposed was announced.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> The amount of sacrifice involved
+in making any change from an existing usage must always be more or
+less great, because it cannot be said that it is a matter of no
+trouble to make such a change; but what I may be allowed to suggest is
+that the sacrifice which France was ready to make would be very much
+greater than that which would be made by adopting the resolution now
+pending.</p>
+
+<p>If the resolution for a neutral meridian had been adopted, all nations
+would have to make the sacrifice necessary for a change to a meridian
+not actually determined, and the relations of which could not be so
+convenient with those meridians already adopted as are the relations
+between the meridians now in use with that of Greenwich. It does seem
+to me that if the Delegates of France could see their way to adopt
+this resolution, they would have no occasion whatever to regret it.</p>
+
+<p>I sympathize deeply with what has been said in regard to a common
+metrical system. I have a very strong opinion upon this subject, which
+I will not express, however, if it meets any objection from the Chair;
+but it seems to me that England is making a sacrifice in not adopting
+the metrical system. The question, however, cannot be put in that way.
+We are not here to consider whether England would gain or lose by
+adopting the metrical system. That is not the way to view this
+question at all, because whether England should adopt the metrical
+system is a matter for its own convenience and use, and whether it
+adopts it or not, other nations are not affected by its course. It
+would not at all be for the benefit or the reverse of other nations.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair would be very glad to hear Sir
+<span class="smcap">Wm. Thomson's</span> views on this subject if it were before the
+Conference for discussion, but it is not.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">William Thomson</span>. I beg pardon for having mentioned it.</p>
+
+<p>I would repeat that the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich is one
+of convenience. The difference of other meridians from it is readily
+ascertained, and therefore it seems to me that the minimum of trouble
+will be entailed on the world by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> the general adoption of the meridian
+of Greenwich. This would require the minimum of change, and,
+furthermore, the changes which would be necessary are already wholly
+ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>I would inquire of the Chair whether it would be in order for me to
+allude to the resolutions number 2 and 3, which have been read?</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. I think that we must confine ourselves to the
+subject immediately under discussion&mdash;the adoption of a prime
+meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">William Thomson</span>. Then I have only to thank you and the
+Delegates for allowing me to speak, and to express my very strong
+approbation of the resolution that has been proposed.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, then made the
+following remarks:</p>
+
+<p>In view of the interesting information furnished to the Congress by
+<span class="smcap">M. Janssen</span> on the hydrographic labors of France, past and
+present, and of the results as represented by the number of Government
+charts; it has appeared to myself&mdash;as having held the office of
+hydrographer to the Admiralty of Great Britain for many years&mdash;in
+which opinion I am supported by my colleagues, that I should place at
+the disposal of the Congress certain statistical facts bearing on the
+great interests of navigation and commerce, as illustrated by the
+number of marine charts, of sailing directions, and of nautical
+almanacs annually produced under the authority of the British
+Government, and of their distribution.</p>
+
+<p>I would wish to disclaim any comparison in this respect with the
+labors of other countries. From personal knowledge I am aware that all
+nations&mdash;with only one or two exceptions&mdash;are, and especially so in
+the last few years, diligent in the development of hydrography, and
+that a cordial interchange of the results unfettered by any conditions
+is steadily being pursued.</p>
+
+<p>With this preface I would lay before you the following statements,
+observing that the shores of the whole navigable parts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> of the globe
+are embraced in the series of Admiralty charts referred to:</p>
+
+<p>The number of copper chart plates in constant use is between 2,850 and
+2,900. This number keeps up steadily. About 60 new plates are added
+every year.</p>
+
+<p>Average number of copper plates annually receiving correction amount
+to 2,700.</p>
+
+<p>Total number of charts annually printed for the daily use of the ships
+of Her Majesty's fleet in commission, and for sale to the general
+public, has for some years ranged between 180,000 and 230,000.</p>
+
+<p>The sale of Admiralty charts to the public through an authorized
+agent, both in London and at other commercial ports in the kingdom,
+has been for the last seven years as follows:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td>1877</td><td>..............................</td><td>104,562</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1878</td><td>..............................</td><td>109,881</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1879</td><td>..............................</td><td>103,943</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1880</td><td>..............................</td><td>114,430</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1881</td><td>..............................</td><td>118,542</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1882</td><td>..............................</td><td>131,801</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1883</td><td>..............................</td><td>157,325</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Of these numbers, about one-fifth have been purchased by the
+governments or agents of Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Russia,
+Turkey, and the United States. The appended list, which was furnished
+to me by the Admiralty Chart agent during the present year, gives the
+more precise particulars.</p>
+
+
+
+<table class="numbers" summary="" width="90%">
+<thead>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>United</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Years.</td><td>France.</td><td>Germany.</td><td>States.</td><td>Italy.</td><td>Russia.</td><td>Turkey.</td><td>Austria.</td><td>Total.</td></tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr><td>1877</td><td>2,039</td><td>5,184</td><td>2,067</td><td>1,518</td><td>11,763</td><td>.......</td><td>.......</td><td>22,561</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1878</td><td>5,741</td><td>3,381</td><td>2,641</td><td>2,645</td><td>5,651</td><td>.......</td><td>600</td><td>20,529</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1879</td><td>3,340</td><td>6,425</td><td>5,185</td><td>802</td><td>9,354</td><td>.......</td><td>641</td><td>25,747</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1880</td><td>5,793</td><td>5,280</td><td>1,879</td><td>797</td><td>10,145</td><td>519</td><td>376</td><td>24,788</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1881</td><td>4,418</td><td>3,640</td><td>1,273</td><td>2,694</td><td>3,406</td><td>1,160</td><td>996</td><td>17,587</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1882</td><td>7,454</td><td>5,656</td><td>1,716</td><td>2,569</td><td>4,245</td><td>115</td><td>1,197</td><td>22,952</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1888</td><td>5,592</td><td>7,882</td><td>6,174</td><td>2,607</td><td>6,280</td><td>2,368</td><td>2,158</td><td>32,961</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1884 (1st.quar.)</td><td> 1,367</td><td>2,261</td><td>2,942</td><td>908</td><td>2,186</td><td>429</td><td>677</td><td>10,670</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>35,741</td><td>39,679</td><td>23,867</td><td>14,440</td><td>52,930</td><td>4,591</td><td>6,544</td><td>177,795</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But the chart resources of the British Admiralty, great as they are,
+do not suffice to meet the requirements of the smaller class ships of
+the mercantile marine of Great Britain. There are three commercial
+firms in London who publish special charts, based, however, on
+admiralty documents, to satisfy this demand. On inquiry I found that
+these firms publish 640 charts, which, from their large size, require
+about 930 copper plates. I am not able to furnish the number of charts
+sold by these firms, but it is large.</p>
+
+<p>Supplementary to the Admiralty Charts, there are 51 volumes of Sailing
+Directions. Several of these volumes exceed 500 pages, and have passed
+through several editions. Private commercial firms also, in addition
+to their charts, publish directions for many parts of the globe. These
+include regions with which the Admiralty have not yet, notwithstanding
+great diligence, been able to deal.</p>
+
+<p>The annual sales of nautical almanacs for the past seven years have
+been:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table summary="">
+<tr><td>1877</td><td>..............................</td><td>18,439</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1878</td><td>..............................</td><td>16,408</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1879</td><td>..............................</td><td>16,290</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1880</td><td>..............................</td><td>14,561</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1881</td><td>..............................</td><td>15,870</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1882</td><td>..............................</td><td>15,071</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1883</td><td>..............................</td><td>15,535</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>I think, sir, that these are salient points, which will assist the
+Conference in coming to a clearer view of the great interest which
+navigation and commerce have in the charts of a particular country.</p>
+
+<p>The question was then put on the adoption of the resolution offered by
+the Delegate of the United States, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"That the Conference proposes to the Governments here
+represented the adoption of the meridian passing through the
+transit instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich as the
+initial meridian for longitude."</p></blockquote><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The roll was called, and the different States voted as follows:</p>
+
+<p>In the affirmative&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote" width="50%">
+<tr><td>Austria,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Columbia,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Venezuela,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>United States.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In the negative&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>San Domingo.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>France.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The result was then announced, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>Ayes, 21; noes, 1; abstaining from voting, 2.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then announced that the resolution was passed.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia. In the name of the
+Delegates for Russia I have now, at this point of the discussion, to
+say a few words.</p>
+
+<p>If we had to consider the scientific side alone of the questions,
+which have already been discussed and resolved by the prominent
+scientists of the different countries at the General Conference of the
+International Geodetical Association at Rome, in 1883, we might as
+well simply adhere to the resolutions of the Roman Conference, and
+limit our work to the shaping of these resolutions into the form of a
+draft of an international convention, to be submitted for approbation
+to our respective Governments. But, as we have, besides, to consider
+the application of the intended reform to practical life, we beg to
+submit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> the following suggestions to the kind attention of the
+Conference.</p>
+
+<p>It is important to find for the more densely populated countries the
+simplest mode possible of transition from local to universal time, and
+<i>vice versa</i>; and we believe, therefore, that it would be convenient
+for the practical purposes of the question to adopt for the beginning
+of the universal day the midnight of Greenwich, and not the noon, as
+was deemed advisable by the Conference of Rome.</p>
+
+<p>This modification would offer for the whole of Europe and for the
+greatest part of America the advantage of avoiding the double date in
+local and universal time during the principal business hours of the
+day, and would afford great facilities in the transition from local
+time to universal.</p>
+
+<p>In adopting the universal time for the astronomical almanacs and for
+astronomical ephemerides, and in counting the beginning of the day
+from the midnight of Greenwich, there would be, it is true, a
+modification of the astronomical chronology, as heretofore used; but
+we think it easier for the astronomers to change the starting point,
+and to make allowance for these 12 hours of difference in their
+calculations, than it would be for the public and for the business
+men, if the date for the universal time began at noon, and not at
+midnight.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference at Rome proposes to count the longitudes from O&deg; to
+360&deg; in the direction from west to east. It seems to us that this
+system can lead to misunderstanding in the local and universal
+chronology for the countries beyond the 180&deg; east of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>We believe that a more practical result of the reform could be easily
+obtained by modifying the clause IV of the resolutions of the Roman
+Conference, and by maintaining the system already in use for a long
+time, which is to count the longitudes from 0&deg; to 180&deg; to east and
+west, adopting the sign + for eastern longitudes, and the sign - for
+western longitudes Thus the transition from universal to local time
+could be exactly expressed by the formula:</p>
+
+<p>Universal time = Local time - Longitude.</p>
+
+<p>The adoption of this modification would necessitate that the change of
+the day of the week, historically established on or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> about the
+anti-meridian of Greenwich, should henceforth take place exactly on
+that meridian.</p>
+
+<p>We are in favor of the adoption of the universal time (clause V of the
+resolutions of the Roman Conference) side by side with the local time,
+for international telegraphic correspondence, and for through
+international lines by railroads and steamers.</p>
+
+<p>We fully accept the resolution of the Roman Conference concerning the
+introduction of the system of counting the hours of the universal day
+from 0 to 24; and we think it desirable that the same system should be
+introduced for counting the hours in ordinary life. This would greatly
+contribute to the disappearance of the arbitrary division of the day
+into two parts, a. m. and p. m., and to an easier transition from
+local to universal time.</p>
+
+<p>We think it advisable to mark on all general maps the meridians in
+time as well as in degrees of longitude, which would render the reform
+familiar to the public, and facilitate its introduction in the
+education of the young.</p>
+
+<p>On maritime charts the longitudes ought to be given in degrees, as
+these are necessary for the determination of distances in maritime
+miles.</p>
+
+<p>The topographical maps may maintain temporarily their national
+meridian, in consequence of the difficulties of the modification of
+the co-ordinates for plates already engraved; but it would be
+necessary to mark on every sheet the difference between the national
+and the initial universal meridian in degrees of longitude.</p>
+
+<p>It would be most desirable to have in all new geographical catalogues
+of astronomical and geodetical points the longitudes given in degrees
+as well as in time, and that in these new catalogues the new initial
+meridian be taken as the starting point for the longitudes.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair has listened with great interest and
+pleasure to the paper which has just been read by the Delegate of
+Russia, Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, but the Chair begs to state that there
+is no resolution before the Conference.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair will now direct the second
+resolution to be read.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution was read, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"From this meridian" (<i>i.e.</i>, the meridian passing through
+the centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory at
+Greenwich) "longitude shall be counted in two directions up
+to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus and west longitude
+minus."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+In submitting this resolution to the Conference, I wish to say that
+the remarks of the Delegate of Russia have increased my confidence in
+the belief of its propriety.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr.
+President, the establishment of a prime meridian has, from the force
+of circumstances, become of practical importance to certain interests
+entrusted with vast responsibilities for the safety of life and
+property. These interests bear an important relation to the commerce
+of the world, and especially to the internal commerce of an extent of
+country embracing within its limits about sixty-five degrees of
+longitude. Exactness of time reckoning is an imperative necessity in
+the conduct of business.</p>
+
+<p>On November 18, 1883, the several railway companies of the United
+States and the Dominion of Canada united in the adoption of the mean
+local times of the seventy-fifth, ninetieth, one hundred and fifth,
+and one hundred and twentieth meridians, west from Greenwich, as the
+standards of time for the operation of their roads. The system under
+which they have since been working has proved satisfactory. They have
+no desire to make any further change. A large majority of the people
+in the several sections of the country through which the railways pass
+have either by mutual consent or special legislation adopted for their
+local use, for all purposes, the standards of time employed by the
+adjacent roads. Upon the public and working railway time-tables
+generally the fact has been published that the trains are run by the
+time of the seventy-fifth or ninetieth, etc., meridians, as the case
+may be.</p>
+
+<p>The same standards are used by the Railway Mail Service<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> of the United
+States Post-office Department, which had previously used Washington
+time exclusively for through schedules.</p>
+
+<p>It will at once be apparent how undesirable any action would be to the
+transportation interests of this country, which should so locate the
+prime meridian as to require these time-standard meridians to be
+designated by other than exact degrees of longitude. That these
+standard meridians should continue to be designated as even multiples
+of fifteen degrees from Greenwich is regarded as decidedly preferable.
+To change to different standards, based upon exact degrees of some
+other prime meridian, would require an amount of legislation very
+difficult to obtain.</p>
+
+<p>At a convention of the managers of many important railway lines which
+control through their connections fully three-fourths of the entire
+railway system of this country, held in Philadelphia on October 9,
+1884, certain action was taken, of which I have the honor to present a
+duly attested copy.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"At a meeting of the <i>General Railway Time Convention</i>, held
+in <i>Philadelphia, October 9th, 1884</i>, the following minute
+was unanimously adopted:</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Whereas</i>, An International Conference is now in session at
+Washington, D. C., for the purpose of fixing upon a prime
+meridian and standard of time-reckoning; and</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Whereas</i>, The railway companies of the United States and
+Canada have adopted a system of time standards based,
+respectively, upon the mean local times of the 75th, 90th,
+105th, and 120th meridians west from Greenwich, and this
+system has proved so satisfactory in its working as to
+render any further change inexpedient and unnecessary;
+therefore</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That it is the opinion of this Convention that
+the selection of any prime meridian which would change the
+denomination of these governing meridians from even degrees
+and make them fractional in their character would be
+disturbing in no small measure to the transportation lines
+of the United States and Canada.</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That a duly attested copy of these resolution
+be presented to the Conference."</p>
+
+<p class="author"><span class="smcap">P. P. Wright</span>,<br />
+<i>Chairman.</i></p>
+
+<p>
+Attest: <span class="smcap">Henry B. Stone</span>,<br />
+<i>Secretary pro tempore</i>.<br />
+</p>
+</blockquote><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden. Mr. President, I
+propose as an amendment to the resolution just offered the fourth
+resolution adopted by the Congress at Rome:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"It is proper to count longitude from the meridian of
+Greenwich in one direction from west to east."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Baron H. <span class="smcap">von Alvensleben</span>, Delegate of Germany. Mr. President,
+I beg to state that I think that this is only a question of detail;
+and, if the question is put to the Conference, I shall not be able to
+vote, and I shall abstain from voting.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. May I ask the Delegate from Germany whether
+his remark applies to the amendment?</p>
+
+<p>Baron H. <span class="smcap">von Alvensleben</span>, Delegate of Germany. Yes, sir; to
+the amendment, and to the resolution, also.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of England. Mr. President, I must say
+that I am very much inclined to agree with the Delegate of Germany in
+the opinion that this is only a question of detail.</p>
+
+<p>It is a mere matter of convenience whether we count longitudes in one
+direction only, or in two opposite directions, considering longitudes
+measured in one direction as positive and in the opposite direction as
+negative. These two methods are nominally different from each other,
+but in reality there is no contradiction between them.</p>
+
+<p>In the mathematical reckoning of angles we may agree to begin at zero,
+and reckon in one direction round the entire circumference of 360
+degrees, but this does not prevent a mathematician, if he finds it
+convenient for any purpose, from reckoning angles as positive when
+measured in one direction, and negative when measured in the opposite
+direction.</p>
+
+<p>If angles be considered positive when reckoned towards the east, it is
+quite consistent with this usage that they should be considered
+negative when reckoned towards the west.</p>
+
+<p>It is much more convenient to consider all angles as positive in
+astronomical tables, but for other purposes it may be more convenient
+to employ negative angles also, especially when, by so doing, you
+avoid the use of large numbers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In comparatively small countries, like Great Britain for instance, it
+is more convenient when giving the longitude of a place in the west of
+England to consider it as being a few degrees west of Greenwich,
+rather than 350 and some degrees to the east of that meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr.
+President, while I think the question of reckoning longitude is a
+matter of detail, I think it devolves upon us to decide it one way or
+the other. Navigators are more interested in the question than
+mathematicians, and the longitudes must be engraved upon our
+hydrographic charts.</p>
+
+<p>Now, as the learned Delegate of Great Britain, Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>,
+who has just spoken, has stated, the principle involved is the same,
+whether we reckon east or west, or reckon continuously in the same
+direction. It seems to me, however, that when we come to consider the
+reckoning of longitude in connection with the adoption of a universal
+day, we should then make a decided choice in favor of counting
+longitude from zero to 360 degrees. If we adopt the resolution which
+my friend, the Delegate of the United States, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>,
+has offered, it will be in perfect conformity with the habits of the
+world. For that reason, and it is a very strong reason, I think it
+might be adopted; but a little consideration will show that if we
+reckon the longitude from zero to 360 degrees, east to west, then we
+will change the existing practice of reckoning longitude; but, of
+course, only in one hemisphere, and that will be eastward of the prime
+meridian; but, as we shall all remember, to the eastward of the prime
+meridian we have the main portions of the continents of Asia, Europe,
+and Africa, and in all the navigable water lying in the other
+hemisphere the longitude will continue to be reckoned as now. To
+navigators of the water lying to the eastward of the prime meridian
+there will be a change in the method of counting longitude both ways,
+it would be necessary to adopt two different rules for converting
+local into universal time.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Oh! no; by no means.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States. For
+although one rule would answer, by having regard to the algebraical
+sign affecting the longitude, it must be remembered that this rule is
+to be applied by many who are not accustomed to distinguishing east
+and west longitudes by a difference of sign, and who would therefore
+require one rule when the longitude is east and another when it is
+west. If, however, we adopt the method of reckoning from zero to 360
+degrees, from east to west, the relation existing between the local
+and the universal time becomes the simplest possible. To obtain the
+universal date and hour, under these circumstances, it only becomes
+necessary to add the longitude to the local time, understanding by
+local time the local date as well as the local hour. I think, for this
+reason, it will be preferable to reckon the longitude in one direction
+from east to west, instead of west to east.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Frederick Evans</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I would like
+to present a few words on behalf of seamen. There is clearly an
+important change proposed by the amendment. In the resolution before
+us it is simply a question of the reckoning of longitude as now
+employed by seamen of all nations, and I think it would be well to
+keep that fact separate from the reckoning of time.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair begs to state that the discussion is
+now upon the amendment of the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+<span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, to adopt the fourth resolution of the Congress at
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Frederick Evans</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Then I
+consider that, in the interest of seamen, it would be very undesirable
+to accept the amendment. We must recollect that an immense deal of the
+world's traffic is carried around the world entirely by sea, and that
+this proposed dislocation of the methods of seamen by reckoning
+longitude in one direction only would, to say the least, be extremely
+inconvenient, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> it would require considerable time for them to get
+into the habit of doing so. I think, however, that as to the question
+of time, there would be no difference of opinion; doubtless, it is the
+easier method; but, as we have to look at the practical side of this
+calculation of longitude, I must certainly disagree with the amendment
+and vote for the original resolution.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>, Delegate of Spain, then presented the
+following amendment:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+here represented that longitude shall be counted from the
+prime meridian westward, in the direction opposite to the
+terrestrial rotation, and reckoned from zero degrees to 360
+degrees, and from zero hours to 24 hours."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The question before the Conference now is the
+amendment of the Delegate of Sweden. If the Delegate of Spain desires
+to offer his resolution as an amendment to the amendment already
+offered, the Chair will place it before the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>, Delegate of Spain. I am in accord with the
+views expressed by our colleague, Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, and I
+propose the resolution which I have just presented.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, the Delegate of Spain. I believe the amendment
+proposed by my colleague, Mr. <span class="smcap">Pastorin</span>, Delegate of Spain,
+does not apply to the amendment of the Delegate of Sweden, but to the
+original resolution. In order to avoid all ambiguity it would be much
+better to discuss them one after the other. Therefore let us decide
+the question whether it is better to count up to 180&deg; in each
+direction or up to 360&deg; continuously. Then we can go on to something
+else.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. In order to meet the views expressed by Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Valera</span>, the Delegate of Spain, Mr. <span class="smcap">Pastorin</span> will
+withdraw his amendment, and the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+<span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, will propose the substance of his original
+resolution so modified in form that its details may be considered
+separately.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>, Delegate of Spain. In conformity with the
+statement of the President, I now withdraw my amendment.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden. I beg to offer the
+following propositions in the form of amendments to the original
+resolution offered by the Delegate of the United States; these may be
+discussed in succession:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"1. That from this prime meridian (the Greenwich meridian)
+longitude shall be counted in one direction."</p>
+
+<p>"2. That such longitude shall be counted from west to east."
+Or, in place of No. 2&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"3. That such longitude shall be counted from east to west."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Delegates from Sweden and Spain have
+agreed as to the first part of the resolution, that longitude shall be
+counted in one direction&mdash;that is, from zero to 360 degrees. The
+question before the Conference is now upon the first clause of the
+resolution, and the other two will be subsequently discussed.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I think it is
+impossible to proceed to a vote upon these propositions without
+bearing in mind what is to be decided as to the universal day. That
+day, as it appears to me, will have to be determined with reference to
+the initial meridian in such manner as to prevent, as far as possible,
+inconvenience from discontinuity of local time and date in passing
+around the world.</p>
+
+<p>No matter how longitude is calculated, you must necessarily arrive at
+discontinuity at some point in passing around the great circle of the
+earth. It seems to me that the most convenient way of counting both
+longitude and time is that the discontinuity in both shall take place
+on the same point on the earth. Now, certainly, as was observed at
+Rome, it will be far less inconvenient if the discontinuity of date
+takes place on the meridian of 180 degrees from Greenwich. Then the
+reckoning of local time all around the world, going from west to east
+in the direction of the earth's rotation, will be continuous.</p>
+
+<p>In any other way, as far as I can see, there will be a discontinuity
+at some point on the inhabited part of the earth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> If the
+discontinuity were to take place on the meridian of Greenwich, as has
+been proposed by the Conference at Rome, the dates will change there
+during the daytime. That, as it appears to me, will be extremely
+inconvenient.</p>
+
+<p>In order to harmonize what I have called the discontinuity of date
+with the discontinuity in the reckoning of longitude, it appears to me
+that it will be best to reckon the longitude in both directions. There
+will be no discontinuity then except on the 180th meridian. It would
+be very inconvenient for a great part of the civilized world if the
+resolution which has been offered should be adopted, if, as I presume
+it would do, it caused discontinuity both in longitude and local time
+in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>After all, what are we here to endeavor to do? Notwithstanding what
+has been said in the other direction, for my part I must say that the
+great object before us is to secure the greatest convenience of the
+whole civilized world, and it seems to me that we should try to obtain
+it.</p>
+
+<p>If there is no very strong reason for altering the existing system of
+counting longitudes, it appears to me that this is a very excellent
+reason in favor of maintaining it. I do not see myself that, for any
+practical purpose, anything would be gained by reckoning longitude
+from zero to 360 degrees. There may be some special scientific
+purposes for which it may be convenient, but the object which this
+resolution is intended to meet is of another character.</p>
+
+<p>What we want is longitude for ordinary purposes, and on that hangs the
+reckoning of universal time, which, of course, should be for the
+general use of the whole world.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I
+doubt whether I should trouble the Conference in reference to this
+point. I think, however, that it is a matter of little importance
+whether we consider longitude as positive, when reckoned toward the
+east, and negative, when reckoned to the west, or go on in one
+direction from zero to 360 degrees; it amounts, mathematically
+speaking, to the same thing. We never can consider mathematical lines
+or angles as positive in one direction, without implying that in the
+opposite direction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> they are negative. One of these is merely the
+complement of the other.</p>
+
+<p>For myself, I would say that there is no use in the Conference
+resolving that we should count longitude only in the eastwardly
+direction. The Conference may say that if longitude is reckoned
+towards the east, it shall be considered positive, and, if reckoned
+towards the west, negative; and that is all we should say. I do not
+think it is within the competence of the Conference to say that
+mathematicians shall reckon longitude only in one direction. Whether
+you choose to reckon right through to 360 degrees or not is a matter
+of detail, and of no importance in a scientific point of view. You can
+adopt one style or the other, according to which is found the more
+convenient in practice.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I would
+suggest that this matter of detail can very well be discussed and
+arranged by a committee, otherwise, it may take up the whole time of
+the Conference. I move, therefore, that a committee be appointed to
+take up this matter and report upon it at the next meeting.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair desires only to carry out the wish
+of the Conference, but it does not see clearly what we should gain by
+a committee. Still, if it be the desire of the Conference to order a
+committee, then the question will arise as to the organization of that
+committee, and the Chair would feel some hesitation in appointing it.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+if this was a new question, in regard to which we had heard no
+discussion, it would be eminently proper that we should put it into
+the hands of a committee to formalize and thereby to shorten our
+deliberations; but it seems to me that the appointment of a committee
+now would not help us at all. When the report of that committee came
+in, we should have to proceed exactly as we do now.</p>
+
+<p>There are only three questions before the Conference, and they come
+within very narrow limits. First, shall we count<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> longitude both ways?
+Second, shall we count it all around the 360 degrees? Third, if so, in
+which direction is the counting to take place?</p>
+
+<p>These are the only three questions, and, after all, they are questions
+of convenience. We are just as capable of voting upon these
+propositions now as we should be after the appointment of a committee.</p>
+
+<p>Baron <span class="smcap">von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>, Delegate of Austria-Hungary. Mr.
+President, I move that we adjourn until to-morrow at one o'clock P.M.</p>
+
+<p>The question upon the motion to adjourn was then put and adopted, and
+the Conference accordingly adjourned at 3.45 P.M. until Tuesday, the
+14th inst., at one o'clock P.M.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="V" id="V"></a>V.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF OCTOBER 14, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Conference met, pursuant to adjournment, in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+<p>Present:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Austro-Hungary: Baron <span class="smcap">Ignatz von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Brazil: Dr. <span class="smcap">Luiz Cruls</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Chili: Mr. <span class="smcap">F. V. Gormas</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">A. B. Tupper></span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Colombia: Commodore <span class="smcap">S. R. Franklin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Costa Rica: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Francisco Echeverria</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">France: Mr. <span class="smcap">A. Lefaivre</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Germany: Baron <span class="smcap">H. von Alvensleben</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Hinckeldeyn</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Great Britain: Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Prof. <span class="smcap">J. O. Adams</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">Lieut.-General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Guatemala: Mr. <span class="smcap">Miles Rock</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Hawaii: Hon. <span class="smcap">W. D. Alexander</span>, Hon. <span class="smcap">Luther Aholo</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Italy: Count <span class="smcap">Albert de Foresta</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Japan: Professor <span class="smcap">Kikuchi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Liberia: Mr. Wm. <span class="smcap">Coppinger</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mexico: Mr. <span class="smcap">Leandro Fernandez</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Angel Anguiano</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Netherlands: Mr. <span class="smcap">G. de Weckherlin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Paraguay: Capt. <span class="smcap">John Stewart</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Russia: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. de Struve</span>, Major-General <span class="smcap">Stebnitzki</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">Kologrivoff</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">San Domingo: Mr. <span class="smcap">de J. Galvan</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Salvador: Mr. <span class="smcap">Atonio Batres</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Spain: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Emilo Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Sweden: Count <span class="smcap">Carl Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Switzerland: Mr. <span class="smcap">Emile Frey</span>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+<p class="attendee1">Turkey: <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">United States: Rear-Admiral <span class="smcap">C. R. P. Rodgers</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Lewis</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">M. Rutherford</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Commander <span class="smcap">W. T.</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">Sampson</span>, Professor <span class="smcap">Cleveland Abbe</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Venezuela: Se&ntilde;or Dr. <span class="smcap">A. M. Soteldo</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Absent:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Denmark: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. S. A. de Bille</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The Chair begs leave to announce that, in the regular order of
+business, the first matter before the Conference to-day would have
+been the proposition of the Delegate of Great Britain, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, that a committee be appointed to consider a
+report upon the resolution offered by him yesterday. The Chair
+understood, however, from Mr. <span class="smcap">Fleming</span> this morning that he
+had no desire to press that proposition, and, therefore, it may be
+considered as withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>The question then would be upon the amendment offered by the Delegate
+of Spain, Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>, and if that amendment be
+withdrawn upon the amendment offered by the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+<span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>. The Chair understands that both of those
+gentlemen desire to withdraw their propositions temporarily, and, in
+that event, the first action to be taken will be upon the resolution
+offered by the Delegate of the United States, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>, Delegate of Turkey. In voting yesterday
+in favor of the resolutions proposed by the Hon. Delegate of the
+United States, I wish to have it well understood that my vote does not
+bind my Government. I am, indeed, obliged to vote against any
+proposition which would tend to bind it in any way, for I desire to
+leave it free to act in the matter.</p>
+
+<p>I engage to submit to my Government the result of our deliberations
+and to recommend their adoption, but that is all. In other words, I
+have only voted "<i>ad referendum</i>," and I ask that my statement be
+entered in the protocol.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair would inform the Delegate who<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> has
+just spoken that the same statement was made by several delegates at a
+former meeting of the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>M. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. I believe that the very
+correct doctrine just enunciated by the Delegate of Turkey, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>, is the one adopted by all the members of the
+Congress, and that we have all voted "<i>ad referendum</i>."</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair so understood the general sense of
+the Conference as expressed at one of our former meetings, when many
+of the delegates made the same declaration.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Antonio Batres</span>, Delegate of Salvador. Mr. President, I
+could not be present yesterday, on account of illness, and I now
+request permission to register my name in favor of the resolution
+adopting the meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Delegate of Salvador, Mr. <span class="smcap">Batres</span>,
+informs the Chair that he was not able to be present yesterday, on
+account of illness, and he desires that his name may be recorded as
+voting for the meridian of Greenwich. If there be no objection to the
+request of the Delegate to Salvador, his vote will be so entered.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made, the President instructed the Secretary to
+make the proper entry in the protocol.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Delegate of Spain, Mr. <span class="smcap">Pastorin</span>,
+has withdrawn his amendment, and the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+<span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, has also withdrawn the amendment which he offered
+to the resolution of the Delegate of the United States, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>. The resolution originally offered will now be
+read.</p>
+
+<p>The Secretary then read the resolution, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That from this meridian [<i>i.e.</i>, the meridian
+of Greenwich] longitude shall be counted in two directions
+up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus, and west
+longitude minus."</p></blockquote><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain, representing
+the Dominion of Canada. I wish to offer some observations on the
+resolution before the Conference, but I am unable to separate the
+particular question from the general question. To my mind, longitude
+and time are so related that they are practically inseparable, and
+when I consider longitude, my thoughts naturally revert to time, by
+which it is measured. I trust, therefore, I may be permitted to extend
+my remarks somewhat beyond the immediate scope of the resolution. I
+agree with those who think that longitude should be reckoned in one
+direction only, and I am disposed to favor a mode of notation
+differing in other respects from that commonly followed.</p>
+
+<p>If a system of universal time be brought into use, advantages would
+result from having the system of time and the system of terrestrial
+longitude in complete harmony. The passage of time is continuous, and,
+therefore, I think longitude should be reckoned continuously. To
+convey my meaning fully, however, it is necessary that I should enter
+into explanations at some length.</p>
+
+<p>Ten days back I ventured informally to place my views, with a series
+of recommendations on this subject, before the delegates. I hope I may
+now be permitted to submit them to the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair would inquire of the Conference
+whether the recommendations and remarks which were sent in print to
+the Delegates a few days ago by Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, the
+Delegate of Great Britain, may be entered upon the protocol as
+presented to-day. Each member was, it is understood, furnished with a
+copy of these papers.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Tupper</span>, Delegate of Chili. The Delegates of Chili have
+not received them.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair will take care that they are sent.</p>
+
+<p>No objection was made to the request of the Delegate of Great Britain,
+Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, who continued as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The adoption of a Prime Meridian, common to all nations, admits of the
+establishment of a system of reckoning time equally satisfactory to
+our reason and our necessities.</p>
+
+<p>At present we are without such a system. The mode of notation followed
+by common usage from time immemorial, whatever its applicability to
+limited areas, when extended to a vast continent, with a net-work of
+lines of railway and telegraph, has led to confusion and created many
+difficulties. Further, it is insufficient for the purposes of
+scientific investigation, so marked a feature of modern inquiry.</p>
+
+<p>Taking the globe as a whole, it is not now possible precisely to
+define when a year or a month or a week begins. There is no such
+interval of time as the commonly defined day everywhere and
+invariable. By our accepted definition, a day is local; it is limited
+to a single meridian. At some point on the earth's surface one day is
+always at its commencement and another always ending. Thus, while the
+earth makes one diurnal revolution, we have continually many days in
+different stages of progress on our planet.</p>
+
+<p>Necessarily the hours and minutes partake of this normal irregularity.
+Clocks, the most perfect in mechanism, disagree if they differ in
+longitude. Indeed, if clocks are set to true time, as it is now
+designated, they must, at least in theory, vary not only in the same
+State or county, but to some extent in the same city.</p>
+
+<p>As we contemplate the general advance in knowledge, we cannot but feel
+surprised that these ambiguities and anomalies should be found,
+especially as they have been so long known and felt. In the early
+conditions of the human race, when existence was free from the
+complications which civilization has led to; in the days when tribes
+followed pastoral pursuits and each community was isolated from the
+other; when commerce was confined to few cities, and
+intercommunication between distant countries rare and difficult; in
+those days there was no requirement for a common system of uniform
+time. No inconvenience was felt in each locality having its own
+separate and distinct reckoning. But the conditions under which we
+live are no longer the same. The application of science to the means
+of locomotion and to the instantaneous transmission<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> of thought and
+speech have gradually contracted space and annihilated distance. The
+whole world is drawn into immediate neighborhood and near
+relationship, and we have now become sensible to inconveniences and to
+many disturbing influences in our reckoning of time utterly unknown
+and even unthought of a few generations back. It is also quite
+manifest that, as civilization advances, such evils must greatly
+increase rather than be lessened, and that the true remedy lies in
+changing our traditional usages in respect to the notation of days and
+hours, whatever shock it may give to old customs and the prejudices
+engendered by them.</p>
+
+<p>In countries of limited extent, the difficulty is easily grappled
+with. By general understanding, an arrangement affecting the
+particular community may be observed, and the false principles which
+have led to the differences and disagreements can be set aside. In
+Great Britain the time of the Observatory at Greenwich is adopted for
+general use. But this involves a departure from the principles by
+which time is locally determined, and hence, if these principles be
+not wrong, every clock in the United Kingdom, except those on a line
+due north and south from Greenwich, must of necessity be in error.</p>
+
+<p>On the continent of North America efforts have recently been made to
+adjust the difficulty. The steps taken have been in a high degree
+successful in providing a remedy for the disturbing influences
+referred to, and, at the same time, they are in harmony with
+principles, the soundness of which is indisputable.</p>
+
+<p>When we examine into time in the abstract, the conviction is forced
+upon us that it bears no resemblance to any sort of matter which comes
+before our senses; it is immaterial, without form, without substance,
+without spiritual essence. It is neither solid, liquid, nor gaseous.
+Yet it is capable of measurement with the closest precision.
+Nevertheless, it may be doubted if anything measurable could be
+computed on principles more erroneous than those which now prevail
+with regard to it.</p>
+
+<p>What course do we follow in reckoning time? Our system implies that
+there are innumerable conceptions designated "time." We speak of
+solar, astronomical, nautical, and civil time, of apparent and mean
+time. Moreover, we assign to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> every individual point around the
+surface of the earth separate and distinct times in equal variety. The
+usages inherited by us imply that there is an infinite number of
+times. Is not all this inconsistent with reason, and at variance with
+the cardinal truth, that there is one time only?</p>
+
+<p>Time may be compared to a great stream forever flowing onward. To us,
+nature, in its widest amplitude, is a unity. We have but one earth,
+but one universe, whatever its myriad component parts. That there is
+also but one flow of time is consistent with the plain dictates of our
+understanding. That there can be more than one passage of time is
+inconceivable.</p>
+
+<p>From every consideration, it is evident that the day has arrived when
+our method of time-reckoning should be reformed. The conditions of
+modern civilization demand that a comprehensive system should be
+established, embodying the principle that time is one abstract
+conception, and that all definite portions of it should be based on,
+or be related to, one unit measure.</p>
+
+<p>On these grounds I feel justified in respectfully asking the
+consideration of the Conference to the series of recommendations which
+I venture to submit.</p>
+
+<p>The matter is undoubtedly one in which every civilized nation is
+interested. Indeed, it may be said that, more or less, every human
+being is concerned in it. The problem is of universal importance, and
+its solution can alone be found in the general adoption of a system
+grounded on principles recognized as incontrovertible.</p>
+
+<p>Such principles are embodied in the recommendations which I am
+permitted to place before the Conference. They involve, as an
+essential requirement, the determination of a unit of measurement, and
+it is obvious that such a unit must have its origin in the motion of
+the heavenly bodies. No motion is more uniform than the motion of the
+earth on its axis. This diurnal revolution admits of the most delicate
+measurement, and, in all respects, is the most available for a unit
+measure. It furnishes a division of time definite and precise, and one
+which, without difficulty, can be made plain and manifest.</p>
+
+<p>A revolution of the earth, denoted by the mean solar passage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> at the
+Prime or Anti-prime Meridian, will be recognizable by the whole world
+as a period of time common to all. By general agreement this period
+may be regarded as the common unit by which time may be everywhere
+measured for every purpose in science, in commerce, and in every-day
+life.</p>
+
+<p>The scheme set forth in the recommendations has in view three
+principal objects, viz:</p>
+
+<p>1. To define and establish an universal day for securing chronological
+accuracy in dates common to the whole world.</p>
+
+<p>2. To obtain a system of universal time on a basis acceptable to all
+nations, by which, everywhere, at the same time, the same instant may
+be observed.</p>
+
+<p>3. To establish a sound and rational system of reckoning time which
+may eventually be adopted for civil purposes everywhere, and thus
+secure uniformity and accuracy throughout the globe.</p>
+
+<p>But, in the inauguration of a scheme affecting so many individuals, it
+is desirable not to interfere with prevailing customs more than
+necessary. Such influences as arise from habit are powerful and cannot
+be ignored. The fact must be recognized that it will be difficult to
+change immediately the usages to which the mass of men have been
+accustomed. In daily life we are in the habit of eating, sleeping, and
+following the routine of our existence at certain periods of the day.
+We are familiar with the numbers of the hours by which these periods
+are known, and, doubtless, there will be many who will see little
+reason in any attempt to alter their nomenclature, especially those
+who take little note of cause and effect, and who, with difficulty,
+understand the necessity of a remedy to some marked irregularity
+which, however generally objectionable, does not bear heavily upon
+them individually.</p>
+
+<p>For the present, therefore, we must adapt a new system, as best we are
+able, to the habits of men and women as we find them. Provision for
+such adaptation is made in the recommendations by which, while local
+reckoning would be based on the principles laid down, the hours and
+their numbers need not appreciably vary from those with which we are
+familiar. Thus, time-reckoning in all ordinary affairs in every
+locality may be made to harmonize with the general system.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Standard time throughout the United States and Canada has been
+established in accord with this principle. Its adoption has proved the
+advantages which may be attained generally by the same means. On all
+sides these advantages have been widely appreciated, and no change
+intimately bearing upon common life was ever so unanimously accepted.
+Certainly, it is an important step towards the establishment of one
+system of universal time, or, as it is designated in the
+recommendations, Cosmic time.</p>
+
+<p>The alacrity and unanimity with which the change has been accepted in
+North America encourages the belief that the introduction of cosmic
+time in every-day life is not unattainable. The intelligence of the
+people will not fail to discover, before long, that the adoption of
+correct principles of time-reckoning will in no way change or
+seriously affect the habits they have been accustomed to. It will
+certainly sweep away nothing valuable to them. The sun will rise and
+set to regulate their social affairs. All classes will soon learn to
+understand the hour of noon, whatever the number on the dial, whether
+six, as in Scriptural times, or twelve, or eighteen, or any other
+number. People will get up and retire to bed, begin and end work, take
+breakfast and dinner at the same periods of the day as at present, and
+our social habits and customs will remain without a change, depending,
+as now, on the daily returning phenomena of light and darkness.</p>
+
+<p>The one alteration will be in the notation of the hours, so as to
+secure uniformity in every longitude. It is to be expected that this
+change will at first create some bewilderment, and that it will be
+somewhat difficult to be understood by the masses. The causes for such
+a change to many will appear insufficient or fanciful. In a few years,
+however, this feeling must pass away, and the advantages to be gained
+will become so manifest that I do not doubt so desirable a reform will
+eventually commend itself to general favor, and be adopted in all the
+affairs of life.</p>
+
+<p>Be that as it may, it seems to me highly important that a
+comprehensive time system should be initiated to facilitate scientific
+observations, and definitely to establish chronological dates; that it
+should be designed for general use in connection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> with railways and
+telegraphs, and for such other purposes for which it may be found
+convenient.</p>
+
+<p>The Cosmic day set forth in the recommendations would be the date for
+the world recognizable by all nations. It would theoretically and
+practically be the mean of all local days, and the common standard to
+which all local reckoning would be referable.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the reckoning of longitude, I submit that longitude and
+time are so intimately related that they may be expressed by a common
+notation. Longitude is simply the angle formed by two planes passing
+through the earth's axis, while time is the period occupied by the
+earth in rotating through that angle. If we adopt the system of
+measuring time by the revolution of the earth from a recognized zero,
+one of these planes&mdash;that through the zero&mdash;may be
+<ins class="correction" title="Text reads... cosidered">considered</ins> fixed;
+the other&mdash;that through the meridian of the place&mdash;being movable, the
+longitudinal angle is variable. Obviously the variable angle ought to
+be measured from the fixed plane as zero, and as the motion of the
+earth by which the equivalent time of the angle is measured is
+continuous, the longitude ought to be reckoned continuously in one
+direction. The direction is determined by the notation of the hour
+meridians, viz., from east to west.</p>
+
+<p>If longitude be so reckoned and denoted by the terms used in the
+notation of cosmic time, the time of day everywhere throughout the
+globe would invariably denote the precise longitude of the place
+directly under the mean sun. Conversely, at the epoch of mean solar
+passage at any place, the longitude being known, cosmic time would be
+one and the same with the longitude of the place.</p>
+
+<p>The advantages of such a system of reckoning and nomenclature, as
+suggested in the recommendations which I now submit, will be, I think,
+self-evident.</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="heading">RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE REGULATION OF TIME AND THE RECKONING
+OF LONGITUDE</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>That a system of universal time be established, with the
+view of facilitating synchronous scientific observations,
+for chronological reckonings, for the purpose of trade and
+commerce<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> by sea and land, and for all such uses to which it
+is applicable.</i></p>
+
+<p>2. <i>That the system be established for the common observance
+of all peoples, and of such a character that it may be
+adopted by each separate community, as may be found
+expedient.</i></p>
+
+<p>3. <i>That the system be based on the principle that for all
+terrestrial time reckonings there be one recognized unit of
+measurement only, and that all measured intervals of time be
+directly related to the one unit measure.</i></p>
+
+<p>4. <i>That the unit measure be the period occupied by the
+diurnal revolution of the earth, defined by the mean solar
+passage at the meridian twelve hours from the Prime Meridian
+established through Greenwich.</i></p>
+
+<p>5. <i>That the unit measure defined as above be held to be a
+day absolute, and designated a Cosmic Day.</i></p>
+
+<p>6. <i>That such Cosmic Day be held as the chronological date
+of the earth, changing with the mean solar passage at the
+anti-meridian of Greenwich.</i></p>
+
+<p>7. <i>That all divisions and multiples of the Cosmic Day be
+known as Cosmic Time.</i></p>
+
+<p>8. <i>That the Cosmic Day be divided into hours, numbered in a
+single series, one to twenty-four, (1 to 24,) and that the
+hours be subdivided, as ordinary hours, into minutes and
+seconds. Note.&mdash;As an alternative means of distinguishing
+the cosmic hours from the hours in local reckonings, they
+may be denoted by the letters of the alphabet, which,
+omitting I and V, are twenty-four in number.</i></p>
+
+<p>9. <i>That until Cosmic Time be admitted as the recognized
+means of reckoning in the ordinary affairs of life, it is
+advisable to assimilate the system to present usages and to
+provide for the easy translation of local reckonings into
+Cosmic Time, and vice versa; that, therefore, in theory, and
+as closely as possible in practice, local reckonings be
+based on a known interval in advance or behind Cosmic Time.</i></p>
+
+<p>10. <i>That the surface of the globe be divided by twenty-four
+equidistant hour meridians, corresponding with the hours of
+the Cosmic Day.</i></p>
+
+<p>11. <i>That, as far as practicable, the several hour meridians
+be taken according to the longitude of the locality, to
+regulate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> local reckonings, in a manner similar to the
+system in use throughout North America.</i></p>
+
+<p>12. <i>That, in all cases where an hour meridian is adopted as
+the standard for regulating local reckonings, in a
+particular <ins class="correction" title="Text reads... tection">section</ins> or district, the civil day shall be held
+to commence <ins class="correction" title="Text reads... swelve">twelve</ins> hours before and end twelve hours after
+the mean solar passage of such hour meridian.</i></p>
+
+<p>13. <i>That the civil day, based on the Prime Meridian of
+Greenwich, shall coincide and be one with the Cosmic Day.
+That civil days on meridians east of Greenwich shall be
+(according to the longitude) a known number of hours, or
+hours and minutes in advance of Cosmic Time, and to the west
+of Greenwich the contrary.</i></p>
+
+<p>14. <i>That the surface of the globe being divided by
+twenty-four equidistant meridians (fifteen degrees apart)
+corresponding with the hours of the Cosmic Day, it is
+advisable that longitude be reckoned according to these hour
+meridians.</i></p>
+
+<p>15. <i>That divisions of longitude less than an hour (fifteen
+degrees) be reckoned in minutes and seconds and parts of
+seconds.</i></p>
+
+<p>16. <i>That longitude be reckoned continuously towards the
+west, beginning with zero at the Anti-prime meridian, twelve
+hours from Greenwich.</i></p>
+
+<p>17. <i>That longitude, generally, be denoted by the same terms
+as those applied to Cosmic Time.</i></p></blockquote>
+
+<p>I submit these recommendations suggestively, and without any desire
+unduly to press them. I shall be content if the leading principles
+laid down be recognized by the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the more immediate question, I have come to the firm
+conviction that extreme simplicity of reckoning and corresponding
+benefits would result if longitude be notated in the same manner, and
+denoted by the same terms as universal time. If, therefore, the
+Conference adopts the motion of the distinguished Delegate of the
+United States, which, I apprehend, is designed to cause as little
+change as possible in the practices of sea-faring men, I trust the
+claims of other important interests will not be overlooked. I refer to
+all those interests, so deeply concerned in securing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> accurate time on
+land, and in having easy means provided for translating any one local
+reckoning into any other local reckoning, or into the standard
+universal time. In this view I trust the Conference will give some
+expression of opinion in favor of extending around the globe the
+system of hour meridians which has proved so advantageous in North
+America. In an educational aspect alone it seems to me important that
+the hour meridians, one to twenty-four, numbered from the anti-prime
+meridian continuously toward the west, should be conspicuously marked
+on our maps and charts.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, Mr.
+President, to express my entire adhesion to the proposition which has
+been made by the Delegate of the United States, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>. It seems to me to satisfy one of the principal
+conditions that we have had before us to guide our decision; that is,
+that we should pursue a course which will produce the least possible
+inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>Now, I think if we keep that in mind, we shall have very little
+difficulty in coming to the conclusion that we should reckon longitude
+eastward, as positive or plus, and westward as negative or minus. This
+mode of reckoning would be attended with the least inconvenience; in
+fact, it will not be attended with any inconvenience at all, because
+it will keep to the present mode of reckoning. For my part, I see no
+adequate reason for changing that. There is no scientific reason, and
+certainly there is no practical reason. There is no scientific reason,
+because, as I stated yesterday, if in mathematics you measure from the
+zero a distance in one direction and consider that positive, you must,
+by the very nature of the case, consider the distance measured in the
+opposite direction from the same zero as negative. One follows
+mathematically and necessarily from the other, and by adopting this
+resolution you thus include both in one general formula.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to me quite as scientific, to say the least, to start from
+zero and go in both directions, distinguishing the longitudes by the
+signs plus and minus, according as the directions are taken east or
+west, as to reckon longitudes in one direction only from zero to 360
+degrees. It is, I say, just as scientific to do this, and practically
+it is more convenient. Because if<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> you go on reckoning from zero to
+360 degrees continuously, you have to make a break at 360 degrees. You
+do not count on after you have completed one revolution, but have to
+drop the 360 degrees and start again at zero. But this is attended
+with great inconvenience, because this break in counting occurs in
+countries which are thickly inhabited. The longitude would be a little
+less than 360 degrees on one side of the prime meridian, and on the
+other side the longitude would be a small angle. This seems to me very
+inconvenient.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, if you count longitudes in one direction from zero
+to 180 degrees as positive, and in the opposite direction from zero to
+180 degrees as negative, you are, no doubt, obliged to make a break in
+passing abruptly from plus 180 degrees to minus 180 degrees. But the
+break would then occur where it would cause the least inconvenience,
+viz., in mid-ocean, where there is very little land and very few
+inhabitants, and where we are accustomed to make the break now. This
+will require no change in the habits and customs of the people, and no
+inconvenience whatever would be caused by the action of the Conference
+if it decides on this method, which also has the minor advantage of
+not requiring the use of such large numbers as the other. But to adopt
+the reckoning of longitude from zero to 360 degrees would involve a
+very considerable change, and I think it may be doubted whether it
+would be generally accepted. Under the circumstances, I think the
+resolution contains the most expedient course for us to adopt. I do
+not object to anybody who chooses to do so reckoning on, for certain
+purposes, from zero to 360 degrees, but I do not think it would be
+well to make it compulsory.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the proposal of the Delegate of Great Britain, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Fleming</span>, I would say that it would be attended with great
+inconvenience, because it departs from the usages and habits now
+existing. That, to my mind, is a very great and insuperable objection,
+and I do not see any countervailing advantage.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the subject of time that Mr. Fleming is anxious to take
+into consideration, I think that nothing can be simpler, if I may be
+allowed to deal with the question of time, than the relation between
+time and longitude which is proposed to be created by the resolution
+of Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>By that resolution the longitude indicates the relation between the
+local time and the universal time in the simplest possible way. What
+can be easier than the method involved in the resolution of Mr.
+Rutherfurd? It is this: Local time at any place is equal to universal
+time plus the longitude of the place, plus being understood always in
+a mathematical sense. The longitude is to be added to the universal
+time if it is positive, and subtracted if it is negative. That is very
+simple, the whole being involved in one general formula.</p>
+
+<p>Now, I think it is perfectly impossible for Mr. Fleming to make a more
+simple formula than that. The formula laid down in the proceedings of
+the Roman Conference was far less simple, as it involved an odd twelve
+hours. You got the universal time equal to the local time, minus the
+longitude, plus twelve hours. This is far from simple. It makes the
+calculation more complicated, and it seems to me that for other
+reasons it is objectionable.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+I do not propose to take up the time of the Conference in reiterating
+the very conclusive remarks in favor of this resolution made by the
+Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, however, to allude, for a moment,
+to another view of this question. Suppose we do not adopt this
+resolution. What is the course before the Conference? We shall then be
+called upon, no doubt, to decide that longitude shall be counted all
+around the world from zero to 360 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>That general proposition is one which would not probably meet with
+violent opposition, but the next point is one that will divide us very
+materially, and perhaps disastrously. Which way shall we count? Shall
+it be towards the east or towards the west?</p>
+
+<p>My conversations with the gentlemen here present have lead me to know
+that there is a very great difference of opinion upon this point, and
+I believe that if we should not adopt this resolution and should
+decide to count longitude from zero to 360 degrees, a preference to
+count it in one direction rather than the other would be established
+only by a very close vote,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> nearly annulling the whole moral influence
+of the Conference, and we should go back to our Governments without
+much, if any, authority on the point in question.</p>
+
+<p>And I doubt whether our resolutions would be accepted by these
+Governments if we show ourselves to be divided upon a question of so
+much practical importance.</p>
+
+<p>It is simply a question of practice&mdash;of convenience. We all bowed to
+the rule of convenience in selecting the meridian of Greenwich. And
+why? Because seven-tenths of the civilized nations of the world use
+this meridian, not that it was intrinsically better than the meridian
+of Paris, or Washington, or Berlin, or St. Petersburg. Nobody claimed
+any scientific preference among these meridians. It was simply because
+seven-tenths of the civilized world were already using the meridian of
+Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>If we accept this argument in favor of the first resolution for
+selecting the initial meridian, why should we not be equally inclined
+to recognize the fact that all the civilized world count longitude in
+both ways? There is no difference of opinion on that point. There is
+no difference of usage. Shall we break that usage? Shall we introduce
+a new system, which may or may not be found practical or agreeable?
+Shall we not rather adopt the rule of all nations, already in use
+among their practised astronomers and navigators, by saying continue
+to do as you have already done?</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Frederick Evans</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Having for
+many years mixed among the practical seamen of more than one nation, I
+confess I look with some dismay on any other system for the notation
+of longitude being adopted than the one proposed in this resolution.</p>
+
+<p>My colleague, Mr. <span class="smcap">Fleming</span>, made the remark that he could not
+disassociate longitude from time. If he had mixed with seamen, he
+would have found out that there is very frequently a well-defined
+difference between the two in their minds. Longitude with seamen
+means, independently of time, space, distance. It indicates so many
+miles run in an east or west direction. Consequently, I am not able to
+look upon longitude and time as being identical.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances, this resolution also, as I understand it,
+should be considered on practical grounds.</p>
+
+<p>The question of universal time will come on for consideration
+hereafter, and how that may be settled seems to me a matter of
+indifference compared with the decision on this resolution. I
+question, for myself, whether any other plan than that it proposes
+would be generally accepted. That is what I am afraid of. Whatever
+respect nations may have for this Conference, public opinion would be
+very strong upon the point now at issue. When you further recollect
+that all around the globe, in all these various seas, there are
+colonies with histories; that their geographical positions and
+boundaries were originally recorded by longitude according to the
+notation of which I have spoken, I think it is to be over sanguine to
+expect that those colonies will accept a new notation of longitude
+without greater proof of the positive necessity of the change. It
+would not be the fiat of this Conference, or the fiat of any
+government, that would bring about the change. I say this with all
+deference to the opinions of those who have advocated a change.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. At the risk of
+repeating somewhat my remarks made to the Congress when we last met, I
+would add a few words to what has now been said. It is our wish that
+the points of real difference should, as far as possible, be clearly
+brought out before the Conference comes to a vote.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the counting of longitude in two directions, and the degree
+of advantage or disadvantage that may arise in starting from zero and
+treating east longitude as positive or plus, and west longitude as
+negative or minus, let me ask the attention of the Congress to the
+fact that longitude is already counted in these two directions, and
+that, as a matter of fact also, latitude is counted in the same way,
+in both directions from the equator, north latitude being plus and
+south latitude minus. Nobody, so far as I have heard, has ever
+proposed that we should abolish this method of reckoning latitude, and
+substitute for it North or South polar distance, to be counted right
+round the earth; and yet there is the same <i>quasi</i> scientific
+objection to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> the present method of counting in the one case as in the
+other. As already stated, it seems to me that, for purposes of
+practical convenience, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible,
+to separate the ideas on which the reckoning of longitude must be
+based, from those which must regulate the reckoning of time, and
+especially the reckoning of time in the sense of adopting a universal
+day over the whole world. Now, it appears to me that, as regards the
+acceptance of the universal day, it certainly will be anything but
+convenient, if it begins and ends otherwise than when the sun passes
+the 180th meridian. On the contrary, I think it will be extremely
+inconvenient. I think that if the world were to adopt the meridian of
+Greenwich as the origin of longitude, the natural thing for it to do
+would be to have the international day, the universal day, begin from
+the 180th meridian from Greenwich&mdash;that is, to coincide with the
+Greenwich civil day. That meridian passes, as I said before, outside
+of New Zealand, and outside of the Fijee Islands; it goes over only a
+very small portion of inhabited country. It appears to me, therefore,
+that inasmuch as there must be an absolute break or discontinuity in
+time in passing round the earth&mdash;a break of twenty-four hours&mdash;it is
+much more convenient that this break should take place in the
+uninhabited part of the earth than in the very centre of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>If we adopt the universal day which coincides with the civil day at
+Greenwich, then you will be able to have complete continuity of local
+time over the whole earth, in harmonious relation with the universal
+day, except at the break which necessarily takes place on the 180th
+meridian. Otherwise this will not be possible. For instance, according
+to the system proposed by the resolution, the local time
+corresponding, say, to 0 hours of Monday at Greenwich, would, in
+passing round the earth to the eastward from the 180th meridian,
+gradually change from 12 hours of Sunday to 12 hours of Monday; and,
+on returning to that meridian, the break of time would occur, and one
+day would appear to be lost. But complete continuity both in the days
+and hours, and harmony with the universal day, that is, the Greenwich
+civil day, would be preserved for the whole earth, excepting on
+crossing the 180th meridian.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The result of the system which was proposed at Rome would be to cause
+the break of dates to take place at Greenwich at noon, so that the
+morning hours of the civil day would have a different universal date
+from the afternoon hours, and this would be the case all over Europe.
+But if the universal day be made to correspond to the civil day of
+Greenwich, and the longitude is counted east in one direction and west
+in another direction to the 180th meridian, these difficulties would
+be overcome, and a perfectly simple rule would suffice for converting
+local into universal time. As regards what was said upon the subject
+of longitude being plus or minus, according as you move to the east or
+west, it appears to me that there is a positive, clear, and rational
+reason for calling longitude eastward plus and longitude westward
+minus. The time is later to the east, and therefore the hour is
+indicated by a higher number. In converting universal into local time,
+if the place is east of Greenwich, you add the longitude to the
+universal time, and therefore increase the number of the hour; if the
+place be west of Greenwich, you subtract the longitude, and therefore
+diminish the number of the hour. It is natural, therefore, to call
+east longitude positive and the other negative.</p>
+
+<p>It appears to me also that the passage of the sun over the meridian
+is, in reality, what may be called the index of the day, the day
+consisting of 24 hours, distributed equally on either side of the
+meridian. Noon of the universal day would thus coincide with the time
+of the sun passing the initial meridian. There is perfect consistency,
+therefore, in adopting the reckoning of longitude and time that is
+proposed in the resolution before us. It is a rational and symmetrical
+method.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>, the Delegate of Spain. I listened with
+great pleasure to the observations which our honorable colleague, the
+Delegate of England, General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, has just made.</p>
+
+<p>I am not sufficiently acquainted with the English tongue to make a
+speech, though I know it well enough to follow the debate. Moreover,
+as I had beforehand studied the subject which is now before us, I have
+quite well understood all that has been said on this point. I proposed
+an amendment yesterday,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> in order to obtain what I consider the most
+simple formula for converting local time into cosmical time. This
+formula is not, perhaps, the most suitable for astronomers and
+sailors, but they form the minority, and it is, I am sure, the easiest
+for the mass of the people. This formula would be based on the
+considerations which are now under discussion. I am not sufficiently
+familiar with the language to give the reasons upon which I based my
+amendment, but, as I demonstrated in the pamphlet which I had the
+honor of addressing to my learned colleagues, the means, in my
+opinion, of obtaining the simplest and the most suitable formula is to
+make the beginning of civil time and of dates on the first meridian
+coincide with the cosmical time and date, and to count longitude
+continuously in the same direction from the initial meridian. This is
+what I proposed to obtain by my amendment.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden. Mr. President, I now
+propose that the Conference take a recess for a few moments before a
+vote is taken upon the resolution.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made to the motion, the President announced that a
+recess would be taken until the Chair called the Conference to order.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The President</span>, having called the Conference to order, said.
+The recess has given an opportunity for an interchange of opinion upon
+the subject pending, and if the Conference be ready the vote will now
+be taken.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr.
+President, I think that the informal discussion which we have had upon
+this question of the method of counting longitude must lead to the
+conclusion that there is a great difference of opinion. So far as I
+have been able to learn, many of the delegates have come here
+instructed to favor the resolution adopted by the Roman Conference. It
+is my own opinion that the recommendation to count longitude
+continuously from the prime meridian from west to east, as recommended
+by the conference at Rome, is not so good as the proposition now
+before<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> us. Personally, however, I would prefer to see it counted
+continuously from east to west, as being more in conformity with
+present usage among astronomers. But, as it appears that so many
+delegates are instructed by their Governments to favor counting in the
+opposite direction, and as, if this Congress adopts any other plan
+than that proposed by the Conference at Rome, they will have to lay
+before their Governments as the action of this Congress something that
+will be opposed to the recommendation of the Roman Conference, and as
+these two recommendations would naturally tend to neutralize each
+other, I would favor the proposition which is now before us as being
+the most expedient.</p>
+
+<p>I would suggest, however, that, instead of making a positive
+declaration upon the question, we leave it as it now stands; that is
+to say, that longitude shall be counted east and west from the prime
+meridian, without specifying which direction shall be considered
+positive, and declare it to be the opinion of this Congress that it is
+not expedient to change the present method of counting longitude both
+ways from the prime meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate from Sweden. In my opinion the
+delegates have not undertaken to recommend the resolutions adopted by
+a majority of the Conference, but only the resolutions for which they
+have themselves voted. As regards the fact that there may be great
+differences of opinion concerning the questions which remain for our
+consideration, I am unable to see in it any reason for our not
+proceeding to vote upon them. On the contrary it will be of great
+interest to our Governments to know the exact position taken by each
+of the delegates, and even if any delegate should abstain from voting,
+such abstention would be of interest in the event of future
+negotiations on the subject. I am therefore of opinion that we should
+proceed to vote on the remaining resolutions.</p>
+
+<p>The vote was then taken upon the resolution of the Delegate of the
+United States, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, which is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That from this meridian (<i>id est</i>, Greenwich)
+longitude shall be counted in two directions up to 180
+degrees, east longitude being plus and west longitude
+minus."</p></blockquote><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following States voted in the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Salvador,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The following States voted in the negative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Netherlands,</td><td>Switzerland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The following States abstained from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Germany,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Turkey.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 14; noes, 5; abstaining, 6.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then announced that the resolution was adopted.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+I now propose to read the third resolution from the printed circular
+which has been furnished to the delegates. It is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+local time where desirable. This universal day is to be a
+mean solar day; is to begin for all the world at the moment
+of midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the
+beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is
+to be counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This resolution is somewhat complex, and in order to facilitate
+debate, I propose that we first occupy ourselves only with the first
+clause, namely:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+local time where desirable."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>After having disposed of that clause we can proceed to dispose of the
+other parts of the resolution.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. You propose, then, to divide the resolution as
+printed in the circular into two resolutions, and you now offer the
+first part for consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. If that is the
+more convenient form of putting it, it meets my views. It will be more
+easy to discuss the subject, more easy to arrive at a decision, in
+that form.</p>
+
+<p>M. le Comte <span class="smcap">Albert de Foresta</span>, Delegate of Italy. I propose
+as an amendment the fifth resolution of the Roman Conference, which
+reads as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The Conference recognizes, for certain scientific needs and
+for the internal service of great administrations of ways of
+communications, such as those of railroads, lines of
+steamships, telegraphic and postal lines, the utility of
+adopting a universal time, in connection with local or
+national times, which will necessarily continue to be
+employed in civil life."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The question is now upon the amendment offered
+by the Delegate of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Abbe</span>, Delegate of the United States. I would like
+to ask whether this amendment adds anything substantially to the
+resolution. I think it does not. It simply specifies the details of
+the resolution pending before us. That resolution "proposes the
+adoption of a universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+convenient." That is general. The amendment merely specifies certain
+of these purposes. That is a matter of detail.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Allen</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I
+desire to offer an amendment to the amendment, as follows:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Civil or local time is to be understood as the mean time of
+the approximately central meridian of a section of the
+earth's surface, in which a single standard of time may be
+conveniently used."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+it does not seem to me that it is within the competence of this
+Conference to define what is local time. That is a thing beyond us.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Delegate of the United States, then said:
+Mr. President and gentlemen, all efforts to arrive at uniformity in
+scientific or every-day usage originate in a desire to attain greater
+convenience in practice. The multiplicity of coins of which the
+relative value can only be expressed by fractions, the various common
+standards of weights and of measures, are inconvenient both to the
+business man and the scientist. Alike inconvenient to both are the
+diverse standards of time by which the cities of the world are
+governed, differing, as they do, by all possible fractions of hours.</p>
+
+<p>All coins have a relative and interchangeable value based upon their
+weight and fineness. Weights and measures remain the same by whatever
+unit they may be expressed; but, primarily, time can only be measured
+by a standard actually or apparently in motion. Absolutely accurate
+mean local time, varying, as it does, by infinitesimal differences at
+every point in the circuit of the earth, may be shown on a stationary
+object, but cannot in general be kept by an individual or object in
+motion. The mean local time of some fixed point in each locality must
+be taken as the standard for practical use. The important question to
+be determined is, over what extent of territory, measuring east and
+west from such fixed point, its mean time may be employed for all
+ordinary purposes without inconvenience. This can be absolutely
+determined only by practical experience.</p>
+
+<p>Careful study of this phase of this subject led, perhaps, more
+directly than any one single cause, to the proposal of the detailed
+system of standard time which now satisfactorily controls the
+operations of one hundred and twenty thousand miles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> of railway in the
+United States and Canada, and governs the movements of fifty millions
+of people.</p>
+
+<p>Before the recent change there were a number of localities where
+standards of time were exclusively employed which varied as much as
+thirty minutes, both on the east and the west, from mean local time,
+without appreciable inconvenience to those using them. From this fact
+the conclusion was inevitable that within those limits a single
+standard might be employed. The result has proved this conclusion to
+have been well founded.</p>
+
+<p>No public reform can be accomplished unless the evil to be remedied
+can be made plainly apparent. That an improvement will be effected
+must be clearly demonstrated, or the new status of affairs which will
+exist after the change, must be shown to have been already
+successfully tried. Here, as in law, custom and precedent are all
+powerful. It would be a difficult task to secure the general adoption
+of any system of time-reckoning which cannot be employed by all
+classes of the community. Business men would refuse to regard as a
+reform any proposition which introduced diversity where uniformity now
+exists, nor would railway managers consent to adopt for their own use
+a standard of time not coinciding with or bearing a ready relation to
+the standard employed in other business circles. To adopt the time of
+a universal day for all transportation purposes throughout the world,
+and to use it collaterally with local time, would simply restore, and
+possibly still more complicate, the very condition of things in this
+country which the movement of last year was intended to and did to a
+great extent obviate. Railway managers desire that the time used in
+their service shall be either precisely the same as that used by the
+public, or shall differ from it at as few points as possible, and then
+by the most readily calculated differences. The public, on the other
+hand, have little use for absolutely accurate time, except in
+connection with matters of transportation, but will refuse to adopt a
+standard which would materially alter their accustomed habits of
+thought and of language in every-day life. That this position is
+absurd may be argued, and, perhaps, admitted, but it is a fact, and
+one which cannot be disregarded.</p>
+
+<p>The adoption of the universal day or any system of time-reckoning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+based upon infrequent&mdash;such as the great quadrant&mdash;meridians, to be
+used by transportation lines collaterally with local time, is,
+therefore, practically impossible.</p>
+
+<p>Shall it, then, be concluded that there is no hope of securing
+uniformity in time-reckoning for practical purposes? Or does the
+proposition for the general division of the earth's surface into
+specified sections, governed by standards based upon meridians fifteen
+degrees or one hour apart, supply the remedy? Objections have been
+urged against this proposition on account of difficulties encountered,
+or supposed to be encountered, in the vicinity of the boundary lines
+between the sections. It is argued that the contact of two sections
+with standards of time differing by one hour will cause numerous and
+insuperable difficulties. In railway business, in which time is more
+largely referred to than in any other, the experience of the past year
+has proved this fear to be groundless. It is true that the approximate
+local time of a number of cities near the boundary lines between the
+eastern and central sections in the United States is still retained. A
+curious chapter of incidents could be related which led to this
+retention, not affecting, however, the merits of the case; but the
+fact serves to show that changes much greater than thirty minutes from
+local time would not be acceptable.</p>
+
+<p>Adjacent to and on either side of all national boundary lines the
+inhabitants become accustomed to the standards of weights, measures,
+and money of both countries, and constantly refer to and use them
+without material inconvenience. In the readjustment of a boundary upon
+new lines of demarcation it must be expected that some temporary
+difficulties in business transactions will be encountered, but all
+history shows that such difficulties soon adjust themselves. Legal
+enactments will finally determine the precise boundaries of the
+several sections. If different laws respecting many other affairs of
+life may exist on either side of a State or national boundary line,
+with positive advantage or without material inconvenience, why should
+laws respecting time-reckoning be an exception? Coins and measures are
+distinguished by their names. So, also, may standards of time be
+distinguished.</p>
+
+<p>The adoption of standard time for all purposes of daily life,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> based
+upon meridians fifteen degrees apart, would practically abolish the
+use of exact local time, except upon those meridians. Numerous
+circumstances might be related demonstrating how very inaccurate and
+undetermined was the local time used in many cities in this country
+before the recent change.</p>
+
+<p>Except for certain philosophical purposes, does the inherent advantage
+claimed in the use of even approximately accurate local time really
+exist? Would the proposed change affect any custom of undoubted value
+to the community? These questions have been answered in the negative
+by the experience of Great Britain since January 13, 1848, of Sweden
+since January 1, 1879, and of the United States and Canada since
+November 18, 1883.</p>
+
+<p>Greenwich time is exclusively used in Great Britain, and differs from
+mean local time about eight minutes on the east and about twenty-two
+and a half minutes on the west. In Sweden the time of the fifteenth
+degree of east longitude is the standard for all purposes. It differs
+from mean local time about thirty-six and a half minutes on the east
+and about sixteen minutes on the west. In the United States the
+standards recently adopted are used exclusively in cities like
+Portland, Me., (33,800 inhabitants,) and Atlanta, Ga., (37,400
+inhabitants,) of which the local times are, respectively, nineteen
+minutes and twenty two minutes faster than the standard, and at Omaha,
+Neb., (30,500 inhabitants,) and Houston, Tex., (16,500 inhabitants,)
+each twenty-four minutes slower. At Ellsworth, Me., a city of six
+thousand inhabitants, a change of twenty-six minutes has been made.
+Nearly eighty-five per cent. of the total number of cities in the
+United States of over ten thousand inhabitants have adopted the new
+standard time for all purposes, and it is used upon ninety-seven and a
+half per cent. of all the miles of railway lines.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now consider whether insuperable practical difficulties owing
+to geographical peculiarities will prevent the adoption of this system
+throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>A table has been prepared, and accompanies this paper, upon which are
+designated the several governing meridians and names suggested for the
+corresponding sectional times.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> For the use of this table I am
+indebted to Mr. E. B. Elliott, of this city.</p>
+
+<p>On the North American continent, in the United States and Canada, the
+75th, 90th, 105th, and 120th west Greenwich meridians now govern time.
+In Mexico the 105th west meridian is approximately central, except for
+Yucatan, which is traversed by the 90th. For Guatemala, Salvador, and
+Costa Rica, the 90th west meridian is approximately central. San
+Domingo closely approaches and Cuba touches the 75th.</p>
+
+<p>In South America&mdash;the United States of Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, the
+western portion of Bolivia, and Chili would use the time of the 75th
+west meridian, while Venezuela, Guiana, western Brazil, including the
+Amazon River region, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the
+Argentine Republic, would be governed by the time of the 60th
+meridian. In eastern Brazil the 45th west meridian would govern.</p>
+
+<p>Passing to Europe, we find Great Britain already governed by the zero
+meridian time, which can also be used in the Netherlands, Belgium,
+France, Spain, and Portugal. The 15th east meridian, which is about as
+far east of Berlin as west of Vienna, and no more distant from Rome
+than from Stockholm, now governs all time in Sweden. This time could
+also be advantageously used in Denmark, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
+Switzerland, Italy, and Servia. The time of the 30th east meridian,
+which is nearly the mean between Constantinople and St. Petersburg
+times, could be used in Western Russia, Turkey, Roumania, Bulgaria,
+East Roumelia, and Greece. When the development of Eastern Russia in
+Europe shall require it, the division of that great country between
+the times of the 30th and 45th east meridians, upon lines of
+convenience similar to those employed in the United States, can
+doubtless be arranged. The governing meridians for Africa appear to
+present some advantages, especially for Egypt, and no insuperable
+difficulties; but for continents where the boundaries of countries are
+so loosely defined, the limits of time-reckoning cannot well and need
+not now be shown. They would ultimately adjust themselves.</p>
+
+<p>In Asia the 60th east meridian passes through Khiva.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> Bombay would use
+the 75th and Calcutta the 90th. The 105th east meridian touches Siam,
+the 120th is near Shanghai, and the 135th passes through Japan and
+near Corea. The 150th meridian of west longitude is sufficiently near
+Hawaii. In Australia the 150th, 135th, and 120th meridians of east
+longitude are admirably located for governing, respectively, the time
+of the eastern, central, and western divisions of that continent.</p>
+
+<p>In none of the localities defined or mentioned, would the standards
+proposed vary more from mean local time than has already been
+demonstrated to be practicable without detriment to any material
+interest. Convenience of use, based largely upon the direction of
+greater commercial intercourse, would determine the action of
+communities other than those mentioned, and probably somewhat modify
+the schedule proposed.</p>
+
+<p>That no practical difficulty of usage would prevent the universal
+adoption of the hour-section system of time-reckoning is apparent. Its
+convenience has been abundantly realized. In adopting it, practically
+no expense whatever is incurred. The alteration of the works or faces
+of watches or clocks is not required. Their hands are simply set to
+the new standard, and the desired result is accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>By the adoption of this system, the exact hours of time-reckoning,
+although called by different names in the several sections for
+every-day life, but specifically designated, if desired, for
+scientific purposes, would be indicated at the same moment of time at
+all points. The minutes and seconds would everywhere agree. The
+absolute time of the occurrence of any event could, therefore, be
+readily determined. The counting of the hour meridians should begin
+where the day begins at the transition line.</p>
+
+<p>It would then be one of the possibilities of the powers of electricity
+that the pendulum of a single centrally located clock, beating
+seconds, could regulate the local time-reckoning of every city on the
+face of the earth.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="heading"><i>Table of Standards governing the Hour-Section System of
+Time-reckoning.</i></p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="numbers" summary="">
+<thead>
+<tr><td rowspan="2" align='center'>Longitude<br /> from<br /> Greenwich.</td><td width="60%" colspan="2" align='center'><span class="spacious">Hour Meridians</span>.</td><td rowspan="2" align='center'>Simultaneous hours<br /> in the several sections.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>Proposed names of sectional times.</td><td align='center'> Numbers.</td></tr>
+</thead>
+<tbody>
+<tr><td align='center'><i>Degrees.</i></td><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>180</td><td align='left'>Transition time</td><td align='left'> 0 or 24th</td><td align='left'>12 midnight</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>165 west</td><td align='left'>Alaskan</td><td align='left'> 1st......</td><td align='left'> 1 A. M.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>150</td><td align='left'>Hawaii</td><td align='left'> 2d ......</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>135</td><td align='left'>Sitka</td><td align='left'> 3d ......</td><td align='left'> 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>120</td><td align='left'>Pacific (Adopted in U.S. and Can.)</td><td align='left'> 4th......</td><td align='left'> 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>105</td><td align='left'>Mountain</td><td align='left'> 5th......</td><td align='left'> 5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>90</td><td align='left'>Central (American) time</td><td align='left'> 6th......</td><td align='left'> 6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>75</td><td align='left'>Eastern (or Coastwise)</td><td align='left'> 7th......</td><td align='left'> 7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>60</td><td align='left'>La Plata</td><td align='left'> 8th......</td><td align='left'> 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>45</td><td align='left'>Brazilian</td><td align='left'> 9th......</td><td align='left'> 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>30</td><td align='left'>Central Atlantic</td><td align='left'>10th......</td><td align='left'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>15</td><td align='left'>West African</td><td align='left'>11th......</td><td align='left'>11</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>0</td><td align='left'>Internat'l or Univers'l (Used in Gt. Britain)</td><td align='left'>12th......</td><td align='left'>12 noon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>15 east</td><td align='left'>Continental (Used in Sweden.)</td><td align='left'>13th......</td><td align='left'> 1 P. M.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>30</td><td align='left'>Bosporus</td><td align='left'>14th......</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>45</td><td align='left'>Caucasus</td><td align='left'>15th......</td><td align='left'> 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>60</td><td align='left'>Ural</td><td align='left'>16th......</td><td align='left'> 4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>75</td><td align='left'>Bombay</td><td align='left'>17th......</td><td align='left'> 5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>90</td><td align='left'>Central Asian</td><td align='left'>18th......</td><td align='left'> 6</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>105</td><td align='left'>Siam</td><td align='left'>19th......</td><td align='left'> 7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>120</td><td align='left'>East Asian</td><td align='left'>20th......</td><td align='left'> 8</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>135</td><td align='left'>Japan</td><td align='left'>21st......</td><td align='left'> 9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>150</td><td align='left'>East Australian</td><td align='left'>22d.......</td><td align='left'>10</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>165</td><td align='left'>New Caledonian</td><td align='left'>23d.......</td><td align='left'>11</td></tr>
+</tbody>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>I have no desire, however, to press on the Conference the
+consideration of the question of local time reckoning. But, as the
+system adopted in the United States and Canada has proved successful,
+and is now firmly established, I have deemed it proper that a
+statement of this fact and of the possibilities of the application of
+the system to other parts of the world should be made to the Congress.
+I will now, therefore, withdraw my amendment.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. The Delegate
+of Italy has moved, as an amendment to the first part of the
+resolution offered by me, the fifth resolution adopted in the
+Conference at Rome. Really, in spirit and in substance, there is
+little or no difference between them, except that the Conference at
+Rome has specified that the objects they had in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> view as suitable for
+regulation by universal time were these, namely: "For the internal
+service of the great administrations of means of communication, such
+as railways, steamships, telegraphs, and post-offices."</p>
+
+<p>Now, I submit that in the words used in my resolution all this is
+embraced, and a good deal more, for this universal day is to be
+adopted "for all purposes for which it may be found convenient." If it
+were desirable that every purpose for which the universal day may be
+found convenient should be specified, it would make a very long
+resolution. On the other hand, however, we might find in the end that
+we had omitted some of the purposes for which it was eminently
+convenient. It appears, also, that in this same fifth Roman resolution
+all questions of chronology of universal date, etc., are omitted,
+although they are brought forward and appear in the sixth resolution.
+It seems to me, Mr. President, that nothing would be gained by the
+adoption of this amendment, for everything that is embraced there is
+more comprehensively embraced in the original resolution.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. In explanation
+of the amendment offered by the Delegate of Italy, let me call
+attention to what really passed at the Roman Conference. I find, first
+of all, in the report of the Roman Conference, in the abstract of the
+discussion before the Special Committee, these words, (p. 49 of the
+reprint:)</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The fourth resolution, in favor of a universal hour for
+certain scientific and practical purposes, is unanimously
+adopted."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>There appears no discussion whatever upon it; not a word seems to have
+been said as to how it should be defined or acted upon. I then turn
+back to the report of the committee which prepared the resolutions,
+and there we see what, in reality, they had in their minds when they
+drew up that resolution. It is perfectly evident that they had no
+intention of tying the hands of anybody. This is what they say on page
+26 of the report:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The administrations of railroads, of the great steamship
+lines, telegraph lines, and postal routes, which would thus
+secure for their relations with each other a uniform time,
+excluding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> all complication and error, could nevertheless
+not entirely avoid the use of local time in their relations
+with the public. They would probably use the universal time
+only in their internal service, for the rules of the road,
+for the time-tables of their engineers and conductors, for
+the connection of trains at frontiers, etc.; but the
+time-tables for the use of the public could hardly be
+expressed otherwise than in local or national time. The
+depots or stations of the railroads, post-offices, and
+telegraph offices, and the waiting-rooms, could exhibit
+outwardly clocks showing local or national time, while
+within the offices there would be, besides, clocks
+indicating universal time. Telegraphic dispatches could show
+in future the time of despatch and of receipt, both in local
+and universal time."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Now, I think that the subject of universal time is dealt with in a
+better manner in the proposition offered by Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>
+than in the proposition which emanated from the Congress at Rome. This
+Conference cannot designate positively the manner in which local time
+may be best reckoned. We are concerned now only with universal time.
+It may, however, be proper that the resolution offered by Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span> in regard to the employment of universal time
+should be supplemented by something more specific&mdash;something, for
+instance, of this sort:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>The Conference will not designate the system on which local
+time may best be reckoned so as to conform, as far as
+possible, to universal time; this should be determined by
+each nation to suit its convenience.</p>
+
+<p>The arrangements for adopting universal time for the use of
+international telegraphs will be left for regulation by the
+telegraph international congress.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This last idea was expressed, I forget now by whom, but by one of the
+Delegates since the Conference met, and it appears to me that inasmuch
+as there is an international congress specially appointed to regulate
+all matters of international telegraphy, this subject can be left to
+them with the firm belief that it will be regulated satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p>The question was then put to the vote; and upon the amendment<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> offered
+by the Delegate of Italy the following States voted in the
+affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Netherlands,</td><td>Sweden.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p>The following in the negative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Salvador,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Austria-Hungary abstained from voting.</p>
+
+<p>Ayes, 6; noes, 18; abstaining, 1.</p>
+
+<p>So the amendment was lost.</p>
+
+<p>The question then recurred upon the original resolution.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+it has been represented to me that it may, perhaps, be found
+advantageous in different countries and different localities to use a
+time that would not be accurately described as local time. In one
+place the standard of time may be strictly local time; in another
+place it may be national time; in another place it may be railroad
+time.</p>
+
+<p>In order to meet this condition of things, I propose to alter the
+phraseology of the
+<ins class="correction" title="Text reads... orignal">original</ins>
+resolution in this way: by inserting the
+words "or other," so that it shall read "which shall not interfere
+with the use of local or <i>other</i> time where desirable."</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. May it not be
+better to put it in this way: "Which shall not interfere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> with the use
+of local or other <i>standard</i> time where desirable."</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. I accept the
+amendment offered by the Delegate of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Jean Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain. As I consider that both
+the amendment which was just rejected and the present proposition
+really signify the same thing, I shall vote for the proposition, as I
+before did for the amendment.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The question is now upon the resolution, as
+modified. It will be read.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution was then read, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+local or other standard time where desirable."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The following States voted in the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Salvador,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>There were no negative votes.</p>
+
+<p>Germany and San Domingo abstained from voting.</p>
+
+<p>Ayes, 23; noes, 0; abstaining, 2.</p>
+
+<p>So the resolution was carried.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+I now propose to offer the other portion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> resolution, or rather
+I propose to offer the other portion in the form of a distinct
+resolution. It will run as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That this universal day is to be a mean solar
+day; is to begin for all the world at the moment of midnight
+of the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginning of
+the civil day and date of that meridian; and is to be
+counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This is, in substance, the resolution adopted by the Conference at
+Rome, with the exception that the Conference at Rome proposed that the
+universal day should coincide with the astronomical day instead of the
+civil day, and begin at Greenwich noon, instead of Greenwich midnight.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I desire to make
+one remark merely. Would it not be a little more correct if we said
+"at the moment of mean midnight?" I think I have mentioned this
+before, but, to be clear, I think it should be made.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span> accepted Professor <span class="smcap">Adams's</span>
+suggestion.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Delegate of Spain. Mr. President, I wish to
+call special attention to the proposition now before us, on which we
+are called upon to vote, as it is of very great importance.</p>
+
+<p>As for me, I acknowledge that my mission is already fulfilled. The
+Government of Spain had directed me to admit the necessity or the
+usefulness of a common prime meridian, and also to accept the meridian
+of Greenwich as the universal meridian. I have attended to these
+directions.</p>
+
+<p>We have now to deal with a scientific question on which I cannot well
+express an opinion, as I do not feel that I am competent in such
+matters; besides, I am not authorized to do so. This may be due to my
+ignorance in matters of this kind, but I fear that extraordinary
+difficulties may arise in the adoption of this proposition, and if we
+proceed with too great haste, we run the risk of placing ourselves in
+contradiction to common sense. All the popular ideas of men for
+thousands of years past will, perhaps, be overturned. It may happen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+that when the day begins at Greenwich it will be 23 hours later at
+Berlin. The east will be confounded with the west, and the west with
+the east. If we made the day begin at the anti-meridian these
+questions would be avoided, and we should at one be with the rest of
+the human race. I believe that it would be better to adjourn till
+to-morrow to give us time to reflect; in this way we shall not risk by
+our devotion to science drawing upon ourselves popular criticism.</p>
+
+<p>I propose, therefore, that the vote on this question be put off till
+to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p><ins class="correction" title="Text reads... M. LEVFAIVRE">"<span class="smcap">M. Lefaivre</span>"</ins>,
+Delegate of France. Not to-morrow.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden. I beg to propose as an
+amendment the sixth resolution adopted by the Conference at Rome,
+which is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The Conference recommends as initial point for the universal hour and
+the cosmic day the mean midday of Greenwich, coinciding with the
+moment of midnight or the beginning of the civic day at the meridian
+12 hours or 180&deg; from Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>The universal hours are to be counted from 0 up to 24 hours.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair quite concurs with the Delegate of
+Spain in thinking that it would be very proper for us to take some
+time to consider this matter.</p>
+
+<p>A motion to adjourn would be in order, but before that motion is made,
+the Chair would like to read a communication which he has just
+received from the Assistant Secretary of State. It is this:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The President of the United States will receive the members
+of the Conference on Thursday, the 16th instant, at 12
+o'clock, at the White House."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The Assistant Secretary of State proposes that we shall meet here at a
+quarter before 12, and go to the White House from this hall.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. If the Delegate of Spain will withdraw his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+motion to adjourn for one moment, the Delegate of Sweden desires to
+offer a resolution.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden, then read the following
+proposal:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Hereafter the reports of the speeches, whether in English or
+French, will be sent as soon as possible to the Delegates
+who made them, and the proofs should be corrected and
+returned by them without delay to the Secretary. No
+correction will be allowed afterward, except such as are
+considered necessary by the Secretaries, who will meet as
+soon as possible after the first corrections shall have been
+printed to prepare the protocols for the approval of the
+Conference.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The motion being put to a vote by the President, was unanimously
+carried.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair would very informally state that he
+has received to-day a letter from Sir William Thomson, the
+distinguished scientist who addressed the Conference yesterday,
+expressing his regret that he did not then say something which he had
+in his mind and which he wished to say, namely, that the meridian of
+Greenwich passes directly through the great commercial port of Havre.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. Since the Chairman refers to
+this subject, I may state to my colleagues that I have received a
+telegram from Sir William Thomson, in which he makes certain
+propositions of the nature described.</p>
+
+<p>Yet it is not possible to make out precisely, by this telegram, what
+are Sir William Thomson's ideas. All that I can say is, that whatever
+proceeds from such an eminent man should be treated with great
+consideration, and that is a reason for asking Sir W. Thomson to be
+good enough to explain to me his ideas more fully. If we could adjourn
+to Monday, I think that it would be better. The preparation of the
+protocols is very much behind-hand, and it is desirable that the
+members of the Conference be kept fully acquainted with all the
+discussions. I would, therefore, suggest that we adjourn till Monday.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. There are several propositions to adjourn to
+different days. The Chair will take them up in order and will first
+put the question upon the motion to adjourn until Monday.</p>
+
+<p>The motion was carried, and at four o'clock the Conference adjourned
+until Monday, the 20th instant, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a>VI.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF OCTOBER 20, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Conference met, pursuant to adjournment, in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+<p>Present:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Austro-Hungary: Baron <span class="smcap">Ignatz von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Brazil: Dr. <span class="smcap">Luiz Cruls</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Chili: Mr. <span class="smcap">F. V. Gormas</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">A. B. Tupper</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Colombia: Commodore <span class="smcap">S. R. Franklin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Costa Rica: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Francisco Echeverria</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">France: Mr. <span class="smcap">A. Lefaivre</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Germany: Baron <span class="smcap">H. von Alvensleben</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Hinckeldeyn</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Great Britain: Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Prof. <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">Lieut.-General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Gautemala: Mr. <span class="smcap">Miles Rock</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Hawaii: Hon. <span class="smcap">W. D. Alexander</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Italy: Count <span class="smcap">Albert de Foresta</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Japan: Professor <span class="smcap">Kikuchi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Liberia: Mr. Wm. <span class="smcap">Coppinger</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mexico: Mr. <span class="smcap">Leandro Fernandez</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Angel Anguiano</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Netherlands: Mr. <span class="smcap">G. de Weckherlin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Paraguay: Capt. <span class="smcap">John Stewart</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Russia: Mr. C. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Major-General <span class="smcap">Stebnitzki</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">J. de Kologrivoff</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">San Domingo: Mr. <span class="smcap">de J. Galvan</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Spain: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Emilo Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Sweden: Count <span class="smcap">Carl Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Switzerland: Col. <span class="smcap">Emile Frey</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Turkey: <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee1">United States: Rear-Admiral <span class="smcap">C. R. P. Rodgers</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Lewis</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">M. Rutherfurd</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Commander <span class="smcap">W. T.</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">Sampson</span>, Professor <span class="smcap">Cleveland Abbe</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Venezuela: Dr. <span class="smcap">A. M. Soteldo</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Absent:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Denmark: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. S. A. De Bille</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Hawaii: Hon. <span class="smcap">Luther Aholo</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Salvador: Mr. <span class="smcap">Antonio Batres</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. Some days ago a Committee was appointed to
+report on communications addressed to the Conference through the
+Chair. All communications that have been received from time to time,
+and they have been numerous, have been referred to this committee, of
+which the Delegate from England, Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, is the
+chairman. He now informs the Chair that he is prepared to make a
+report.</p>
+
+<p>The Delegate of England, Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, then read the following
+report:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Letter from the President of the Conference</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">International Meridian Conference</span>,</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Department Of State, Washington</span>, <i>Oct. 14, 1884</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: I have the honor to submit to the Committee of
+which you are the Chairman the following communications:</p>
+
+<p>No. 1. Letters from Mr. Roumanet du Cailland, through Mr.
+Hunter, Ass't Sec. of State.</p>
+
+<p>No. 2. Letter and communication from Mr. C. M.
+Raffensparger.</p>
+
+<p>No. 3. Letter from Mr. A. S. de Chancourtois, accompanying
+books from Paris.</p>
+
+<p>No. 4. Letter from Mr. A. W. Spofford, enclosing letter of
+Mr. J. W. Stolting, of Dobbs' Ferry.</p>
+
+<p>No. 5. Letter from Mr. B. Aycrigg, Passaic, N. J.</p>
+
+<p>No. 6. Letter from J. T. Field, St. Louis, Mo.</p>
+
+<p>No. 7. Letter and two enclosures from Mr. Theodor P&aelig;sche.</p>
+
+<p>No. 8. Description of the Universal Time-Piece of Dr. A. M.
+Cory.</p>
+
+<p>No. 9. Letter and enclosure from Mr. E. R. Knorr.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No. 10. Letter from Mr. J. E. Hilgard, of the U. S. Coast
+Survey and Geodetic Survey.</p>
+
+<p>No. 11. Arguments by Committee of New York and New Jersey
+branch, and other papers relating to weights and measures.</p>
+
+<p>No. 12. Letter from Lt. C. A. S. Totten, U.S.A., in relation
+to a Standard Meridian.</p>
+
+<p>No. 13. Letter from Mr. J. P. Merritt, in relation to the
+Metric System.</p>
+
+<p>No. 14. Postal card from W. H. Yates, in relation to the
+Mercator Projection.</p>
+
+<p>No. 15. A New System of Mensuration, by Lawrence S. Benson.</p>
+
+<p>No. 16. Letter of T. C. Octman, of Hope Mills, N. C.,
+calling attention to the fact that the meridian of Greenwich
+passes through Havre.</p>
+
+<p>No. 17. Letter from Dr. H. K. Whitner, explaining his
+notation of 24 hours.</p>
+
+<p>I am, sir, with great respect, your obedient servant,</p>
+
+<p>
+C. R. P. RODGERS,<br />
+<i>President International Meridian Conference</i>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>
+Prof. <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p><i>Report of the Committee.</i></p>
+
+<p>The Committee on communications respectfully reports as
+follows:</p>
+
+<p>We have carefully examined all of the communications
+referred to us, as enumerated in the letter of President
+Rodgers, with the following results:</p>
+
+<p>No. 1 recommends that the meridian of Bethlehem be adopted
+as the initial meridian. This question has been already
+disposed of by the Conference; therefore further
+consideration of the proposition is unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>No. 2 refers to an invention, the author of which states
+that "a patent has been applied for," consequently your
+Committee does not feel called upon to express any opinion
+upon it.</p>
+
+<p>No. 3 is a letter from M. de Chancourtois, accompanying a
+work by him which contains an elaborate program of a system<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+of geography based on decimal measures, both of time and of
+angles, and on the adoption of an international meridian.</p>
+
+<p>The work also contains copious historical notices on the
+metric system and on the initial meridian.</p>
+
+<p>A copy of this work was presented to each of the Delegates
+prior to the discussions of the Conference with regard to
+the choice of an initial meridian, and therefore no special
+report of the author's views on this subject appears to your
+committee to be necessary. These views are nearly identical
+with those which were so ably laid before the Conference by
+Professor Janssen, but which failed to meet with their
+approval.</p>
+
+<p>The author further proposes to supersede the present mode of
+measuring both angles and time by a system in which the
+entire circumference and the length of the day should each
+be first divided into four equal parts, and then each of
+these parts should be subdivided decimally.</p>
+
+<p>However deserving of consideration these proposals may be,
+in the abstract, your Committee are clearly of the opinion
+that they do not fall within the limits indicated by the
+instructions which we have received from our respective
+governments, and that, therefore, any discussion of them
+would only be of a purely academical character, and could
+lead to no practical result. Such a discussion would be sure
+to elicit great differences of opinion, and would,
+therefore, occupy a considerable time.</p>
+
+<p>Hence, your Committee think that it would be very
+undesirable for the Conference to enter upon it.</p>
+
+<p>No. 4 is a letter from Mr. Spofford, Librarian of Congress,
+including a communication of Mr. J. W. Stolting, Dobbs'
+Ferry, N. Y. The author recommends the adoption of the
+meridian 162&deg; W. from Greenwich as the prime meridian; he
+proposes further, not to say east or west, but first or
+second half, and also recommends the adoption of a universal
+time, not to interfere with local or other standard time,
+and to reckon from "1 to 24." He expresses no opinion as to
+whether the day should begin at noon or midnight. There
+seems to be nothing in the communication to influence the
+decisions of the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>No. 5. See report as to letter No. 1.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No. 6 suggests that the prime meridian should be 180&deg; from
+Greenwich, and that longitude should be reckoned from 0&deg; to
+360&deg;. This proposition has been already considered and
+rejected by the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>No. 7. This communication proposes "to adopt as the prime
+meridian the frontier line between Russia and the United
+States, as defined in the treaty of March 30, 1867." As the
+initial meridian has already been agreed to by the
+Conference, this proposition needs no further notice.</p>
+
+<p>No. 8. This communication refers to an invention which has
+no bearing on the question before the Conference. The
+committee therefore abstain from expressing an opinion as to
+its merits.</p>
+
+<p>No. 9. Two letters from Mr. E. R. Knorr, of Washington, D.C.,
+advocating the advisability of reckoning longitude
+"westward from 0&deg; to 359&deg;," and marking them on charts by
+time instead of by degrees. The Conference has already taken
+action on the question involved.</p>
+
+<p>No. 10. A letter from Prof. Hilgard, enclosing a pamphlet by
+Lt. C. A. S. Totten on the metrology of the great pyramid, a
+subject which does not fall within the scope of the subjects
+presented for the consideration of this Conference. In the
+enclosing letter Prof. Hilgard says: "I am purely and
+squarely for Greenwich midnight as the beginning of the
+universal day, and an east and west count of longitude; that
+is, 180&deg; each way."</p>
+
+<p>No. 11 advocates the preservation of the Anglo-Saxon system
+of weights and measures. This subject being foreign to the
+questions under consideration by this Conference, the
+Committee deems further comment unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>No. 12. A letter from Lieut. C. A. S. Totten, U.S.A.,
+advocating a prime meridian through the great pyramid. The
+proposition involved has already been decided by the
+Conference.</p>
+
+<p>No. 13 recommends redistribution of time according to the
+decimal system. As already remarked under No. 3, this
+proposition is clearly not within the limits indicated by
+the instructions which we have received from our respective
+governments.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No. 14 states that the author has a plan by which
+"chronometers will record the longitude equably." This
+proposition is foreign to the subjects under consideration
+by the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>No. 15 proposes a new system of mensuration; and, therefore,
+this does not fall within the subjects for consideration by
+the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>No. 16. This communication suggests that as the prime
+meridian passes through Havre, it should be allowable to
+call it by that name. This Committee recommends that the
+prime meridian be not named after the localities through
+which it passes, but be called simply "The Prime Meridian."</p>
+
+<p>No. 17 is the subject of a patent. The Committee does not
+feel called upon to express an opinion respecting it.</p>
+
+<p>This report is respectfully submitted to the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>
+J. C. ADAMS,<br />
+<i>Chairman Committee on Communications.</i><br />
+</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Washington</span>, <i>Oct. 18th, 1884</i>.<br /></p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The report of the Committee is before the
+Conference.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, the Delegate of the United States. I move
+that the report be accepted, and its conclusions adopted.</p>
+
+<p>There being no objection, the report was adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. In the regular order of business to-day, the
+first subject before the Conference is the resolution offered on
+Saturday by the Delegate of the United States, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, with the amendment offered by the Delegate of
+Sweden, Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The resolution is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That this universal day is to be a mean solar
+day, is to begin for all the world at the moment of mean
+midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the
+beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is
+to be counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."</p></blockquote><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The amendment offered is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The Conference recommends as initial point for the
+universal hour and the cosmic day the mean mid-day of
+Greenwich, coinciding with the moment of midnight or the
+beginning of the civil day at the meridian 12 hours or 180&deg;
+from Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>"The universal hours are to be counted from 0 up to 24
+hours."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Valera</span>, the Delegate of Spain, said that he thought that
+the amendment of the Delegate of Sweden should be first discussed.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, the Delegate of France. At the last session I
+informed the Congress that I had received a telegram from Sir William
+Thomson upon the question of the meridian. Since then, that
+illustrious foreign member of the Institute of France has written me a
+very kind letter upon the subject, in which he expresses his complete
+appreciation of the disinterested attitude taken by France in this
+Congress. I thank Sir William Thomson for his sentiments towards
+France, and I am persuaded that, with such excellent feelings, we
+should arrive at an understanding, upon scientific bases, in which the
+moral and material interests of all would be equitably adjusted, as we
+have always understood them.</p>
+
+<p>But the question is not open now, and this Congress would, doubtless,
+not be disposed to reopen it. Sir William Thomson will understand,
+therefore, that in the present condition of affairs we have only to
+maintain the attitude which we have taken and the votes which we have
+given.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair will simply say to the Conference
+that he very informally alluded to the letter that he had received
+from Sir William Thomson, and the Chair would also say in answer to
+the Spanish Minister that the rule in this Conference, a simple one,
+is to discuss the last amendment offered and dispose of it, instead,
+as suggested by the Delegate of Spain, of taking up the one most
+important in its character. It would be somewhat difficult for the
+Chair to decide on all occasions which amendment is the most
+important. I think,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> therefore, as Chairman, that I will pursue the
+rule in force in this country, and, unless the Conference order
+otherwise, shall present the amendment which is the last offered.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. Mr. Chairman, the
+Spanish Minister has not referred to the most important amendment, but
+to the most radical. For instance, here there are several propositions
+to select a meridian; one of them must be considered, and it seems to
+me that my amendment, which is the most radical, is the one to be
+first presented to the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. Unless the Conference shall direct otherwise,
+the Chair must pursue the principle on which it has acted hitherto,
+taking the amendments in the order in which they are offered, and
+presenting them inversely for the action of the Conference. The
+proposition before the Conference, therefore, is the amendment offered
+by the Delegate of Spain, Mr. <span class="smcap">Arbol</span>, which is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"Having accepted the meridian of Greenwich to account the
+longitudes, as a general need for practical purposes, but
+thinking that the introduction of any new system of
+time-reckoning is far more scientific and important, and
+liable to great difficulties and confusion in the future, we
+propose the following resolution:</p>
+
+<p>"<i>Resolved</i>, The Congress, taking in consideration that
+there is already a meridian tacitly accepted by almost all
+the civilized nations as the origin of dates, the
+anti-meridian of Rome, abstains from designating any other
+meridian to reckon the universal time."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. It is proposed to
+introduce an absolute universal or cosmopolitan system of
+time-reckoning, which, it is hoped, will, at a more or less distant
+day, be generally adopted, not only for scientific purposes, but for
+all the ordinary purposes of life for which it can possibly be used;
+and it is further proposed to designate a meridian at which this
+cosmopolitan time-reckoning is to begin. What I have to state is, that
+this method of absolute time-reckoning already exists, (although we do
+not use it,) as does this universal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> meridian which has been tacitly
+chosen by almost all civilized nations&mdash;that is to say, by all such as
+have adopted the Julian calendar, with or without the Gregorian
+correction. Thus it is that anything involving even a slight
+modification of our present system is nothing more than a
+chronological reform, which I do not feel certain that it will be well
+for us to introduce or recommend, and with regard to which I have my
+doubts whether it will be received with unanimous or hearty approval.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, gentlemen, all nations that have adopted the Julian and
+Gregorian systems of time-reckoning have necessarily accepted their
+consequences, and these consequences are, as Rome told us in the time
+of Caesar and in that of Gregory XIII, that we must reckon our days
+according to certain fixed dates; some part of the world had to reckon
+their dates before all the rest, and as Rome consented that countries
+situated to the east of it should reckon their date before it and
+countries situated to the west after it, it is evident that both
+reckonings had to meet at some point on some meridian, which was and
+could be no other than the anti-meridian of Rome. Nature itself seems
+to have lent its sanction to this, since the anti-meridian of Rome
+crosses no continent, and, probably, no land whatever.</p>
+
+<p>Let us suppose, for the sake of illustration, that it were agreed to
+abandon the Gregorian system of reckoning at a given moment, and to
+adopt another; that it were agreed to abandon it at all points on the
+globe when the hour should be twelve o'clock at noon at Greenwich, on
+the first day of January, 1885; and let us suppose that for historical
+or scientific purposes we were interested in knowing exactly how long
+the Gregorian system had been in use. Is it possible to ascertain
+this? It is; and very easily. Using that system of universal
+time-reckoning which it is proposed to establish, but logically
+referring it to the origin of that cosmopolitan reckoning which really
+exists, that is to say, to the anti-meridian of Rome, we shall find
+that 1885 years have been reckoned according to the Gregorian system,
+plus the difference of longitude between the anti-meridians of
+Greenwich and Rome. Nothing is more certain than this, and there is no
+other way of solving the problem. As I have already<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> shown, when the
+Gregorian correction was made, the day which, according to the old
+mode of reckoning, would have been the 5th of October, was called the
+15th of October, 1582; the countries situated to the east of Rome had,
+however, previously begun to reckon according to the new system
+(previously in absolute time I mean,) and the countries situated to
+the west adopted it successively afterwards. Now, then, as that
+portion of the globe which lies to the east of any given point or
+meridian is nothing more or less than one hemisphere, and as that
+which lies to the west is another hemisphere, it is evident that, at
+the anti-meridian of Rome, the two meridians, which constantly differ
+by one day in their dates, are confounded, and that the anti-meridian
+of Rome, being the first one in the world that adopted the Julian and
+the Gregorian systems of reckoning, is the prime meridian of the
+world, the meridian by which we now reckon, and ought to reckon
+universal time, until the establishment of a different system. If we
+had, at the present time, to settle any question depending on dates,
+in the region where there is some confusion in regard to them, we
+should have to do so on this principle. If we desired to compel the
+entire world to keep a regular and logical account of dates, we should
+have to do so by compelling all the nations to the west of the
+anti-meridian of Rome to go on reckoning their dates uninterruptedly
+after they have begun to be reckoned at the said anti-meridian, and by
+forbidding all the nations to the east of it to reckon any date until
+it has been reckoned at the anti-meridian of Rome. For this reason I
+say that the express designation, for the reckoning of universal time,
+of the meridian of Greenwich or of any other than the anti-meridian of
+Rome, involves a chronological reform, inasmuch as it will involve the
+abandonment of the system to which we now adhere, and which we now use
+by common consent.</p>
+
+<p>This reform will cause a change of nearly 13 hours&mdash;that is to say, 12
+hours plus the difference of longitude between Rome and Greenwich, if
+the meridian of Greenwich is designated as the new initial point of
+the universal date. I do not believe, however, that you will adopt
+this choice irrevocably, since its curious and strange consequences
+may be shown by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> one example, which I will adduce: This table is of
+about sufficient extent to allow the difference between the
+geographical longitude of its two ends to be observed and appreciated.
+Let us suppose that these sessions were held at Greenwich, and that
+the table were placed east and west, so that the meridian intersected
+it lengthwise; let us further suppose that we had agreed to reckon the
+new universal time by this meridian&mdash;that is to say, by that of
+Greenwich&mdash;and that, in signing the protocol, we wished to set an
+example to the world by using the universal date, the present civil
+date and the future civil date, which, by the daily use of the
+universal date, the nations will or may finally accept, to the
+exclusion of all others, for the ordinary purposes of life. Well, now,
+gentlemen, we should bring our own choice into discredit. We could not
+sign, according to these three dates. As regards the last, we should
+find that half the table and half the Congress were under one date,
+and the other half under another; even our chairman, if seated in the
+middle, would find that he had been presiding over our sessions with
+his right side in one day and his left in the next.</p>
+
+<p>I may be told that this would happen, whatever might be the meridian
+chosen, but we could afford to allow it to happen at sea, or in some
+isolated and uninhabited region where congresses never sit, and where
+no ray of civilization ever penetrates.</p>
+
+<p>But to return to the reform, what are you going to do? I will say that
+if, instead of the meridian of Greenwich, you designate the
+anti-meridian for the reckoning of universal time and for the initial
+point of cosmopolitan dates for the present, but for the future as the
+initial point also of local dates, the reform will amount to about an
+hour only, but it will still be a reform. In a word, the anti-meridian
+of Rome is the one which now furnishes dates to the entire world, and
+you propose to make the meridian of Greenwich or the anti-meridian do
+so in future.</p>
+
+<p>I therefore tell you, if you desire a common hour for postal and
+commercial purposes, designate no meridian at all; let the railway and
+telegraph companies, the postal authorities and the governments make
+an arrangement and select an artificial<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> hour, so to speak, whatever
+it be the hour of Rome, London, Paris, or even that of Greenwich, but
+do not make a premature declaration which will be an authoritative one
+as emanating from this Congress, an apparently insignificant reform,
+but in reality one of very great importance, since, giving the
+preference to determinate localities in the face of what is
+scientific, historical, and logical, you render difficult, in the
+future, the adoption of that very reform, which will, perhaps, then be
+more necessary, and which can perhaps then be introduced more
+intelligently.</p>
+
+<p>You see that I am not speaking in behalf of any special meridian, not
+even that of Rome, since I admit that the reform may be necessary. You
+see, and I assure you, that I have not the slightest wish that the
+meridian which is to be the initial point of universal time should
+bear the name of any observatory or place in Spain, although that
+nation discovered the New World in which this Congress is holding its
+sessions, and although it may be said of that nation that it
+discovered those very meridians concerning which we are now speaking,
+inasmuch as terrestial meridians were indefinite and unknown lines,
+and were even without form until one was given them by Sebastian
+Elcano. I therefore hope that if you do not honor my proposition by
+accepting it, you will at least do justice to my intentions.</p>
+
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I
+shall be very short in any remarks which I may make upon the
+proposition before us.</p>
+
+<p>As far as I understand it, it is that, although we have adopted the
+meridian of Greenwich as a prime meridian from which to count
+longitudes, we should begin to count our time according to the
+meridian at Rome. I cannot consent to that proposition. It appears to
+me to be wanting in every element of simplicity, which should be our
+chief aim in this Conference. To count longitude from one meridian and
+time from another, is something that will never be adopted. I do not
+understand that that was at all the proposition recommended by the
+Roman Conference. On the contrary, I think that it was quite a
+different one.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. Mr. President, I do
+not in reality propose to adopt the meridian or anti-meridian of Rome.
+What I have been contending for is that we should abstain at present
+from adopting any meridian as a point of departure for the calculation
+of time; otherwise, we introduce a new element of confusion for the
+future. We should change the chronological reckoning which is now in
+vogue, and I contend that we have no right, scientific or historical,
+to make that change now. According to my views, the meridian of
+longitude is relatively an unimportant affair. It is a practical one;
+it cannot be changed in twenty years, probably, and it will take that
+time to correct all existing charts. But if you adopt a meridian for
+time, it will be very difficult to alter it in the future. I cannot
+now clearly see what the difficulties will be, but I apprehend that
+the application of this new principle to the various details of
+scientific and civil matters will necessarily be attended with great
+inconvenience, and may result in proving to be quite impracticable. I
+understand it very well that it is proposed to confine this principle
+to certain subjects, and that it is adopted for the purpose of
+avoiding dangers in communications, in navigation, in railways, and in
+transmitting telegrams, &amp;c.; but this is purely an administrative
+matter, and can be left for settlement to other bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair would remind the Delegate of Spain,
+Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, that at its last session the Conference
+resolved, with singular unanimity, that it was expedient to adopt "a
+universal day for all purposes for which it may be found convenient,
+and which shall not interfere with the local or other standard time
+where desirable." The Chair would politely suggest that the subject
+now under consideration is the adoption of the proposition recommended
+by the Conference at Rome, and which has been presented here by the
+Delegate of Sweden, Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. My proposition is to
+abstain from the adoption of any one meridian, and that we leave the
+matter to some other Congress, organized with the special object of
+regulating this question.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr.
+President, as near as I can follow the Delegate of Spain, he seems to
+be under the apprehension that by the adoption of the universal day,
+which has been proposed here, we should either gain or lose time in
+our chronology; that we should skip 12 hours, more or less. But, of
+course, that is not the case. Any event which has occurred, or which
+will occur, at the time of the adoption of the universal day will be
+expressed just as exactly with reference to time as if the time had
+been calculated from the beginning of the Christian era. There will
+not only be no confusion, but it seems to me the adoption of the
+universal day will tend to avoid confusion hereafter, because
+confusion must exist where we have so many standards of time. Now, if
+any event which is taking place, or has taken place at any past time
+in the history of the world, is referred to the prime meridian, or is
+expressed in the time of any locality or of several localities, these
+times will all be different. The adoption of the universal day is to
+avoid any difficulty of that sort, and any event which has transpired
+will, when expressed in the time of the universal day&mdash;that is,
+according to the universal method&mdash;represent exactly the interval of
+time which has elapsed since the beginning of the Christian era.
+Nothing is gained or lost.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. It seems to me
+that the Congress having accepted the resolution to which reference
+was made a little while ago, adopting the universal day, it is
+incumbent upon us, in the nature of things, to determine when that
+universal day shall begin. The resolution presented by the Delegate of
+the United States proposes to define how that universal day shall be
+reckoned; that is, when it shall begin and how its hours shall be
+counted.</p>
+
+<p>It was explained by him that the difference between his proposition
+and the proposition made at Rome consisted in altering the time of the
+commencement of the so-called universal day from noon at Greenwich to
+the commencement of the civil day. Certainly what Commander
+<span class="smcap">Sampson</span> just said is perfectly true. The adoption of this
+so-called universal day will not interfere in the smallest degree with
+any purpose<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> for which time is employed in civil life. The two objects
+are entirely distinct. It is obvious that the conception of the
+necessity of having a universal day has arisen from the more clear
+conception of the fact that time on the globe is essentially local;
+that the time upon any given line (supposing it to be a meridian) is
+not the time at the same moment on either side of that line, however
+small the departure from it may be; and for scientific accuracy it
+has, therefore, been thought desirable to have some absolute standard
+to which days and hours can be referred. Up to the present time it has
+been the practice to say, in an indefinite way, that an event
+happened, say, on the 1st of January at 6 o'clock in the morning, and
+such a statement of the time has been considered sufficient; but, in
+truth, this does not completely describe a definite epoch of time, for
+if the event occurred at Madrid and was so reported, that report would
+not designate the same moment as a report of an event which was
+described to have occurred at precisely the same date and hour at
+Greenwich, or Rome, or Washington. What is required and desired is
+that we should have an absolute and definite standard for reckoning
+events of a certain description, for which complete precision is
+desirable. I consider, therefore, that the Delegate of Spain leads us
+astray in the proposition which he has offered, by which he virtually
+proposes to nullify the resolution already adopted. We have already
+decided that a universal day was expedient, and it is for the
+Conference to settle now when that universal day shall begin.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. I understand that the
+consequences, perhaps, would not be troublesome at first; but who can
+look into the future and say, if we take the meridian of Greenwich as
+the standard of time, what difficulties we may be driven into? Every
+country will be obliged to count both ways. They will have to use
+civil time and universal time. Perhaps all countries may get
+accustomed to this radical change sooner or later, but we cannot
+foresee the difficulty now. I have here a treatise (a book) on
+"Analytic Chronology," showing the rules by which to bring into accord
+different dates of different calendars and eras, and I do not know how
+they would be affected by this universal time; but it is unnecessary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+for me to speak of that, as I think you are acquainted with the
+subject.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>, Delegate of Spain. The Congress has
+already come to very important decisions on the subject of the
+reckoning of longitude, and it will also certainly approve to-day
+those which have just been submitted on the subject of the universal
+day.</p>
+
+<p>I say certainly, because the result of the former votes being already
+known, it cannot be doubted on which side the majority will be, and
+because, from a scientific point of view, having chosen Greenwich as
+the prime meridian for the calculation of longitude, and having
+decided to reckon longitude in two directions from zero hours to
+twenty-four hours, with the sign plus towards the east and minus
+towards the west, it will be advantageous to make the civil day of
+Greenwich coincide with the universal day, if we would have an easy
+formula for passing from local to cosmic time.</p>
+
+<p>So many of the resolutions submitted to the Congress by Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span> having been approved one after another, the plan
+that our colleague has carefully studied will be accepted in its
+entirety; but it will be impossible for the Conference to know in all
+their details other plans which, perhaps, would not be less worthy of
+attention.</p>
+
+<p>Is the resolution adopted by a majority of the Congress the best?
+Should we reach the end of the reform in complete harmony with the
+hopes of all the governments represented here? On the contrary
+hypothesis, it seems to me, that the sessions of this Congress will
+only be another step towards that reform, but not the reform itself.</p>
+
+<p>If the majority of the Congress, in accordance with the logical
+consequence of its work, adopts as the cosmic time the civil time of
+Greenwich, that decision will be contrary to the most ancient ideas of
+the human race. For many centuries the day has been reckoned as
+starting from the east, and the world will not easily abandon the
+traditions of its predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>The civil day of the world commences near the anti-meridian of Rome,
+Greenwich, or Paris. Therefore it is not natural<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> that one of these
+meridians should be chosen as the point of departure of dates.</p>
+
+<p>Really, one phenomenon cannot be the commencement of a series of
+phenomena if there is another which precedes it periodically.</p>
+
+<p>If the majority, as is logical, adopts the formula, "cosmic time=local
+time-longitude," and applies in the calculation longitude with the
+signs plus and minus, according as the longitude is east and west, the
+system will be source of frequent mistakes, and those, in their turn,
+will be the cause of disastrous accidents, especially on railroads.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take the 31st of December, for instance. It is three o'clock at
+a point nine hours east of Greenwich; at the same moment they will
+count at Greenwich eighteen civil hours of the 30th of the same month,
+after the actual manner of reckoning the civil day, and that civil
+time of Greenwich will be the cosmic time.</p>
+
+<p>Apply to the proposed example the formula which I suppose the majority
+of the Congress will adopt, and the result will be a negative
+quantity, minus six hours&mdash;a result not sufficiently comprehensible in
+itself, and one that could not be easily applied by the general
+public.</p>
+
+<p>Can a majority prevail in questions, such as those we are speaking of,
+simply by the force of numbers? The whole world for several centuries
+thought that the earth was the centre of our planetary system; in
+fact, until an insignificant minority rose against this theory, for a
+long time considered by their ancestors indisputable.</p>
+
+<p>I will conclude by expressing my opinion upon the subject with which
+the Congress is occupied. My opinion is not new, in spite of its
+having been modified in the course of our sitting. The works of our
+eminent colleague and indefatigable propagandist, Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford
+Fleming</span>, the resolution of the Conference at Rome, the valuable
+opinions of Messrs. Faye, Otto Struve, Beaumont de Boutiller, Hugo
+Gyld&eacute;n, the scientific work of Monsieur Chancourtois, and the report
+which M. Gaspari has just presented to the Academy of Sciences of
+Paris are the text upon which I base the simplest and most practical
+method of solving the problem, namely, to adopt as the prime meridian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+for cosmic time and longitude a meridian near the point at which our
+dates change, and to reckon longitude from zero hours to twenty-four
+hours towards the west, contrary to the movement of the earth. The
+formula would be then: Cosmic time = local time + longitude.</p>
+
+<p>I think that the best way of finding cosmic time in relation to local
+time and longitude is to add a quantity to the civil hour of each
+point of the globe.</p>
+
+<p>But as the majority of this Congress, so worthy of respect, admits no
+modifications of the system which we may call Greenwich, let us lay
+aside the question of longitude and consider cosmic time separately.</p>
+
+<p>I have the honor, therefore, to present the following resolutions, and
+I ask the Congress to consider them, and to accept them as a means of
+compromise:</p>
+
+<p>I. We agree to choose as the prime meridian for cosmic time that
+meridian near which the civil day of the world commences, namely, the
+anti-meridian of Rome, Greenwich, or Havre.</p>
+
+<p>II. The cosmic day consists of twenty-four hours, and commences at
+midnight of the prime meridian.</p>
+
+<p>III. The earth is divided from the initial meridian into twenty-four
+hour-spaces, counted in a direction contrary to the movement of the
+earth from <i>0h.</i> to <i>24h</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We shall, then, have the following formula: T = t + R, where R
+represents the difference reckoned from <i>0h.</i> to <i>24h</i>. between the
+local time of the prime meridian and the local time of each point of
+the globe; T the Cosmic Time and t the local time.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair would ask the Delegate of Spain, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Pastorin</span>, whether he offers his resolution as an amendment to
+that offered by his colleague, Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. Mr. Chairman, the
+amendment last offered is not intended to interfere with my
+proposition.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then put the question to the Conference upon
+the amendment offered by the Delegate of Spain, Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del
+Arbol</span>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Upon a vote being taken, the amendment was lost.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The question now recurs upon the amendment
+offered by the Delegate of Spain, Mr. <span class="smcap">Pastorin</span>. That
+amendment runs as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"I. We agree to choose as the prime meridian for cosmic time
+that meridian near which the civil day of the world
+commences, namely, the anti-meridian of Greenwich or Havre.</p>
+
+<p>"II. The cosmic day consists of twenty-four hours, and
+commences at midnight of the prime meridian.</p>
+
+<p>"III. The earth is divided from the initial meridian into
+twenty-four hour spaces, counted in a direction contrary to
+the movement of the earth.</p>
+
+<p>"We shall, then, have the following formula: F = A + R where
+R represents the difference reckoned from 0h. to 24h.
+between the local time of the prime meridian and the local
+time of each point of the globe; F the cosmic time, and A
+the local time."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. In order that this amendment may be presented
+more clearly to the Conference, I would propose a recess for a few
+minutes. If there be no objection, a recess will be taken.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made, the Conference took a recess.</p>
+
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> having called the Conference to order stated
+that, unless further remarks were presented, the vote would be taken
+upon the resolution offered by the Delegate of Spain, Mr.
+<span class="smcap">Pastorin</span>.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made, the vote was then taken upon the amendment,
+and it was lost.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The question now recurs upon the resolution
+offered by the Delegate of Sweden, Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, which
+will again be read. The resolution is as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The Conference recommends as initial point for the
+universal hour and the cosmic day the mean mid-day of
+Greenwich, coinciding with the moment of midnight or the
+beginning of the civil day at the meridian 12 hours or 180&deg;
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> Greenwich. The universal hours are to be counted from
+0 up to 24 hours."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I
+intended to speak on the resolution offered by the Delegate of the
+United States, Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, but the remarks which I have
+put together apply equally well to the amendment to that resolution
+now offered by the Delegate of Sweden, which is identical with one of
+the recommendations of the Conference at Rome, because, in fact, in my
+remarks I discuss these propositions alternatively. Therefore, with
+your permission, I will lay before you the observations which I wish
+to make.</p>
+
+<p>I beg leave to express my entire approval of the resolution which has
+been laid before the Conference by Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>. There is
+only one point involved in the resolution which seems to call for or
+even to admit of any discussion.</p>
+
+<p>It appears evident that the universal day and date should coincide
+with the day and date of the initial meridian. The only question,
+therefore, which we have now to decide is, when shall this day of the
+initial meridian be considered to commence? And the proper answer to
+be given to this question does not appear to me in any degree
+doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>In modern times it is the universal practice to reckon dates by <i>days</i>
+and not by <i>nights</i>. The word "day" is used in two different
+significations, being sometimes applied to the period of daylight and
+sometimes to the period of 24 hours, including both day and night; but
+in whichever of these senses the word <i>day</i> is employed, the term
+mid-day has one and the same signification, viz., the instant of noon
+or of the sun's passage over the meridian. In the present case, where
+we are concerned with mean time, mid-day means the instant of mean
+noon, or of the passage of the mean sun over the meridian.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, the civil day, by which all the ordinary affairs of life
+are regulated, begins and ends at midnight, and has its middle or
+mid-day at noon.</p>
+
+<p>It appears, then, most natural that the universal day should follow
+this example, and should begin and end at the instant of mean midnight
+on the initial meridian, and should have its middle at the instant of
+mean noon on the same meridian.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>I fail, therefore, to see the force of the reasons which induced the
+Conference at Rome to recommend that the universal day should commence
+at <i>noon</i> on the initial meridian.</p>
+
+<p>The only ground for making this recommendation is that astronomers,
+instead of adopting the use of the civil day, like the rest of the
+world, are accustomed to employ a so-called astronomical day, which
+begins at noon. The advantage thus gained is that they avoid the
+necessity of changing the date in the course of the night, which is
+the time of their greatest activity; but this advantage is surely very
+small when compared with the inconvenience of having two conflicting
+methods of reckoning dates, and of being obliged to specify, in giving
+any date, which mode of reckoning is adopted. If this diversity is to
+disappear, it is plain that it is the astronomers who will have to
+yield. They are few in number compared with the rest of the world.
+They are intelligent, and could make the required change without any
+difficulty, and with very slight or no inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>The requisite changes in the astronomical and nautical ephemerides
+would be easily made. As these ephemerides are published several years
+in advance, there would be plenty of time for navigators to become
+familiar with the proposed change in time-reckoning before they were
+called upon to employ it in their calculations.</p>
+
+<p>I believe that they would soon come to think it more convenient and
+natural to reckon according to civil time than according to the
+present astronomical time. I am told that this practice is already
+universally adopted in keeping the log on board ship. To avoid any
+chance of mistake, it should be prominently stated on each page of the
+ephemerides that mean time reckoned from mean <i>midnight</i> is kept
+throughout.</p>
+
+<p>Whether or not astronomers agree to adopt the civil reckoning, I think
+we ought to adopt the instant of midnight on the initial meridian as
+the commencement of the universal day.</p>
+
+<p>The relation between the local time at any place and the universal
+time would then be expressed by the simple formula:</p>
+
+<p>Local time = universal time + longitude.</p>
+
+<p>Whereas, if the proposition of the Roman Conference were adopted, we
+should have to employ the less simple formula:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Local time = universal time + longitude - 12 hours.</p>
+
+<p>In recommending the mean noon at Greenwich as the commencement of the
+universal day and of cosmopolitan dates, the Roman Conference refers
+to this instant as coinciding with the instant of midnight, or with
+the commencement of the civil day, under the meridian situated at 12
+h. or 180&deg; from Greenwich. Now, this reference to the civil day and
+date on the meridian opposite to Greenwich appears not only to be
+unnecessary and to be wanting in simplicity, but it may also lead to
+ambiguity in the date, as expressed in universal days, unless this
+ambiguity be avoided by making an arbitrary assumption. No doubt the
+Greenwich mean noon of January 1 coincides with midnight on the
+meridian 12 h. from Greenwich, but with what midnight. What shall be
+its designation and the corresponding date given to the universal day?
+Shall we call the instant above defined the commencement of the
+universal day denoted by January 1 or by January 2? Each of these
+dates has equal claims to be chosen, and the choice between them must
+clearly be an arbitrary one, and may, therefore, lead to ambiguity.</p>
+
+<p>By adopting Greenwich mean midnight as the commencement of the
+universal day, bearing the same designation as the corresponding
+Greenwich civil day, all ambiguity is avoided, and there is no need to
+refer to the opposite meridian at all.</p>
+
+<p>Those are the ideas I wish to express with regard to the commencement
+of the universal day.</p>
+
+<p>I may mention in connection with this subject that Professor
+Valentiner is one of the gentlemen who were invited, a week or two
+ago, to attend the meetings of this Conference, in order that, if
+requested, they might express their opinions from a scientific
+standpoint upon the questions before it; but as Professor Valentiner
+had to leave Washington before our sessions were at an end, I thought
+it would be expedient to ask him for his opinion in writing upon the
+matter which is now pending before this Conference. He has written a
+letter in German, expressing his opinion. I have caused that letter to
+be translated into English, and if the Conference allows me I will
+read it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. If there be no objection to the proposition of
+the Delegate of Great Britain the letter will be read.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made, Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span> continued: It is
+well known that Professor Valentiner is an eminent practical
+astronomer, and I think that any opinion coming from him on this
+subject, which interests astronomers very much, will be considered of
+great weight. The letter runs as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="letterDate"><span class="smcap">Charlottesville, Va.</span>,<br />
+<i>October 12th, 1884</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Honored Sir</span>: You had the kindness to ask me for my
+views as to the choice of the moment for the beginning of
+the day. As I cannot remain longer in Washington, I allow
+myself thus briefly to write to you.</p>
+
+<p>When, as in the present case, the object is to introduce
+uniformity in the time-reckoning of the astronomical and the
+civil world, I am of the opinion that it is the astronomer
+only that must give way. For all purposes of civil life one
+cannot begin the day in the middle of the day-light&mdash;that is
+to say, in the middle of that interval during which work is
+prosecuted. In general it appears to me natural that the
+middle of the day, and not the beginning of the day, should
+be indicated by the highest position of the sun which
+governs all civil life. In fact, it would in civil life be
+simply impossible to bring about a change of date in the
+middle of the daylight. For the astronomer there certainly
+exist difficulties. His activity occurs mostly in the civil
+night, and he, therefore, has to make the change of date in
+the midst of his observations; and this difficulty is
+increased, since he almost exclusively observes according to
+sidereal time, so that often a computation must be made in
+order to ascertain whether the observations were made before
+or after the midnight or moment of change of date. However,
+this difficulty can be overcome by habit, and I believe that
+scarcely any doubt will occur as soon as a uniformnity of
+expression has established itself through the astronomical
+world. As regards the ephemerides, we already employ, in
+fact, the beginning of the date at midnight, since the
+places of planets and comets, are generally computed for 12
+o'clock midnight of Berlin or Greenwich<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> or other places.
+But these are points that have themselves long since been
+discussed.</p>
+
+<p>I scarcely need to say anything further. I would not
+hesitate for a moment to give the preference to making the
+change of date take place at midnight, according to civil
+reckoning, in order to establish a uniformity with the
+customs of civil life.</p>
+
+<p>It, perhaps, may be important to remark that we could not
+introduce this change immediately, since the ephemerides are
+already computed and published for three or four years in
+advance. It would, therefore, be well to fix the epoch of
+change of normal dates to some distant time, such as 1890.</p>
+
+<p>I remain, very respectfully yours,</p>
+
+<p class="author">W. VALENTINER.</p>
+
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>I may also mention that the practice that prevails among astronomers
+at the present time of reckoning the day from noon is by no means
+without exceptions. There are very important astronomical tables which
+reckon the day from midnight; for instance, in Delambre's Tables of
+the Sun; in Burg's, Burckhardt's and Damoiseau's Tables of the Moon;
+in Bouvard's Tables of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, and in Damoiseau's
+Tables of Jupiter's Satellites, mean midnight is employed as the epoch
+of the tables. I may also mention that Laplace, in his M&eacute;canique
+Celeste, adopts the mean midnight of Paris as the origin from which
+his day is reckoned. Hence there are great authorities, even among
+astronomers, in favor of commencing the day at midnight.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, I observe
+that a very eminent American authority is present in this room, I mean
+Professor Hilgard. As he was invited to attend the meeting of this
+Conference, I suggest that the views of the Conference may be taken,
+whether he may not be invited to express his opinion on the point now
+under consideration.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. With the concurrence of the Conference, the
+Chair will be most happy to ask Professor Hilgard to do us the favor
+to give us his opinion upon the question now before the Conference.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No objection was made to the proposition of the President.</p>
+
+<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Hilgard</span> arose and said. I thank you and the
+Conference very much for this invitation, and General
+<span class="smcap">Strachey</span> for having proposed it to the Conference, but my
+opinion has been squarely expressed both in French and English in the
+report of a certain committee, that I am in favor of midnight at
+Greenwich as the beginning of the universal day, and of longitude
+being calculated both ways from Greenwich. I really cannot add
+anything to what has been said in the arguments already presented by
+Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, and I do not think that I ought to detain
+this Conference a moment by repeating the opinion he has expressed to
+all the experts in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>I beg you will excuse me for not further ventilating my views. Absence
+from the city, I regret, has prevented me from availing myself of the
+invitation earlier.</p>
+
+<p>Sir <span class="smcap">Frederick Evans</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I have the
+honor to address the Conference once more upon the practical aspect of
+the subject before us as affecting the large body of navigators. I
+wish to say upon this point that there appears to me, in the address
+of my colleague, Professor <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, somewhat of a mixing
+together of two subjects.</p>
+
+<p>The question immediately before us, as I understand it, is whether the
+commencement of the universal day shall be midnight or noon of the
+initial meridian. That is what we practically have to decide. Now, I
+gather from Professor <span class="smcap">Adams'</span> remarks that upon this question
+the ephemerides which we now employ have some important bearing. I do
+not think that that should influence us, for this reason, that the
+next resolution which will come before the Conference "expresses the
+hope that as soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical
+days will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight."</p>
+
+<p>This resolution, so far as I understand it, will be the warning to
+astronomers to begin to make the changes growing out of this
+resolution which may be necessary for seamen. Therefore, I consider
+that we may at once proceed to vote upon the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> question whether the day
+is to commence at midnight or noon, without any reference to the
+practice or interests of navigation. In reality, it does not appear to
+me to affect that subject at all.</p>
+
+<p>I have given some consideration to the practical bearings of this
+question&mdash;whether it should be midnight or noon. What we ought to
+decide is what will be the least inconvenience to the world at large.
+I have ascertained from two of my colleagues, who have given this
+matter the greatest consideration, that the adoption of midnight will
+really cause less confusion than noon, for this reason, that all the
+great colonies of the world would be less affected; that is to say,
+that the times they are using now would be less affected by midnight
+than by noon. That being so, it appears to me to be an essential point
+in coming to a settlement of this question.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. I have only to say
+that I have listened to the remarks about navigators changing the
+reckoning of time. I do not know whether there are many navigators
+here, but it is a fact that seamen reckon the day from noon.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. I beg the pardon of the Delegate of Spain;
+but, in the United States navy, we reckon the day from midnight.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Ruiz del Arbol</span>, Delegate of Spain. I am speaking
+generally. Now, there is some reason for this rule among seamen, for
+the only way to find out the position of a ship is to observe the
+meridian altitude of the sun; and everybody requires to know, at sea,
+what has taken place in the course of every day, from the beginning to
+the last moment of the day; and I think that whatever the rule may be
+in the United States navy, navigators generally will count their time
+as they count it now.</p>
+
+<p>I think that navigators will not change the rule now in force, no
+matter what we may adopt in this Conference.</p>
+
+<p>Commander <span class="smcap">Sampson</span>, Delegate of the United States. I think,
+Mr. President and gentlemen, that the change to the adoption of the
+universal day, beginning at midnight, would be a very decided
+advantage to navigators. The quantities as now given in the nautical
+ephemerides are for noon of the meridian for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> which they are computed,
+as Washington, Greenwich, &amp;c. It is very evident that every navigator,
+in making use of the quantities given in the nautical almanac, must
+find the corresponding time at Greenwich, wherever he may be on the
+surface of the earth. Consequently, if we suppose that navigators are
+pretty equally distributed, one-half on one side of the earth and
+one-half on the other side, the Greenwich day for one portion would be
+the local night for the other.</p>
+
+<p>The usual observations made by navigators at sea consist in a meridian
+observation of the sun for latitude, and a morning and possibly
+afternoon observation of the sun near the prime vertical for
+longitude. Consequently all navigators, when in the vicinity of the
+initial meridian, might have their day's work occurring in two
+astronomical days. On the other hand, those navigators who were in the
+neighborhood of the 180th meridian would have all their work of one
+day occurring in the same astronomical day. The first would have the
+advantage of interpolating for short intervals only, while the second
+would be obliged to interpolate for much larger intervals.</p>
+
+<p>Consequently, on the whole, it would make no difference to navigators
+whether the quantities given in the nautical almanacs were for noon or
+midnight of the initial meridian. Another consideration, however,
+would make it very advantageous to have the quantities given for
+midnight. That consideration is this: if midnight were chosen, then
+the universal day would be identical with the nautical almanac day,
+and navigators would have only ship time and universal time to deal
+with, while, if the quantities were given for noon, they would have
+astronomical time, in addition to the other two. This consideration I
+think a very important one.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The question will be on the amendment offered
+by the Delegate of Sweden, Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, which has been
+read.</p>
+
+<p>The vote was then taken, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>States voting in the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Netherlands,</td><td>Turkey.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+
+<p>In the negative:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Japan,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Spain.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 6; noes, 14; abstaining from voting, 4.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then announced that the amendment was lost.</p>
+
+<p>The question then recurred on the original resolution offered by the
+Delegate of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>, Delegate of Turkey. Mr. President, I have
+listened with a great deal of interest and attention to the learned
+arguments bearing upon the proposition under discussion offered by the
+Hon. Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, the Delegate of the United States for
+the adoption of a universal hour.</p>
+
+<p>This question is of such high importance, and of such interest to
+every one, that I consider it my duty to make a few remarks upon the
+subject, as I wish to state clearly the position my government
+proposes to take in the matter.</p>
+
+<p>I do not pretend to discuss scientifically this subject, which has
+already been so ably treated by several of the gentlemen present. My
+task is of a different and inferior order. I merely propose to briefly
+examine the manner in which the proposition ought to be made, in order
+that it may be adopted by our respective governments.</p>
+
+<p>The question of a universal hour is not of equal interest and
+importance to all. The United States of America, although
+comparatively a young nation, have done so much in the pursuit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> of
+science and scientific investigation that they must have more than a
+common interest on the subject. The vast expanse of their country,
+stretching over sixty degrees of longitude, with a difference of time
+of more than four hours, almost compels them to adopt a universal
+hour. The thousands of miles of railroad tracts covering this
+continent, facilitating the intercourse between distant places,
+necessitate a uniform system to avoid confusion. It was, therefore,
+natural that the United States and Canada should have taken the lead
+in proposing such a reform, which would likewise benefit other
+countries, as, for instance, the British Empire, Russia, and Germany.
+But there are, at the same time, other countries, like France, Spain,
+Italy, Scandinavia, etc., that may content themselves with a national
+hour, owing to the small difference in time within their dominion. For
+them, the adoption of a universal hour would only be of secondary
+importance, because it would only affect their international
+relations.</p>
+
+<p>I hope I may be permitted to remind you of the conclusions arrived at
+by a commission consisting of scientists, railroad and telegraph
+officials, &amp;c., appointed by the French Government to express their
+opinion upon this subject. If I am not mistaken, they recommended a
+universal hour, stating, however, at the same time, that the benefit
+to be derived from such an hour would be only of secondary importance
+for their country. The learned Delegate from France, Professor
+<span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, will probably be kind enough to inform us whether I
+am right or not.</p>
+
+<p>The few remarks I have made bring me to the point I wanted to consider
+more specially. I mean that the originators of the pending
+proposition, and those directly interested in it, should be induced to
+modify their proposition somewhat if they wish it to be adopted by
+other countries. In other words, to leave to each country the greatest
+latitude possible in adopting a universal hour.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the Ottoman Empire, I must state that it is placed in a
+somewhat exceptional position in this respect, and is, therefore,
+obliged to ask for more latitude even than the other countries
+concerned.</p>
+
+<p>In our country we have two modes of reckoning time:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> one from noon to
+noon, or from midnight to midnight, as everywhere else, (heure &agrave; la
+franque), the other (heure &agrave; la turque) from sundown to sundown. In
+this latter case the hours count from the moment when the disk of the
+sun is bisected by the horizon, and we count twice from <i>0h.</i> to
+<i>12h.</i>, instead of counting without any interruption from <i>0h.</i> to
+<i>24h.</i> We are well aware of the inconveniences this system of counting
+produces, because <i>0h.</i> necessarily varies from day to day, for the
+interval of time between one sunset and the one following is not
+exactly 24 hours. According to the season the sun will set earlier or
+later, and our watches and clocks at Constantinople will be at most
+about three minutes fast or slow from day to day, according to the
+season.</p>
+
+<p>Reasons of a national and religious character prevent us, however,
+from abandoning this mode of counting our time. The majority of our
+population is agricultural, working in the fields, and prefer to count
+to sunset; besides, the hours for the Moslem prayers are counted from
+sundown to sundown.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore it is impossible for us to abandon our old system of time,
+although in our navy we generally use the customary reckoning or
+"heure &agrave; la franque."</p>
+
+<p>Finally, permit me to state that I am ready to cast my vote in favor
+of a universal hour, with the precise understanding that the universal
+hour will have to be limited to international transactions, and that
+will not interfere with the rules up to now in force in my own
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Before resuming my seat I wish to thank the President and the members
+of the Conference for their kind indulgence in having listened to my
+remarks.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>, The Chair would remind the Delegate of Turkey
+that the following resolution was passed at our last session:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference propose the adoption of a
+universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+local or other standard time where desirable."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The very difficulty which the Delegate of Turkey anticipates was thus
+carefully provided for in the resolution just read.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. To my mind
+it is of very great importance that this resolution should be adopted.
+I have already given generally my views on this question, and
+therefore I do not intend to trespass on the attention of the
+Conference beyond saying a very few words. From what I have already
+ventured to submit, it will be obvious that I hold that all our usages
+in respect to the reckoning of time are arbitrary. Of one thing there
+can be no doubt. There is only one, and there can only be one flow of
+time, although our inherited usages have given us a chaotic number of
+arbitrary reckonings of this one conception. There can be no doubt of
+another matter; the progress of civilization requires a simple and
+more rational system than we now have. We have, it seems to me,
+reached a stage when a unification of the infinite number of
+time-reckonings is demanded.</p>
+
+<p>This unification will be, to a large extent, accomplished if the
+resolution be adopted, and by adopting it, it seems to me to be in the
+power of the Conference to confer lasting benefits on the world.</p>
+
+<p>Universal time will in no way interfere with local time. Each separate
+community may continue the usages of the past in respect to local
+time, or may accept whatever change the peculiar conditions in each
+case may call for. But the use of universal time will not necessarily
+involve a change; it will rather be something added to what all now
+possess. It will be a boon to those who avail themselves of it.</p>
+
+<p>To the east of the prime meridian all possible local days will be in
+advance; to the west all possible days will be behind the universal
+day.</p>
+
+<p>The universal day, as defined by the resolution, will at once be the
+mean of all possible local days, and the standard to which they will
+all be related by a certain known interval, that interval being
+determined by the longitude.</p>
+
+<p>In my judgment, the resolution is an exceedingly proper one, and the
+Conference will act wisely in passing it.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. In taking the vote upon the resolution, it is
+requested that the roll be called.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The following States voted in the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td><ins class="correction" title="Text reads... Hiwaii">Hawaii</ins>,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>States voting in the negative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Spain.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Switzerland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 15; noes, 2; abstained, 7.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then announced that the resolution was passed.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+I now present for the consideration of the Conference the following
+resolution:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference expresses the hope that as
+soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical
+days will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Before action is taken upon this resolution, I would make a verbal
+correction. I think that the word "<i>mean</i>" ought to be introduced
+before the word "<i>midnight</i>" and I therefore alter my resolution in
+that way.</p>
+
+<p>The vote was then taken upon the resolution just offered, and it was
+carried without division.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair begs leave to state that the
+protocols<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> in French and in English of the first and second sessions
+of the Conference, have been examined, and are now before the
+Conference for adoption. If any Delegate wishes to make any correction
+in these protocols, he can submit it to the Conference, and, if
+approved, it can be immediately made.</p>
+
+<p>No objection was raised, and the President put the question to the
+Conference on the adoption of the protocols of the first and second
+sessions in French and English, and they were unanimously adopted.</p>
+
+<p>M. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. Mr. President, we have been
+directed to present for the approval of the Congress the desire that
+studies relative to the application of the decimal system to the
+division of angular space and of time should be resumed in order that
+this application may be extended to all cases&mdash;and they are numerous
+and important&mdash;where it presents real advantages.</p>
+
+<p>I would say that a similar desire upon the same subject was expressed
+by the Conference at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>You are aware, gentlemen, that at the time of the establishment of the
+metrical system the decimal division had been extended to the
+measurement of angular space and of time. Numerous instruments were
+even made according to the new system. As to time, the reform was
+introduced too abruptly, and, we might say, without enough discretion,
+and it came into conflict with old habits and was quickly abandoned;
+but as to the division of angular space, in which the decimal division
+presented many advantages, the reform sustained itself much better,
+and is still used for certain purposes. So, the division of the
+circumference into 400 parts was adopted by Laplace, and we find it
+constantly employed in the M&eacute;canique Celeste. Delambre and Mechain
+used, for the measurement of the are of the meridian from which the
+metre was derived, repeating circles divided into "<i>grades</i>." Finally,
+in our own time, Colonel Perrier, Chief of the Geographical Division
+of our Department of War, has used instruments decimally divided, and
+at the present time logarithmic tables appropriate to that method of
+division are in course of calculation.</p>
+
+<p>But it is especially when it is a question of making long<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+calculations of angular space that the decimal system presents great
+advantages. In this respect we find, so to speak, only one opinion
+expressed by scientists.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference at Rome, which brought together so many astronomers,
+geodetists, eminent topographers&mdash;that is to say, the men most
+competent and most interested in the question&mdash;expressed in respect to
+it a desire, the high authority of which it is impossible to mistake.</p>
+
+<p>It is, therefore, now evident that the decimal system, which has
+already done such good service in the measurements of length, volume,
+and weight, is called upon to render analagous services in the domain
+of angular dimensions and of time.</p>
+
+<p>I know that this question of the decimal division encounters
+legitimate doubts, principally as to its application to the
+measurement of time. It is feared that we want to destroy habits fixed
+for centuries, and upset established usages.</p>
+
+<p>In this respect, gentlemen, I think that we ought to be fully
+satisfied. The teachings of the past will be respected. It will be
+perceived that if we failed at the time of the Revolution, it is
+because we put forward a reform which was not limited to the domain of
+science, but which did violence to the habits of daily life. It is
+necessary to take the question up again, but with due regard to the
+limits which common sense and experience would prescribe to wise and
+well-informed men.</p>
+
+<p>I think that the character of the reform would be well defined by
+saying that it is intended especially to make a new effort towards the
+application of the decimal system in scientific matters.</p>
+
+<p>But, gentlemen, I have not to discuss here the bearing of the reforms
+which the study of this question will lead to. It is sufficient for me
+to show that there is in that direction an indispensable step to be
+made, and to ask you to express the desire that the question should be
+studied. I do not think that there is anybody here who would desire to
+oppose a request which does not in truth commit us to any specific
+solution of the question, and which appears so opportune at the
+present time. I would ask the President to be so kind as to submit the
+following proposition to the Conference:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference expresses the hope that the
+studies designed to regulate and extend the application of
+the decimal system to the division of angular space and of
+time shall be resumed, so as to permit the extension of this
+application to all cases where it presents real advantages."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair is of opinion that the Conference
+was called for a special and somewhat narrow purpose, and the
+consideration of the decimal system, proposed by the Delegate of
+France, seems to it foreign to that purpose and beyond the scope of
+the Conference. The President, however, simply acts for the
+Conference, and if the Conference shall decide to take the matter up,
+he will acquiesce, but it strikes the Chair that the resolution is out
+of order.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, I desire to
+express my personal views on this subject. I should be very happy to
+join the Delegate of France in voting for such a resolution, but I
+fear that there is a feeling among many of the delegates that it is
+not within our competence to discuss it. If that is so, I would
+suggest whether it might not be better that it should not be pressed
+to a vote. It would be a pity if there should be on the records of the
+proceedings of this Conference anything in the shape of a vote against
+the subject-matter of this resolution. I consequently think that if
+delegates have formed any decided opinion on the subject, they might
+express their opinion without voting; but I repeat that it would be a
+great pity if a negative vote should be taken on the subject of the
+decimal system of dividing the circle and time, particularly as it was
+received with unanimity in the Conference at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Prof. <span class="smcap">Adams</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I may
+say that while I agree with Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span> in thinking that I
+should not like to vote against the proposition brought forward by our
+eminent colleague, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, yet I feel it is somewhat
+beyond the scope of the subjects which we have to discuss, and,
+therefore, I should abstain from voting. I quite recognize that, for
+certain purposes, the decimal division of the circle is very
+valuable.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. Unless the Conference decides to entertain
+this proposition, the Chair suggests that no discussion shall take
+place. If any member present desires to bring the matter up, he can do
+so by taking an appeal from the decision just made.</p>
+
+<p>Gen. <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Do I understand,
+sir, that the subject is dropped?</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The Chair has decided that the resolution
+offered by the Delegate of France is out of order, and unless a
+difference of opinion is expressed by the Conference, the subject will
+be dropped. The Chair wishes to treat with the most distinguished
+deference the Delegate of France, because we are all most happy to do
+honor to him in every way. Does the Chair understand that the Delegate
+of France appeals from its decision, and wishes to take the sense of
+the Conference upon it?</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, replied in the
+<ins class="correction" title="Text reads... affimative">affirmative</ins>.</p>
+
+<p>Commodore <span class="smcap">Franklin</span>, Delegate of Colombia. Mr. President, I
+would like hear the resolution read again. If it be merely a
+suggestion to consider the subject of the decimal system, I should
+like to know it.</p>
+
+<p>The vote was then taken upon the appeal of the Delegate of France from
+the decision of the Chair.</p>
+
+<p>States voting in favor of the appeal:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>States voting against the appeal:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Hawaii,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>United States.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Russia,</td><td>Sweden.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 13; noes, 9; abstained, 2.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The appeal from the decision of the Chair is
+sustained, and the proposition offered by the Delegate of France is
+now before the Conference. If no delegate wishes to speak upon the
+resolution, the vote will be taken.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France. Mr. President, before the
+definitive vote I desire to again call my colleague's attention to the
+fact that it is a question here of the much-needed extension of the
+decimal system, an extension desired by a large number of the highest
+scientific authorities and of the most distinguished observers. As I
+said only a moment ago, the Congress at Rome, whose high authority in
+the matters which have occupied us is acknowledged, was a still higher
+authority as to astronomy, geodesy, topography; that is to say, in the
+domain to which our proposition relates. At Rome a wish, similar to
+that which we ask you to formulate, was expressed. Besides, if we
+observe that it is a question here only of expressing the desire that
+studies should be resumed upon the matter in question, is there anyone
+among us who would wish to oppose the liberal proposition which
+prejudges nothing in the solution of the question, but which will
+surely lead to important progress. I do not doubt, then, that all our
+colleagues will desire to unite in a resolution, which by its object
+and by the manner in which it is expressed, ought, it appears to me,
+to unite the suffrages of all.</p>
+
+<p>No further remarks were made upon the resolution, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> vote was
+accordingly taken on the question whether it should be adopted.</p>
+
+<p>States voting in the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>States voting in the negative: None.</p>
+
+<p>Abstained from voting:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Sweden.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 21; noes, 0; abstained, 3.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The resolution of the Delegate of France is,
+therefore, adopted.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, before
+concluding the session to-day, I hope that the Delegates will be in a
+position to listen to the two resolutions which I now desire to
+propose, and which I think will tend to clear up a good deal of the
+discussion which we have had. The first of these resolutions is as
+follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The Conference adopts the opinion that, for the purposes of
+civil life, it will be convenient to reckon time, according
+to the local civil time at successive meridians destributed
+round the earth, at time-intervals of either ten minutes, or
+some integral multiple of ten minutes, from the prime
+meridian; but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> that the application of this principle be
+left to the various nations or communities concerned by it."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This resolution, as it stands, embraces all the practical suggestions
+which have been made on the subject up to the present time. The only
+limitation it proposes to put upon the adoption of what may be called
+local standard time is that the breaks shall be at definite intervals
+of ten minutes or more.</p>
+
+<p>The second resolution which I propose is a very simple one. It is
+this:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"The arrangements for adopting the universal day in
+international telegraphy should be left for the
+consideration of the international telegraph congress."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>There has been established by an international arrangement a congress
+which meets every two years to settle questions of international
+telegraphy, and I think that the precise manner in which universal
+time may be adapted to telegraphy would very properly be left to that
+congress.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia. On behalf of the Delegates
+of Russia, I beg to make the following remarks:</p>
+
+<p>We have already expressed the opinion that the universal time could be
+properly used for international postal, railway, and telegraphic
+communications. But it is to be understood that local or any other
+standard time, which is intimately connected with daily life, will
+necessarily be used side by side with the universal time.</p>
+
+<p>It has been proposed, in order to establish an easier connection
+between local and universal time, to accept twenty-four meridians at
+equal distances of 1 hour or 15&deg;, or to divide the whole circumference
+of the earth by meridians at distances of 10 minutes of time or 2&frac12;&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>This question not yet having been made the subject of special and
+thorough investigation by the respective Governments, and not having
+been discussed at the International Conference at Rome, we believe
+that it would as yet be difficult to express, in regard to Europe, any
+positive opinion on the practical convenience<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> of the above mentioned
+or other possible methods of dividing the globe into equal time-zones.</p>
+
+<p>We would suggest to recommend that the system of counting the hours of
+the universal day from 0 to 24, which probably will be adopted for the
+universal day, might also be introduced for counting the local time
+side by side with the old method of counting the hours of 0 to 12 A.
+M. and 0 to 12 p. m.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate of Sweden. I have had the honor to
+transmit to the members of the Conference a r&eacute;sum&eacute; of a report on this
+subject made by Professor Gyld&eacute;n, an eminent Swedish astronomer, whose
+name, no doubt, is familiar to many of the Delegates. The system
+proposed by Mr. Gyld&eacute;n is similar to the one now proposed by the
+Delegate for Great Britain. The only difference is that Mr. Gyld&eacute;n, in
+explaining the system, recommends the adoption of equidistant
+meridians, separated by intervals of 2&frac12;&deg;, or 10 minutes of time, while
+the proposition of the Delegate for Great Britain is so worded that
+this distance may be greater than 10 minutes. This difference is,
+however, only a question of detail. The basis of Mr. Gyld&eacute;n's system
+is that time meridians should be separated from the standard initial
+meridian by either 10 or some integral multiple of 10 minutes.
+Therefore, I shall, with pleasure, vote for the resolution of the
+Delegate from Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>I beg only permission of the Conference to insert Mr. Gyld&eacute;n's report
+as part of my remarks:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p><i>R&Eacute;SUM&Eacute; OF A REPORT read before the Swedish Geographical
+Society by Hugo Gyld&eacute;n, Professor of Astronomy and member of
+the Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, concerning the use of
+Equidistant Meridians for the fixation of the Hour.</i></p>
+
+<p>If we suppose the meridian passing through the Observatory
+of Greenwich extended round the globe, this grand circle
+will cut the equator, at 180&deg; from Greenwich, at some place
+a little east of New Zealand. This meridian falls almost
+entirely in the Ocean, and cuts, in any case, not more than
+a few small islands in the Pacific. If we suppose, further,
+another great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> circle at 90&deg; from the meridian of Greenwich,
+the western half touches very nearly New Orleans, and the
+eastern half passes a few minutes from Calcutta. If, now,
+the hour is fixed according to these four meridians, we have
+four cardinal times&mdash;one European, one American, one
+Asiatic, and one Oceanic.</p>
+
+<p>It will, however, be necessary to fix much more than one
+civil time for Europe. Therefore I suppose for Europe a
+whole system of meridians, which, however, ought not to be
+closer together than 2&frac12;&deg;. The difference of time between
+these meridians is then only 10 minutes, which, in general,
+can be considered as an insignificant difference between the
+civil and the true solar time. The starting point of this
+system is the meridian of Greenwich. To the west the system
+ought to extend 30 minutes; to the east 2&frac12; hours, or to a
+meridian passing near Moscow.</p>
+
+<p>I suppose as time zero the meridian of Greenwich. The next
+meridian to the east is meridian 1. This meridian will not
+pass far from the Observatory of Paris, because the
+difference between this meridian 1 and the meridian of Paris
+is only 40 seconds, an insignificant difference in civil
+life. The meridian 1 can be called the meridian of Paris, or
+French meridian.</p>
+
+<p>The second meridian (to the east of Greenwich) does not
+touch Utrecht, but will pass so close that the time of this
+city could, without the least inconvenience, be regulated as
+if the difference of time between Greenwich and Utrecht were
+exactly 20 minutes. The second meridian would also pass
+almost as close to Amsterdam, (22s.,) and would not be far
+from Marseilles, (1m. 29s.) In the vicinity of the third
+meridian we have, first, Bern, (16s.;) next, a little
+further, Turin, (42s.) The fourth meridian is close to
+Hamburg, Altona, and Gottingen, (respectively 6s. and 14s.)
+Not far from the same meridian is Christiania, although at a
+distance of a little over 2 minutes. The fifth meridian
+passes also close to three large cities&mdash;Rome, (5s.,)
+Leipzig, (26s.,) and Copenhagen, (20s.)</p>
+
+<p>The sixth meridian does not touch any city of importance,
+but it coincides very nearly with the meridian adopted for
+the normal civil time in Sweden; the difference amounts only
+to 15 seconds.</p>
+
+<p>The seventh meridian touches the little town of Brieg, in
+the vicinity of Breslau, and K&ouml;nigsberg is situated two
+minutes from the eighth. The ninth meridian passes less than
+one minute to the west of Abo, and is situated at a distance
+of only a few seconds from Mistra, a town in Greece. The
+tenth meridian almost touches Helsingfors in Finland. As
+regards the eleventh meridian, I have not been able to find
+any locality of importance exactly so situated that it
+merits a place<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> in this list, but I can, however, mention
+the cities of Minsk and Jassy. The twelfth meridian is
+situated 1m. 14s. to the west of the Academy of Sciences, in
+St. Petersburg, and the distance from Kiew is about the
+same. It is not necessary to continue the enumeration of the
+other meridians to the east by intervals of 10 minutes, but
+I will mention that Moscow is situated <i>2h. 30m. 17s.</i> to
+the east of Greenwich, and in consequence the system would
+be convenient with regard to this city.</p>
+
+<p>If we pass to the west of Greenwich, we will find that the
+first meridian west touches the little town of Almeria, in
+the south of Spain, which country extends to equal distances
+on both sides of this meridian, east and west, and the
+situation of Portugal is the same with regard to the third
+meridian west.</p>
+
+<p>Then, in all the towns and localities given above, of which
+the greater part are of some importance, the local time
+coincides so closely with times differing from the Greenwich
+time, by whole multiples of 10 minutes, that there is no
+reason to fear any real inconvenience if these times were
+taken to regulate local reckonings. If the different
+countries in Europe should decide to adopt the system which
+I have explained, the following system of normal times
+would, perhaps, be found convenient:</p>
+
+<p class="heading">EAST OF GREENWICH.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="meridian" summary="">
+<tr><td>1st</td><td align='center'>Meridian,</td><td>France.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>2d</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Holland and Belgium.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>3d</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Switzerland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>4th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Norway, (and Western Germany.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>5th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Denmark, Germany, and Italy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>6th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Sweden and Austria.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>7th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Eastern Germany.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>8th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Hungary.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>9th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Poland and Greece.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>10th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Finland, Roumania, and Bulgaria.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>11th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>European Turkey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>12th</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Western Russia.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="heading">WEST OF GREENWICH.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="meridian" summary="">
+<tr><td>1st&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>Meridian,</td><td>Spain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>3d</td><td align='center'>"</td><td>Portugal.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>It is, however, not at all necessary that each country
+should adopt a single civil time for the whole of its
+territory. If several normal times should be adopted, it is
+still possible to use the system, provided only the several
+times differ from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> Greenwich time by 10 minutes, 20 minutes,
+&amp;c.; but it would be necessary that the clocks should
+indicate the times adopted with great precision, and that
+the difference did not amount to even a few seconds, because
+otherwise the advantages of the adoption of the system would
+be materially reduced.</p>
+
+<p>This circumstance, that it is possible for each country to
+adopt the system, and at the same time to maintain a certain
+independence with regard to the adoption of the most
+convenient normal times, is of considerable importance with
+regard to the possibility of introducing a system of this
+kind. In fact, it is possible to arrive at the application
+of the system in such a way that the transition would hardly
+be observed by the great majority of the population. As
+regards railroads and telegraphs, the advantages would be
+the same as if the local times were everywhere identical,
+because it is easy to remember the multiple of 10 minutes
+which ought to be added to the time of a given country for
+translation into the time of another country. The difference
+of time between Sweden and Denmark would, for instance, be
+10 minutes&mdash;a circumstance which everybody would soon learn
+to remember. A traveller leaving Sweden would then know that
+his watch, if correct, shows exactly 10 minutes more than
+the clocks of the Danish railroad stations, and if he
+continued his voyage to Paris, he would know that the clocks
+of Paris are exactly 50 minutes behind the clocks in Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>I have tried to explain the advantages of this system for
+the countries in Europe. I am not able to judge if similar
+systems can be considered necessary in America and Asia. It
+is possible that North America could be satisfied with one
+single normal time, which, if America connects this time
+with the European system, ought to be fixed exactly 6 hours
+behind Greenwich. While starting from this normal meridian,
+it is possible to establish a more or less elaborate system
+of equidistant times analogous to the system which has been
+proposed for Europe. The same can be said of the civil times
+of Asia, which ought to be connected with a normal time 6
+hours in advance of the time of Greenwich.</p>
+
+<p>Africa ought to belong to the European system. The French
+civil time could be adopted for Algeria and Tunis; the time
+of Denmark, Germany, and Italy for Tripoli; for Egypt the
+time of Russia; the Spanish time for Morocco; at the mouth
+of the Congo where, no doubt, sooner or later, an important
+centre of civilization will rise, the meridian of Sweden and
+Austria could be used; the meridian of Hungary could be
+adopted for the Cape of Good Hope.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It will not be possible to connect South America and
+Australia with any of the four cardinal times mentioned, but
+some other combination, into which it is not necessary to
+enter on this occasion, can easily be found.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. If the Chair hears no objection, the pamphlet
+referred by the Delegate of Sweden will be printed as proposed.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Lefaivre</span>, Delegate of France. Mr. President, I move that
+the Conference adjourn until Wednesday, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+<p>The motion was put and agreed to, and the Conference thereupon
+adjourned at 4:30 p. m. until Wednesday, the 22d inst., at one o'clock
+p. m.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a>VII.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF OCTOBER 22, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+<p>Present:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Austria-Hungary: Baron <span class="smcap">Ignatz von Sch&aelig;ffer</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Brazil: Dr. <span class="smcap">Luiz Cruls</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Chili: Mr. <span class="smcap">F. Y. Gormas</span> and Mr. <span class="smcap">A. B. Tupper</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Colombia: Commodore <span class="smcap">S. E. Franklin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Costa Rica: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Francisco Echeverria</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">France: Mr. <span class="smcap">A. Lefaivre</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Germany: Baron <span class="smcap">H. von Alvensleben</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Hinckeldeyn</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Great Britain: Sir <span class="smcap">F. J. O. Evans</span>, Prof. <span class="smcap">J. C. Adams</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">Lieut.-General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Guatemala: Mr. <span class="smcap">Miles Book</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Hawaii: Hon. <span class="smcap">W. D. Alexander</span>, Hon. <span class="smcap">Luther Aholo</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Italy: Count <span class="smcap">Albert de Foresta</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Japan: Professor <span class="smcap">Kikuchi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Liberia: Mr. <span class="smcap">Wm. Coppinger</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Mexico: Mr. <span class="smcap">Leandro Fernandez</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Angel Anguiano</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Netherlands: Mr. <span class="smcap">G. de Weckherlin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Paraguay: Capt. <span class="smcap">John Stewart</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Russia: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. de Struve</span>, Major-General <span class="smcap">Stebnitzki</span>, Mr.</p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="smcap">J. de Kologrivoff</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">San Domingo: Mr. <span class="smcap">de J. Galvan</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Spain: Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Valera</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Emilio Ruiz del Arbol</span>,</p>
+<p class="attendee2">and Mr. <span class="smcap">Juan Pastorin</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Sweden: Count <span class="smcap">Carl Lewenhaupt</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Switzerland: Col. <span class="smcap">Emile Frey</span>.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span></p>
+<p class="attendee1">Turkey: <span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">United States: Rear-Admiral <span class="smcap">C. R. P. Rodgers</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">Lewis</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">M. Rutherfurd</span>, Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Allen</span>, Commander <span class="smcap">W. T.</span></p>
+<p class="attendee2"><span class="sc">Sampson</span>, Professor <span class="smcap">Cleveland Abbe</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Venezuela: Dr. <span class="smcap">A. M. Soteldo</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Absent:</p>
+
+<p class="attendee1">Denmark: Mr. <span class="smcap">C. S. A. de Bille</span>.</p>
+<p class="attendee1">Salvador: Mr. <span class="smcap">Antonio Batres</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The first business before the Conference
+to-day is the resolutions offered by the Delegate of Great Britain,
+General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>; but before we proceed the Delegate of San
+Domingo, Mr. <span class="smcap">Galvan</span>, asks permission, as a matter of
+privilege, to read a communication to the Conference.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Galvan</span>, the Delegate of San Domingo. Before the sessions
+of the Conference come to a close, I feel compelled to make a
+declaration which will be a tribute to the illustrious scientists who
+have directed the decisions of the majority of the Conference, and at
+the same time a reservation of future freedom of action to the country
+which I have the honor to represent.</p>
+
+<p>The negative vote of San Domingo on the principal question was
+entirely in consequence of the proposal by the Delegates of France of
+a neutral International Meridian, which was rejected by the
+Conference.</p>
+
+<p>San Domingo, which had no part in the various important interests
+connected with the meridian of Greenwich, was bound to regard equity
+alone on the occurrence of the disagreement produced by the proposal
+of the Delegates of France, a nation renowned for being one of the
+first in intellectual progress.</p>
+
+<p>At the last session I was glad that another proposal of the Delegates
+of France was accepted almost unanimously by the Conference. That fact
+should be considered as a good omen of a more complete and unanimous
+agreement at some future time in behalf of the general interest of
+science.</p>
+
+<p>That day will be saluted with a cordial <i>hosanna</i> by the Republic of
+San Domingo, which is always ready freely to give its assent to the
+progress of civilization.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. The resolutions offered by the Delegate of
+Great Britain, General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, are now before the
+Conference, and will be read.</p>
+
+<p>The resolutions were then read, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"1. The Conference adopts the opinion that, for the purposes
+of civil life, it will be convenient to reckon time
+according to the local civil time at successive meridians
+distributed round the earth, at time-intervals of either ten
+minutes, or some integral multiple of ten minutes, from the
+prime meridian; but that the application of this principle
+be left to the various nations or communities concerned by
+it."</p>
+
+<p>"2. The arrangements for the use of the universal day in
+international telegraphy should be left for the
+consideration of the International Telegraph Congress."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. In consequence
+of the opinions I have heard expressed regarding the resolutions which
+I brought forward at our last meeting, I feel constrained to say that
+I am not disposed to ask the Congress to proceed to a vote upon them.
+I find that, although I had reason to think that those resolutions, in
+substance, that is in their main features, would be acceptable, still
+there is extreme difficulty in finding precise expressions that shall
+meet the views of everybody, and there are divisions of opinion as to
+the exact manner in which these resolutions should be modified.</p>
+
+<p>My object in bringing forward the resolutions was mainly to obtain a
+decided expression of opinion on the part of the Congress, that the
+method of counting local time, so as to harmonize as far as possible
+with universal time, should be left for settlement locally; and that,
+at the utmost, all the Congress could do would be to suggest some
+general principle such as that embodied in my resolution. There was,
+of course, never any intention of employing the universal day so as to
+interfere with the use of local standard time; and as I shall, no
+doubt, elicit a further clear expression of opinion on the part of the
+delegates, that there is no intention of bringing about this
+interference, I will now, with the permission of the Conference,
+withdraw the resolutions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President,
+I think that all of us appreciate the desire which moved the Delegate
+of Great Britain to present these resolutions. There is a wish on his
+part that we should not seem, in any way, by our action here, to
+interfere with the convenience of the world in the use of its present
+civil time, or any other time which it may be found convenient to
+adopt, while he recognizes that some of the proposals made as to local
+time are such as could not be objected to. Still, I cannot refrain
+from expressing my satisfaction that he has come to the conclusion
+that these resolutions are not necessary.</p>
+
+<p>I think the whole question is covered by the resolutions already
+adopted by this Congress; that our universal day is for those purposes
+only for which it may be found convenient, and that it is not to
+interfere in any way with the use of civil or other standard time
+where that may be found convenient. This seems to me to be so fully
+embodied in our resolutions that it is unnecessary to enunciate again
+in a negative form the same idea, and I therefore express my
+satisfaction that the resolutions are withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Sandford Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr.
+President, I have a few words bearing on the subject before the
+Conference which I wish to express before any action is taken.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. There will be no subject before the Congress
+if the resolutions of General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span> are withdrawn, and the
+Chair understands that the object of General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span> in
+withdrawing these resolutions was to avoid a discussion upon a subject
+that could hardly lead to any satisfactory conclusion.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, Mr. <span class="smcap">Fleming</span> desires to address the Conference,
+he will be at liberty to do so.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Fleming</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I do not wish to
+intrude any new matter upon the Conference. What I had to say had a
+bearing upon the subject, but, if the resolutions are withdrawn and
+the Conference desires to end the matter, I shall not insist upon
+speaking.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>No objection being made, the resolutions offered by General
+<span class="smcap">Strachey</span> at the last session of the Conference were then
+withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>Count <span class="smcap">Lewenhaupt</span>, Delegate for Sweden, then proposed that the
+resolutions passed by the Conference should be formally recorded in a
+Final Act, stating the votes on each resolution that was adopted.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference took a recess, in order to allow the Delegates to
+examine the draft of the Final Act.</p>
+
+<p>After the recess the Final Act was unanimously adopted, as follows:</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p class="heading">FINAL ACT.</p>
+
+<p>The President of the United States of America, in pursuance
+of a special provision of Congress, having extended to the
+Governments of all nations in diplomatic relations with his
+own, an invitation to send Delegates to meet Delegates from
+the United States in the city of Washington on the first of
+October, 1884, for the purpose of discussing, and, if
+possible, fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+throughout the whole world, this International Meridian
+Conference assembled at the time and place designated; and,
+after careful and patient discussion, has passed the
+following resolutions:</p>
+
+<p class="heading">I.</p>
+
+<p>"That it is the opinion of this Congress that it is
+desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all nations,
+in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians which now
+exist."</p>
+
+<p>This resolution was unanimously adopted.</p>
+
+<p class="heading">II.</p>
+
+<p>"That the Conference proposes to the Governments here
+represented the adoption of the meridian passing through the
+centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory of
+Greenwich as the initial meridian for longitude."</p>
+
+<p>The above resolution was adopted by the following vote:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Salvador,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Liberia,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In the negative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>San Domingo.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>France.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 22; noes, 1; abstaining, 2.</p>
+
+<p class="heading">III.</p>
+
+<p>"That from this meridian longitude shall be counted in two
+directions up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus and
+west longitude minus."</p>
+
+<p>This resolution was adopted by the following vote:</p>
+
+<p>In the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Salvador,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In the negative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Netherlands,</td><td>Switzerland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Germany,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Turkey.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 14; noes, 5; abstaining, 6.</p>
+
+<p class="heading">IV.</p>
+
+<p>"That the Conference proposes the adoption of a universal
+day for all purposes for which it may be found convenient,
+and which shall not interfere with the use of local or other
+standard time where desirable."</p>
+
+<p>This resolution was adopted by the following vote:</p>
+
+<p>In the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Salvador,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>Switzerland,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>San Domingo.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 23; abstaining, 2.</p>
+
+<p class="heading">V.</p>
+
+<p>"That this universal day is to be a mean solar day; is to
+begin for all the world at the moment of mean midnight of
+the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginning of the
+civil day and date of that meridian; and is to be counted
+from zero up to twenty-four hours."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This resolution was adopted by the following vote:</p>
+
+<p>In the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Liberia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Mexico,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In the negative:</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Spain.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Sweden,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Switzerland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 15; noes, 2; abstaining, 7.</p>
+
+<p class="heading">VI.</p>
+
+<p>"That the Conference expresses the hope that as soon as may
+be practicable the astronomical and nautical days will be
+arranged everywhere to begin at mean midnight."</p>
+
+<p>This resolution was carried without division.</p>
+
+<p class="heading">VII.</p>
+
+<p>"That the Conference expresses the hope that the technical
+studies designed to regulate and extend the application of
+the decimal system to the division of angular space and of
+time shall be resumed, so as to permit the extension of this
+application to all cases in which it presents real
+advantages."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The motion was adopted by the following vote:</p>
+
+<p>In the affirmative:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Austria-Hungary,</td><td>Mexico</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brazil,</td><td>Netherlands,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Chili,</td><td>Paraguay,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Colombia,</td><td>Russia,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Costa Rica,</td><td>San Domingo,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>France,</td><td>Spain,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Great Britain,</td><td>Turkey,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hawaii,</td><td>United States,</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Italy,</td><td>Venezuela.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Japan,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>Abstaining from voting:</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table class="vote" summary="Vote">
+<tr><td>Germany,</td><td>Sweden.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Guatemala,</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Ayes, 21; abstaining, 3.</p>
+
+<p>Done at Washington, the 22d of October, 1884.</p>
+
+<p>
+C. R. P. RODGERS,<br />
+<i>President</i>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">R. Strachey</span>, <span class="smcap">J. Janssen</span>, <span class="smcap">L. Cruls</span>,<br />
+<i>Secretaries.</i><br />
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>The following resolution was then adopted unanimously:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"That a copy of the resolutions passed by this Conference
+shall be communicated to the Government of the United States
+of America, at whose instance and within whose territory the
+Conference has been convened."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, Delegate of the United States, then presented
+the following resolution:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the Conference adjourn, to meet upon the
+call of the President, for the purpose of verifying the
+protocols."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This resolution was then unanimously carried, and the Conference
+adjourned at half past three, to meet upon the call of the President.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a>VIII.</h2>
+
+<p class="heading">SESSION OF NOVEMBER 1, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<p>The Conference met at the call of the President for the approval of
+the protocols, as arranged at the last meeting, in the Diplomatic Hall
+of the Department of State, at 1 o'clock p. m.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> having called the Conference to order, said:
+The protocols in French and English, having been examined by the
+Secretaries of the Conference, have been submitted to all of the
+delegates for perusal. If any delegate should desire to make any
+observation on them the opportunity is now given for his doing so.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rustem Effendi</span>, Delegate of Turkey, stated that he desired to
+change his vote on the fifth resolution of the Final Act, providing
+for the commencement of the universal day, from the affirmative to the
+negative.</p>
+
+<p>No objection being made, the change was ordered to be made.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then said: No further observations having been
+made on the protocols, they will now be signed by the Secretaries and
+the President.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve</span>, Delegate of Russia. Before the Conference
+terminates, I beg to express, in the name of my colleagues, our
+sincere gratitude for the hospitality extended to the Conference by
+the Government of the United States, and I beg to express our
+heartiest thanks to you, Mr. President, for the able and impartial
+manner in which you have presided over our deliberations. When we
+elected you, we unanimously elected the first Delegate of the United
+States. If we had to begin again, the personal feelings of all the
+delegates would supply powerful additional reasons for making the
+election equally unanimous.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">de Struve's</span> observation met with the unanimous approval
+of the Delegates.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span>. Gentlemen, I am greatly honored by the kind
+expression of your good feeling towards me as the President of this
+Conference, and I thank you very heartily for it. The duty assigned to
+us all has not been free from difficulty, but our meetings and
+discussions have been characterized by great courtesy and kindness,
+and by a conciliatory spirit.</p>
+
+<p>With patience and devotion the Delegates to this Congress have sought
+to discharge the trust committed to them, and, as your Chairman, I beg
+you to receive my most cordial thanks for the courteous consideration
+I have received at your hands. The President of the United States and
+the Secretary of State desire me to renew to you their thanks for your
+presence here, and their best wishes for your safe and happy return
+each to his own home.</p>
+
+<p>I shall esteem myself very happy hereafter whenever I shall have the
+good fortune to meet any of my colleagues of the International
+Meridian Conference.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Rutherfurd</span>, the Delegate of the United States. Mr.
+President and gentlemen, I am sure that you will all unite with me in
+passing the resolution which I now propose to read:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Resolved</i>, That the thanks of the Conference be presented
+to the Secretaries for the able manner in which they have
+discharged their arduous duties."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>The resolution was unanimously adopted.</p>
+
+<p>General <span class="smcap">Strachey</span>, Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, sir, as
+one of the Secretaries, to express my thanks for the manner in which
+my labors have been esteemed by the delegates present. All that I can
+say on the subject is, that however troublesome the duties of the
+Secretaries have been, I have not the least doubt that anybody else
+named instead of myself would equally have bestowed his best attention
+on the discharge of those duties.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, then said: Before the
+dissolution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> of the Conference, Mr. <span class="smcap">Cruls</span> and I desire
+specially to thank our colleagues for the honor they have done us by
+entrusting to us the revision of the French version of the protocols.
+In order that we might fully respond to that honor, we have examined
+with all possible care the French translations of the remarks of our
+colleagues. Our only regret is that, in consequence of the desire of
+several of them to quit Washington, we have been obliged to leave
+portions of the translations, particularly of the last protocols, much
+in the state in which we received them from the official translators,
+not having had the time to correct these translations as we would have
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>Upon motion of Mr. <span class="smcap">Janssen</span>, Delegate of France, the
+Conference passed a vote of thanks to the delegate of Turkey for the
+aid he has rendered the Secretaries in the revision of the protocols.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then said: Before our final adjournment I
+desire to express a very high appreciation of the ability, fidelity,
+and zeal with which Mr. <span class="smcap">W. F. Peddrick</span>, the Secretary
+attached by the Department of State to this Conference, has performed
+his difficult duties, and to thank him for his services.</p>
+
+<p>The Conference expressed its cordial assent to these observations.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">President</span> then declared that the business of the
+Conference having been concluded, it would adjourn <i>sine die</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="author">C. R. P. RODGERS,<br />
+<i>President.</i></p>
+
+<p class="letterClose1"><span class="smcap">R. Strachey</span>,&nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="smcap">J. Janssen</span>,&nbsp; &nbsp; <span class="smcap">L. Cruls</span>,</p>
+<p class="letterClose2"><i>Secretaries.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ANNEX_I" id="ANNEX_I"></a>ANNEX I.</h2>
+
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">An act</span> to authorize the President of the United
+States to call an International Conference to fix on and
+recommend for universal adoption a common prime meridian, to
+be used in the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation
+of time throughout the world.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><i>Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
+United States of America in Congress assembled</i>, That the President of
+the United States be authorized and requested to extend to the
+governments of all nations in diplomatic relations with our own an
+invitation to appoint delegates to meet delegates from the United
+States in the city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be
+employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+throughout the globe, and that the President be authorized to appoint
+delegates, not exceeding three in number, to represent the United
+States in such International Conference.</p>
+
+<p>Approved August 3, 1882.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="tiny" />
+
+<h2><a name="ANNEX_II" id="ANNEX_II"></a>ANNEX II.</h2>
+
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">An act</span> making appropriations for sundry civil
+expenses of the Government for the fiscal year ending June
+thirtieth, eighteen hundred and eighty-five, and for other
+purposes.</p></blockquote>
+
+<p><i>Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
+United States of America in Congress assembled</i>, That the following
+sums be, and the same are hereby, appropriated for the objects
+hereinafter expressed for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth,
+eighteen hundred and eighty-five, namely:</p>
+
+<p>Under the State Department:</p>
+
+<p>For expenses of the International Conference for fixing a common zero
+of longitude and standard of time-reckoning, including cost of
+printing and translations, to be expended under the direction of the
+Secretary of State, five thousand dollars; and the President is hereby
+authorized to appoint two delegates to represent the United States at
+said International Conference, in addition to the number authorized by
+the act approved August third, eighteen hundred and eighty-two, and
+who shall serve without compensation.</p>
+
+<p>Approved July 7, 1884.</p>
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ANNEX_III" id="ANNEX_III"></a>ANNEX III.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Circular.]</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="letterDate"><span class="sc">Department of State</span><br />
+<span class="sc">Washington</span>, <i>October 23, 1882</i>.<br /></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: On the 3d of August last the President approved an act
+of Congress, in the following words:</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>"<i>Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives
+of the United States of America in Congress assembled</i>, That
+the President of the United States be authorized and
+requested to extend to the governments of all nations in
+diplomatic relations with our own an invitation to appoint
+delegates to meet delegates from the United States in the
+city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper
+to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of
+time-reckoning throughout the globe, and that the President
+be authorized to appoint delegates, not exceeding three in
+number, to represent the United States in such international
+conference."</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>It may be well to state that, in the absence of a common and accepted
+standard for the computation of time for other than astronomical
+purposes, embarrassments are experienced in the ordinary affairs of
+modern commerce; that this embarrassment is especially felt since the
+extension of telegraphic and railway communications has joined States
+and continents possessing independent and widely separated meridional
+standards of time; that the subject of a common meridian has been for
+several years past discussed in this country and in Europe by
+commercial and scientific bodies, and the need of a general agreement
+upon a single standard recognized; and that, in recent European
+conferences especially, favor was shown to the suggestion that, as the
+United States possesses the greatest longitudinal extension of any
+country traversed by railway and telegraph lines, the initiatory
+measures for holding an international convention to consider so
+important a subject should be taken by this Government.</p>
+
+<p>The President, while convinced of the good to flow eventually from the
+adoption of a common time unit, applicable throughout the globe,
+thinks, however, that the effort now to be made should be to reach by
+consultation a conclusion as to the advisability of assembling an
+International Congress with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> the object of finally adopting a common
+meridian. He, therefore, abstains from extending an invitation for a
+meeting at an assigned day, until he has ascertained the views of the
+leading Governments of the world as to whether such International
+Conference is deemed desirable.</p>
+
+<p>I am accordingly directed by the President to request you to bring the
+matter to the attention of the Government of &mdash;&mdash;, through the
+Minister of Foreign Affairs, with a view to learning whether its
+appreciation of the benefits to accrue to the intimate intercourse of
+civilized peoples from the consideration and adoption of the suggested
+common standard of time so far coincides with that of this Government
+as to lead it to accept an invitation to participate in an
+International Conference at a date to be designated in the near
+future.</p>
+
+<p>You may leave a copy of this instruction with the Minister for Foreign
+Affairs, and request the views of his Government thereon, at as early
+a day as may be conveniently practicable.</p>
+
+<p>I am, sir, your obedient servant,</p>
+
+<p class="author">FRED'K T. FRELINGHUYSEN.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="tiny" />
+
+<h2><a name="ANNEX_IV" id="ANNEX_IV"></a>ANNEX IV.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Circular.]</p>
+
+<p class="letterDate"><span class="smcap">Department Of State</span>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">Washington</span>, <i>December 1, 1883</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Sir</span>: By a circular instruction of October 23, 1882, you were
+made acquainted with (the language of) an act of Congress, approved
+August 3, 1882, authorizing and requesting the President to extend to
+other Governments an invitation to appoint delegates to meet in the
+city of Washington for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to
+be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of
+time-reckoning throughout the world; and you were instructed to bring
+the matter to the attention of the Government to which you are
+accredited and to inform it that the President deemed it advisable to
+abstain from the issuance of the formal invitation contemplated, until
+through preliminary consultation the views of the leading governments
+of the world as to the desirability of holding such an International
+Conference could be ascertained.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In the year that has since elapsed this Government has received from
+most of those in diplomatic relations with the United States the
+approval of the project, while many have in terms signified their
+acceptance and even named their delegates.</p>
+
+<p>Besides this generally favorable reception of the suggestion so put
+forth, interest in the proposed reform has been shown by the
+Geographical Conference held at Rome in October last, which very
+decisively
+<ins class="correction" title="Text reads... expresssed">expressed</ins>
+its opinion in favor of the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich as the common zero of time longitude, and
+adjourned, leaving the discussion and final adoption of this or other
+equivalent unit, and the framing of practical rules for such adoption,
+to the International Conference to be held at Washington.</p>
+
+<p>The President therefore thinks the time has come to call the
+Convention referred to in my instruction of October 23, 1882. I am
+accordingly directed by the President to instruct you to tender to the
+Government of &mdash;&mdash;, through its Minister for Foreign Affairs, an
+invitation to be represented by one or more delegates (not exceeding
+three) to meet delegates from the United States and other nations in
+an international Conference to be held in the city of Washington on
+the first day of October next, 1884, for the purpose of discussing
+and, if possible, fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning throughout the
+globe.</p>
+
+<p>You will seek the earliest convenient occasion to bring this
+invitation to the attention of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of &mdash;&mdash;
+by handing him a copy hereof and requesting that the answer of his
+Government may be made known to you.</p>
+
+<p>I am, sir, your obedient servant,</p>
+
+<p class="author">FRED'K T. FRELINGHUYSEN.</p>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of International Conference Held at
+Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884., by Various
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+</pre>
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+</body>
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of International Conference Held at Washington
+for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884., by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: International Conference Held at Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884.
+ Protocols of the Proceedings
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: February 12, 2006 [EBook #17759]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Joseph Myers, Richard J.
+Shiffer and the Online Distributed Proofreading team at
+http://www.pgdp.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
+
+HELD AT WASHINGTON
+
+FOR THE PURPOSE OF FIXING
+
+A PRIME MERIDIAN
+
+AND
+
+A UNIVERSAL DAY.
+
+OCTOBER, 1884.
+
+
+PROTOCOLS OF THE PROCEEDINGS.
+
+
+WASHINGTON, D. C.
+
+GIBSON BROS., PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS.
+
+1884.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS.
+
+ Page
+
+ I. Protocol, October 1, 1884 1
+
+ II. Protocol, October 2, 1884 13
+
+ III. Protocol, October 6, 1884 35
+
+ IV. Protocol, October 13, 1884 73
+
+ V. Protocol, October 14, 1884 113
+
+ VI. Protocol, October 20, 1884 151
+
+ VII. Protocol, October 22, 1884 195
+
+ VIII. Protocol, November 1, 1884 205
+
+ Final Act 199
+
+ Act of Congress authorizing the President of the
+ United States to invite the Conference (ANNEX I) 209
+
+ Act of Congress making appropriation for expenses
+ (ANNEX II) 209
+
+ Circular to United States representatives abroad
+ bringing the subject to the attention of foreign
+ governments (ANNEX III) 210
+
+ Circular to United States ministers extending
+ invitation to foreign governments (ANNEX IV) 211
+
+
+
+
+International Meridian Conference
+
+HELD IN THE
+
+CITY OF WASHINGTON.
+
+
+
+
+I.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 1, 1884.
+
+
+The Delegates to the International Meridian Conference, who assembled
+in Washington upon invitation addressed by the Government of the
+United States to all nations holding diplomatic relations with it,
+"for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning throughout the
+globe," held their first conference to-day, October 1, 1884, in the
+Diplomatic Hall of the Department of State.
+
+The following delegates were present:
+
+ On behalf of Austria-Hungary--
+
+ Baron IGNATZ VON SCHAEFFER,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Brazil--
+
+ Dr. LUIZ CRULS,
+ _Director of the Imperial Observatory of Rio Janeiro_.
+
+ On behalf of Colombia--
+
+ Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN, _U. S. Navy_,
+ _Superintendent U. S. Naval Observatory_.
+
+ On behalf of Costa Rica--
+
+ Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA,
+ _Civil Engineer_.
+
+ On behalf of France--
+
+ Mr. A. LEFAIVRE,
+ _Minister Plenipotentiary and Consul-General_.
+ Mr. JANSSEN, _of the Institute_,
+ _Director of the Physical Observatory of Paris_.
+
+ On behalf of Germany--
+
+ Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Great Britain--
+
+ Captain Sir F. J. O. EVANS,
+ _Royal Navy_.
+
+ Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ _Director of the Cambridge Observatory_.
+
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY,
+ _Member of the Council of India_.
+
+ Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING,
+ _Representing the Dominion of Canada_.
+
+ On behalf of Guatemala--
+
+ M. MILES ROCK,
+ _President of the Boundary Commission_.
+
+ On behalf of Hawaii--
+
+ Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER,
+ _Surveyor-General_.
+
+ Hon. LUTHER AHOLO,
+ _Privy Counsellor_.
+
+ On behalf of Italy--
+
+ Count ALBERT DE FORESTA,
+ _First Secretary of Legation_.
+
+ On behalf of Japan--
+
+ Professor KIKUCHI,
+ _Dean of the Scientific Dep't of the University of Tokio_.
+
+ On behalf of Mexico--
+
+ Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ,
+ _Civil Engineer_.
+ Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO,
+ _Director of the National Observatory of Mexico_.
+
+ On behalf of Paraguay--
+
+ Captain JOHN STEWART,
+ _Consul-General_.
+
+ On behalf of Russia--
+
+ Mr. C. DE STRUVE,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+ Major-General STEBNITZKI,
+ _Imperial Russian Staff_.
+ Mr. J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF,
+ _Conseiller d'Etat actuel_.
+
+ On behalf of San Domingo--
+
+ Mr. M. DE J. GALVAN,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Salvador--
+
+ Mr. ANTONIO BATRES,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Spain,
+
+ Mr. JUAN VALERA,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+ Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL,
+ _Naval Attache to the Spanish Legation_.
+ Mr. JUAN PASTORIN,
+ _Officer of the Navy_.
+
+ On behalf of Sweden--
+
+ Count CARL LEWENHAUPT,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Switzerland--
+
+ Colonel EMILE FREY,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of the United States--
+
+ Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _U. S. Navy_.
+
+ Mr. LEWIS M. RUTHERFURD.
+
+ Mr. W. F. ALLEN,
+ _Secretary Railway Time Conventions_.
+
+ Commander W. T. SAMPSON,
+ _U. S. Navy_.
+
+ Professor CLEVELAND ABBE,
+ _U. S. Signal Office_.
+
+ On behalf of Venezuela--
+
+ Senor Dr. A. M. SOTELDO,
+ _Charge d'Affaires_.
+
+ The following delegates were not present:
+
+ On behalf of Chili--
+
+ Mr. FRANCISCO VIDAL GORMAS,
+ _Director of the Hydrographic Office_.
+
+ Mr. ALVARO BIANCHI TUPPER,
+ _Assistant Director_.
+
+ On behalf of Denmark--
+
+ Mr. CARL STEEN ANDERSEN DE BILLE,
+ _Minister Resident and Consul-General_.
+
+ On behalf of Germany--
+
+ Mr. HINCKELDEYN,
+ _Attache of the German Legation_.
+
+ On behalf of Liberia--
+
+ Mr. WILLIAM COPPINGER,
+ _Consul-General_.
+
+ On behalf of the Netherlands--
+
+ Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN,
+ _Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary_.
+
+ On behalf of Turkey--
+
+ RUSTEM EFFENDI,
+ _Secretary of Legation_.
+
+The delegates were formally presented to the Secretary of State of the
+United States, the Honorable FREDERICK T. FRELINGHUYSEN, in his office
+at 12 o'clock. Upon assembling in the Diplomatic Hall, he called the
+Conference to order, and spoke as follows:
+
+ GENTLEMEN: It gives me pleasure, in the name of the
+ President of the United States, to welcome you to this
+ Congress, where most of the nations of the earth are
+ represented. You have met to discuss and consider the
+ important question of a prime meridian for all nations. It
+ will rest with you to give a definite result to the
+ preparatory labors of other scientific associations and
+ special congresses, and thus make those labors available.
+
+ Wishing you all success in your important deliberations, and
+ not doubting that you will reach a conclusion satisfactory
+ to the civilized world, I, before leaving you, take the
+ liberty to nominate, for the purpose of a temporary
+ organization, Count Lewenhaupt.
+
+ It will afford this Department pleasure to do all in its
+ power to promote the convenience of the Congress and to
+ facilitate its proceedings.
+
+By the unanimous voice of the Conference the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+LEWENHAUPT, took the chair, and said that, for the purpose of
+proceeding to a permanent organization, it was necessary to elect a
+President, and that he had the honor to propose for that office the
+chairman of the delegation of the United States of America, Admiral C.
+R. P. Rodgers.
+
+The Conference agreed unanimously to the proposition thus made,
+whereupon Admiral RODGERS took the chair as President of the
+Conference, and made the following address:
+
+ GENTLEMEN: I beg you to receive my thanks for the high honor
+ you have conferred upon me in calling me, as the chairman of
+ the delegation from the United States, to preside at this
+ Congress. To it have come from widely-separated portions of
+ the globe, delegates renowned in diplomacy and science,
+ seeking to create a new accord among the nations by agreeing
+ upon a meridian proper to be employed as a common zero of
+ longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the
+ world. Happy shall we be, if, throwing aside national
+ preferences and inclinations, we seek only the common good
+ of mankind, and gain for science and for commerce a prime
+ meridian acceptable to all countries, and secured with the
+ least possible inconvenience.
+
+ Having this object at heart, the Government of the United
+ States has invited all nations with which it has diplomatic
+ relations to send delegates to a Congress to assemble at
+ Washington to-day, to discuss the question I have indicated.
+ The invitation has been graciously received, and we are here
+ this morning to enter upon the agreeable duty assigned to us
+ by our respective governments.
+
+ Broad as is the area of the United States, covering a
+ hundred degrees of longitude, extending from 66 deg. 52' west
+ from Greenwich to 166 deg. 13' at our extreme limit in Alaska,
+ not including the Aleutian Islands; traversed, as it is, by
+ railway and telegraph lines, and dotted with observatories;
+ long as is its sea coast, of more than twelve thousand
+ miles; vast as must be its foreign and domestic commerce,
+ its delegation to this Congress has no desire to urge that a
+ prime meridian shall be found within its confines.
+
+ In my own profession, that of a seaman, the embarrassment
+ arising from the many prime meridians now in use is very
+ conspicuous, and in the valuable interchange of longitudes
+ by passing ships at sea, often difficult and hurried,
+ sometimes only possible by figures written on a black-board,
+ much confusion arises, and at times grave danger. In the use
+ of charts, too, this trouble is also annoying, and to us who
+ live upon the sea a common prime meridian will be a great
+ advantage.
+
+ Within the last two years we have been given reason to hope
+ that this great desideratum may be obtained, and within a
+ year a learned Conference, in which many nations were
+ represented, expressed opinions upon it with singular
+ unanimity, and in a very broad and catholic spirit.
+
+ I need not trespass further upon your attention, except to
+ lay before you the subject we are invited to discuss: the
+ choice of "a meridian to be employed as a common zero of
+ longitude and standard of time reckoning throughout the
+ world;" and I shall beg you to complete our organization by
+ the election of a Vice-President, and the proper Secretaries
+ necessary to the verification of our proceedings.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate from France, stated that on behalf of his
+colleague he would suggest that all motions and addresses made in
+English should be translated into French.
+
+The PRESIDENT inquired whether the proposition made by the Delegate
+for France met with the approval of the Conference, when it was
+unanimously agreed to.
+
+The PRESIDENT thereupon said that he was ready to lay before the
+Conference the subject of the election of Vice-President.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, the Delegate of Sweden, stated that elections in
+such large bodies were always difficult, and inquired whether it was
+necessary to have a Vice-President. He further said that for his part
+he had every reason to hope and to expect that the services of a
+Vice-President would not be required.
+
+It was thereupon agreed that a Vice-President should be dispensed
+with.
+
+The PRESIDENT then stated that the next business was the election of
+Secretaries; but suggested, in view of the proceedings already had,
+and of the necessity of some consultation in regard to the matter,
+that the election might be postponed till to-morrow.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, stated that he saw no reason why the
+nomination of Secretaries could not be made just as well at present as
+at any future time.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, inquired what would be the functions
+of the Secretaries.
+
+The PRESIDENT in reply said that an acting Secretary had been
+appointed by the Secretary of State, who was at the same time a
+stenographer, and that the principal labor of keeping the records of
+the Conference would devolve upon him; that nevertheless regular
+Secretaries of the Conference had to be appointed, for the purpose of
+examining and verifying the protocols from day to day, which would be
+the more important in the event of the records of the Conference being
+made in two or three different languages, and that these Secretaries
+ought no doubt to be members of the Conference, in order to give the
+requisite authenticity to the acts thereof, and, in view of the
+character of the proceedings, should be specialists and informed as to
+the subjects under discussion.
+
+Mr. SOTELDO, Delegate of Venezuela, said that he thought the
+Conference should adjourn until to-morrow, as they had done already
+enough to-day in settling its organization; that by adjourning over it
+would give an opportunity to the delegates to consult as to the
+functions of the Secretaries, and who would be most likely to be
+qualified for those functions; that there were gentlemen from
+different countries who were not familiar with the English language,
+and by to-morrow the Conference could determine as to the languages in
+which the proceedings should be had, although, as it seemed to him,
+that the proceedings should be recorded in French and English. He then
+moved that the Conference adjourn until to-morrow.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he agreed with what had
+been said by the President, that the Conference should have
+Secretaries who were specialists, and that the proceedings should be
+recorded in two languages. By adjourning till to-morrow he thought
+that the delegates would have an opportunity to reflect upon the
+subject, and to come back prepared to vote upon it.
+
+The PRESIDENT then stated that if any delegates wished to make
+propositions in regard to the proceedings to-morrow it would be in the
+power of the Conference to proceed to the consideration of those
+subjects after the election of the Secretaries, and he suggested to
+the Delegate of Venezuela (Mr. Soteldo) that the motion to adjourn be
+withdrawn for the present.
+
+The Delegate of Venezuela thereupon withdrew his motion.
+
+Mr. FREY, Delegate of Switzerland, said that, in his opinion, the
+order of proceedings to-morrow should be first a general discussion.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, stated that he thought the proceedings
+should be recorded in two languages at least, and that Secretaries
+conversant with these languages and specially acquainted with the
+subject matter pending before the Conference should be selected; that,
+in order to have the record of the proceedings accurate, officers
+qualified in this way were requisite, and that it would be preferable
+to elect these officers after consultation among the members of the
+Conference, which could be had between now and the meeting to-morrow.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, said that he saw no difficulty
+in deciding now that the order of proceedings to-morrow would be first
+the election of the Secretaries and then a general discussion, and he
+moved that this proposition be adopted.
+
+The Conference then unanimously agreed to the proposition.
+
+Professor ABBE, Delegate of the United States, inquired whether it
+would not facilitate the action of the Conference to-morrow if the
+President appointed a committee now who could nominate the
+Secretaries.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied by asking whether it would not be better to
+select this committee at a subsequent meeting, rather than at the
+first meeting, which was held to-day.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then gave notice
+that at the session to-morrow he would bring before the Conference the
+question whether the meetings shall be open to the public or not, and
+that he would, at the proper time, also make a motion for the purpose
+of determining the sense of the Conference as to the propriety of
+inviting distinguished scientists, some of whom are now in Washington,
+and who may desire to be present at the meetings of this Conference,
+to take part in the discussion of the questions pending.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that in regard to the first
+proposition--that is, as to making the proceedings public, he would
+object, inasmuch as he thought that by opening the doors of this
+Conference to the public nothing could be gained, while the
+proceedings might be embarrassed or delayed by such a course.
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of England, stated that he did not favor the
+first proposition to make the proceedings of this Conference public,
+but he did agree with the second proposition, and thought it was a
+very important and valuable one.
+
+The PRESIDENT remarked that the propositions made by the Delegate of
+the United States of America were merely in the nature of a notice,
+and that they were not before the Conference at the present time, and,
+consequently, were not the subject of discussion; still he thought
+that much good could be elicited from this interchange of opinions in
+a preliminary way.
+
+Captain STEWART, Delegate of Paraguay, said that he thought that it
+would be a very good thing, in view of the proposition to make the
+meetings public, to invite all the world to the Capitol for the
+discussion of these subjects.
+
+Professor ABBE, Delegate of the United States, stated that it would be
+perfectly practicable to have the discussions of the Conference
+printed in full from day to day for our own official use, and that the
+public might thereby be made familiar with the proceedings if it were
+necessary.
+
+The PRESIDENT announced that arrangements had been made by the State
+Department whereby the proceedings of each day would be printed and
+furnished in time for the examination of the members of the Conference
+before the next meeting, and that they would be printed in two
+languages, French and English; but that these records or protocols
+could not be regularly verified until the Conference shall have
+appointed duly authorized Secretaries.
+
+Baron VON SCHAEFFER, Delegate of Austro-Hungary, asked that a list of
+the delegates be presented to each of the members of the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that he would instruct the acting Secretary (Mr.
+Peddrick) to have the list prepared.
+
+Upon the motion of Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, the Conference
+then adjourned until to-morrow, (Thursday,) the second instant, at one
+o'clock p. m.
+
+
+
+
+II.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 2, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austria-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHAEFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANSEL ANGUIANO.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL,
+ and Mr. JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY, Professor HIRSCH.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFORD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Senor Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Denmark: Mr. O. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Liberia: Mr. WM. COPPINGER.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that the first business before the Conference was
+the election of Secretaries.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, stated that it was his opinion that
+it would be very difficult to elect Secretaries by a direct vote, and
+he proposed that the selection of the Secretaries be left to a
+Committee to be appointed by the President; that the Committee present
+the names of the officers selected to the Conference, and that these
+Secretaries be four in number.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, stated that it was generally
+understood among the delegates that Mr. Hirsch, one of the delegates
+from Switzerland, should be elected a Secretary, as he was a Secretary
+of the Conference held at Rome, but as he has not yet arrived, he
+proposed that the Conference elect only three Secretaries to-day.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, stated that he believed that Mr.
+Hirsch would soon arrive, and he accepted the amendment just offered.
+
+The original motion, as modified by the amendment, was thereupon
+unanimously agreed to.
+
+The Chair appointed the Delegate of Russia, Mr. de Struve, the
+Delegate from Spain, Mr. Valera, the Delegate from France, Mr.
+Lefaivre, and the Delegate from Sweden, Count Lewenhaupt, as the
+Committee to select the Secretaries.
+
+The Conference thereupon took a recess, to enable the Committee to
+consult and report.
+
+Upon the reassembling of the Conference, the Delegate of Sweden, Count
+Lewenhaupt, announced that the Committee had selected for Secretaries
+the Delegate from Great Britain, Lieut.-General Strachey, the Delegate
+of France, Mr. Janssen, and the Delegate from Brazil, Dr. Cruls.
+
+The report of the Committee was then unanimously adopted by the
+Conference, and the Delegates named as Secretaries signified their
+acceptance of the office.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia, moved that the President direct the
+Acting Secretary to arrange the seats of the Delegates according to
+the alphabetical order of the countries represented. He added that it
+would be a great convenience to the members to have their seats
+permanently fixed.
+
+The motion was unanimously agreed to.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then presented the
+following resolution:
+
+ _Resolved_, That the Congress invite Prof. Newcomb,
+ Superintendent of the United States Nautical Almanac; Prof.
+ Hildgard, Superintendent of the United States Coast and
+ Geodetic Surveys; Professor A. Hall; Professor De
+ Valentiner, Director of the Observatory at Karlsruhe; and
+ Sir William Thomson, to attend the meetings of this
+ Congress.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of England, stated that, as he understood
+this resolution, it would not necessarily authorize the parties
+invited to take any part in the discussions.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that the resolution seems merely to invite the
+gentlemen to be present.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that he thought it
+necessary to clear up this matter a little; that if the gentlemen
+invited could not address the Conference, it seemed very little use to
+have them invited; that it was not for their own advantage but for
+that of the Conference that the invitations were extended to those
+scientific gentlemen, and therefore he thought it was the intention in
+inviting them to have the benefit of any information which they might
+desire from time to time to express on the subjects before the
+Congress. He thought that if any remarks on the part of these
+gentlemen were presented to the Conference, with the assent of the
+Congress, through the President, that would doubtless meet all the
+requirements of the case.
+
+The PRESIDENT inquired whether the Delegate of Great Britain meant
+that the remarks should be presented in writing.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, replied that that would
+not necessarily be the case.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, inquired whether the
+persons named in the resolution were the only ones to be invited.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that it was so, so far as the Chair was
+informed, but that it would be in order at any time to add new names
+in the same way.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, stated that this was a
+matter which he had very much at heart, and he would like to observe
+that some of the nations which were invited to send Delegates to this
+Conference had failed to do so, and that it would be a courtesy to
+invite persons of those nations to be present.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, stated that after
+consulting with a number of the delegates he drew the resolution, and
+that it was suggested to him this very morning that possibly there
+might be a difference of opinion as to whether these gentlemen should
+take part in the discussion, and that that was the reason why the
+first resolution merely proposed to invite them to be present. He
+stated that he proposed subsequently to submit another resolution
+authorizing these gentlemen to take part in the discussion; that he
+thought that the original intention was to confer an honor on certain
+distinguished scientists, and that it would be well for the Conference
+to limit the invitation to gentlemen of that character.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he was opposed to the
+proposition to admit to the deliberations of this Conference
+gentlemen, no matter how distinguished or eminent they might be, who
+were not specially delegated by their Governments as members of this
+body. He questioned the power of the Conference to admit to its
+discussions persons who were not regularly appointed to vote upon the
+subject at issue; that this was an international conference created
+for the purpose of obtaining an interchange of views from the
+representatives of the different Governments; that it would extend the
+scope of the work before this body to entertain the views and opinions
+of persons not authorized to speak for the Governments whose Delegates
+are here; that there would be a great divergence of opinion among such
+men, and the result would be rather to embarrass than to help this
+Conference to an accord. He insisted that the matter was exclusively
+governmental, and, while he would be happy to extend any courtesy to
+men distinguished in science, such as the gentlemen who are proposed
+to be invited, he felt constrained to oppose the proposition under the
+circumstances.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he understood that the resolution did not
+propose to confer a vote upon the gentlemen invited, but simply to
+enable them to lay any information before the Conference which they
+might have upon the matter at issue.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, contended that the resolution was
+intended to authorize these gentlemen to deliberate, and he thought
+that the inconvenience would be very great of extending this privilege
+to persons not authorized to represent their Governments. He did not
+think it was reasonable or fair that his opinions should be questioned
+or opposed by the opinions of men not authorized to speak for their
+Governments.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, said that as he had taken
+upon himself to make some remarks both as to the manner in which the
+gentlemen should be invited and the extent of their rights when
+invited, he wished to say that while he agreed with much that had been
+said by the Delegate of France, he held that these gentlemen should
+have an opportunity of expressing their views; that they were not to
+come here merely to listen to the proceedings, but that they should
+themselves be heard.
+
+The PRESIDENT directed that the resolution be read in French, and then
+put it to the vote, when it was unanimously adopted.
+
+Commander SAMPSON. Delegate of the United States, then offered the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the gentlemen who have just been invited
+ to attend the meetings of the Conference be permitted to
+ take part in the discussion of all scientific questions."
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate for France, then stated that it was not in
+accordance with the object of this Conference that private
+individuals, not authorized by their respective Governments, should be
+permitted to influence the decision of this body, and that, while it
+was very proper to extend courtesy to such learned gentlemen as were
+invited, it surely was never intended that they should participate in
+our proceedings.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, said that it would, perhaps,
+save trouble if he stated his views on the point under discussion,
+which he apprehended were generally in accordance with those of the
+representative from France. He said that, if he were permitted, he
+would read a resolution, which he suggested might be accepted as a
+substitute for that pending before the Conference, and it was as
+follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the President be authorized, with the
+ concurrence of the Delegates, to request an expression of
+ the opinions of the gentlemen invited to attend the Congress
+ on any subject on which their opinion may be likely to be
+ valuable."
+
+The PRESIDENT inquired in what way they would express it.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that it would be
+orally.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that the resolution undoubtedly read that way.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that the language,
+"to take part in the discussion," employed in the resolution of
+Commander Sampson, would mean that the persons invited would be in a
+position, of their own motion, either to reply to remarks made, or to
+state their own views, or to take part in the discussion just as the
+Delegates are entitled to do.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he hoped that the
+proposition of the Delegate of Great Britain would not be pressed
+until a vote was had upon the original resolution.
+
+The PRESIDENT then put the resolution to a vote; but, being unable to
+determine from the _viva voce_ vote whether it was carried or not, he
+stated that the roll would be called.
+
+Mr. FREY, Delegate of Switzerland, stated that he thought before the
+vote was taken a decision should be had upon the question, how the
+Delegates were to vote--whether as nations or as individuals.
+
+The PRESIDENT announced that it had been the custom in all such
+conferences to vote as nations, each nation casting one vote, and that
+no other way seemed practicable; and that in conformity with this
+ruling the roll would be called and the vote taken by nations.
+
+The roll was then called, when the following States voted in the
+affirmative:
+
+ Costa Rica, Guatemala,
+ Italy, Mexico,
+ San Domingo, Salvador,
+ Switzerland, Venezuela.
+
+And the following in the negative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Brazil,
+ Colombia, France,
+ Germany, Great Britain,
+ Hawaii, Japan,
+ Paraguay, Russia,
+ Spain, Sweden.
+ United States,
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the ayes were 8 and the noes 13, and
+that the resolution was lost.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, then renewed his resolution,
+which was as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the President be authorized, with the
+ concurrence of the Delegates, to request an expression of
+ the opinions of the gentlemen invited to attend the Congress
+ on any subject on which their opinion may be likely to be
+ valuable."
+
+No discussion arose upon this resolution, and it was adopted.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then offered the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the meetings of this Congress be open to
+ interested visitors."
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, stated that he considered this a
+subject of grave importance; that this was an official and
+confidential body; scientific, it was true, but also diplomatic; that
+it was empowered to confer about matters with which the general public
+have now nothing to do; that to admit the public to the meetings would
+destroy their privacy and subject the Conference to the influence of
+an outside pressure which might prove very prejudicial to its
+proceedings, and that he would object to this resolution absolutely.
+
+No further discussion being had, the PRESIDENT, after a _viva voce_
+vote of doubtful result, ordered the roll to be called, when the
+following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Colombia, Costa Rica,
+ Guatemala, Paraguay,
+ Salvador, Spain.
+ Venezuela,
+
+ And the following States in the negative.
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Brazil,
+ France, Germany,
+ Great Britain, Hawaii,
+ Italy, Japan,
+ Mexico, Russia,
+ San Domingo, Sweden,
+ Switzerland, United States.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the ayes were 7 and the noes 14, and
+that the resolution was therefore lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT then said that there would doubtless be some preliminary
+general discussion on the subject before the Conference, and suggested
+that if Delegates desired to be heard upon the subject it would be
+expedient to give an intimation to the Secretary.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, then said: I have been
+requested to present to the Conference the communication that I hold
+in my hand, and in doing so wish to offer the following resolution:
+
+ "Whereas several persons desire to submit to this Conference
+ inventions, devices, and systems of universal time:
+ therefore,
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference will acknowledge the
+ receipt of such communications, but will abstain from any
+ expression of opinion as to their respective merits."
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain, said that the Conference
+should be very cautious in admitting the devices and schemes of people
+who have no connection with this body; that there are, no doubt, many
+inventors and many people who have plans and schemes which they wish
+to press upon the Conference, and that it was probable that the
+Conference would be subjected to very great inconvenience if they took
+upon themselves even the burden of acknowledging the receipt of these
+communications.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he had received several Communions of this
+character, one proposing that Jerusalem should be taken as the prime
+meridian.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, proposed that the Conference should
+appoint a committee to examine the different papers submitted by
+outside parties, and to make such suggestions as they might deem
+proper after examining the papers.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, said that it seemed to him the proper
+course of proceeding for the Conference was to take up the subject
+article by article, and treat it in that order; that there were
+presented to the Conference certain well-defined propositions, and
+that besides these there were the resolutions which had been adopted
+by the Conference at Rome, which could be used as a basis for the
+discussions of this Conference; that in that way the Delegates would
+have before them some precise subject-matter, and after discussion, if
+any proposition needed to be altered or amended it would be in the
+power of the Conference to do so, but that unless some regular method
+of proceeding were adopted the sessions would be prolonged
+indefinitely, and the Conference would be confused by a multitude of
+irrelevant propositions that might be presented to them.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, stated that it seemed
+to him that to invite a general discussion upon the subject, which has
+undoubtedly a great many heads, the best method would be the one just
+suggested; that by having a well-defined course much time would be
+saved, and there would be a precision in the proceedings, which
+undoubtedly is always valuable; that in this way the discussion could
+be kept within bounds, but unless there is some proposition pending
+before the Conference it is impossible to say whether any discussion
+is in order or out of order; that it seemed to him there should be
+some well-defined propositions laid before the Conference, and those
+propositions could easily be gathered, not only from what has gone
+before, not only from the Conference which has been held in Rome, but
+from the acts of Congress and the circulars of the Secretary of
+State, under which this body has been organized.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that if these communications from outside parties
+were brought before the Conference it would entail a great deal of
+labor.
+
+The resolution of the Delegate of the United States, Prof. ABBE, was
+then put to the vote, and was negatived.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then presented the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ represented the adoption as a standard meridian that of
+ Greenwich passing through the centre of the transit
+ instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich."
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, remarked that the proposed
+resolution seemed to him out of order, and that his colleague, Mr.
+Janssen, desired to address the Conference on the subject. He went on
+to say:
+
+The competence of the Conference can give rise to no long debate among
+us. Let us remark, in the first place, that no previous engagement
+exists, on the part of the Governments, to adopt the results of our
+discussions, and that consequently our decisions cannot be compared to
+those of a deliberative congress or an international commission acting
+according to definite powers.
+
+We have no definite powers, or rather, we have no executive power,
+since our decisions cannot be invoked executively by one Government
+towards others.
+
+Does this mean that our decisions will be wholly unauthoritative? An
+assembly which numbers so many eminent delegates, and in which there
+is so much scientific knowledge, must certainly be regarded with
+profound respect by all the Powers of the world. Its powers, however,
+must be of a wholly moral character, and will have to be balanced
+against rights and interests no less worthy of consideration, leaving
+absolutely intact the independence of each individual State.
+
+Under these circumstances, gentlemen, it seems to me that our course
+is already marked out for us. From our Conference is to be elicited
+the expression of a collective wish, a draft of a resolution, which is
+to be adopted by the majority of this assembly, and afterwards
+submitted to the approval of our respective Governments.
+
+This is our mission. It is a great one, and has a lofty international
+bearing. We must, however, realize its extent from the very outset,
+and not go beyond its limits.
+
+An appeal has been made to the decisions of the Conference held at
+Rome. But, gentlemen, I beg leave to remark that that Conference was
+composed entirely of specialists, and that it did not meet for the
+purpose of examining the question in an international point of view.
+This Conference is composed of various elements, among which are
+scientists of the highest standing, but also functionaries of high
+rank, who are not familiar with scientific subjects, and who are
+charged with an examination of this question from a political
+stand-point. It is, moreover, our privilege to be philosophers and
+cosmopolitans, and to contemplate the interests of mankind not only
+for the present, but for the most distant future.
+
+You see, gentlemen, that we enjoy absolute freedom, and that we are in
+nowise bound by the decisions of the Conference held at Rome. It is
+even desirable that those precedents should be appealed to as little
+as possible, inasmuch as we have scientists among us who are regarded
+as authorities in both the Old and the New World, and who are
+perfectly capable of directing us in technical matters, and of
+furnishing all the information that we can desire. I will say even
+more than this: The results of the Conference held at Rome are by no
+means regarded as possessing official authority by the Governments
+that have accredited us; for if those results had been taken as a
+starting point, there would be no occasion for our Conference, and our
+Governments would simply have to decide with regard to the acceptance
+or rejection of the resolutions adopted by the Geodetic Congress at
+Rome.
+
+Everything, however, is intact, even the scientific side of the
+question, and that is the reason why we have so many Delegates
+possessing technical knowledge among us.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he considered the resolution entirely in
+order, and likely to bring about a discussion upon the very point for
+which this Conference was called together; that the resolution was
+open to any amendment that might be offered, could be altered from
+time to time if necessary, and, if it did not meet the sense of the
+Conference, could be defeated.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, inquired whether this proposition
+did not demand an immediate solution.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, replied that no such
+thing was contemplated.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, then spoke as follows:
+
+GENTLEMEN: I formally request that the resolution just proposed by my
+eminent colleague and friend, Mr. Rutherford, be held in reserve, and
+that it may not now be pressed for discussion.
+
+It is wholly undesirable that a proposition of so grave a character,
+which forestalls one of the most important resolutions that we shall
+be called upon to adopt, should be put to the vote while our meeting
+has scarcely been organized, and before any discussion relative to the
+true merits of the questions to be considered has taken place.
+
+This would be inverting the proper order of things and reaching a
+conclusion before having examined the subject before us.
+
+Before discussing the question of the selection of a meridian which is
+to serve as a common zero of longitude for all the nations of the
+world, (if the Congress shall think proper to discuss that point,) it
+is evident that we must first decide the question of principle which
+is to govern all our proceedings; that is to say, whether it is
+desirable to fix upon a common zero of longitude for all nations. I
+therefore formally ask for the withdrawal of Mr. Rutherford's
+proposition.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that as something had been said about the
+Conference at Rome, he desired to say that he had carefully abstained
+from any allusion to it, and that the delegation of the United States
+found no allusions to it in their instructions; that, so far as the
+Chair understood the resolution offered by the Delegate of the United
+States, it was simply to bring before the Conference the consideration
+of the subject of a prime meridian; that he did not understand that
+even the Delegate who presented the motion offered it as an expression
+of his own opinion on the subject, but that he had carefully stated,
+when he had brought the resolution before the Conference, that it was
+for the purpose of enabling the Delegates to proceed to an immediate
+discussion. He added, further, that the resolution was quite open to
+amendment in case the Delegates from France desired to amend it.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, stated that he
+wished to offer the following as a substitute for the resolution
+already pending:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That it is the opinion of this Congress that it
+ is desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all
+ nations in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians
+ which now exist."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then announced that he
+accepted this substitution in place of the first resolution.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of England, stated that if he rightly
+understood the remarks made by the Delegate of France, Mr. LEFAIVRE,
+he thought that it was intended to call attention to the ultimate form
+in which the resolutions of this Congress should be recorded. He
+referred to the address which the Secretary of State of the United
+States (Mr. FRELINGHUYSEN) made to the Delegates on their assembling,
+in which he said: "You have met to discuss and consider the important
+question of a prime meridian for all nations. It will rest with you to
+give a definite result to the preparatory labors of other scientific
+associations and special congresses, and thus make those labors
+available."
+
+He added that the object at which they should aim was to put together
+a series of resolutions which could be presented to the various
+Governments whose representatives are here present, with a view to
+inducing them to accept the decision which may be arrived at by this
+Conference, and, finally, to put that decision in a diplomatic form--a
+form which shall be more definite and precise than the mere
+resolutions which would be adopted by a purely scientific body; this
+he understood to be the position to be adopted by the Delegates to
+this Conference. He then said that it seemed to him that it would be
+necessary, after settling the original shape of the resolutions, that
+they should be reconsidered and afterwards put together in an orderly
+way, in a manner which would give a regular and satisfactory record of
+the proceedings; that it appeared almost certain to him that the
+discussions would be desultory in their nature, but that ultimately a
+revision would be had after the rough-hewing of the blocks out of
+which the edifice was to be formed; that he had no wish, at the
+present stage of the discussion, to go into the merits of the question
+presented; that, for his part, he thought it more prudent to abstain,
+but that with reference to the remarks of his honorable friends from
+France, he could not agree that they should set aside what occurred at
+Rome; that the discussions at Rome were most valuable; they went
+thoroughly into the whole question, and he apprehended that every
+gentleman in the Conference was possessed of the records of what
+occurred there.
+
+He continued by saying that he thought that the Delegate from France,
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, went a little beyond what was strictly right in saying
+that we should shut our eyes to what occurred there; that, for his own
+part, he was obliged to pay attention to what occurred there; that
+some of the most eminent scientific men to be found in any country met
+there and fully discussed the questions now before us, and that the
+Delegates here present were now called upon to revise what occurred
+there.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, said that the Delegate
+from France, Mr. LEFAIVRE, in his remarks, insisted that we should
+first establish for what purpose the Delegates were here assembled;
+that he wished to refer to the circulars sent out by the Government of
+the United States, under which this Conference was called together. He
+said that he could assert, without fear of contradiction, that in
+those communications the President stated that it was believed to be a
+foregone conclusion that a prime meridian was desirable; that that was
+the basis on which the President acted in giving his invitation; that
+how he came to that conclusion he does not state--whether or not the
+proceedings at Rome had anything to do with it, but he thought that
+they had a great influence on the mind of the President; that,
+doubtless, his action was not determined solely by that, and,
+therefore, that the Secretary of State first made a tentative
+application to see whether a proposition for another Conference was
+acceptable, and that he found all countries here represented answering
+the circular in the affirmative; that they agreed with him that a
+conference for this purpose was desirable.
+
+He continued by saying that the Secretary of State then sent a second
+invitation to the different nations to send Delegates, who were to
+assemble here on the first of October, 1884, for the purpose of
+establishing a prime meridian and a universal time. He added that it
+seemed to him a great loss of time to go over the question whether a
+prime meridian was or was not desirable; that the Delegates were sent
+here for the purpose of agreeing upon a prime meridian. He then asked
+why this Conference should lose time in discussing that question.
+
+The resolution offered by the Delegate of the United States, Commander
+SAMPSON, was then unanimously adopted as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That it is the opinion of this Congress that it
+ is desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all
+ nations in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians
+ which now exist."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then renewed his
+original resolution, as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ represented the adoption as a standard meridian that of
+ Greenwich, passing through the centre of the transit
+ instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich."
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, stated that he wished to reiterate
+the objections that he had already offered to the first resolution,
+and spoke as follows:
+
+GENTLEMEN: Mr. Lefaivre, my honorable colleague, and I are of the
+opinion that the mission of this Congress is chiefly to examine
+questions of principle.
+
+I consider that we shall do a very important thing if we proclaim the
+principle of the adoption of a meridian which shall be the same for
+all nations.
+
+The advantages of such a meridian have been felt by the geographers
+and navigators of all ages. France might claim the honor of having
+sought to accomplish this reform as early as the seventeenth century.
+It is not to be expected, therefore, that France, at this late day,
+will seek to place any obstacles in the way of the adoption of an
+improvement which would by this time have been adopted if the use of
+the meridian which she proposed, and which she had caused to be
+generally accepted, had been continued.
+
+We therefore fully agree with you, gentlemen, as to the principle of a
+common international meridian, impartially defined and wisely applied,
+and we think that if the Congress should cause a useful reform, which
+has been so long expected, to be finally adopted, it would render a
+great service to the world, and one that would do us the highest
+honor.
+
+This point being gained, is it proper for us to proceed to the
+adoption of such a meridian? We think not, unless we are assured by a
+previous declaration as to the principle which is to govern the
+selection of that meridian. Without such a declaration, we should have
+no power to begin a discussion on an undefined subject, and we are not
+authorized to pledge ourselves.
+
+I must even add that our acquiescence in the principle of an
+international meridian could not be maintained if the Congress
+proceeded to a choice at variance with the exclusively scientific
+principles which we are instructed to maintain. Thus, in the very
+interest of the great principle which we all desire to see adopted, it
+would, to my way of thinking, be wiser to confine ourselves to a
+general declaration which, by uniting the opinions of all, would
+sustain the principle with all the authority possible. The principle
+having once been adopted, our Governments would subsequently convoke a
+conference of a more technical character than this, at which questions
+of application would be more thoroughly examined.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, stated that it seemed to him the order
+of proceeding for this Conference was very well laid down in the
+invitations addressed by the President of the United States to the
+different countries and in the articles which were formulated at Rome;
+that if these were taken up one after the other and discussed there
+would be a clearly-defined line of action for the Delegates; that if
+an article was not satisfactory it could be altered or amended, or
+could be rejected; but if the propositions were taken up one at a time
+and the discussions directed to these propositions, the Conference
+would be more likely to reach a definite result than in any general
+discussion.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that, so far as he understood the proposition,
+there was no desire to press it to an immediate vote; that it was
+quite proper for the Delegate from France to offer any other
+proposition, as suggested by the Delegate of Spain, in lieu of the
+motion now pending; that so far as the Chair was concerned it seemed
+to him that the Conference could at once proceed to the discussion of
+the general subject of a prime meridian under the pending resolution;
+that if the Delegate from France desires to make any other
+proposition, or offer anything else in a distinct form, he will be
+listened to with great attention and with profound respect.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, remarked that the
+Delegate from France, his learned friend, Mr. JANSSEN, had expressed
+the opinion that the Delegates had not the power to decide upon any
+particular meridian, but that they were sent here merely to discuss
+this principle, namely, whether a general meridian was desirable. He
+added that he was, of course, not in possession of the instructions
+which the Delegates from France received from their own Government,
+but that he found among the instructions received by the Delegates of
+the United States from their Government a copy of one of the
+communications made by the President of the United States to France,
+as well as to the other nations, through the Secretary of State, in
+which was this language:
+
+ "I am accordingly directed by the President to request you
+ to bring the matter to the attention of the Government of
+ ----, through the Minister for Foreign Affairs, with a view
+ to learning, whether its appreciation of the benefits to
+ accrue to the intimate intercourse of civilized peoples from
+ the consideration and adoption of the suggested common
+ standard of time, so far coincides with that of this
+ Government as to lead it to accept an invitation to
+ participate in an International Conference at a date to be
+ designated in the near future."
+
+The Delegate of the United States continued by saying that the whole
+object of this Conference was not to establish the principle that it
+is desirable to have a prime meridian, but to fix that prime meridian;
+that that was the object of the meeting, and that it seemed to him
+that there must be some misapprehension on the part of the learned
+gentleman from France in thinking that this Conference has not the
+power to fix upon a prime meridian; that as to our organization, the
+Delegate of France (Mr. Lefaivre) spoke of its not being sufficiently
+complete to take up this subject at present, but that it seemed to him
+that the Delegates undoubtedly were ready to hear and express
+arguments _pro_ and _con_ in regard to that question; that he supposed
+that every Delegate had studied this matter before coming here, and
+that he did not think that any Delegate would be likely to come here
+unless he knew, or thought he knew, some thing about this matter.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate from Spain, announced that he had no power to
+pledge his country on this subject; that his authority merely extended
+to the power of recommending to his Government such resolutions as
+this Conference might adopt.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, then said: "I desire to state in
+the protocol that I have no power to engage my Government by my votes
+on the different questions which will be submitted to this Conference,
+and that, therefore, these votes must only be considered as an
+engagement on my part to recommend to my Government the decisions for
+which I vote."
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain, said that in the name of
+the Delegates of Great Britain he wished to state that they were in
+the same position, but that would not prevent them or this Conference
+from forming an opinion and expressing it.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that on behalf of the Delegates from the United
+States they had no power except that of discussion and recommendation.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE made, on behalf of the Delegates of Russia, a
+declaration identical with that made by the Delegate of Sweden.
+
+Baron VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate from Germany, made the same
+announcement on behalf of his Government.
+
+Mr. FERNANDEZ, Delegate from Mexico, made the same announcement.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain, remarked that this Conference was
+called together not merely to discuss the subject of a prime meridian,
+but to determine, so far as these Delegates were concerned, the
+propriety of adopting a particular prime meridian, and that his
+Government would decide afterwards whether it would accept what this
+Conference should recommend.
+
+Dr. CRULS, Delegate of Brazil, stated that his Government authorized
+him to take part in the discussion, but not to commit his Government
+to the adoption of any particular proposition.
+
+Mr. FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain, said that he would like to
+call the attention of the Conference to the language of the act of
+Congress calling this Conference together, and that language runs as
+follows:
+
+ "That the President of the United States be authorized and
+ requested to extend to the Governments of all nations in
+ diplomatic relations with our own an invitation to appoint
+ delegates to meet delegates from the United States in the
+ city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+ designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper
+ to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of
+ time-reckoning throughout the globe."
+
+He added that he thought the object of the Conference clearly was to
+determine and to recommend; that although the word "recommend" was not
+used in the body of the resolution, it was certainly understood, and,
+as a matter of fact, the title of the joint resolution passed by
+Congress contains the word "recommend." It reads as follows:
+
+ "An act to authorize the President of the United States to
+ call an international conference to fix on and recommend for
+ universal adoption a common prime meridian, to be used in
+ the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation of time
+ throughout the world."
+
+Baron von Schaeffer, Delegate of Austria-Hungary, then moved that the
+Conference adjourn until Monday, the 6th instant, at one o'clock, to
+enable Delegates to confer on this subject.
+
+The proposition of the Delegate of Austria-Hungary was then agreed to,
+and the Conference adjourned to Monday, October 6, 1884, at 1 o'clock,
+p. m.
+
+
+
+
+III.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 6, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austro-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHAEFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Capt. Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROOK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ARGUIANO.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Mr.
+ JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, said that the
+resolution offered by him at the last meeting omitted to state that
+the proposed meridian was for longitude, and he would offer the
+following as a substitute therefor:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ here represented the adoption of the meridian passing
+ through the centre of the transit instrument at the
+ Observatory of Greenwich as the standard meridian for
+ longitude."
+
+The PRESIDENT then asked if the Conference would permit the
+substitution to be made, and it was unanimously agreed to.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, stated that he did not
+propose to press the resolution to an early vote, but that it was
+offered simply to elicit the opinions of Delegates on the subject. He
+further stated that, having heard that the Delegates of France, Mr.
+LEFAIVRE and Mr. JANSSEN, desired to present certain propositions, he
+would, for that purpose, move to withdraw for the time being the
+resolution offered by him.
+
+No objection being made, the resolution was temporarily withdrawn.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, then made the following statement:
+
+Our colleague, Mr. RUTHERFURD, having withdrawn his motion for the
+adoption of the meridian of Greenwich, we, the Delegates of France,
+after consultation with him, submit the following motion:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the initial meridian should have a
+ character of absolute neutrality. It should be chosen
+ exclusively so as to secure to science and to international
+ commerce all possible advantages, and in particular
+ especially should cut no great continent--neither Europe nor
+ America."
+
+Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain, then stated that he
+presumed the Conference could hardly pass by the important meeting
+held at Rome, where twelve of the thirty-eight Delegates were
+directors of national observatories, and where the subject of the
+conditions which should attach to a prime meridian were discussed
+without reference to any particular nationality; that these learned
+gentlemen came to the conclusion (which he thought was a very wise
+one) that the necessity existed for a prime meridian that it should
+pass through an astronomical observatory of the first order; that
+modern science demanded such precision, and therefore they excluded
+all ideas of a meridian being established on an island, in a strait,
+on the summit of a mountain, or as indicated by a monumental building.
+Looking at the subject in its various aspects, they came to the
+conclusion that there were only four great observatories which in
+their minds combined all the conditions, and this decision was
+unanimously received by that Conference. Those great observatories
+were Paris, Berlin, Greenwich, and Washington. He stated further that,
+having this in view, he thought this Conference should be particularly
+guarded, looking at the question from a scientific point of view, not
+to depart from the conditions laid down by the Conference at Rome;
+that he had no desire to advocate any one of the places enumerated,
+but merely mentioned them as satisfying all the conditions of science,
+which was so brilliantly represented at Rome.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, then said:
+
+I can only attempt to anticipate the arguments which may be advanced
+by the learned Delegate from France in support of his resolution to
+adopt a neutral meridian. But it is our simple duty, in our present
+judicial capacity, to examine the question of a prime meridian from
+all points of view. With the object, then, of considering the question
+from another stand-point, I ask your attention for one moment. This
+Congress, at its last meeting, by a unanimous vote, declared its
+opinion that it was desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for the
+purpose of reckoning longitude. Further, it is fair to assume that the
+delegates here assembled, in answer to a specific invitation from the
+Government of the United States, and for a stated purpose, have come
+empowered by their respective governments to act upon the questions
+submitted for their consideration in the invitation.
+
+At the last meeting, the Delegates from France left us somewhat in
+doubt regarding their views upon this important question of the powers
+of the delegates, or at least of their own delegation. But as they
+have to-day advocated the adoption of a neutral meridian, we may
+conclude that they have the necessary delegated power to fully
+consider and determine the main question before us--the selection of a
+prime meridian.
+
+In the absence of any declared opinion to the contrary, we may take it
+for granted that the Delegates from all States here represented are
+deputed to "fix upon a meridian proper to be employed as a common zero
+of longitude throughout the globe," and to recommend the same for
+adoption to their respective Governments.
+
+If, then, we are of one mind as to the desirability of a single prime
+meridian, and if we are fully empowered to make the selection, which
+may be taken as another way of saying that we are directed by our
+respective Governments to make the selection, we may proceed directly
+to the performance of this duty.
+
+In the choice of a prime meridian, there is no physical feature of our
+earth which commends itself above others as the best starting point;
+nor does the form of the earth itself present any peculiarity which
+might be used as an initial point. If the refinements of geodesy
+should finally lead to the conclusion that the figure of the earth is
+an ellipsoid with three axes, yet the question of the direction of
+either of the equatorial axes must remain to such a degree uncertain
+that the extremity of the axis could not be assumed as the point of
+departure for counting longitude. Indeed, as an initial meridian must
+above all things be fixed in position, it would not answer to make its
+position depend upon any physical constant which is itself in the
+slightest degree uncertain; for in these days, when refinements in
+physical measurements are constantly leading to more and more accurate
+results, each advance in accuracy would necessitate an annoying change
+in the initial meridian, or, what would more probably result, the
+retention of the first chosen meridian, which would thus lose its
+dependence upon the original definition, and become as arbitrary as
+if taken by chance in the first instance.
+
+We may then say that, from a purely scientific point of view, any
+meridian may be taken as the prime meridian. But from the standpoint
+of convenience and economy there is undoubtedly much room for a
+choice.
+
+Considering this question of convenience in connection with the
+necessary condition of fixity already referred to, the prime meridian
+should pass through some well-established national observatory.
+
+In making the choice of a prime meridian which is to serve for a great
+period of time, it is important to so fix and define it that the
+natural changes of time may not render it in the least degree
+uncertain. To this end, the nation within whose borders the chosen
+point may fall should engage to establish it in the most enduring
+manner, and protect it against all possible causes of change or
+destruction.
+
+When taken in connection with other requirements, to be mentioned
+hereafter, this character of permanence will be best secured by making
+the adopted meridian pass through an observatory which is under the
+control of the Government.
+
+Such observatory should be in telegraphic communication with the whole
+world, in order that the differences of longitude from the prime
+meridian may be determined for any point. These conditions of
+convenience are so important that they may fairly be considered
+imperative. To fulfil them one of the national meridians now in use
+should be selected. To select any other than one of these meridians,
+or a meridian directly dependent upon one of them, and defined simply
+by its angular distance from one of these national meridians, would be
+to introduce endless confusion into all charts and maps now in use.
+
+To select as a prime meridian one which shall be a defined angular
+distance from one of the national meridians, must have for its object
+either to remove some inconvenience which results from the use of the
+national meridian itself, or it must be to satisfy a desire to deprive
+the selected meridian of any nationality.
+
+The inconvenience of east and west longitudes, which results from
+having the prime meridian pass through a thickly populated portion of
+the world, will be removed by reckoning the longitude continuously
+from O deg. to 360 deg.. At the same time an important advantage is secured by
+having the prime meridian occupy a central position with regard to the
+most densely populated part of the earth; because the distances which
+will then separate the various points from the central observatory
+marking the initial meridian will be a minimum, and consequently less
+liable to error in determination. The selection of a meridian by
+calculation, defined as a certain number of degrees east or west of
+one of the national meridians, would not thereby deprive the meridian
+thus selected of a national character; for though we may reckon
+longitude from a meridian passing through the Atlantic or Pacific
+Ocean, yet the initial point from which all measurements of longitude
+must be made would still remain one of the national meridians. Again,
+if any other than one of the national meridians were selected, or a
+meridian dependent upon one of them, as, for example, a neutral
+meridian in the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, it would necessitate a
+change in all charts and maps.
+
+It is hardly necessary to say that no scientific or practical
+advantage is to be secured by adopting the meridian of the great
+pyramid, or by attempting to establish permanent meridian marks over a
+great length of the selected meridian, for even in the present
+advanced condition of astronomical and geodetic science it is not
+practicable to establish two points on the same meridian at a
+considerable distance from each other with such a degree of accuracy
+as would warrant the use of them indifferently as the initial point.
+
+As a matter of economy as well as convenience that meridian should be
+selected which is now in most general use. This additional
+consideration of economy would limit our choice to the meridian of
+Greenwich, for it may fairly be stated upon the authority of the
+distinguished Delegate from Canada that more than 70 per cent. of all
+the shipping of the world uses this meridian for purposes of
+navigation.
+
+The charts constructed upon this meridian cover the whole navigable
+globe. The cost of the plates from which these charts are printed is
+probably 75 per cent. of the cost of all plates in the world for
+printing mariners' charts, and is probably not less than ten millions
+of dollars. As a matter of economy, then, to the world at large, it
+would be better to permit those plates to remain unchanged which are
+engraved for the meridian of Greenwich and to make the necessary
+changes in all plates engraved for other meridians.
+
+A very natural pride has led the great nations to establish by law
+their own prime meridian within their own borders, and into this error
+the United States was led about 35 years ago.
+
+Should any of us now hesitate in the adoption of a particular
+meridian, or should any nation covet the honor of having the selected
+meridian within its own borders, it is to be remembered that when the
+prime meridian is once adopted by all it loses its specific name and
+nationality, and becomes simply the Prime Meridian.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, stated that he did not
+propose to take up much of the time of the Conference; that he had
+listened with great pleasure to the exhaustive speech of his
+colleague, Commander SAMPSON, but that he wished to say a few words
+about the conditions of permanence in the prime meridian to which
+allusion had just been made. He said that he would call attention to
+the fact that the observatory at Paris stands within the heart of a
+large and populous city; that it has already been thought by many of
+the principal French astronomers that it should no longer remain
+there; that it has been, interfered with by the tremors of the earth
+and emanations in the air, which prevent it from fulfilling its
+usefulness; that for several years past strenuous efforts have been
+made to remove the observatory from Paris to some other place where it
+may be free to follow out its course of usefulness, and that the only
+thing which keeps it there is the remembrance of the honorable career
+of that observatory in times past. He added that he was sure that
+there was no one here who failed to recognize its claims to
+distinction; that there was no one here acquainted with the past
+history of astronomy but looks with pride upon the achievements of the
+human intellect effected there. At the same time, however, if a
+change is to be made, if sentiment should give way to practical
+reason, a locality, no doubt, will be found which may be calculated to
+fulfil the requirements of a prime meridian better than that one.
+
+As to the fitness of Greenwich, he said that the observatory was
+placed in the middle of a large park under the control of the
+Government, so that no nuisance can come near it without their
+consent, and that it was in a position which speaks for itself; that
+he would only add one word more in regard to this matter, and that is,
+that the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian
+has not been sought after by Great Britain; that it was not her
+proposition, but that she consented to it after it had been proposed
+by other portions of the civilized world.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said: We do not put forward the
+meridian of the observatory of Paris as that to be chosen for the
+prime meridian; but if it were chosen, and we wished to compare it
+with that of Greenwich as to the accuracy with which it is actually
+connected with the other observatories of Europe, it would not lose by
+the comparison. The latest observations of the differences of
+longitude made by electricity by the Bureau of Longitudes of France
+and our officers have given very remarkable results of great accuracy.
+It is well known that what is important for a starting point in
+reckoning longitude is, above all things, that it should be accurately
+connected with points whose positions have been precisely fixed, such
+as the great observatories. There is, therefore, a slight confusion on
+the part of my eminent colleague, namely, that of not distinguishing
+between the conditions which require the exact connection of the
+starting point of longitudes with observatories, and the merits of the
+position of such a point in an astronomical aspect, which is here a
+matter of secondary importance.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France, said that he did not not know if his
+observation was well founded, but it seemed to him that what the
+Delegates of France had proposed had not been contested, but that the
+arguments used had rather been those in favor of the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, said that the
+observations which he had made were merely to be regarded as a
+negative of the proposition made by the Delegates of France, and not
+as a statement of the arguments in favor of the adoption of Greenwich.
+
+The PRESIDENT said that the remarks of the Delegate of the United
+States were not out of order, inasmuch as they were intended to combat
+the proposition brought forward by the Delegate of France.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, then spoke as follows:
+
+GENTLEMEN: At the last session, when a proposition was made by my
+eminent colleague and friend, Mr. RUTHERFURD, to discuss and vote upon
+the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich as the common prime
+meridian, I thought it necessary to say that the proposal appeared to
+me prematurely made, and that we could not agree to the discussion
+proceeding in that manner. Mr. RUTHERFURD has informed me that he
+would withdraw his proposition for the present, in order to permit me
+to direct the discussion, in the first place, to the principle which
+should direct the choice of a common prime meridian. I here take the
+opportunity of thanking Mr. RUTHERFURD for his courtesy, and I no
+longer object to proceeding with the debate.
+
+What we ask is, that after the general declaration of the second
+session as to the utility of a common prime meridian, the Congress
+should discuss the question of the principle which should guide the
+choice of that meridian.
+
+Being charged to maintain before you, gentlemen, the principle of the
+neutrality of the prime meridian, it is evident that if that principle
+was rejected by the Congress it would be useless for us to take part
+in the further discussion of the choice of the meridian to be adopted
+as the point of departure in reckoning longitude.
+
+We think, gentlemen, that if this question of the unification of
+longitude is again taken up after so many unsuccessful attempts to
+settle it as are recorded in history, there will be no chance of its
+final solution unless it be treated upon an exclusively geographical
+basis, and that at any cost all national competition should be set
+aside. We do not advocate any particular meridian. We put ourselves
+completely aside in the debate, and thus place ourselves in a position
+of far greater freedom for expressing our opinion, and discussing the
+question exclusively in view of the interests affected by the proposed
+reform.
+
+The history of geography shows us a great number of attempts to
+establish a uniformity of longitude, and when we look for the reasons
+which have caused those attempts (many of which were very happily
+conceived) to fail, we are struck with the fact that it appears due to
+two principal causes--one of a scientific and the other of a moral
+nature. The scientific cause was the incapacity of the ancients to
+determine exactly the relative positions of different points on the
+globe, especially if it was a question of an island far from a
+continent, and which consequently could not be connected with that
+continent by itinerary measurements. For example, the first meridian
+of Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy, placed on the Fortunate Isles, in
+spite of its being so well chosen at the western extremity of the then
+known world, could not continue to be used on account of the
+uncertainty of the point of departure. That much to be regretted
+obstacle caused the method to be changed. It became necessary to fall
+back on the continent. But then, in place of a single common origin of
+longitude indicated by nature, the first meridians were fixed at
+capitals of countries, at remarkable places, at observatories. The
+second cause to which I just now alluded, the cause of a moral
+nature--national pride--has led to the multiplication of geographical
+starting-points where the nature of things would have required, on the
+contrary, their reduction to a single one.
+
+In the seventeenth century, Cardinal Richelieu, in view of this
+confusion, desired to take up again the conception of Marinus of Tyre,
+and assembled at Paris French and foreign men of science, and the
+famous meridian of the Island of Ferro was the result of their
+discussions.
+
+Here, gentlemen, we find a lesson which should not be lost sight of.
+This meridian of Ferro, which at first had the purely geographical and
+neutral character which could alone establish and maintain it as an
+international first meridian, was deprived of its original
+characteristic by the geographer Delisle, who, to simplify the
+figures, placed it at 20 degrees in round numbers west of Paris. This
+unfortunate simplification abandoned entirely the principle of
+impersonality. It was no longer then an independent meridian; it was
+the meridian of Paris disguised. The consequences were soon felt. The
+meridian of Ferro, which has subsequently been considered as a purely
+French meridian, aroused national susceptibilities, and thus lost the
+future which was certainly in store for it if it had remained as at
+first defined. This was a real misfortune for geography. Our maps,
+while being perfected, would have preserved a common unit of origin,
+which, on the contrary, has altered more and more.
+
+If, as soon as astronomical methods had been far enough advanced to
+permit the establishment of relative positions with that moderate
+accuracy which is sufficient for ordinary geography, (and that could
+have been done at the end of the 17th century,) we had again taken up
+the just and geographical conception of Marinus of Tyre, the reform
+would have been accomplished two centuries sooner, and to-day we
+should have been in the full enjoyment of it. But the fault was
+committed of losing sight of the essential principles of the question,
+and the establishment of numerous observatories greatly contributed to
+this. Furnishing naturally very accurate relative positions, each one
+of these establishments was chosen by the nation to which it belonged
+as a point of departure for longitude, so that the intervention of
+astronomy in these questions of a geographical nature, an intervention
+which, if properly understood, should have been so useful, led us
+further away from the object to be attained.
+
+In fact, gentlemen, the study of these questions tends to show that
+there is an essential distinction between meridians of a geographical
+or hydrographical nature and meridians of observatories. The meridians
+of observatories should be considered essentially national. Their
+function is to permit observatories to connect themselves one with
+another for the unification of the observations made at them. They
+serve also as bases for geodetic and topographical operations carried
+on around them. But their function is of a very special kind, and
+should be generally limited to the country to which they belong.
+
+On the contrary, initial meridians for geography need not be fixed
+with quite such a high degree of accuracy as is required by astronomy;
+but, in compensation, their operation must be far reaching, and while
+it is useful to increase as much as possible the number of meridians
+of observatories, it is necessary to reduce as much as we can the
+starting points for longitudes in geography.
+
+Further, it may be said that as the position of an observatory should
+be chosen with reference to astronomical considerations, so an initial
+meridian in geography should only be fixed for geographical reasons.
+
+Gentlemen, have these two very different functions been always well
+understood, and has this necessary distinction been preserved? In no
+wise. As observatories, on account of the great accuracy of their
+operations, furnish admirable points of reference, each nation which
+was in a condition to do it connected with its principal observatory
+not only the geodetic or topographical work which was done at home--a
+very natural thing--but also general geographical or hydrographical
+work which was executed abroad, a practice which contained the germ of
+all the difficulties with which we are troubled to-day. Thus, as maps
+accumulated, the need of uniformity, especially in those that referred
+to general geography, was felt more and more.
+
+This explains why this question of a single meridian as a starting
+point has been so often raised of late.
+
+Among the assemblies which have occupied themselves with this
+question, the one which principally calls for our attention is that
+which was held at Rome last year; indeed, for many of our colleagues
+the conclusions adopted by the Congress of Rome settle the whole
+matter. These conclusions must, therefore, receive our special
+attention.
+
+In reading the reports of the discussions of that Congress, I was
+struck with the fact that in an assembly of so many learned men and
+eminent theorists it was the practical side of the question that was
+chiefly considered, and which finally determined the character of the
+resolutions adopted.
+
+Thus, instead of laying down the great principle that the meridian to
+be offered to the world as the starting-point for all terrestrial
+longitudes should, have above all things, an essentially geographical
+and impersonal character, the question was simply asked, which one of
+the meridians in use among the different observatories has (if I may
+be allowed to use the expression) the largest number of clients? In a
+matter which interests geography much more than hydrography, as most
+sailors acknowledge, because there exist really but two initial
+hydrographic meridians, Greenwich and Paris, a prime meridian has been
+taken, the reign (practical influence) of which is principally over
+the sea; and this meridian, instead of being chosen with reference to
+the configuration of the continents, is borrowed from an observatory;
+that is to say, that it is placed on the globe in a hap-hazard manner,
+and is very inconveniently situated for the function that it is to
+perform. Finally, instead of profiting by the lessons of the past,
+national rivalries are introduced in a question that should rally the
+good-will of all.
+
+Well, gentlemen, I say that considerations of economy and of
+established custom should not make us lose sight of the principles
+which must be paramount in this question, and which alone can lead to
+the universal acceptance and permanence of its settlement.
+Furthermore, gentlemen, these motives of economy and of established
+custom, which have been appealed to as a decisive argument, exist, it
+is true, for the majority in behalf of which they have been put
+forward, but exist for them only, and leave to us the whole burden of
+change in customs, publications, and material.
+
+Since the report considers us of so little weight in the scales, allow
+me, gentlemen, to recall briefly the past and the present of our
+hydrography, and for that purpose I can do no better than to quote
+from a work that has been communicated to me, and which emanates from
+one of our most learned hydrographers. "France," he says, "created
+more than two centuries ago the most ancient nautical ephemerides in
+existence. She was the first to conceive and execute the great
+geodetic operations which had for their object the construction of
+civil and military maps and the measurement of arcs of the meridian in
+Europe, America, and Africa. All these operations were and are based
+on the Paris meridian. Nearly all the astronomical tables used at the
+present time by the astronomers and the navies of the whole world are
+French, and calculated for the Paris meridian. As to what most
+particularly concerns shipping, the accurate methods now used by all
+nations for hydrographic surveys are of French origin, and our charts,
+all reckoned from the meridian of Paris, bear such names as those of
+Bougainville, La Perouse, Fleurieu, Borda, d'Entrecasteaux, Beautemps,
+Beaupre, Duperrey, Dumont d'Urville, Daussy, to quote only a few among
+those who are not living.
+
+"Our actual hydrographic collections amount to more than 4,000 charts.
+By striking off those which the progress of explorations have rendered
+useless, there still remain about 2,600 charts in use. Of this number
+more than half represent original French surveys, a large part of
+which foreign nations have reproduced. Amongst the remainder, the
+general charts are the result of discussions undertaken in the Bureau
+of the Marine, by utilizing all known documents, French as well as
+foreign, and there are relatively few which are mere translations of
+foreign works. Our surveys are not confined to the coasts of France
+and of its colonies; there is scarcely a region of the globe for which
+we do not possess original work--Newfoundland, the coasts of Guiana,
+of Brazil, and of La Plata, Madagascar, numerous points of Japan and
+of China, 187 original charts relative to the Pacific. We must not
+omit the excellent work of our hydrographic engineers on the west
+coast of Italy, which was honored by the international jury with the
+great medal of honor at the Universal Exhibition of 1867. The
+exclusive use of the Paris meridian by our sailors is justified by
+reference to a past of two centuries, which we have thus briefly
+recalled.
+
+"If another initial meridian had to be adopted, it would be necessary
+to change the graduation of our 2,600 hydrographic plates; it would be
+necessary to do the same thing for our nautical instructions, (sailing
+directions,) which exceed 600 in number. The change would also
+necessarily involve a corresponding change in the _Connaissance des
+Temps_."
+
+These are titles to consideration of some importance. Well, if under
+these circumstances the projected reform, instead of being directed by
+the higher principles which ought to govern the subject, should take
+solely for its base the respect due to the established customs of the
+largest number and the absence on their part of all sacrifice,
+reserving to us alone the burden of the change and the abandonment of
+a valued and glorious past, are we not justified in saying that a
+proposition thus made would not be acceptable?
+
+When France, at the end of the last century, instituted the metre, did
+she proceed thus? Did she, as a measure of economy and in order to
+change nothing in her customs, propose to the world the "Pied de Roi"
+as a unit of measure? You know the facts. The truth is, everything
+with us was overthrown--both the established methods and instruments
+for measurement; and the measure adopted being proportioned only to
+the dimensions of the earth, is so entirely detached from everything
+French that in future centuries the traveller who may search the ruins
+of our cities may inquire what people invented the metrical measure
+that chance may bring under his eyes.
+
+Permit me to say that it is thus a reform should be made and becomes
+acceptable. It is by setting the example of self-sacrifice; it is by
+complete self-effacement in any undertaking, that opposition is
+disarmed and true love of progress is proved.
+
+I now hasten to say that I am persuaded that the proposition voted for
+at Rome was neither made nor suggested by England, but I doubt whether
+it would render a true service to the English nation if it be agreed
+to. An immense majority of the navies of the world navigate with
+English charts; that is true, and it is a practical compliment to the
+great maritime activity of that nation. When this freely admitted
+supremacy shall be transformed into an official and compulsory
+supremacy, it will suffer the vicissitudes of all human power, and
+that institution, (the common meridian,) which by its nature is of a
+purely scientific nature, and to which we would assure a long and
+certain future, will become the object of burning competition and
+jealousy among nations.
+
+All this shows, gentlemen, how much wiser it would be to take for the
+origin of terrestrial longitude a point chosen from geographical
+considerations only. Upon the globe, nature has so sharply separated
+the continent on which the great American nation has arisen, that
+there are only two solutions possible from a geographical point of
+view, both of them very natural.
+
+The first solution would consist in returning, with some small
+modification, to the solution of the ancients, by placing our meridian
+near the Azores; the second by throwing it back to that immense
+expanse of water which separates America from Asia, where on its
+northern shores the New World abuts on the old.
+
+These two solutions may be discussed; this has been often done, and
+again quite recently, by one of our ablest geologists, M. de
+Chancourtois.
+
+Each of these meridians combine the fundamental conditions which
+geography demands and upon which there has always been an agreement
+when national meridians are set aside from the discussion. As to the
+determination of the position of the point which may be adopted, the
+present excellent astronomical methods will give it with a degree of
+exactness as great as that which geography requires.
+
+But what is the necessity for a special and costly determination of
+the longitude of a point which can be fixed arbitrarily, provided this
+be done within certain limits, as for instance by satisfying the
+conditions of passing through a strait or an island. We may be content
+with fixing the position of the point adopted in an approximate
+manner. The position thus obtained would be connected with certain of
+the great observatories selected for the purpose from their being
+accurately connected one with another, and the relative positions thus
+ascertained would supply the definition of the first meridian. As to
+any material mark on the globe, if one be desired, though it is in no
+manner necessary, it would be established in conformity with this
+definition, and its position should be changed until it exactly
+complied with it.
+
+As to the question of the changes to be introduced in existing maps
+and charts which, by our proposition, would be imposed upon everybody,
+they could be very much reduced, especially if it were agreed--which
+would be sufficient at first--to draw upon existing charts only a
+subsidiary additional scale of graduation which would permit immediate
+use of the international meridian. Later, and as new charts were
+engraved, a more complete scale of graduation would be given; but I
+think that it would always be desirable to preserve in the manner now
+done in many atlases both systems of reckoning longitude--the national
+and international. If it be necessary at the present time to
+facilitate the external relations of all nations, it is also well to
+preserve among them all manifestations of personal life, and to
+respect the symbols which represent their traditions and past history.
+
+Gentlemen, I do not propose to dwell upon the details of the
+establishment of such a meridian. We have only to advocate before you
+the principle of its acceptance.
+
+If this principle be admitted by the Congress, we are instructed to
+say that you will find in it a ground for agreement with France.
+
+Without doubt, on account of our long and glorious past, of our great
+publications, of our important hydrographic works, a change of
+meridian would cause us heavy sacrifices. Nevertheless, if we are
+approached with offers of self-sacrifice, and thus receive proofs of a
+sincere desire for the general good, France has given sufficient
+proofs of her love of progress to make her co-operation certain.
+
+But we shall have to regret that we are not able to join a combination
+which to protect the interests of one portion of the contracting
+parties would sacrifice the more weighty scientific character of the
+meridian to be adopted, a character which in our eyes is indispensable
+to justify its imposition upon all, and to assure it permanent
+success.
+
+Prof. J. C. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that if he were
+allowed to offer a few observations upon the eloquent address made by
+his colleague, the representative of France, Mr. JANSSEN, he would
+remark that, so far as he could follow that discourse, it seemed to
+him to turn almost entirely on sentimental considerations; that it
+appeared to him that the Delegate of France had overlooked one great
+point which was correctly laid down by the President in his opening
+address, viz., that one of the main objects to be kept in view in the
+deliberations of this Conference would be, how best to secure the
+aggregate convenience of the world at large--how we should choose a
+prime meridian which would cause the least inconvenience by the change
+that would take place. Of course, any change would necessarily be
+accompanied by a certain amount of inconvenience, but our object, as
+he understood it, was to take care that that inconvenience should be
+as small in its aggregate amount as possible.
+
+He stated that if that were taken as the ground of consideration by
+this Conference, it appeared to him that the question was narrowed to
+one of fact rather than to be one of sentiment, which latter would
+admit of no solution whatever; for it was quite clear that if all the
+Delegates here present were guided by merely sentimental
+considerations, or by considerations of _amour propre_, the Conference
+would never arrive at any conclusion, because each nation would put
+its own interests on a level with those of every other.
+
+He added that if the Conference should be able to agree in the opinion
+that the adoption of one meridian (for his part he did not undertake
+to say what meridian) would be accompanied by a greater amount of
+convenience in the aggregate than the adoption of any other, he
+thought that this should be the predominant consideration in guiding
+the decision of this Conference, on the question referred to them, and
+it appeared to him that this is a consideration which the Delegate of
+France has not put before this Conference, at least not in a prominent
+way. It is clear that the inconvenience caused to any one nation by
+the adoption of a new neutral meridian would not be lessened by the
+fact that all other nations would suffer the same inconvenience.
+
+With respect to the question of a neutral meridian, Professor ADAMS
+wished to call the attention of the Congress to the fact that the
+Delegates here present are not a collection of representatives of
+belligerents; that they are all neutral as men should be in a matter
+purely scientific, or in any other matter which affects the
+convenience of the world at large, and that this Conference is not met
+here at the end of a war to see how territory should be divided, but
+in a friendly way, representing friendly nations.
+
+He stated that he hoped the Delegates would be guided in their
+decision by the main consideration, which was, What will tend to the
+greatest practical convenience of the world? That he need not address
+a word to the other part of the argument which he thought at first of
+commenting upon a little, for the Delegate of the United States,
+Commander SAMPSON, who spoke first, had put his views so clearly
+before the Conference that he (Professor ADAMS) would not detain it
+longer.
+
+He would add, however, that if the Conference is to take a neutral
+meridian they must either erect an observatory on the point selected,
+which might be very inconvenient if they should choose such a point as
+is alluded to by the Delegate of France, or if some such place was not
+selected, we should merely have a zero of longitude by a legal
+fiction, and that would not be a real zero at all; that they would
+have to select their zero with reference to a known observatory, and
+that, for instance, supposing they took a point for zero twenty
+degrees west of Paris, of course that would be really adopting Paris
+as the prime meridian; that it would not be so nominally, but in
+reality it would be, and he thought that we now-a-days should get rid
+of legal fictions as much as possible, and call things by their right
+names.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said:
+
+My eminent colleague, whose presence is an honor to this Congress,
+Professor ADAMS, thinks that I overlook too much the practical side of
+the question; namely, how a prime meridian can be established so as to
+cause the least inconvenience. He says that I pay too much attention
+to what he calls a question of sentiment, and he concludes by
+expressing the hope that all nations will lay aside their national
+pride and only be guided by this consideration: What meridian offers
+the greatest practical advantages? My reply is that I intend no more
+than Professor ADAMS to place the question upon the ground of national
+pride; but it is one thing to speak in the name of national pride and
+another to foresee that this sentiment common to all men, may show
+itself, and that we should avoid conclusions likely to arouse it, or
+we may compromise our success. That is all our argument; and the
+history of the great nation to which Professor ADAMS belongs furnishes
+us with examples of considerable significance, for the French meridian
+of Ferro was never adopted by the English, notwithstanding its happy
+geographical situation, and we all still awaiting the honor of seeing
+the adoption of the metrical system for common use in England.
+
+But let us put aside these questions which I would not have been the
+first to touch upon, and place ourselves upon the true ground of the
+importance of the proposed reform, which is the only one worthy of
+ourselves or of this discussion. We do not refuse to enter into an
+agreement on account of a mere question, of national pride, and the
+statement of the changes and expenses to which we should have to
+submit in order to accomplish the agreement is a sufficient proof of
+this.
+
+But we consider that a reform which consists in giving to a
+geographical question one of the worst solutions possible, simply on
+the ground of practical convenience, that is to say, the advantage to
+yourselves and those you represent, of having nothing to change,
+either in your maps, customs, or traditions--such a solution, I say,
+can have no future before it, and we refuse to take part in it.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, stated that the Delegate of
+France, Mr. JANSSEN, had made a very important proposition to the
+Conference: That the meridian adopted should be a neutral one. He said
+that he had endeavored to determine what a neutral meridian is. On
+what principle shall the Conference fix upon a neutral meridian, and
+what is a neutral meridian? Shall it be historical, geographical,
+scientific, or arithmetical? In what way shall it be fixed upon? He
+looked back a little into the history of an important system adopted
+some years ago. France determined to give us a neutral system of
+weights and measures, and the world now thanks her for it. She
+determined that the base of this neutral system should be the
+ten-millionth part of a quadrant of the meridian. She fixed it by
+measurement, and to-day we use the metre as the standard in all
+important scientific work; but is that metre part of a neutral
+system? Is our metric system neutral? It was intended to be, but it is
+not; we are using a French system. Had the English, or the Germans, or
+the Americans taken the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of the
+meridian, they would have arrived at a slightly different measure, and
+there would have been an English, a German, and an American measure.
+We are using the French metric system. It was intended to be a neutral
+system, but it is a French system. We adopt it because it deserves our
+admiration, but it is not a neutral system. The various nations of the
+world might meet and agree upon some slight modification of this
+metric system which would agree with the results of all scientific
+investigations, and thus make it international instead of French; but
+we do not care to do that, and are willing to adopt one system, taking
+the standard of Paris as our standard. How shall we determine a
+neutral system of longitude? The expression "neutral system of
+longitude" is a myth, a fancy, a piece of poetry, unless you can tell
+precisely how to do it. He would vote for a neutral system if the
+French representatives can tell the Conference clearly how to decide
+that it is neutral, and satisfy them that it is not national in any
+way.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said:
+
+I perfectly understand the objection of my honorable colleague, Prof.
+ABBE. He asks what is a neutral meridian, and adds that the metre
+itself does not appear to him to be a neutral measure, but to be a
+French measure. He relies upon the consideration that if the English,
+the Americans, and Germans, in adopting a definition of the metre, had
+measured it for themselves, they would have arrived each at a slightly
+different result, which would have given us an English, American, and
+German metre; nevertheless, he adds, we use the French metre, because
+we find it so admirable.
+
+I would answer, first, that the metre, as far as the measure is
+derived from the dimensions of the earth, is not French, and it was
+precisely to take away this character of nationality that those who
+fixed on the metre sought to establish it on the dimensions of the
+earth itself. What is French is the particular metre of our national
+archives, which exhibits a very slight difference from that which our
+actual geodesy would have given us. Also, I think that if, at the time
+of the adoption of the Convention du Metre, in which the nations of
+Europe participated, we had slightly changed the length of our
+standard to make it agree with the result of actual geodetic
+measurements, we should have done an excellent thing in depriving this
+measure of any shadow of nationality. I agree with my honorable
+colleague that if a few slight changes adopted by common accord could
+perfect the metrical system, we French ought to have no motive for
+opposing it. We have the honor of having invented a system of measures
+which, being based upon considerations of a purely scientific nature,
+has been accepted by all. Therefore if it can be said with truth that
+the metre of the Archives of Paris is French, (not intentionally, but
+because it bears the mark of an error of French origin,) it is an
+international metre, by the same title that the discovery of the
+satellites of Mars made by my friend, Prof. Asaph Hall, whom I have
+the pleasure of seeing here, is scientific and of a universal nature.
+The metre--equal to the ten-millionth part of the distance from the
+equator to the pole--is no more French than that distance itself, and,
+nevertheless, if the Americans, English, or Germans had measured it,
+they would each have arrived at a slightly different metre.
+
+Now, my honorable colleague adds that a neutral meridian appears to
+him a myth, a fancy, a piece of poetry, so long as we have not exactly
+settled the method of determining it. I shall disregard the
+expressions which my honorable colleague has thus introduced into the
+discussion, because this discussion should be serious. It is plain
+that Prof. ABBE did not thoroughly apprehend the explanations which I
+gave of the proper methods of fixing the initial meridian, and of the
+conditions which make a meridian neutral; but I return to them, since
+I am invited to do so. Our meridian will be neutral if, in place of
+taking one of those which are fixed by the existing great
+observatories, to which, consequently, the name of a nation is
+attached, and which by long usage is identified with that nation, we
+choose a meridian based only upon geographical considerations, and
+upon the uses for which we propose to adopt it.
+
+Do you want a striking example of what differentiates a neutral
+meridian from a national meridian? In order to avoid the confusion
+which existed in geography at the beginning of the seventeenth
+century, on account of the multiplicity of initial meridians then in
+use, a congress of learned men, assembled in Paris at the instance of
+Richelieu to select a new common meridian, fixed its choice on the
+most eastern point of the Island of Ferro. This was a purely
+geographical meridian, being attached to no capital, to no national
+observatory, and consequently neutral, or, if you please, purely
+geographical. Later, Le pere Feuillet, sent in 1724 by the Academy of
+Sciences to determine the exact longitude of the initial point, having
+given the figure 19 deg. 55' 3" west of Paris, the geographer, Delisle,
+for the sake of simplicity, adopted the round number 20 deg.; and, as I
+stated a little while ago, this alteration completely changed the
+character of this prime meridian. It ceased to be neutral, and became
+merely the meridian of Paris disguised, as has been truly said, and
+the English, notably, never adopted it. Here is the difference,
+gentlemen, between a neutral meridian and a national meridian.
+
+And, parenthetically, you see, gentlemen, how dangerous it is to
+awaken national susceptibilities on a subject of a purely scientific
+nature. Now allow me to add that, if in 1633 it was possible to find a
+neutral meridian, a purely geographical meridian, an independent
+meridian, it may easily be done in 1884 if we wish to do so; and that
+a point chosen on purely geographical considerations, either in
+Behring's Strait or in the Azores, could be much better determined now
+than was possible to Father Feuillet in 1724, and could take the
+position which the meridian of Ferro would not have lost had it not
+been confounded with the meridian of Paris.
+
+Professor J. C. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain, stated that he
+merely desired to refer to one subject touched on by the Delegate of
+France, Mr. JANSSEN, whose opinion he thought could hardly be
+supported, and that was that the question of longitude was purely one
+of geography. He desired to controvert that, and to hold that the
+question of longitude was purely one of astronomical observation. The
+difference of longitude between two places could not be determined by
+geodetic observations, because to do this you must take hypothesis as
+to the figure of the earth, and the figure of the earth is not a
+simple figure. You may take as hypothesis that the figure of the earth
+is spheroidal, and that the ratio of the axes is exactly defined. Now,
+in the first place, we are not agreed as to the exact ratio of the
+axes, nor are we agreed as to the exact figure of the earth. If an
+attempt is made to measure the difference of longitude between two
+points on the earth's surface, especially when they are a considerable
+distance from each other, it is necessary to depend upon astronomical
+observations. In attempting to deduce the difference of longitude from
+geodetic measures, you must assume that the true figure and dimensions
+of the earth are known, which is far from being the case. The theory
+that the prime meridian is a matter purely of a geographical nature is
+liable to the fatal objection that the determination of the difference
+of longitude between one place and the other is really the
+determination of the difference of time of the passage of a star
+across the meridian of the two places concerned. That is very
+definite. You observe the transit of the star at one place, and you
+observe the transit of the star at the other place, and by means of
+telegraphic communications you are able to determine their difference
+of longitude independent of the figure of the earth. He said, in
+conclusion, that he thought the honorable Delegate of France was
+mistaken upon the main point which he had just referred to, if,
+indeed, he had rightly understood him.
+
+M. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, replied as follows:
+
+I think that M. ADAMS entirely misunderstands me. I agree with him
+absolutely in thinking that longitudes cannot be determined,
+especially of places far apart, except by astronomical methods.
+Geodesy can only furnish it for short distances; in such cases, it is
+true, it supplies it with a degree of accuracy which meridianal
+observations cannot attain. So, if the question be to determine
+rigorously the difference of longitude in time between two places on
+the earth at considerable distances apart, it becomes one of
+astronomy, because here it is astronomy which gives the quickest and
+most accurate solution. For these reasons if, for instance, we should
+wish to connect a given observatory with a point situated on the other
+side of the ocean which had been chosen as the starting point of
+longitudes, it would become a question of astronomy. Astronomy here is
+an admirable instrument for the solution, but it should only be the
+instrument.
+
+On the contrary, the question becomes geographical, if it be that of
+determining where it will be most convenient to fix the origin of
+terrestrial longitudes. If the question be, for instance, to select
+one or another point, in some one or other ocean, astronomy has
+nothing to do with it, and when it wishes to impose upon us one of its
+observatories to fulfil such a function it tends to give an inaccurate
+solution.
+
+At first sight it may seem that any point might become a starting
+point for terrestial longitudes, but when we study the question a
+little more we see there may be great advantages in choosing some one
+point in preference to some other. Hence it is that all geographers
+have agreed to place initial meridians, when possible, in the oceans.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that, in accordance with the decision of the
+Conference, he had sent to the scientists named by them invitations to
+a seat upon this floor. The Chair sees several of these gentlemen here
+to-day, notably one of the most eminent astronomers of this country,
+to whom his countrymen are always ready to do homage, Professor
+Newcomb, Superintendent of the United States Nautical Almanac. If it
+be the pleasure of the Congress, the Chair will now request Professor
+Newcomb to give us his views upon the resolution now under discussion.
+
+No objection being made to the proposition of the President, Professor
+NEWCOMB arose and said:
+
+That in reference to the remarks of the distinguished Delegate of
+France, Professor JANSSEN, he would prefer, if the Conference would
+consent, to study his arguments more carefully when they should be in
+print.
+
+He remarked that some points raised by that argument have been already
+replied to, and he wished now more particularly to request that
+Professor JANSSEN would define precisely what he meant by "a neutral
+meridian;" that he had partially answered this question in reply to
+Professor ABEE; but that there was a more fundamental point, one of
+practice, which must be brought in and kept in mind at every step, and
+which was raised by Commander SAMPSON'S paper, to which he had
+listened with great interest. Commander SAMPSON held that it would be
+necessary to have a fixed observatory on the chosen prime meridian,
+but he (Professor NEWCOMB) did not concur in that view, but rather
+agreed to a limited extent with what Professor JANSSEN had said on
+that question.
+
+In choosing a meridian from which to count longitude, you meet a
+difficult problem. You have a point on the globe defined as the first
+meridian. This would be taken as the initial point of departure, and
+you are to determine the longitude of a certain place from that point.
+Now, doubtless, there is no other way to do this than to have an
+astronomical instrument and telegraphic communication. And if they
+chose the Azores or Behring's Strait, in neither case could they mount
+a transit instrument or have a system of telegraphic communication.
+Nor could we make a determination of longitude from a single fixed
+observatory in any case.
+
+He then stated that it was impracticable under any circumstances to
+have an absolutely neutral prime meridian; that the definition of the
+prime meridian must practically depend upon subsidiary considerations,
+no matter where it might be located. In the practical work of
+determining longitudes a connection with the prime meridian cannot be
+made in each case. What is really determined is the longitude from
+some intermediate point, generally in the same country, and in
+telegraphic communication with the place whose longitude we wish to
+know. This intermediate point would, for the time, be the practical
+prime meridian. But the longitude of this point itself must always be
+uncertain. Science is continually advancing in accuracy, and we find
+that we continually need to correct the longitude of our intermediate
+meridian, and hence of all points determined from it. How can this
+difficulty of constantly changing longitudes be avoided? He replied
+that each system of connected longitudes must rest upon its own basis.
+It must be referred to an assumed prime meridian, and the
+measurements must be made from that, even if it be found to be
+somewhat in error. If some such system had been adopted thirty or
+forty years ago, we would have avoided the confusion arising from the
+fact that the longitudes given on many maps do not refer at all to any
+absolute meridian. All that is known is that the astronomers
+determined the longitude of the place, and then the maps had to be
+corrected accordingly. The longitude of one place would be determined
+from Cambridge, and perhaps in the neighborhood is another place
+determined from the observatory at Washington. In either case we know
+nothing of the longitude of Cambridge or Washington which the observer
+assumed in his calculations.
+
+Generally, in determining longitude, the country adopts the principal
+place within its confines as a subsidiary prime meridian, and the
+assumed longitude of this place is necessarily selected somewhat
+arbitrarily. The longitude, for instance, of Washington was, thirty
+years ago, known to be nearly 5 hours 8 minutes and 12 seconds west
+from Greenwich. Had we adopted this difference by law, it would have
+amounted to choosing for our prime meridian a point 5 hours 8 minutes
+and 12 seconds east of Washington, whether we happened to strike the
+transit instrument at Greenwich or not. This would have fixed an
+assumed longitude for the Cambridge observatory and for all points
+within our telegraphic net-work. We should have had a practical
+system, which might, however, require to be corrected from time to
+time, if some slight error were found in the assumed longitude of
+Washington.
+
+In the present state of astronomical observation these little errors
+are of no consequence except in some very refined astronomical
+discussions. For all geographical and perhaps geodetical purposes the
+error may be regarded as zero, and it may be said, in regard to
+astronomical work, that it will always be independent of any meridian
+that might be chosen.
+
+But even if this difficulty were avoided, he could not see how they
+could have any place which would come within the definition of a
+neutral meridian. Supposing they took the Azores, they belong to
+Portugal; then certainly they would have a Portuguese prime meridian,
+belonging to the Portuguese nation. Thus they would no longer have a
+neutral point, if he (Professor NEWCOMB) rightly understood the
+meaning of Professor JANSSEN.
+
+He said that the Delegate of Great Britain, Professor ADAMS, had
+expressed very clearly his (Professor NEWCOMB'S) ideas, and the
+difficulty we have in meeting the propositions of the French
+Delegates; that what he had said would apply very properly to any
+neutral meridian that might be chosen in accordance with the plans of
+Professor JANSSEN. Whatever that meridian might be, we must always
+assume for it a certain number of degrees from the capital of the
+country, where the place to be determined is located, and then take
+that imaginary meridian instead of a real point on the surface of the
+globe.
+
+It is true that this is perfectly practicable, and on that theory
+there might not be any necessity of having an astronomical
+observatory. But why we should go to this trouble and expense Mr.
+JANSSEN did not make very clear; his considerations were purely
+sentimental, as was remarked by the Delegate of Great Britain,
+Professor ADAMS, and he (Prof. NEWCOMB) did not see what advantage
+would be gained by a neutral meridian in preference to one fixed by
+convenience.
+
+In order that a discussion may proceed, it is necessary to agree on a
+given basis from which to start, and it is extremely difficult to
+agree upon a basis if there are considerations of sentiment
+introduced, because such considerations are peculiar to each person.
+
+He therefore wished to propose this question again to the Delegate of
+France, namely, what advantages can we derive from fixing upon a
+neutral meridian?
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, said:
+
+Professor NEWCOMB asks me to point out the advantages of a neutral
+meridian. These advantages are of two kinds--they are of a
+geographical nature and a moral nature. Let us examine the first. By
+placing the initial meridian between Asia and America, we get away
+from the centres of population, which is almost indispensable in view
+of the change of dates. We divide the world into two parts, the Old
+World and the New. The advantage of drawing the prime meridian
+through the ocean has always been understood, and it was precisely for
+this reason that Marinus of Tyre, during the first century, placed it
+at the Fortunate Isles, west of the African Continent. It is idle to
+urge the difficulty of fixing such a meridian as an objection.
+Astronomy is so far advanced in our day as to enable us to make this
+calculation with all desirable accuracy.
+
+As to the methods of obtaining this meridian exactly, there are
+several. I have already spoken of them, but I return to the subject,
+since more details are desired. These methods fall under two principal
+heads. We can, and that is the ancient idea, choose some remarkable
+physical point--as, for instance, the extremity of an island, a
+strait, the summit of a mountain--and determine approximately the
+distance in longitude of this point from the points of reference,
+which are at present the observatories. This method, if all the
+precision that science can now attain is required, would be costly in
+certain cases. For the Azores the expense would be small, because of
+the proximity of the telegraphic cables; it would be much greater for
+Behring Straits. On the hypothesis of the employment of this method,
+it would evidently be necessary to place our meridian at the Azores.
+
+According to the other method, it is not the physical point which is
+fixed, but simply the distance of the assumed origin from the points
+of comparison. For example, admit that the general definition of our
+prime meridian was that it should pass through the middle of Behring
+Straits. To obtain its theoretical definition, we should obtain a
+position of this point, either by summary observations of the nature
+of hydrographic surveys, or by the aid of existing information, and
+the longitude thus obtained would be connected with the observatories
+best connected with each other. A list of the differences of longitude
+would become the definition of our meridian, and not the physical
+point in the sea which marks the exact middle of the strait. If, now,
+we absolutely wished for a physical point, we have the Island of St.
+Lawrence, which is cut towards its eastern part by such a meridian,
+and we could put a point of reference there, subject to the condition
+that the position of this point should conform to the definition, and
+that it should be removed, in one direction or the other, until it did
+conform to it. As to the very slight errors which might still affect
+the relative positions of the great observatories actually connected
+by electricity, they do not concern geography. If I am not mistaken,
+the eminent Superintendent of the American Nautical Almanac
+acknowledges that we could thus avoid the difficulties which might
+result from the changes to which the perfecting of science would in
+the course of time give rise in the statement of longitudes.
+
+In this manner the expense would be nothing or small. Thus, also, the
+meridian would be truly neutral, both by reason of its position in the
+ocean between the continents, and by reason of its definition, since
+the zero of longitude would then be so placed as to occupy a point not
+identified with any nation. This illustration appears to me to answer
+the demands of Professor NEWCOMB. I have taken it only for that
+reason, for I maintain no particular method, but only the principle of
+neutrality.
+
+Finally, I must return again to those sentimental reasons which my
+eminent and friendly opponents so often call to my attention. If I do
+not err, the very warmth of these interesting discussions shows me
+that the honor of being personally connected with a great reform
+touches us more than we are willing to admit, or than practical
+interests alone could effect.
+
+Professor ADAMS himself supplies an illustration of this. He should
+remember the lively discussions of the English and French press on the
+occasion of the magnificent discovery of Neptune, and on the claims of
+the two illustrious competitors who were then the objects of universal
+admiration. If we go back in history, do we not see the friends of
+Newton and of Leibnitz equally contesting with asperity the discovery
+of the infinitesimal calculus. The love of glory is one of the noblest
+motives of men; we must bow before it, but we must also be careful not
+to permit it to produce bad fruits.
+
+When our men of science sought, a hundred years ago, to determine a
+new measure of length, some one proposed the length of the seconds
+pendulum at Paris. This measure was rejected, because it introduced
+the idea of time in a measure of length, and also because it was
+peculiar to Paris, and because a measure acceptable to the whole world
+was desired. It is important not to introduce questions of national
+rivalries into a scientific reform intended to be accepted by all, and
+history shows us precisely on this question of prime meridians what
+active rivalries there are. There was a time when almost every nation
+which had a large observatory had a meridian, and that meridian was
+considered an object of national pride. There were the meridians of
+Paris, of Rome, of Florence, of London, and so on, and no nation was
+willing to abandon its meridian for that of another. If you please to
+adopt either the meridian of Greenwich, Washington, Paris, Berlin,
+Pulkowa, Vienna, or Rome, our reform may be accepted for the moment,
+especially if it offers immediate advantages in economy; but it will
+contain within it a vice which will prevent its becoming definitive,
+and we are not willing to participate in action which will not be
+definitive.
+
+Whatever we may do, the common prime meridian will always be a crown
+to which there will be a hundred pretenders. Let us place the crown on
+the brow of science, and all will bow before it.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, said that he thought
+that the Delegate of France, Professor JANSSEN, had explained very
+fully the advantages of a neutral meridian, but he thought that he had
+not explained how we are to determine the neutral meridian. He added
+that he quite agreed with Professor ADAMS and Professor NEWCOMB, that
+to establish a prime meridian it is necessary to refer its position to
+an astronomical observatory.
+
+He stated further that if a meridian were selected passing through the
+Atlantic or Pacific Ocean, it must be referred to some initial point
+whose longitude is known, and the consequence of that would be, it
+seemed to him, that the prime meridian selected would still be
+dependent upon some national observatory, and that to select a
+meridian at random without reference to any observatory would lead to
+the utmost confusion, and, he had no doubt, would not be entertained
+by any one.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. When my honorable colleague,
+Commander SAMPSON, reads the remarks which I have just made, he will
+see that I have very fully shown what characterizes a neutral or
+geographical meridian, as contradistinguished from those meridians
+which, passing through capitals and observatories of different
+countries, bear the names of nations, whilst geographical meridians
+bear geographical names, such as the meridian of Ferro, of the Azores,
+Behring's Strait, &c. Of course it would be necessary to connect the
+places selected with observatories, either by calculation or in some
+other effective manner. I said all this a few moments ago.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then remarked that in
+addition to what had been said he would merely call attention to the
+fact that after that neutral point had been established it would cease
+to be a neutral meridian; that if the Azores be chosen they belong to
+Portugal, and he did not know any island in the Pacific which would
+serve the purpose, and at the same time not be subject to this
+objection; that perhaps Behring's Strait, mentioned by the French
+Delegate, might be less objectionable than any other place. He added
+that it is absolutely necessary that there should be some means of
+determining the difference between this adopted place and the other
+places, or else no use could be made of it. We must know how far other
+places are from the prime meridian, and for that reason it is
+necessary that it should be on land. Now, that land must belong to
+some country, and after we have fixed upon it it would cease to be a
+neutral meridian, and it would have to be connected by telegraphic
+wires with all the great observatories in the world.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. My honorable friend, Mr.
+RUTHERFURD, says that from the time the prime meridian was chosen it
+would cease to be neutral. I reply that he confounds a scientific
+principle with a question of property in the soil. If, for reasons of
+a geographical nature, we should fix upon a point in the Azores, that
+meridian would be neutral, because it would have been chosen on
+scientific grounds alone. The equator is neutral because geographical
+conditions give it that character; and, nevertheless, the countries
+along it belong to various nations, do they not? As to the manner of
+connecting the prime meridian with the system of observatories, I have
+already explained how this may be done in my former speech.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of England, remarked that he had rather
+hesitated about saying anything on the subject, after the expression
+of so many opinions of persons better qualified to speak than himself,
+but he felt that he ought to make a few remarks as to the distinction
+which Prof. JANSSEN had attempted to establish between astronomical
+and geographical longitude. It appeared to him that longitude was
+longitude. It would never do if, for geographic purposes, we are to
+have a second or third-class longitude and for astronomical purposes a
+first-class longitude. He said that as a geographer he repudiated any
+such idea. When you come to the practical application of the
+determination of longitude at sea for maritime purposes, it is true
+that a much less accurate determination suffices than would suffice
+for the determination of longitude for astronomical observatories;
+but, for all that, what is the object of a ship desiring to know what
+its place at sea is? Obviously to arrive at the port to which it is
+destined, and the object to be obtained is such a determination of the
+longitude as to enable that ship to arrive at its port without danger.
+You obtain a comparatively imperfect determination of longitude, but
+it is sufficiently accurate to prevent you from striking on the solid
+earth. But how is the longitude of the port to be determined?
+Certainly, as has been properly said, by astronomical observations,
+which can only be made with certainty on the earth. Consequently, it
+seemed to him that it is absolutely essential for fixing an initial
+meridian for the determination of longitude that it should be placed
+at an astronomical observatory which can be connected with other
+places by astronomical observations and by telegraph wires, and that
+the idea of fixing a neutral meridian is nothing more than the
+establishment of an ideal meridian really based upon some point at
+which there is located an observatory. This has been repeated once or
+twice before, and I need not enlarge upon it.
+
+Prof. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. My honorable colleague, General
+STRACHEY, thinks that longitude is longitude, and that there is not an
+astronomical longitude and a geographical longitude. I answer, that
+this is, nevertheless, what the nature of things indicates. The
+longitude of observatories, or rather the difference of longitude
+between those establishments, must be fixed with an accuracy which is
+never sufficiently great. In the Bureau of Longitude of France we are
+occupied with the differences of longitude of European observatories,
+and we adopt for these calculations all the latest scientific
+improvements, and especially the employment of electricity. Geography,
+especially for general purposes, does not require this great accuracy,
+which could not be expressed on maps. All geographers agree upon that
+subject. A statement of the longitude is like the statement of a
+weight, of a measure, or of anything, and its precision must vary
+according to the purpose to which it is applied. Is not a weighing
+necessary to determine a chemical equivalent of an entirely different
+kind from that of a commercial weighing? Yet it is still a weight. Is
+it necessary to insist on this further? It is entirely a secondary
+question. If General STRACHEY, whom I had the pleasure of meeting in
+India, demands that the prime meridian should be connected with
+observatories with rigorous accuracy, this can be done if it be
+desired; the astronomical and electrical methods at our disposal will
+permit of it.
+
+Prof. ABBE, Delegate of the United States, said that he was quite
+interested in the determination, if possible, of what is a neutral
+meridian. We are precisely in the condition in which we were years
+ago, when the French Institute determined that the basis of the metric
+system should be the one ten-millionth of the quadrant of the globe.
+Having settled upon that ideal basis, they spent years of labor, and
+finally legalized a standard metre, which is still preserved at Paris.
+We have now the same problem to solve. We have before us the idea of a
+neutral meridian, and, if it be adopted, we must see that there be
+embodied in the system the distance of certain other important places
+with reference to it. The only suggestion given as to the location of
+this neutral meridian is Behring's Strait. This is said to be a
+neutral meridian, because it lies between Russia and America; but how
+long will it remain so? Perhaps a year or two, or perhaps fifty years.
+Who knows when Russia will step over and reconquer the country on this
+side of Behring's Strait? Who knows when America will step over and
+purchase half of Siberia? At any rate, that point is not cosmopolitan;
+something must be found which is fixed, either within the sphere of
+the earth or in the stars above the earth--something that is above all
+human considerations--otherwise we shall fail in securing a neutral
+meridian.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, said that he would
+like to ask the Delegate from France, Mr. JANSSEN, where he would
+place the neutral meridian.
+
+The PRESIDENT said that the Delegate of the United States, Commander
+SAMPSON, puts a question which seems to be somewhat categorical.
+
+At this point in the proceedings the PRESIDENT stated that it would be
+convenient if the Conference would take a short recess to enable the
+Secretaries, with himself, to consult upon the subject of the
+preparation and approval of the protocols.
+
+A recess was thereupon taken.
+
+After the recess, the Delegate from France, Prof. JANSSEN, presented
+the following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the decision upon the motion of the French
+ Delegates, in regard to the choice of a neutral meridian, be
+ postponed to the next meeting of the Conference."
+
+He said that as he must speak French, and as several of his colleagues
+could, perhaps, not entirely grasp the meaning of the discussion, he
+asked for the adjournment of the vote until the next meeting, so that
+the protocol of this meeting may be printed and distributed to the
+members of the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that as far as he understood this resolution it
+merely amounted to this: that no vote shall be taken upon the original
+resolution of the French Delegate--namely, as to the adoption of a
+neutral meridian--until the next meeting of the Conference, when the
+protocols in both languages will have been printed and distributed.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States, inquired whether, if
+this resolution were adopted, it would be necessary to vote upon the
+original question at the next meeting.
+
+The PRESIDENT replied that was not necessarily the case. The Delegate
+of France simply desires that no vote shall be taken to-day. The
+original subject will come up and be open for debate at the next
+meeting, but it seemed to the Chair that it should be as far as
+possible exhausted to-day, so that the Delegates could have the whole
+matter before them at the next meeting.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate from France, said that the arguments already
+presented will require time for careful consideration. Consequently he
+asked for the adjournment of the vote, and he hoped that none of his
+colleagues would object to it.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that he would venture to suggest, for the purpose
+of preventing delay, that so far as was possible any arguments that
+are to be offered should be made now, so that in the protocol of this
+day's proceedings, which will be of considerable length, these
+arguments may be incorporated.
+
+Mr. RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey, stated that it would be
+impossible to prepare a proper protocol of this Conference without the
+assistance of a French stenographer, and he therefore suggested that
+such a stenographer be secured as early as possible.
+
+The PRESIDENT stated that efforts had been made to obtain a French
+stenographer, but without success, and that if any Delegate knows of
+such a stenographer and will communicate with the Chair it will be
+happy to take the necessary steps to secure his services.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, then made the following
+statement:
+
+I beg to propose that the Conference adjourn at the call of the
+President, that the time and hour for the next meeting be communicated
+to the Delegates 24 hours before the meeting, and that at the same
+time a proof-copy of the protocols of the present meeting be
+forwarded.
+
+He added that by giving the Delegates 24 hours after the protocols are
+printed time would be allowed them to revise the protocols and make
+such corrections as they thought necessary, and those corrections
+could be reported to the Secretaries and made in the printed text. The
+protocol can then be finally and definitively printed and approved at
+the beginning of the next meeting of the Conference.
+
+The proposition of the Delegate of Sweden was then adopted.
+
+The Conference then adjourned at 5 o'clock p. m., subject to the call
+of the President.
+
+
+
+
+IV.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 13, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall, in
+the State Department, at one o'clock P. M.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austria-Hungary: Baron I. VON SCHAEFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Colombia: Commodore FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. J. F. ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE and Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN and Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS, Lieut.
+ General STRACHEY, and Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER and Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. WILLIAM COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ and Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, and
+ Mr. J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. M. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, and
+ Mr. JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: Mr. RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, and Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Salvador: Mr. A. BATRES.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In view of the many communications addressed to the
+President of this Conference, having reference to the business before
+it, presenting statements and arguments in relation thereto, the Chair
+asks that a committee be appointed, to which shall be referred all
+such communications, and that the committee be instructed to make such
+report upon them as it may deem advisable.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I beg leave to propose to the
+Conference that the appointment of this committee be left to the
+President.
+
+Mr. SOTELDO, Delegate of Venezuela. I second the motion of the
+Delegate of Sweden.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. I entertain the same opinion, and I
+support the motion.
+
+The motion was then unanimously adopted.
+
+The PRESIDENT. I will name as the members of the Committee the
+Delegate of Great Britain, Professor ADAMS; the Delegate of Germany,
+Mr. HINCKELDEYN; the Delegate of the United States, Professor ABBE;
+the Delegate of Japan, Mr. KIKUCHI; and the Delegate of Costa Rica,
+Mr. ECHEVERRIA.
+
+PRESIDENT. Alter a discussion of only three hours this Conference
+adjourned a week ago to-day, subject to the call of its President.
+Owing to the want of a French stenographer to report the words that
+were spoken in French, there has been much delay in preparing the
+protocol, which has not yet been completed. Fortunately, an
+experienced French stenographer has been procured through the kind
+intervention of Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, of the delegation from Great
+Britain, and Mr. WILLIAM SMITH, Deputy Minister of Marine for the
+Dominion of Canada. We may now hope to have a fairly accurate report
+of what is said, both in French and English, needing only slight
+verbal corrections, and the Chair trusts that delegates may find it
+convenient to make the corrections very promptly, so that the
+protocols may be printed and verified as speedily as possible.
+
+Should any delegate, who has not yet spoken, desire to address the
+Conference upon the resolution of the Delegate from France, his
+remarks will now be received, and when the mover of the resolution
+shall close the debate, the vote will be taken, if such be the
+pleasure of the Conference.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I have listened with
+great attention and deep interest to the remarks which have fallen
+from the several gentlemen who have spoken, and I desire your kind
+indulgence for a few moments while I explain the views I have formed
+on the motion of the distinguished Delegates from France.
+
+I feel that the important question which this Conference has to
+consider must be approached in no narrow spirit. It is one which
+affects every nationality, and we should endeavor, in the common
+interest, to set aside any national or individual prejudices we
+possess, and view the subject as members of one community--in fact, as
+citizens of the world. Acting in this broad spirit, we cannot fail to
+arrive at conclusions which will promote the common good of mankind.
+
+In deliberating on the important subject before us, it seems to me
+there are two essential points which we should constantly bear in
+mind.
+
+1. We should consider what will best promote the general advantage,
+not now only, but for all future years, while causing at the present
+time as little individual and national inconvenience as possible.
+
+2. We should, in coming to a determination on the main question for
+which this Conference is called, leave nothing undone to avoid
+offence, now or hereafter, to the sensitiveness of individual nations.
+
+The motion is, that the initial meridian to be chosen should be
+selected on account of its neutrality. This undoubtedly involves the
+selection of an entirely new meridian, one which has never previously
+been used by any nation, as all initial meridians in use are more or
+less national, and, as such, would not be considered neutral in the
+sense intended by the honorable Delegates from France.
+
+Let us suppose that this Conference adopted the motion. Let us
+suppose, further, that we found a meridian quite independent of and
+unrelated to any existing initial meridian. Would we then have
+accomplished the task for which we are met? I ask, would the
+twenty-six nations here represented accept our recommendation to adopt
+the neutral meridian? I greatly fear that the passing of the
+resolution would not in the least promote the settlement of the
+important question before the Conference. The world has already at
+least eleven different first meridians. The adoption of the new
+meridian contemplated by the Delegates from France would, I apprehend,
+simply increase the number and proportionately increase the difficulty
+which so many delegates from all parts of the earth are assembled here
+to remove.
+
+This would be the practical effect of the passing of the resolution.
+If it had any effect, it would increase the difficulty, and I need not
+say that is not the object which the different Governments had in view
+when they sent delegates to this Conference. The President has well
+pointed out in his opening address the advantages which would be
+gained, and the great dangers which, at times, would be avoided by
+seafaring vessels having one common zero of longitude. Besides the
+benefits which would accrue to navigation, there are advantages of
+equal importance in connection with the regulation of time, to spring,
+I trust, from our conclusions.
+
+It does not appear to me that the adoption of the motion would in any
+way advance these objects. I do not say that the principle of a
+neutral meridian is wrong, but to attempt to establish one would, I
+feel satisfied, be productive of no good result. A neutral meridian is
+excellent in theory, but I fear it is entirely beyond the domain of
+practicability. If such be the case, it becomes necessary to consider
+how far it would be practicable to secure the desired advantages by
+adopting as a zero some other meridian which, while related to some
+existing first meridian, would not be national in fact, and would have
+the same effect as a perfectly neutral meridian in allaying national
+susceptibilities.
+
+The selection of an initial meridian related to meridians now in use
+gives us a sufficiently wide choice. Allow me to read the following
+list, showing the number and the total tonnage of vessels using the
+several meridians named, in ascertaining their longitude.
+
+======================================================================
+ | SHIPS OF ALL KINDS. | PER CENT.
+ INITIAL MERIDIANS. +---------------------+--------------------
+ | Number. | Tonnage. | Ships. | Tonnage.
+---------------------------+---------+-----------+--------+-----------
+Greenwich..................| 37,663 |14,600,972 | 65 | 72
+Paris......................| 5,914 | 1,735,083 | 10 | 8
+Cadiz......................| 2,468 | 666,602 | 5 | 3
+Naples.....................| 2,263 | 715,448 | 4 | 4
+Christiana.................| 2,128 | 695,988 | 4 | 3
+Ferro......................| 1,497 | 567,682 | 2 | 3
+Pulkova....................| 987 | 298,641 | 11/2 | 11/2
+Stockholm..................| 717 | 154,180 | 11/2 | 1
+Lisbon.....................| 491 | 164,000 | 1 | 1
+Copenhagen.................| 435 | 81,888 | 1 | 1/2
+Rio de Janeiro.............| 253 | 97,040 | 1/2 | 1/2
+Miscellaneous..............| 2,881| 534,569 | 41/2 | 21/2
+ |---------+-----------+--------+-----------
+ Total ...............| 57,697|20,312,093 | 100 | 100
+---------------------------+---------+-----------+--------+-----------
+
+It thus appears that one of these meridians, that of Greenwich, is
+used by 72 per cent. of the whole floating commerce of the world,
+while the remaining 28 per cent. is divided among ten different
+initial meridians. If, then, the convenience of the greatest number
+alone should predominate, there can be no difficulty in a choice; but
+Greenwich is a national meridian, and its use as an international zero
+awakens national susceptibilities. It is possible, however, to a great
+extent, to remove this objection by taking, for a zero of longitude
+and time, the meridian farthest distant from Greenwich. This being on
+the same great circle as Greenwich, it would not require the
+establishment of a new observatory; its adoption would produce no
+change in charts or nautical tables, beyond the notation of longitude.
+It would possess all the advantage claimed for the Greenwich meridian
+in connection with navigation, and as a zero for regulating time it
+would be greatly to be preferred to the Greenwich meridian. This
+Pacific meridian being accepted as the common zero, and longitude
+being reckoned continuously in one direction, there would be an end to
+the necessity of any nation engraving on its charts the words
+"longitude east or west of Greenwich." The one word "longitude" would
+suffice. The zero meridian would be international and in no respect
+national. Even on British charts all reference to Greenwich would
+disappear.
+
+This view of the question is sustained by many distinguished men. I
+shall only ask permission to read the opinion of Mr. Otto Struve,
+Director of the Imperial Observatory at Pulkova, than whom there is no
+higher authority.
+
+"The preference given to the Greenwich meridian was based, on one
+side, on the historical right of the Royal Observatory of England,
+acquired by eminent services rendered by this establishment during the
+course of two centuries, to mathematical geography and navigation; on
+the other side, considering that the great majority of charts now in
+use upon all the seas are made according to this meridian, and about
+90 per cent. of the navigators of long standing are accustomed to take
+their longitude from this meridian. However, an objection against this
+proposition is, that the meridian of Greenwich passes through two
+countries of Europe, and thus the longitude would be reckoned by
+different signs in different portions of our own continent and also of
+Africa.
+
+"Moreover, the close proximity of the meridian of Paris, to which,
+perhaps, some French geographers and navigators of other nations would
+still hold to, from custom, from a spirit of contradiction or from
+national rivalry, might easily cause sad disaster. To obviate these
+inconveniences, I have proposed to choose as prime meridian another
+meridian, situated at an integral number of hours east or west of
+Greenwich, and among the meridians meeting this condition, I have
+indicated, in the first place, the meridian proposed to-day by
+scientific Americans, as that which would combine the most favorable
+conditions for its adoption. Thus the meridian situated 180 deg. from
+Greenwich presents the following advantages:--
+
+"1. It does not cross any continent but the eastern extremity of the
+North of Asia, inhabited by people very few in number and little
+civilized, called Tschouktschis.
+
+"2. It coincides exactly with that line where, after the custom
+introduced by a historical succession of maritime discoveries, the
+navigator makes a change of one unit in the date, a difference which
+is made near a number of small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
+discovered during the voyages made to the east and west. Thus the
+commencement of a new date would be identical with that of the hours
+of cosmopolitan time.
+
+"3. It makes no change to the great majority of navigators and
+hydrographers, except the very simple addition of twelve hours, or of
+180 deg. to all longitudes.
+
+"4. It does not involve any change in the calculations of the
+Ephemerides most in use amongst navigators, viz., the English Nautical
+Almanac, except turning mid-day into midnight, and _vice versa_. In
+the American Nautical Almanac there would be no other change to
+introduce. With a cosmopolitan spirit, and in the just appreciation of
+a general want, the excellent Ephemerides published at Washington,
+record all data useful to navigators calculated from the meridian of
+Greenwich.
+
+"For universal adoption, as proposed by the Canadian Institute, it
+recommends itself to the inhabitants of all civilized countries, by
+reason of the great difference in longitude, thus removing all the
+misunderstandings and uncertainties concerning the question, as to
+whether, in any case, cosmopolitan or local time was used.
+
+"In answer to the first question offered by the Institute at Toronto,
+I would, therefore, recommend the Academy to pronounce without
+hestation in favor of the universal adoption of the meridian situated
+180 deg. from Greenwich, as Prime Meridian of the globe."
+
+I quote from the report of M. Otto Struve to the Imperial Academy of
+Sciences of St. Petersburg, 30th Sept., 1880.
+
+I respectfully submit, we have thus the means of solving the problem
+presented to us, without attempting to find such a meridian as that
+contemplated in the motion of the honorable delegates. Whatever its
+origin, the Pacific meridian referred to would soon be recognized as
+being as much neutral as any meridian could possibly be. If, on the
+other hand, we adopt the motion, I very greatly fear that the great
+object of this Conference will be defeated, and the settlement of a
+question so pregnant with advantages to the world will be indefinitely
+postponed.
+
+Dr. CRULS, Delegate of Brazil. Gentlemen. Since the opening of this
+discussion more authoritative voices than mine--among others that of
+the Honorable Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain, who has
+just expressed his opinion upon the question--have been heard upon the
+important subject which we are now called upon to discuss, and of
+which we should endeavor to find a full and final solution. The
+various aspects of the projected reform--viz., the unification of
+longitude, which numerous international interests recommend to our
+care--appear to me to have been examined, and that relieves me of the
+task of taking up again the question in its details, and permits me to
+abridge very much the considerations which I think it is my duty to
+present in order to explain my vote. Upon to the present moment we
+have settled one point, gentlemen, and it is one of great importance;
+that is, the necessity of adopting a common prime meridian. This point
+has obtained the support of all the Delegates present at the
+Conference. This necessity being recognized, it is proper to take
+another step towards the solution of the problem presented to us, and
+to decide what that meridian shall be. It is this choice, gentlemen,
+which at this moment forms the subject of our discussion, and upon
+which we have to decide.
+
+My honorable colleague, Mr. RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United
+States, has presented a motion proposing the adoption of the meridian
+of Greenwich, a motion which is again made, having been withdrawn
+temporarily from our discussion with the consent of its proposer. The
+motion which was presented at the last session, and which has formed
+the subject of numerous interesting discussions is that made by my
+honorable colleague, Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, who proposes
+that the meridian adopted should have a neutral character, and should
+not cross either of the great continents of Europe or America. This
+proposition, gentlemen, has been strongly resisted by the Delegates of
+Great Britain and the United States, and firmly maintained by the
+Delegates of France, and the debates which followed gave us an
+opportunity of being present at a scientific tournament of the highest
+interest. The speakers whom we have had the honor of hearing seem to
+me to have exhausted all the arguments for and against, and at the
+present stage of the discussion I presume that these debates have
+permitted each one of us to form, with a full knowledge of the case,
+an opinion upon the question on which we are called to vote.
+
+For my part, gentlemen, I desire to state clearly the attitude that
+Brazil, in my opinion, must take in this Conference. That attitude is
+one of absolute neutrality, inasmuch as the question is whether or not
+to choose a national meridian which may provoke among certain nations
+very legitimate rivalries. From the point of view only of the
+interests of Brazil, the choice of one meridian rather than any other
+is recommended to me by no consideration. Our local charts are
+referred to the nearest meridian, that of the observatory of Rio
+Janeiro, which is the point of departure in the geodetic or
+hydrographic operations in course of execution in Brazil, and which
+all are connected with that same meridian. The marine charts of the
+coast most in use are the result of the hydrographic works executed by
+the Commandant MOUCHEZ, now admiral and director of the observatory of
+Paris. As to the telegraphic determination of the longitude of the
+observatory of Rio, we owe it to the American Commission, directed by
+Commandant GREEN, of the United States Navy. Now, gentlemen, up to the
+day on which the Conference met for the first time, I had hoped that
+these discussions entered upon under the influence of a generous
+rivalry, and having for their only purpose the establishment of a
+measure, the necessity of which is strongly sought by many interests
+of a diverse nature, would lead to a complete and final solution of
+the problem. Unfortunately, and I regret to be obliged to add it, the
+differences of opinion which have manifested themselves in this
+Congress permit scarcely a hope of this result. For my part,
+gentlemen, I cannot lose sight of the fact that it is indispensable
+that the question for which this Congress is assembled should receive
+a complete settlement; if not, the purpose of the Congress will not be
+attained. Since the Delegates of France have manifested from the
+begining of our discussions their opposition to the adoption of any
+meridian which had a national character, which has given rise to the
+motion presented by Mr. JANSSEN, it follows that every measure voted
+by the Congress tending to the adoption of a national meridian, will
+be, by the very fact of the abstention of France, an incomplete
+measure, and which will not answer the purpose sought by the
+Conference. I hasten to add, in order to avoid all erroneous
+interpretations which could be given to my words, that it would be the
+same, if, for instance, the meridian of Paris was proposed, and any
+great maritime nation, such as England, the United States, or any
+other, should abstain from voting for its adoption. In that case,
+also, the measure adopted would not be complete, and in that case,
+also, my line of conduct would be the same.
+
+To resume, I would say that the great benefits that the whole world
+will receive from the adoption of a common prime meridian will not be
+fully produced unless the measure is unanimously accepted by all the
+most important maritime nations. In any other event, I am, for my
+part, absolutely convinced that the measure adopted will be partly
+inefficacious, its adoption not being general, and everything will
+have to be done over again in the not distant future. The discussions
+at which we have been present abundantly prove to me that it will
+always be so, as long as the meridian of some great nation is
+proposed. In the face of this difficulty, which appears to me
+insurmountable, the only solution which, by its very nature, will not
+raise exciting questions of national pride is that of a meridian
+having a character of absolute neutrality. If the adoption of such a
+meridian was admitted in principle, I am certain that a discussion
+based upon pure science, and following the best conditions which it
+should realize, would conduct us rapidly to a practical settlement of
+the question.
+
+In such a discussion the arguments which ought to prevail should be,
+before everything, drawn from science, the only source of truth which
+alone can enlighten us, so as to permit us to form a sound judgment,
+and to decide solely upon considerations of a purely scientific
+nature.
+
+In addition to these considerations, I am not ignorant that there are
+others. I refer to questions of economy of which it is necessary to
+take count. As to political interests, if there are any, our eminent
+colleagues who represent so worthily the diplomatic element in this
+assembly would see that they had due weight, and, thanks to this
+assembly of men distinguished, some in science and others in
+diplomacy, there was every reason to hope that the final practical
+solution of the question which we are seeking would not be long in
+being made clear to us all by the discussions.
+
+Moreover, this practical solution appears to me already to follow from
+what our honorable colleague, M. JANSSEN, has told us on that subject.
+The principle of the neutral meridian once adopted, there would still
+to be discussed the conditions which it should fulfil and the
+determination of its position. Two things must be considered, either
+the meridian will be exclusively over the ocean, and then, by its very
+nature, it will be neutral, or it will cut some island, and in that
+case nothing would prevent an international diplomatic convention
+making neutral the plot of land on which it was desirable to establish
+an observatory, which would in reality be a very small matter. Of
+these two solutions, both of which satisfy the conditions which the
+meridian ought to fulfil in its character of neutrality and by the
+requirements of science, I prefer the second. I wish merely to suggest
+by what I have said how it would be possible to arrive at a practical
+solution of the question, since now I am only speaking of the adoption
+of the principle of the neutral meridian.
+
+I conclude, gentlemen, by declaring that I shall vote in favor of the
+adoption of a meridian with a character of absolute neutrality, and in
+doing so I hope to contribute my share to giving our resolutions such
+a character of independence as is necessary to make them generally
+acceptable in the future, and to unite in their support, at present,
+scientific men without distinction of nationality who are now awaiting
+our decision.
+
+Professor JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Gentlemen, I have listened with
+a great deal of attention to the discourse of the Delegate of England,
+Mr. FLEMING, and if we had not had such an exhaustive discussion last
+session, at which, I believe, all the reasons for and against were
+given, I would certainly have asked permission to answer it. But I
+believe that on all sides we are sufficiently enlightened on the
+question, and I desire above all to declare that it is not our
+intention of making this debate eternal. It is now for you, gentlemen,
+to decide. I am the more inclined to act thus, as my honorable
+colleague, the Delegate of Brazil, Dr. L. CRULS, who is an astronomer
+like myself, appears to me to have recapitulated the question with a
+loftiness of views, and in such happy language, that, in truth, we may
+take his arguments as our own. Before concluding, I wish to thank my
+colleagues for the kind attention that they have been good enough to
+accord me.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question recurs upon the resolution offered by the
+Delegates of France. The resolution is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the initial meridian should have a
+ character of absolute neutrality. It should be chosen
+ exclusively so as to secure to science and to international
+ commerce all possible advantages, and especially should cut
+ no great continent--neither Europe nor America."
+
+The PRESIDENT. Is the Conference ready for the question? No objection
+being made, the roll was called, with the following result:
+
+ _Ayes_.
+
+ Brazil, San Domingo.
+ France,
+
+ _Noes_.
+ Austria, Germany,
+ Chili, Great Britain,
+ Colombia, Guatemala,
+ Costa Rica, Hawaii,
+ Italy, Spain,
+ Japan, Sweden,
+ Liberia, Switzerland,
+ Mexico, Turkey,
+ Netherlands, United States,
+ Paraguay, Venezuela.
+ Russia,
+
+
+Twenty-one noes and three ayes.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The resolution is, therefore, lost.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, in
+presenting again the resolution which was withdrawn by me to give
+place to the resolution offered by our colleagues from France, having
+taken the advice from several members of the Conference with whom I
+consulted, it was thought best to offer a system of resolutions which
+should be responsive to the mandate under which we act. With the view
+of bringing the subject to the notice of all the members of the
+Conference, I caused copies of the resolutions which I hold in my hand
+to be sent to them.
+
+I have since heard that is has been held that these resolutions had
+been irregularly so communicated; that is, that the communication was
+made in a semi-official manner. I beg to express an entire disclaimer
+of anything of that sort. It was merely my individual action, and I
+desired to give notice of certain resolutions, with the sole view of
+having them fully understood before we met and to save time. I hope,
+therefore, that this excuse and explanation will be understood and
+accepted.
+
+These resolutions are founded, as far as may be, upon those adopted at
+Rome. They differ from them only in two points. In the counting of
+longitude the Conference at Rome proposed that it should take place
+around the globe in one direction. This counting was to be in the
+direction from west to east.
+
+Very singularly, I find in the report of the proceedings of the Roman
+Conference no discussion on that subject. No questions were asked, nor
+were any reasons given, why it should be so counted, and yet it was an
+entire divergence from the usage of the world at that time. The
+wording of the resolution of the Conference at Rome is substantially
+this: That the counting of longitude should take place from the
+meridian of Greenwich in the single direction of west to east.
+
+It being my desire to avail myself, as far as possible, of the work of
+the Conference at Rome, I consulted with my colleagues here, and found
+that there was a great diversity of opinion. In the first place, some
+said we have always counted longitude both ways, east to west and west
+to east. Shall we cease to do that? Those who claimed that it was a
+more scientific way to count all around the globe immediately differed
+on the direction in which the longitude should be counted. Without
+going into any argument as to which of these methods would be the best
+or most convenient, I propose, by the second resolution, that we
+should go on in the old way, and count longitude from the initial
+meridian in each direction.
+
+One of the objects of the third resolution is to make the new
+universal day coincide with the civil day rather than with the
+astronomical day. In the Conference at Rome the universal day was made
+to coincide with the astronomical day. It seems to me that the
+inconvenience of that system would be so great that we ought to
+hesitate before adopting it. For us in America, perhaps the
+inconvenience would not be so very great, but for such countries as
+France and England, and those lying about the initial meridian, the
+inconvenience would be very great, for the morning hours would be one
+day, and the afternoon hours would be another day. That seems to me to
+be a very great objection.
+
+It was simply, therefore, to obviate this difficulty that this
+resolution was offered. I hope, notwithstanding, that some day, not
+far distant, all these conflicting days, the local, the universal, the
+nautical, and the astronomical, may start from some one point. This
+hope I have the greater reason to cherish since I have communicated
+with the distinguished gentlemen who are here present, and it was with
+that hope before me that I framed the resolution so that the beginning
+of the day should be the midnight at the initial meridian, and not the
+mid-day. With this explanation, I now again move the adoption of the
+first resolution, which is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ here represented the adoption of the meridian passing
+ through the centre of the transit instrument at the
+ Observatory of Greenwich as the initial meridian for
+ longitude."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Conference has heard the resolution. Any remarks
+are now in order.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I think, sir, the
+resolution goes a little too far at a single leap. I beg leave,
+therefore, to move an amendment in harmony with the resolution, at the
+same time leaving it to be settled by a subsequent resolution, whether
+the zero be at Greenwich or at the other side of the globe.
+
+ "That a meridian proper, to be employed as a common zero in
+ the reckoning of longitude and the regulation of time
+ throughout the world, should be a great circle passing
+ through the poles and the centre of the transit instrument
+ at the Observatory of Greenwich."
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I desire merely
+to state, in reference to the amendment brought forward by one of our
+delegates, that the remaining delegates of Great Britain are by no
+means of the opinion expressed in that amendment, and that it is their
+intention, if it should come to a vote, to vote against it.
+
+The proposition to count longitude from a point 180 degrees from the
+meridian of Greenwich appears to them not to be accompanied by any
+advantage whatever. On the contrary, it must lead to inconvenience.
+You do not, by adopting the meridian opposite Greenwich, get rid of
+the nationality of the meridian. If there is objection to the meridian
+of Greenwich on account of its nationality, the meridian of 180
+degrees from Greenwich is subject to the same objection. The one half
+is just as national as the other half.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The chair would say that no specific meridian is
+mentioned in the amendment.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. That is true, but, at the same
+time, it should be said that the meridian described is ambiguous. It
+is the meridian that passes through the poles and the centre of the
+transit instrument of the Observatory of Greenwich. That is the
+language of the amendment. But it is intended to apply to only
+one-half of the great circle passing through the poles, that is to the
+distant half of the meridian rather than to the nearer half. Unless it
+defines which half it is intended to take, the amendment is ambiguous,
+and it is not proper to be voted on.
+
+Mr. MILES ROCK, Delegate of Guatemala. Mr. President, It may be well
+to hear the words of the original resolution, in order that we can
+clearly see the relation of the amendment to that resolution.
+
+The original resolution of the Delegate of the United States was then
+read.
+
+Baron VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate of Germany. Mr. President, I think
+that in this amendment offered by the Delegate of Great Britain two
+questions are mixed up together. The first thing for us to do is to
+fix upon a prime meridian; the second thing to settle is the question
+whether the adoption of a universal day is desirable or not. If we
+adopt this amendment, these two questions are involved in one vote.
+Therefore, I think that they should be divided, for they are not
+appropriate in the form in which they are presented.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain. I ask permission to speak, in order to
+explain my vote. The Government which I represent here has told me to
+accept the Greenwich meridian as the international meridian for
+longitudes, but I think it my duty to say that, though the question
+does not arise in this debate, that Spain accepts this in the hope
+that England and the United States will accept on their part the
+metric system as she has done herself. I only wish to state this, and
+I have no intention of making it a subject of discussion. I shall only
+add that I believe Italy is similarly situated with Spain in this
+matter.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would say with great deference to the
+distinguished Delegate from Spain that the question of weights and
+measures is beyond the scope of this Conference. The invitation given
+by the Government of the United States to the nations here represented
+was for a distinct and specific purpose, the selection of a prime
+meridian, a zero of longitude throughout the world and a standard of
+time-reckoning. So far as the Chair is informed, it would not be in
+order at this Conference to discuss a question of metric system.
+
+Mr. JUAN VALERA, Delegate of Spain. My only intention in making these
+remarks was to verify a fact. I know very well that we have not to
+discuss that question. Besides, the Government which I represent
+expresses only a hope, and I know we do not insert any hopes in our
+protocols; but I thought it my duty to make this declaration.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. I desire to make some remarks on the
+question when it is put to a vote; for the time being I shall only say
+a few words on the remarks of my honorable colleague, the Delegate of
+Spain, Mr. Valera. I believe that though the question of weights and
+measures is not before the Conference, it is allowable for a member to
+state, in the name of his Government, the conditions to which his vote
+has been subordinated. Even though the question is not under
+discussion, it may appear from such an explanation that the vote is
+conditional, instead of being a simple affirmation. If my honorable
+colleague has received from his Government instructions to subordinate
+his vote to such or such a condition, even when the question to which
+it is subordinated is not submitted to the Conference, it follows from
+it, according to me, and everybody will admit it, that the
+consequences of that vote are at least conditional.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain. My Government has charged me to express
+here its hopes and desires, but the vote which I have given is not, in
+my opinion, conditional; for I have received instructions to pronounce
+in favor of the Greenwich meridian to measure the degrees of
+longitude. However, it was necessary for me to say at the same time
+that it was with the hope that England and the United States would
+adopt the French weights and measure.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. While I entirely agree
+with the view which the Chair has taken of the question whether the
+adoption of metrical weights and measures is before this
+Conference--namely, that it is beyond our competence to discuss
+it--yet I am glad to have the opportunity of saying that I am
+authorized to state that Great Britain, after considering the opinions
+which were expressed at Rome, has desired that it may be allowed to
+join the Convention du metre. The arrangements for that purpose, when
+I left my country, were either completed, or were in course of
+completion, so that, as a matter of fact, Great Britain henceforth
+will be, as regards its system of weights and measures, exactly in the
+same position as the United States.
+
+In Great Britain the use of metrical weights and measures is
+authorized by law. Contracts can be made in which they are used, and
+the department which regulates the weights and measures of Great
+Britain is charged, consequently, with the duty of providing properly
+authenticated standard metric weights and measures for purposes of
+verification. It is quite true that the Government of England does not
+hold out any expectation that she will adopt the compulsory use of the
+metric system, either at the present time, or, so far as that goes, at
+any future time; but it is a well known fact--and in saying this I
+shall be supported, I have no doubt, by the views of the eminent
+scientific men of my own country who are here present--that there is a
+strong feeling on the part of scientific men of England that, sooner
+or later, she will be likely to join in the use of that system, which,
+no doubt, is an extremely good one, and which, so far as purely
+scientific purposes are concerned, is largely in use at the present
+time.
+
+Mr. VALERA, Delegate of Spain. I desire to thank the honorable
+Delegate of England, General Strachey, for the friendly words which he
+has just pronounced, and to felicitate myself for having manifested
+the desire and hope of my Government that England should accept the
+weights and measures which have been accepted in Spain and in other
+parts of the European continent.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. Mr. Chairman, I cannot pretend to
+make any suggestion of any technical value on the question now before
+us. I only rise to add a few words to the views which have been so
+authoritatively expounded to you by Prof. JANSSEN, in order to explain
+clearly the situation of the French Government in this important
+discussion.
+
+It is henceforth evident, after the instructive debate at which we
+have just assisted, that the meridian of Greenwich is not a scientific
+one, and that its adoption implies no progress for astronomy, geodesy,
+or navigation; that is to say, for all the branches and pursuits of
+human activity interested in the unification at which we aim.
+
+Thus, science is absolutely disinterested in the selection which we
+are now discussing and that fact I wish to emphasize particularly, as
+we are about to take a vote which we can easily anticipate by the one
+we had a few minutes ago, in order that the opponents of the
+resolution may not be accused of obstructing progress and the great
+aims of science for private interests.
+
+If, on the contrary, any conclusion is to be drawn from the
+instructive debate at which we have assisted, it is that the
+principal, I will say more, the only merit of the Greenwich
+meridian--and our colleague from Great Britain just now reminded us of
+it by enumerating with complacency the tonnage of British and American
+shipping--is that there are grouped around it, interests to be
+respected, I will acknowledge it willingly, by their magnitude, their
+energy, and their power of increasing, but entirely devoid of any
+claim on the impartial solicitude of science. To strengthen my
+assertion, gentlemen, I fall back upon the arguments brought forward
+by Mr. Hirsch in his remarkable report to the Geodetic Conference at
+Rome, arguments that evidently carried the vote of that assembly.
+
+The Greenwich meridian, says that report, corresponds to an empire
+that embraces twenty million square kilometres and a population of two
+hundred and fifty millions. Her merchant marine, which counts 40,000
+ships of a tonnage from six to nine million tons, and crews of
+370,000 men, surpasses in importance all the other marines put
+together. Other States, equally important by their merchant marine,
+especially the United States, make use of the Greenwich meridian.
+Well, gentlemen, if we weigh these reasons--the only ones that have
+been set forth, the only ones that at present militate for the
+Greenwich meridian--is it not evident that these are material
+superiorities, commercial preponderances that are going to influence
+your choice? Science appears here only as the humble vassal of the
+powers of the day to consecrate and crown their success. But,
+gentlemen, nothing is so transitory and fugitive as power and riches.
+All the great empires of the world, all financial, industrial, and
+commercial prosperities of the world, have given us a proof of it,
+each in turn.
+
+So long as there are not in polities or commerce any scientific means
+by which to fix, to enchain fortune, I see no reason to fix, to
+enchain, to subordinate, so to say, science to their fate.
+
+The character of the proposed determination of the initial meridian is
+so evident, that the reporter of the Conference at Rome, Mr. Hirsch,
+admits it implicitly, for recognizing that the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich is a sacrifice for France, he asks that England
+should respond by a similar concession, by favoring the definitive
+adoption of the metric system, and by acceding to the Convention of
+the metre which furnishes to all States metric standards rigorously
+compared. Thus, Mr. Hirsch, in a spirit of justice, wished to make for
+each a balance of profit and loss--evident proof that the question was
+of a commercial, and of no scientific advantage. I am not aware, and
+my mission is not to discover, whether the bargain might have been
+accepted by France. However, it is with great pleasure that I heard
+our colleague from England declare that his Government was ready to
+join the international metric convention, but I notice, with sorrow,
+that our situation in this Congress is not as favorable as that of
+Rome, since the total abandonment of our meridian is proposed without
+any compensation.
+
+At Rome the adoption of the metric system of weights and measures, of
+which France had the glorious initiative, was held out to us, but here
+we are simply invited to sacrifice traditions dear to our navy, to
+national science, by adding to that immolation pecuniary sacrifices.
+
+We are assuredly very much flattered that there should be attributed
+to us sufficient abnegation to elevate us to that double heroism. We
+wish that we were able to justify such a flattering opinion, and
+especially we should like to be encouraged by examples. There are at
+this very moment magnificent transformations to be realized for
+the progress of science, and of the friendly relations of
+nations--unification of weights and measures, adoption of a common
+standard of moneys, and many other innovations of a well recognized
+utility, infinitely more pressing and more practical than that of
+meridians. When the discussion of these great questions is begun, let
+each nation come and bring its share of sacrifices for this
+international progress. France, according to her usage, I may say so
+without vain glory as without false modesty, France will not remain
+behind. For the present we decline the honor of immolating ourselves
+alone for progress of a problematic, and eminently secondary order;
+and it is with perfect tranquillity of conscience that we declare that
+we do not concur in the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich,
+persuaded as we are that France does not incur the reproach of
+retarding and of obstructing the march of science by abstaining from
+participating in this decision.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Unless some other Delegate desires to speak, the
+question will be put upon the amendment of the Delegate of Great
+Britain, Mr. FLEMING.
+
+The question was then put, and the amendment was lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair sees upon the floor to-day, as the guest of
+this Conference, one of the most distinguished scientists, who was
+invited to be present at our meetings, Sir WILLIAM THOMSON, whose name
+is known the world over in connection with subjects kindred to this we
+are now discussing. If it be the pleasure of the Conference to ask Sir
+WILLIAM THOMSON briefly to express his views, the Chair would be very
+happy to make the invitation.
+
+The Chair, hearing no dissent, takes pleasure in introducing Sir
+WILLIAM THOMSON.
+
+Sir WILLIAM THOMSON. Mr. President and Gentlemen, I thank you for
+permitting me to be present on this occasion, and I thank you also for
+giving me the opportunity of expressing myself in reference to the
+subject under discussion. I only wish that the permission which you
+have so kindly given me may conduce to the objects of this Conference
+more than I can hope any words of mine can do.
+
+The question immediately under discussion is, I understand, the
+proposal that the meridian passing through the centre of the
+instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich shall be adopted as the
+initial meridian of longitude, and it does seem to me that this is a
+practical question; that this resolution expresses a practical
+conclusion that it is expected by the world the present Conference may
+reach. It is expected that the resolutions adopted will be for the
+general convenience, and not for the decision of a scientific
+question. It is the settlement of a question which is a matter of
+business arrangement. The question is, what will be most convenient,
+on the whole, for the whole world.
+
+It cannot be said that one meridian is more scientific than another,
+but it can be said that one meridian is more convenient for practical
+purposes than another, and I think that this may be said pre-eminently
+of the meridian of Greenwich.
+
+I do most sincerely and fervently hope that the Delegates from France
+and from the other nations who voted for the preceding resolution will
+see their way to adopt the resolution that is now before the
+Conference. It does seem to me that it is a question of sacrifice, and
+I do trust that the honorable Delegate from France who spoke last, Mr.
+LEFAIVRE, will see that France is not being asked to make any
+sacrifice that it was not prepared to make.
+
+In the admirable and interesting addresses which Mr. JANSSEN has given
+to this Conference, (which I had not the pleasure or satisfaction of
+hearing, but which I have read with great interest,) the readiness of
+France to make a much greater sacrifice than that which is now
+proposed was announced. The amount of sacrifice involved in making
+any change from an existing usage must always be more or less great,
+because it cannot be said that it is a matter of no trouble to make
+such a change; but what I may be allowed to suggest is that the
+sacrifice which France was ready to make would be very much greater
+than that which would be made by adopting the resolution now pending.
+
+If the resolution for a neutral meridian had been adopted, all nations
+would have to make the sacrifice necessary for a change to a meridian
+not actually determined, and the relations of which could not be so
+convenient with those meridians already adopted as are the relations
+between the meridians now in use with that of Greenwich. It does seem
+to me that if the Delegates of France could see their way to adopt
+this resolution, they would have no occasion whatever to regret it.
+
+I sympathize deeply with what has been said in regard to a common
+metrical system. I have a very strong opinion upon this subject, which
+I will not express, however, if it meets any objection from the Chair;
+but it seems to me that England is making a sacrifice in not adopting
+the metrical system. The question, however, cannot be put in that way.
+We are not here to consider whether England would gain or lose by
+adopting the metrical system. That is not the way to view this
+question at all, because whether England should adopt the metrical
+system is a matter for its own convenience and use, and whether it
+adopts it or not, other nations are not affected by its course. It
+would not at all be for the benefit or the reverse of other nations.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would be very glad to hear Sir WM. THOMSON'S
+views on this subject if it were before the Conference for discussion,
+but it is not.
+
+Sir WILLIAM THOMSON. I beg pardon for having mentioned it.
+
+I would repeat that the adoption of the meridian of Greenwich is one
+of convenience. The difference of other meridians from it is readily
+ascertained, and therefore it seems to me that the minimum of trouble
+will be entailed on the world by the general adoption of the meridian
+of Greenwich. This would require the minimum of change, and,
+furthermore, the changes which would be necessary are already wholly
+ascertained.
+
+I would inquire of the Chair whether it would be in order for me to
+allude to the resolutions number 2 and 3, which have been read?
+
+The PRESIDENT. I think that we must confine ourselves to the subject
+immediately under discussion--the adoption of a prime meridian.
+
+Sir WILLIAM THOMSON. Then I have only to thank you and the Delegates
+for allowing me to speak, and to express my very strong approbation of
+the resolution that has been proposed.
+
+Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain, then made the following
+remarks:
+
+In view of the interesting information furnished to the Congress by M.
+JANSSEN on the hydrographic labors of France, past and present, and of
+the results as represented by the number of Government charts; it has
+appeared to myself--as having held the office of hydrographer to the
+Admiralty of Great Britain for many years--in which opinion I am
+supported by my colleagues, that I should place at the disposal of the
+Congress certain statistical facts bearing on the great interests of
+navigation and commerce, as illustrated by the number of marine
+charts, of sailing directions, and of nautical almanacs annually
+produced under the authority of the British Government, and of their
+distribution.
+
+I would wish to disclaim any comparison in this respect with the
+labors of other countries. From personal knowledge I am aware that all
+nations--with only one or two exceptions--are, and especially so in
+the last few years, diligent in the development of hydrography, and
+that a cordial interchange of the results unfettered by any conditions
+is steadily being pursued.
+
+With this preface I would lay before you the following statements,
+observing that the shores of the whole navigable parts of the globe
+are embraced in the series of Admiralty charts referred to:
+
+The number of copper chart plates in constant use is between 2,850 and
+2,900. This number keeps up steadily. About 60 new plates are added
+every year.
+
+Average number of copper plates annually receiving correction amount
+to 2,700.
+
+Total number of charts annually printed for the daily use of the ships
+of Her Majesty's fleet in commission, and for sale to the general
+public, has for some years ranged between 180,000 and 230,000.
+
+The sale of Admiralty charts to the public through an authorized
+agent, both in London and at other commercial ports in the kingdom,
+has been for the last seven years as follows:
+
+ 1877................................104,562
+ 1878................................109,881
+ 1879................................103,943
+ 1880................................114,430
+ 1881................................118,542
+ 1882................................131,801
+ 1883................................157,325
+
+Of these numbers, about one-fifth have been purchased by the
+governments or agents of Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Russia,
+Turkey, and the United States. The appended list, which was furnished
+to me by the Admiralty Chart agent during the present year, gives the
+more precise particulars.
+
++-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+| | |Ger- |United | | | | | |
+|Years. |France.|many. |States.|Italy.|Russia.|Turkey.|Austria.|Total. |
++-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+|1877 ..| 2,039 | 5,184| 2,067 | 1,518| 11,763| | | 22,561|
+|1878 ..| 5,741 | 3,381| 2,641 | 2,645| 5,651| | 600 | 20,529|
+|1879 ..| 3,340 | 6,425| 5,185 | 802| 9,354| | 641 | 25,747|
+|1880 ..| 5,793 | 5,280| 1,879 | 797| 10,145| 519 | 376 | 24,788|
+|1881 ..| 4,418 | 3,640| 1,273 | 2,694| 3,406| 1,160 | 996 | 17,587|
+|1882 ..| 7,454 | 5,656| 1,716 | 2,569| 4,245| 115 | 1,197 | 22,952|
+|1888 ..| 5,592 | 7,882| 6,174 | 2,607| 6,280| 2,368 | 2,158 | 32,961|
+|1884 | | | | | | | | |
+|(1st | | | | | | | | |
+|quar.) | 1,367 | 2,261| 2,942 | 908| 2,186| 429 | 677 | 10,670|
+| +-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+| |35,741 |39,679|23,867 |14,440| 52,930| 4,591 | 6,544 |177,795|
++-------+-------+------+-------+------+-------+-------+--------+-------+
+
+But the chart resources of the British Admiralty, great as they are,
+do not suffice to meet the requirements of the smaller class ships of
+the mercantile marine of Great Britain. There are three commercial
+firms in London who publish special charts, based, however, on
+admiralty documents, to satisfy this demand. On inquiry I found that
+these firms publish 640 charts, which, from their large size, require
+about 930 copper plates. I am not able to furnish the number of charts
+sold by these firms, but it is large.
+
+Supplementary to the Admiralty Charts, there are 51 volumes of Sailing
+Directions. Several of these volumes exceed 500 pages, and have passed
+through several editions. Private commercial firms also, in addition
+to their charts, publish directions for many parts of the globe. These
+include regions with which the Admiralty have not yet, notwithstanding
+great diligence, been able to deal.
+
+The annual sales of nautical almanacs for the past seven years have
+been:
+
+ 1877................................18,439
+ 1878................................16,408
+ 1879................................16,290
+ 1880................................14,561
+ 1881................................15,870
+ 1882................................15,071
+ 1883................................15,535
+
+I think, sir, that these are salient points, which will assist the
+Conference in coming to a clearer view of the great interest which
+navigation and commerce have in the charts of a particular country.
+
+The question was then put on the adoption of the resolution offered by
+the Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, as follows:
+
+ "That the Conference proposes to the Governments here
+ represented the adoption of the meridian passing through the
+ transit instrument at the Observatory of Greenwich as the
+ initial meridian for longitude."
+
+The roll was called, and the different States voted as follows:
+
+In the affirmative--
+
+ Austria, Mexico,
+ Chili, Netherlands,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Columbia, Russia,
+ Germany, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Sweden,
+ Guatemala, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, Venezuela,
+ Japan, United States.
+ Liberia,
+
+In the negative--
+
+ San Domingo.
+
+Abstaining from voting--
+
+ Brazil, France.
+
+The result was then announced, as follows:
+
+Ayes, 21; noes, 1; abstaining from voting, 2.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the resolution was passed.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. In the name of the Delegates for
+Russia I have now, at this point of the discussion, to say a few
+words.
+
+If we had to consider the scientific side alone of the questions,
+which have already been discussed and resolved by the prominent
+scientists of the different countries at the General Conference of the
+International Geodetical Association at Rome, in 1883, we might as
+well simply adhere to the resolutions of the Roman Conference, and
+limit our work to the shaping of these resolutions into the form of a
+draft of an international convention, to be submitted for approbation
+to our respective Governments. But, as we have, besides, to consider
+the application of the intended reform to practical life, we beg to
+submit the following suggestions to the kind attention of the
+Conference.
+
+It is important to find for the more densely populated countries the
+simplest mode possible of transition from local to universal time, and
+_vice versa_; and we believe, therefore, that it would be convenient
+for the practical purposes of the question to adopt for the beginning
+of the universal day the midnight of Greenwich, and not the noon, as
+was deemed advisable by the Conference of Rome.
+
+This modification would offer for the whole of Europe and for the
+greatest part of America the advantage of avoiding the double date in
+local and universal time during the principal business hours of the
+day, and would afford great facilities in the transition from local
+time to universal.
+
+In adopting the universal time for the astronomical almanacs and for
+astronomical ephemerides, and in counting the beginning of the day
+from the midnight of Greenwich, there would be, it is true, a
+modification of the astronomical chronology, as heretofore used; but
+we think it easier for the astronomers to change the starting point,
+and to make allowance for these 12 hours of difference in their
+calculations, than it would be for the public and for the business
+men, if the date for the universal time began at noon, and not at
+midnight.
+
+The Conference at Rome proposes to count the longitudes from O deg. to
+360 deg. in the direction from west to east. It seems to us that this
+system can lead to misunderstanding in the local and universal
+chronology for the countries beyond the 180 deg. east of Greenwich.
+
+We believe that a more practical result of the reform could be easily
+obtained by modifying the clause IV of the resolutions of the Roman
+Conference, and by maintaining the system already in use for a long
+time, which is to count the longitudes from 0 deg. to 180 deg. to east and
+west, adopting the sign + for eastern longitudes, and the sign - for
+western longitudes Thus the transition from universal to local time
+could be exactly expressed by the formula:
+
+Universal time = Local time - Longitude.
+
+The adoption of this modification would necessitate that the change of
+the day of the week, historically established on or about the
+anti-meridian of Greenwich, should henceforth take place exactly on
+that meridian.
+
+We are in favor of the adoption of the universal time (clause V of the
+resolutions of the Roman Conference) side by side with the local time,
+for international telegraphic correspondence, and for through
+international lines by railroads and steamers.
+
+We fully accept the resolution of the Roman Conference concerning the
+introduction of the system of counting the hours of the universal day
+from 0 to 24; and we think it desirable that the same system should be
+introduced for counting the hours in ordinary life. This would greatly
+contribute to the disappearance of the arbitrary division of the day
+into two parts, a. m. and p. m., and to an easier transition from
+local to universal time.
+
+We think it advisable to mark on all general maps the meridians in
+time as well as in degrees of longitude, which would render the reform
+familiar to the public, and facilitate its introduction in the
+education of the young.
+
+On maritime charts the longitudes ought to be given in degrees, as
+these are necessary for the determination of distances in maritime
+miles.
+
+The topographical maps may maintain temporarily their national
+meridian, in consequence of the difficulties of the modification of
+the co-ordinates for plates already engraved; but it would be
+necessary to mark on every sheet the difference between the national
+and the initial universal meridian in degrees of longitude.
+
+It would be most desirable to have in all new geographical catalogues
+of astronomical and geodetical points the longitudes given in degrees
+as well as in time, and that in these new catalogues the new initial
+meridian be taken as the starting point for the longitudes.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair has listened with great interest and pleasure
+to the paper which has just been read by the Delegate of Russia, Mr.
+DE STRUVE, but the Chair begs to state that there is no resolution
+before the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair will now direct the second resolution to be
+read.
+
+The resolution was read, as follows:
+
+ "From this meridian" (_i.e._, the meridian passing through
+ the centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory at
+ Greenwich) "longitude shall be counted in two directions up
+ to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus and west longitude
+ minus."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, In
+submitting this resolution to the Conference, I wish to say that the
+remarks of the Delegate of Russia have increased my confidence in the
+belief of its propriety.
+
+Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, the
+establishment of a prime meridian has, from the force of
+circumstances, become of practical importance to certain interests
+entrusted with vast responsibilities for the safety of life and
+property. These interests bear an important relation to the commerce
+of the world, and especially to the internal commerce of an extent of
+country embracing within its limits about sixty-five degrees of
+longitude. Exactness of time reckoning is an imperative necessity in
+the conduct of business.
+
+On November 18, 1883, the several railway companies of the United
+States and the Dominion of Canada united in the adoption of the mean
+local times of the seventy-fifth, ninetieth, one hundred and fifth,
+and one hundred and twentieth meridians, west from Greenwich, as the
+standards of time for the operation of their roads. The system under
+which they have since been working has proved satisfactory. They have
+no desire to make any further change. A large majority of the people
+in the several sections of the country through which the railways pass
+have either by mutual consent or special legislation adopted for their
+local use, for all purposes, the standards of time employed by the
+adjacent roads. Upon the public and working railway time-tables
+generally the fact has been published that the trains are run by the
+time of the seventy-fifth or ninetieth, etc., meridians, as the case
+may be.
+
+The same standards are used by the Railway Mail Service of the United
+States Post-office Department, which had previously used Washington
+time exclusively for through schedules.
+
+It will at once be apparent how undesirable any action would be to the
+transportation interests of this country, which should so locate the
+prime meridian as to require these time-standard meridians to be
+designated by other than exact degrees of longitude. That these
+standard meridians should continue to be designated as even multiples
+of fifteen degrees from Greenwich is regarded as decidedly preferable.
+To change to different standards, based upon exact degrees of some
+other prime meridian, would require an amount of legislation very
+difficult to obtain.
+
+At a convention of the managers of many important railway lines which
+control through their connections fully three-fourths of the entire
+railway system of this country, held in Philadelphia on October 9,
+1884, certain action was taken, of which I have the honor to present a
+duly attested copy.
+
+ "At a meeting of the _General Railway Time Convention_, held
+ in _Philadelphia, October 9th, 1884_, the following minute
+ was unanimously adopted:
+
+ "_Whereas_, An International Conference is now in session at
+ Washington, D. C., for the purpose of fixing upon a prime
+ meridian and standard of time-reckoning; and
+
+ "_Whereas_, The railway companies of the United States and
+ Canada have adopted a system of time standards based,
+ respectively, upon the mean local times of the 75th, 90th,
+ 105th, and 120th meridians west from Greenwich, and this
+ system has proved so satisfactory in its working as to
+ render any further change inexpedient and unnecessary;
+ therefore
+
+ "_Resolved_, That it is the opinion of this Convention that
+ the selection of any prime meridian which would change the
+ denomination of these governing meridians from even degrees
+ and make them fractional in their character would be
+ disturbing in no small measure to the transportation lines
+ of the United States and Canada.
+
+ "_Resolved_, That a duly attested copy of these resolution
+ be presented to the Conference."
+
+ P. P. WRIGHT,
+ _Chairman._
+
+ Attest: HENRY B. STONE,
+ _Secretary pro tempore_.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. Mr. President, I propose as an
+amendment to the resolution just offered the fourth resolution adopted
+by the Congress at Rome:
+
+ "It is proper to count longitude from the meridian of
+ Greenwich in one direction from west to east."
+
+Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate of Germany. Mr. President, I beg to
+state that I think that this is only a question of detail; and, if the
+question is put to the Conference, I shall not be able to vote, and I
+shall abstain from voting.
+
+The PRESIDENT. May I ask the Delegate from Germany whether his remark
+applies to the amendment?
+
+Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Delegate of Germany. Yes, sir; to the
+amendment, and to the resolution, also.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of England. Mr. President, I must say that I am
+very much inclined to agree with the Delegate of Germany in the
+opinion that this is only a question of detail.
+
+It is a mere matter of convenience whether we count longitudes in one
+direction only, or in two opposite directions, considering longitudes
+measured in one direction as positive and in the opposite direction as
+negative. These two methods are nominally different from each other,
+but in reality there is no contradiction between them.
+
+In the mathematical reckoning of angles we may agree to begin at zero,
+and reckon in one direction round the entire circumference of 360
+degrees, but this does not prevent a mathematician, if he finds it
+convenient for any purpose, from reckoning angles as positive when
+measured in one direction, and negative when measured in the opposite
+direction.
+
+If angles be considered positive when reckoned towards the east, it is
+quite consistent with this usage that they should be considered
+negative when reckoned towards the west.
+
+It is much more convenient to consider all angles as positive in
+astronomical tables, but for other purposes it may be more convenient
+to employ negative angles also, especially when, by so doing, you
+avoid the use of large numbers.
+
+In comparatively small countries, like Great Britain for instance, it
+is more convenient when giving the longitude of a place in the west of
+England to consider it as being a few degrees west of Greenwich,
+rather than 350 and some degrees to the east of that meridian.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, while
+I think the question of reckoning longitude is a matter of detail, I
+think it devolves upon us to decide it one way or the other.
+Navigators are more interested in the question than mathematicians,
+and the longitudes must be engraved upon our hydrographic charts.
+
+Now, as the learned Delegate of Great Britain, Prof. ADAMS, who has
+just spoken, has stated, the principle involved is the same, whether
+we reckon east or west, or reckon continuously in the same direction.
+It seems to me, however, that when we come to consider the reckoning
+of longitude in connection with the adoption of a universal day, we
+should then make a decided choice in favor of counting longitude from
+zero to 360 degrees. If we adopt the resolution which my friend, the
+Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, has offered, it will be
+in perfect conformity with the habits of the world. For that reason,
+and it is a very strong reason, I think it might be adopted; but a
+little consideration will show that if we reckon the longitude from
+zero to 360 degrees, east to west, then we will change the existing
+practice of reckoning longitude; but, of course, only in one
+hemisphere, and that will be eastward of the prime meridian; but, as
+we shall all remember, to the eastward of the prime meridian we have
+the main portions of the continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa, and
+in all the navigable water lying in the other hemisphere the longitude
+will continue to be reckoned as now. To navigators of the water lying
+to the eastward of the prime meridian there will be a change in the
+method of counting longitude both ways, it would be necessary to adopt
+two different rules for converting local into universal time.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Oh! no; by no means.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. For although one
+rule would answer, by having regard to the algebraical sign affecting
+the longitude, it must be remembered that this rule is to be applied
+by many who are not accustomed to distinguishing east and west
+longitudes by a difference of sign, and who would therefore require
+one rule when the longitude is east and another when it is west. If,
+however, we adopt the method of reckoning from zero to 360 degrees,
+from east to west, the relation existing between the local and the
+universal time becomes the simplest possible. To obtain the universal
+date and hour, under these circumstances, it only becomes necessary to
+add the longitude to the local time, understanding by local time the
+local date as well as the local hour. I think, for this reason, it
+will be preferable to reckon the longitude in one direction from east
+to west, instead of west to east.
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. I would like to
+present a few words on behalf of seamen. There is clearly an important
+change proposed by the amendment. In the resolution before us it is
+simply a question of the reckoning of longitude as now employed by
+seamen of all nations, and I think it would be well to keep that fact
+separate from the reckoning of time.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair begs to state that the discussion is now upon
+the amendment of the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, to adopt
+the fourth resolution of the Congress at Rome.
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. Then I consider that,
+in the interest of seamen, it would be very undesirable to accept the
+amendment. We must recollect that an immense deal of the world's
+traffic is carried around the world entirely by sea, and that this
+proposed dislocation of the methods of seamen by reckoning longitude
+in one direction only would, to say the least, be extremely
+inconvenient, and it would require considerable time for them to get
+into the habit of doing so. I think, however, that as to the question
+of time, there would be no difference of opinion; doubtless, it is the
+easier method; but, as we have to look at the practical side of this
+calculation of longitude, I must certainly disagree with the amendment
+and vote for the original resolution.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain, then presented the following
+amendment:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes to the Governments
+ here represented that longitude shall be counted from the
+ prime meridian westward, in the direction opposite to the
+ terrestrial rotation, and reckoned from zero degrees to 360
+ degrees, and from zero hours to 24 hours."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question before the Conference now is the amendment
+of the Delegate of Sweden. If the Delegate of Spain desires to offer
+his resolution as an amendment to the amendment already offered, the
+Chair will place it before the Conference.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain. I am in accord with the views
+expressed by our colleague, Commander SAMPSON, and I propose the
+resolution which I have just presented.
+
+Mr. VALERA, the Delegate of Spain. I believe the amendment proposed by
+my colleague, Mr. PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain, does not apply to the
+amendment of the Delegate of Sweden, but to the original resolution.
+In order to avoid all ambiguity it would be much better to discuss
+them one after the other. Therefore let us decide the question whether
+it is better to count up to 180 deg. in each direction or up to 360 deg.
+continuously. Then we can go on to something else.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In order to meet the views expressed by Mr. VALERA, the
+Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN will withdraw his amendment, and the
+Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, will propose the substance of
+his original resolution so modified in form that its details may be
+considered separately.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain. In conformity with the statement
+of the President, I now withdraw my amendment.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I beg to offer the following
+propositions in the form of amendments to the original resolution
+offered by the Delegate of the United States; these may be discussed
+in succession:
+
+ "1. That from this prime meridian (the Greenwich meridian)
+ longitude shall be counted in one direction."
+
+ "2. That such longitude shall be counted from west to east."
+ Or, in place of No. 2--
+
+ "3. That such longitude shall be counted from east to west."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Delegates from Sweden and Spain have agreed as to
+the first part of the resolution, that longitude shall be counted in
+one direction--that is, from zero to 360 degrees. The question before
+the Conference is now upon the first clause of the resolution, and the
+other two will be subsequently discussed.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. I think it is impossible
+to proceed to a vote upon these propositions without bearing in mind
+what is to be decided as to the universal day. That day, as it appears
+to me, will have to be determined with reference to the initial
+meridian in such manner as to prevent, as far as possible,
+inconvenience from discontinuity of local time and date in passing
+around the world.
+
+No matter how longitude is calculated, you must necessarily arrive at
+discontinuity at some point in passing around the great circle of the
+earth. It seems to me that the most convenient way of counting both
+longitude and time is that the discontinuity in both shall take place
+on the same point on the earth. Now, certainly, as was observed at
+Rome, it will be far less inconvenient if the discontinuity of date
+takes place on the meridian of 180 degrees from Greenwich. Then the
+reckoning of local time all around the world, going from west to east
+in the direction of the earth's rotation, will be continuous.
+
+In any other way, as far as I can see, there will be a discontinuity
+at some point on the inhabited part of the earth. If the
+discontinuity were to take place on the meridian of Greenwich, as has
+been proposed by the Conference at Rome, the dates will change there
+during the daytime. That, as it appears to me, will be extremely
+inconvenient.
+
+In order to harmonize what I have called the discontinuity of date
+with the discontinuity in the reckoning of longitude, it appears to me
+that it will be best to reckon the longitude in both directions. There
+will be no discontinuity then except on the 180th meridian. It would
+be very inconvenient for a great part of the civilized world if the
+resolution which has been offered should be adopted, if, as I presume
+it would do, it caused discontinuity both in longitude and local time
+in Europe.
+
+After all, what are we here to endeavor to do? Notwithstanding what
+has been said in the other direction, for my part I must say that the
+great object before us is to secure the greatest convenience of the
+whole civilized world, and it seems to me that we should try to obtain
+it.
+
+If there is no very strong reason for altering the existing system of
+counting longitudes, it appears to me that this is a very excellent
+reason in favor of maintaining it. I do not see myself that, for any
+practical purpose, anything would be gained by reckoning longitude
+from zero to 360 degrees. There may be some special scientific
+purposes for which it may be convenient, but the object which this
+resolution is intended to meet is of another character.
+
+What we want is longitude for ordinary purposes, and on that hangs the
+reckoning of universal time, which, of course, should be for the
+general use of the whole world.
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I doubt
+whether I should trouble the Conference in reference to this point. I
+think, however, that it is a matter of little importance whether we
+consider longitude as positive, when reckoned toward the east, and
+negative, when reckoned to the west, or go on in one direction from
+zero to 360 degrees; it amounts, mathematically speaking, to the same
+thing. We never can consider mathematical lines or angles as positive
+in one direction, without implying that in the opposite direction
+they are negative. One of these is merely the complement of the other.
+
+For myself, I would say that there is no use in the Conference
+resolving that we should count longitude only in the eastwardly
+direction. The Conference may say that if longitude is reckoned
+towards the east, it shall be considered positive, and, if reckoned
+towards the west, negative; and that is all we should say. I do not
+think it is within the competence of the Conference to say that
+mathematicians shall reckon longitude only in one direction. Whether
+you choose to reckon right through to 360 degrees or not is a matter
+of detail, and of no importance in a scientific point of view. You can
+adopt one style or the other, according to which is found the more
+convenient in practice.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I would suggest that
+this matter of detail can very well be discussed and arranged by a
+committee, otherwise, it may take up the whole time of the Conference.
+I move, therefore, that a committee be appointed to take up this
+matter and report upon it at the next meeting.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair desires only to carry out the wish of the
+Conference, but it does not see clearly what we should gain by a
+committee. Still, if it be the desire of the Conference to order a
+committee, then the question will arise as to the organization of that
+committee, and the Chair would feel some hesitation in appointing it.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, if this
+was a new question, in regard to which we had heard no discussion, it
+would be eminently proper that we should put it into the hands of a
+committee to formalize and thereby to shorten our deliberations; but
+it seems to me that the appointment of a committee now would not help
+us at all. When the report of that committee came in, we should have
+to proceed exactly as we do now.
+
+There are only three questions before the Conference, and they come
+within very narrow limits. First, shall we count longitude both ways?
+Second, shall we count it all around the 360 degrees? Third, if so, in
+which direction is the counting to take place?
+
+These are the only three questions, and, after all, they are questions
+of convenience. We are just as capable of voting upon these
+propositions now as we should be after the appointment of a committee.
+
+Baron VON SCHAEFFER, Delegate of Austria-Hungary. Mr. President, I move
+that we adjourn until to-morrow at one o'clock P.M.
+
+The question upon the motion to adjourn was then put and adopted, and
+the Conference accordingly adjourned at 3.45 P.M. until Tuesday, the
+14th inst., at one o'clock P.M.
+
+
+
+
+V.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 14, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met, pursuant to adjournment, in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austro-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHAEFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. O. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. Wm. COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Salvador: Mr. ATONIO BATRES.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Mr.
+ JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Mr. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Senor Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+
+The PRESIDENT:
+
+The Chair begs leave to announce that, in the regular order of
+business, the first matter before the Conference to-day would have
+been the proposition of the Delegate of Great Britain, Mr. SANDFORD
+FLEMING, that a committee be appointed to consider a report upon the
+resolution offered by him yesterday. The Chair understood, however,
+from Mr. FLEMING this morning that he had no desire to press that
+proposition, and, therefore, it may be considered as withdrawn.
+
+The question then would be upon the amendment offered by the Delegate
+of Spain, Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, and if that amendment be withdrawn upon
+the amendment offered by the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT. The
+Chair understands that both of those gentlemen desire to withdraw
+their propositions temporarily, and, in that event, the first action
+to be taken will be upon the resolution offered by the Delegate of the
+United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD.
+
+Mr. RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey. In voting yesterday in favor
+of the resolutions proposed by the Hon. Delegate of the United States,
+I wish to have it well understood that my vote does not bind my
+Government. I am, indeed, obliged to vote against any proposition
+which would tend to bind it in any way, for I desire to leave it free
+to act in the matter.
+
+I engage to submit to my Government the result of our deliberations
+and to recommend their adoption, but that is all. In other words, I
+have only voted "_ad referendum_," and I ask that my statement be
+entered in the protocol.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would inform the Delegate who has just
+spoken that the same statement was made by several delegates at a
+former meeting of the Conference.
+
+M. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. I believe that the very correct
+doctrine just enunciated by the Delegate of Turkey, Mr. RUSTEM
+EFFENDI, is the one adopted by all the members of the Congress, and
+that we have all voted "_ad referendum_."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair so understood the general sense of the
+Conference as expressed at one of our former meetings, when many of
+the delegates made the same declaration.
+
+Mr. ANTONIO BATRES, Delegate of Salvador. Mr. President, I could not
+be present yesterday, on account of illness, and I now request
+permission to register my name in favor of the resolution adopting the
+meridian of Greenwich as the prime meridian.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Delegate of Salvador, Mr. BATRES, informs the Chair
+that he was not able to be present yesterday, on account of illness,
+and he desires that his name may be recorded as voting for the
+meridian of Greenwich. If there be no objection to the request of the
+Delegate to Salvador, his vote will be so entered.
+
+No objection being made, the President instructed the Secretary to
+make the proper entry in the protocol.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN, has withdrawn his
+amendment, and the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, has also
+withdrawn the amendment which he offered to the resolution of the
+Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD. The resolution
+originally offered will now be read.
+
+The Secretary then read the resolution, as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That from this meridian [_i.e._, the meridian
+ of Greenwich] longitude shall be counted in two directions
+ up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus, and west
+ longitude minus."
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain, representing the
+Dominion of Canada. I wish to offer some observations on the
+resolution before the Conference, but I am unable to separate the
+particular question from the general question. To my mind, longitude
+and time are so related that they are practically inseparable, and
+when I consider longitude, my thoughts naturally revert to time, by
+which it is measured. I trust, therefore, I may be permitted to extend
+my remarks somewhat beyond the immediate scope of the resolution. I
+agree with those who think that longitude should be reckoned in one
+direction only, and I am disposed to favor a mode of notation
+differing in other respects from that commonly followed.
+
+If a system of universal time be brought into use, advantages would
+result from having the system of time and the system of terrestrial
+longitude in complete harmony. The passage of time is continuous, and,
+therefore, I think longitude should be reckoned continuously. To
+convey my meaning fully, however, it is necessary that I should enter
+into explanations at some length.
+
+Ten days back I ventured informally to place my views, with a series
+of recommendations on this subject, before the delegates. I hope I may
+now be permitted to submit them to the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would inquire of the Conference whether the
+recommendations and remarks which were sent in print to the Delegates
+a few days ago by Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, the Delegate of Great Britain,
+may be entered upon the protocol as presented to-day. Each member was,
+it is understood, furnished with a copy of these papers.
+
+Mr. TUPPER, Delegate of Chili. The Delegates of Chili have not
+received them.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair will take care that they are sent.
+
+No objection was made to the request of the Delegate of Great Britain,
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, who continued as follows:
+
+The adoption of a Prime Meridian, common to all nations, admits of the
+establishment of a system of reckoning time equally satisfactory to
+our reason and our necessities.
+
+At present we are without such a system. The mode of notation followed
+by common usage from time immemorial, whatever its applicability to
+limited areas, when extended to a vast continent, with a net-work of
+lines of railway and telegraph, has led to confusion and created many
+difficulties. Further, it is insufficient for the purposes of
+scientific investigation, so marked a feature of modern inquiry.
+
+Taking the globe as a whole, it is not now possible precisely to
+define when a year or a month or a week begins. There is no such
+interval of time as the commonly defined day everywhere and
+invariable. By our accepted definition, a day is local; it is limited
+to a single meridian. At some point on the earth's surface one day is
+always at its commencement and another always ending. Thus, while the
+earth makes one diurnal revolution, we have continually many days in
+different stages of progress on our planet.
+
+Necessarily the hours and minutes partake of this normal irregularity.
+Clocks, the most perfect in mechanism, disagree if they differ in
+longitude. Indeed, if clocks are set to true time, as it is now
+designated, they must, at least in theory, vary not only in the same
+State or county, but to some extent in the same city.
+
+As we contemplate the general advance in knowledge, we cannot but feel
+surprised that these ambiguities and anomalies should be found,
+especially as they have been so long known and felt. In the early
+conditions of the human race, when existence was free from the
+complications which civilization has led to; in the days when tribes
+followed pastoral pursuits and each community was isolated from
+the other; when commerce was confined to few cities, and
+intercommunication between distant countries rare and difficult; in
+those days there was no requirement for a common system of uniform
+time. No inconvenience was felt in each locality having its own
+separate and distinct reckoning. But the conditions under which we
+live are no longer the same. The application of science to the means
+of locomotion and to the instantaneous transmission of thought and
+speech have gradually contracted space and annihilated distance. The
+whole world is drawn into immediate neighborhood and near
+relationship, and we have now become sensible to inconveniences and to
+many disturbing influences in our reckoning of time utterly unknown
+and even unthought of a few generations back. It is also quite
+manifest that, as civilization advances, such evils must greatly
+increase rather than be lessened, and that the true remedy lies in
+changing our traditional usages in respect to the notation of days and
+hours, whatever shock it may give to old customs and the prejudices
+engendered by them.
+
+In countries of limited extent, the difficulty is easily grappled
+with. By general understanding, an arrangement affecting the
+particular community may be observed, and the false principles which
+have led to the differences and disagreements can be set aside. In
+Great Britain the time of the Observatory at Greenwich is adopted for
+general use. But this involves a departure from the principles by
+which time is locally determined, and hence, if these principles be
+not wrong, every clock in the United Kingdom, except those on a line
+due north and south from Greenwich, must of necessity be in error.
+
+On the continent of North America efforts have recently been made to
+adjust the difficulty. The steps taken have been in a high degree
+successful in providing a remedy for the disturbing influences
+referred to, and, at the same time, they are in harmony with
+principles, the soundness of which is indisputable.
+
+When we examine into time in the abstract, the conviction is forced
+upon us that it bears no resemblance to any sort of matter which comes
+before our senses; it is immaterial, without form, without substance,
+without spiritual essence. It is neither solid, liquid, nor gaseous.
+Yet it is capable of measurement with the closest precision.
+Nevertheless, it may be doubted if anything measurable could be
+computed on principles more erroneous than those which now prevail
+with regard to it.
+
+What course do we follow in reckoning time? Our system implies that
+there are innumerable conceptions designated "time." We speak of
+solar, astronomical, nautical, and civil time, of apparent and mean
+time. Moreover, we assign to every individual point around the
+surface of the earth separate and distinct times in equal variety. The
+usages inherited by us imply that there is an infinite number of
+times. Is not all this inconsistent with reason, and at variance with
+the cardinal truth, that there is one time only?
+
+Time may be compared to a great stream forever flowing onward. To us,
+nature, in its widest amplitude, is a unity. We have but one earth,
+but one universe, whatever its myriad component parts. That there is
+also but one flow of time is consistent with the plain dictates of our
+understanding. That there can be more than one passage of time is
+inconceivable.
+
+From every consideration, it is evident that the day has arrived when
+our method of time-reckoning should be reformed. The conditions of
+modern civilization demand that a comprehensive system should be
+established, embodying the principle that time is one abstract
+conception, and that all definite portions of it should be based on,
+or be related to, one unit measure.
+
+On these grounds I feel justified in respectfully asking the
+consideration of the Conference to the series of recommendations which
+I venture to submit.
+
+The matter is undoubtedly one in which every civilized nation is
+interested. Indeed, it may be said that, more or less, every human
+being is concerned in it. The problem is of universal importance, and
+its solution can alone be found in the general adoption of a system
+grounded on principles recognized as incontrovertible.
+
+Such principles are embodied in the recommendations which I am
+permitted to place before the Conference. They involve, as an
+essential requirement, the determination of a unit of measurement, and
+it is obvious that such a unit must have its origin in the motion of
+the heavenly bodies. No motion is more uniform than the motion of the
+earth on its axis. This diurnal revolution admits of the most delicate
+measurement, and, in all respects, is the most available for a unit
+measure. It furnishes a division of time definite and precise, and one
+which, without difficulty, can be made plain and manifest.
+
+A revolution of the earth, denoted by the mean solar passage at the
+Prime or Anti-prime Meridian, will be recognizable by the whole world
+as a period of time common to all. By general agreement this period
+may be regarded as the common unit by which time may be everywhere
+measured for every purpose in science, in commerce, and in every-day
+life.
+
+The scheme set forth in the recommendations has in view three
+principal objects, viz:
+
+1. To define and establish an universal day for securing chronological
+accuracy in dates common to the whole world.
+
+2. To obtain a system of universal time on a basis acceptable to all
+nations, by which, everywhere, at the same time, the same instant may
+be observed.
+
+3. To establish a sound and rational system of reckoning time which
+may eventually be adopted for civil purposes everywhere, and thus
+secure uniformity and accuracy throughout the globe.
+
+But, in the inauguration of a scheme affecting so many individuals, it
+is desirable not to interfere with prevailing customs more than
+necessary. Such influences as arise from habit are powerful and cannot
+be ignored. The fact must be recognized that it will be difficult to
+change immediately the usages to which the mass of men have been
+accustomed. In daily life we are in the habit of eating, sleeping, and
+following the routine of our existence at certain periods of the day.
+We are familiar with the numbers of the hours by which these periods
+are known, and, doubtless, there will be many who will see little
+reason in any attempt to alter their nomenclature, especially those
+who take little note of cause and effect, and who, with difficulty,
+understand the necessity of a remedy to some marked irregularity
+which, however generally objectionable, does not bear heavily upon
+them individually.
+
+For the present, therefore, we must adapt a new system, as best we are
+able, to the habits of men and women as we find them. Provision for
+such adaptation is made in the recommendations by which, while local
+reckoning would be based on the principles laid down, the hours and
+their numbers need not appreciably vary from those with which we are
+familiar. Thus, time-reckoning in all ordinary affairs in every
+locality may be made to harmonize with the general system.
+
+Standard time throughout the United States and Canada has been
+established in accord with this principle. Its adoption has proved the
+advantages which may be attained generally by the same means. On all
+sides these advantages have been widely appreciated, and no change
+intimately bearing upon common life was ever so unanimously accepted.
+Certainly, it is an important step towards the establishment of one
+system of universal time, or, as it is designated in the
+recommendations, Cosmic time.
+
+The alacrity and unanimity with which the change has been accepted in
+North America encourages the belief that the introduction of cosmic
+time in every-day life is not unattainable. The intelligence of the
+people will not fail to discover, before long, that the adoption of
+correct principles of time-reckoning will in no way change or
+seriously affect the habits they have been accustomed to. It will
+certainly sweep away nothing valuable to them. The sun will rise and
+set to regulate their social affairs. All classes will soon learn to
+understand the hour of noon, whatever the number on the dial, whether
+six, as in Scriptural times, or twelve, or eighteen, or any other
+number. People will get up and retire to bed, begin and end work, take
+breakfast and dinner at the same periods of the day as at present, and
+our social habits and customs will remain without a change, depending,
+as now, on the daily returning phenomena of light and darkness.
+
+The one alteration will be in the notation of the hours, so as to
+secure uniformity in every longitude. It is to be expected that this
+change will at first create some bewilderment, and that it will be
+somewhat difficult to be understood by the masses. The causes for such
+a change to many will appear insufficient or fanciful. In a few years,
+however, this feeling must pass away, and the advantages to be gained
+will become so manifest that I do not doubt so desirable a reform will
+eventually commend itself to general favor, and be adopted in all the
+affairs of life.
+
+Be that as it may, it seems to me highly important that a
+comprehensive time system should be initiated to facilitate scientific
+observations, and definitely to establish chronological dates; that it
+should be designed for general use in connection with railways and
+telegraphs, and for such other purposes for which it may be found
+convenient.
+
+The Cosmic day set forth in the recommendations would be the date for
+the world recognizable by all nations. It would theoretically and
+practically be the mean of all local days, and the common standard to
+which all local reckoning would be referable.
+
+With regard to the reckoning of longitude, I submit that longitude and
+time are so intimately related that they may be expressed by a common
+notation. Longitude is simply the angle formed by two planes passing
+through the earth's axis, while time is the period occupied by the
+earth in rotating through that angle. If we adopt the system of
+measuring time by the revolution of the earth from a recognized zero,
+one of these planes--that through the zero--may be considered fixed;
+the other--that through the meridian of the place--being movable, the
+longitudinal angle is variable. Obviously the variable angle ought to
+be measured from the fixed plane as zero, and as the motion of the
+earth by which the equivalent time of the angle is measured is
+continuous, the longitude ought to be reckoned continuously in one
+direction. The direction is determined by the notation of the hour
+meridians, viz., from east to west.
+
+If longitude be so reckoned and denoted by the terms used in the
+notation of cosmic time, the time of day everywhere throughout the
+globe would invariably denote the precise longitude of the place
+directly under the mean sun. Conversely, at the epoch of mean solar
+passage at any place, the longitude being known, cosmic time would be
+one and the same with the longitude of the place.
+
+The advantages of such a system of reckoning and nomenclature, as
+suggested in the recommendations which I now submit, will be, I think,
+self-evident.
+
+ RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE REGULATION OF TIME AND THE RECKONING
+ OF LONGITUDE
+
+ 1. _That a system of universal time be established, with the
+ view of facilitating synchronous scientific observations,
+ for chronological reckonings, for the purpose of trade and
+ commerce by sea and land, and for all such uses to which it
+ is applicable._
+
+ 2. _That the system be established for the common observance
+ of all peoples, and of such a character that it may be
+ adopted by each separate community, as may be found
+ expedient._
+
+ 3. _That the system be based on the principle that for all
+ terrestrial time reckonings there be one recognized unit of
+ measurement only, and that all measured intervals of time be
+ directly related to the one unit measure._
+
+ 4. _That the unit measure be the period occupied by the
+ diurnal revolution of the earth, defined by the mean solar
+ passage at the meridian twelve hours from the Prime Meridian
+ established through Greenwich._
+
+ 5. _That the unit measure defined as above be held to be a
+ day absolute, and designated a Cosmic Day._
+
+ 6. _That such Cosmic Day be held as the chronological date
+ of the earth, changing with the mean solar passage at the
+ anti-meridian of Greenwich._
+
+ 7. _That all divisions and multiples of the Cosmic Day be
+ known as Cosmic Time._
+
+ 8. _That the Cosmic Day be divided into hours, numbered in a
+ single series, one to twenty-four, (1 to 24,) and that the
+ hours be subdivided, as ordinary hours, into minutes and
+ seconds. Note.--As an alternative means of distinguishing
+ the cosmic hours from the hours in local reckonings, they
+ may be denoted by the letters of the alphabet, which,
+ omitting I and V, are twenty-four in number._
+
+ 9. _That until Cosmic Time be admitted as the recognized
+ means of reckoning in the ordinary affairs of life, it is
+ advisable to assimilate the system to present usages and to
+ provide for the easy translation of local reckonings into
+ Cosmic Time, and vice versa; that, therefore, in theory, and
+ as closely as possible in practice, local reckonings be
+ based on a known interval in advance or behind Cosmic Time._
+
+ 10. _That the surface of the globe be divided by twenty-four
+ equidistant hour meridians, corresponding with the hours of
+ the Cosmic Day._
+
+ 11. _That, as far as practicable, the several hour meridians
+ be taken according to the longitude of the locality, to
+ regulate local reckonings, in a manner similar to the
+ system in use throughout North America._
+
+ 12. _That, in all cases where an hour meridian is adopted as
+ the standard for regulating local reckonings, in a
+ particular section or district, the civil day shall be held
+ to commence twelve hours before and end twelve hours after
+ the mean solar passage of such hour meridian._
+
+ 13. _That the civil day, based on the Prime Meridian of
+ Greenwich, shall coincide and be one with the Cosmic Day.
+ That civil days on meridians east of Greenwich shall be
+ (according to the longitude) a known number of hours, or
+ hours and minutes in advance of Cosmic Time, and to the west
+ of Greenwich the contrary._
+
+ 14. _That the surface of the globe being divided by
+ twenty-four equidistant meridians (fifteen degrees apart)
+ corresponding with the hours of the Cosmic Day, it is
+ advisable that longitude be reckoned according to these hour
+ meridians._
+
+ 15. _That divisions of longitude less than an hour (fifteen
+ degrees) be reckoned in minutes and seconds and parts of
+ seconds._
+
+ 16. _That longitude be reckoned continuously towards the
+ west, beginning with zero at the Anti-prime meridian, twelve
+ hours from Greenwich._
+
+ 17. _That longitude, generally, be denoted by the same terms
+ as those applied to Cosmic Time._
+
+I submit these recommendations suggestively, and without any desire
+unduly to press them. I shall be content if the leading principles
+laid down be recognized by the Conference.
+
+With regard to the more immediate question, I have come to the firm
+conviction that extreme simplicity of reckoning and corresponding
+benefits would result if longitude be notated in the same manner, and
+denoted by the same terms as universal time. If, therefore, the
+Conference adopts the motion of the distinguished Delegate of the
+United States, which, I apprehend, is designed to cause as little
+change as possible in the practices of sea-faring men, I trust the
+claims of other important interests will not be overlooked. I refer to
+all those interests, so deeply concerned in securing accurate time on
+land, and in having easy means provided for translating any one local
+reckoning into any other local reckoning, or into the standard
+universal time. In this view I trust the Conference will give some
+expression of opinion in favor of extending around the globe the
+system of hour meridians which has proved so advantageous in North
+America. In an educational aspect alone it seems to me important that
+the hour meridians, one to twenty-four, numbered from the anti-prime
+meridian continuously toward the west, should be conspicuously marked
+on our maps and charts.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, Mr. President, to
+express my entire adhesion to the proposition which has been made by
+the Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD. It seems to me to
+satisfy one of the principal conditions that we have had before us to
+guide our decision; that is, that we should pursue a course which will
+produce the least possible inconvenience.
+
+Now, I think if we keep that in mind, we shall have very little
+difficulty in coming to the conclusion that we should reckon longitude
+eastward, as positive or plus, and westward as negative or minus. This
+mode of reckoning would be attended with the least inconvenience; in
+fact, it will not be attended with any inconvenience at all, because
+it will keep to the present mode of reckoning. For my part, I see no
+adequate reason for changing that. There is no scientific reason, and
+certainly there is no practical reason. There is no scientific reason,
+because, as I stated yesterday, if in mathematics you measure from the
+zero a distance in one direction and consider that positive, you must,
+by the very nature of the case, consider the distance measured in the
+opposite direction from the same zero as negative. One follows
+mathematically and necessarily from the other, and by adopting this
+resolution you thus include both in one general formula.
+
+It seems to me quite as scientific, to say the least, to start from
+zero and go in both directions, distinguishing the longitudes by the
+signs plus and minus, according as the directions are taken east or
+west, as to reckon longitudes in one direction only from zero to 360
+degrees. It is, I say, just as scientific to do this, and practically
+it is more convenient. Because if you go on reckoning from zero to
+360 degrees continuously, you have to make a break at 360 degrees. You
+do not count on after you have completed one revolution, but have to
+drop the 360 degrees and start again at zero. But this is attended
+with great inconvenience, because this break in counting occurs in
+countries which are thickly inhabited. The longitude would be a little
+less than 360 degrees on one side of the prime meridian, and on the
+other side the longitude would be a small angle. This seems to me very
+inconvenient.
+
+On the other hand, if you count longitudes in one direction from zero
+to 180 degrees as positive, and in the opposite direction from zero to
+180 degrees as negative, you are, no doubt, obliged to make a break in
+passing abruptly from plus 180 degrees to minus 180 degrees. But the
+break would then occur where it would cause the least inconvenience,
+viz., in mid-ocean, where there is very little land and very few
+inhabitants, and where we are accustomed to make the break now. This
+will require no change in the habits and customs of the people, and no
+inconvenience whatever would be caused by the action of the Conference
+if it decides on this method, which also has the minor advantage of
+not requiring the use of such large numbers as the other. But to adopt
+the reckoning of longitude from zero to 360 degrees would involve a
+very considerable change, and I think it may be doubted whether it
+would be generally accepted. Under the circumstances, I think the
+resolution contains the most expedient course for us to adopt. I do
+not object to anybody who chooses to do so reckoning on, for certain
+purposes, from zero to 360 degrees, but I do not think it would be
+well to make it compulsory.
+
+With regard to the proposal of the Delegate of Great Britain, Mr.
+FLEMING, I would say that it would be attended with great
+inconvenience, because it departs from the usages and habits now
+existing. That, to my mind, is a very great and insuperable objection,
+and I do not see any countervailing advantage.
+
+With regard to the subject of time that Mr. Fleming is anxious to take
+into consideration, I think that nothing can be simpler, if I may be
+allowed to deal with the question of time, than the relation between
+time and longitude which is proposed to be created by the resolution
+of Mr. RUTHERFURD.
+
+By that resolution the longitude indicates the relation between the
+local time and the universal time in the simplest possible way. What
+can be easier than the method involved in the resolution of Mr.
+Rutherfurd? It is this: Local time at any place is equal to universal
+time plus the longitude of the place, plus being understood always in
+a mathematical sense. The longitude is to be added to the universal
+time if it is positive, and subtracted if it is negative. That is very
+simple, the whole being involved in one general formula.
+
+Now, I think it is perfectly impossible for Mr. Fleming to make a more
+simple formula than that. The formula laid down in the proceedings of
+the Roman Conference was far less simple, as it involved an odd twelve
+hours. You got the universal time equal to the local time, minus the
+longitude, plus twelve hours. This is far from simple. It makes the
+calculation more complicated, and it seems to me that for other
+reasons it is objectionable.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I do not
+propose to take up the time of the Conference in reiterating the very
+conclusive remarks in favor of this resolution made by the Delegate of
+Great Britain. I wish, however, to allude, for a moment, to another
+view of this question. Suppose we do not adopt this resolution. What
+is the course before the Conference? We shall then be called upon, no
+doubt, to decide that longitude shall be counted all around the world
+from zero to 360 degrees.
+
+That general proposition is one which would not probably meet with
+violent opposition, but the next point is one that will divide us very
+materially, and perhaps disastrously. Which way shall we count? Shall
+it be towards the east or towards the west?
+
+My conversations with the gentlemen here present have lead me to know
+that there is a very great difference of opinion upon this point, and
+I believe that if we should not adopt this resolution and should
+decide to count longitude from zero to 360 degrees, a preference to
+count it in one direction rather than the other would be established
+only by a very close vote, nearly annulling the whole moral influence
+of the Conference, and we should go back to our Governments without
+much, if any, authority on the point in question.
+
+And I doubt whether our resolutions would be accepted by these
+Governments if we show ourselves to be divided upon a question of so
+much practical importance.
+
+It is simply a question of practice--of convenience. We all bowed to
+the rule of convenience in selecting the meridian of Greenwich. And
+why? Because seven-tenths of the civilized nations of the world use
+this meridian, not that it was intrinsically better than the meridian
+of Paris, or Washington, or Berlin, or St. Petersburg. Nobody claimed
+any scientific preference among these meridians. It was simply because
+seven-tenths of the civilized world were already using the meridian of
+Greenwich.
+
+If we accept this argument in favor of the first resolution for
+selecting the initial meridian, why should we not be equally inclined
+to recognize the fact that all the civilized world count longitude in
+both ways? There is no difference of opinion on that point. There is
+no difference of usage. Shall we break that usage? Shall we introduce
+a new system, which may or may not be found practical or agreeable?
+Shall we not rather adopt the rule of all nations, already in use
+among their practised astronomers and navigators, by saying continue
+to do as you have already done?
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. Having for many years
+mixed among the practical seamen of more than one nation, I confess I
+look with some dismay on any other system for the notation of
+longitude being adopted than the one proposed in this resolution.
+
+My colleague, Mr. FLEMING, made the remark that he could not
+disassociate longitude from time. If he had mixed with seamen, he
+would have found out that there is very frequently a well-defined
+difference between the two in their minds. Longitude with seamen
+means, independently of time, space, distance. It indicates so many
+miles run in an east or west direction. Consequently, I am not able to
+look upon longitude and time as being identical.
+
+Under these circumstances, this resolution also, as I understand it,
+should be considered on practical grounds.
+
+The question of universal time will come on for consideration
+hereafter, and how that may be settled seems to me a matter of
+indifference compared with the decision on this resolution. I
+question, for myself, whether any other plan than that it proposes
+would be generally accepted. That is what I am afraid of. Whatever
+respect nations may have for this Conference, public opinion would be
+very strong upon the point now at issue. When you further recollect
+that all around the globe, in all these various seas, there are
+colonies with histories; that their geographical positions and
+boundaries were originally recorded by longitude according to the
+notation of which I have spoken, I think it is to be over sanguine to
+expect that those colonies will accept a new notation of longitude
+without greater proof of the positive necessity of the change. It
+would not be the fiat of this Conference, or the fiat of any
+government, that would bring about the change. I say this with all
+deference to the opinions of those who have advocated a change.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. At the risk of repeating
+somewhat my remarks made to the Congress when we last met, I would add
+a few words to what has now been said. It is our wish that the points
+of real difference should, as far as possible, be clearly brought out
+before the Conference comes to a vote.
+
+As regards the counting of longitude in two directions, and the degree
+of advantage or disadvantage that may arise in starting from zero and
+treating east longitude as positive or plus, and west longitude as
+negative or minus, let me ask the attention of the Congress to the
+fact that longitude is already counted in these two directions, and
+that, as a matter of fact also, latitude is counted in the same way,
+in both directions from the equator, north latitude being plus and
+south latitude minus. Nobody, so far as I have heard, has ever
+proposed that we should abolish this method of reckoning latitude, and
+substitute for it North or South polar distance, to be counted right
+round the earth; and yet there is the same _quasi_ scientific
+objection to the present method of counting in the one case as in the
+other. As already stated, it seems to me that, for purposes of
+practical convenience, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible,
+to separate the ideas on which the reckoning of longitude must be
+based, from those which must regulate the reckoning of time, and
+especially the reckoning of time in the sense of adopting a universal
+day over the whole world. Now, it appears to me that, as regards the
+acceptance of the universal day, it certainly will be anything but
+convenient, if it begins and ends otherwise than when the sun passes
+the 180th meridian. On the contrary, I think it will be extremely
+inconvenient. I think that if the world were to adopt the meridian of
+Greenwich as the origin of longitude, the natural thing for it to do
+would be to have the international day, the universal day, begin from
+the 180th meridian from Greenwich--that is, to coincide with the
+Greenwich civil day. That meridian passes, as I said before, outside
+of New Zealand, and outside of the Fijee Islands; it goes over only a
+very small portion of inhabited country. It appears to me, therefore,
+that inasmuch as there must be an absolute break or discontinuity in
+time in passing round the earth--a break of twenty-four hours--it is
+much more convenient that this break should take place in the
+uninhabited part of the earth than in the very centre of civilization.
+
+If we adopt the universal day which coincides with the civil day at
+Greenwich, then you will be able to have complete continuity of local
+time over the whole earth, in harmonious relation with the universal
+day, except at the break which necessarily takes place on the 180th
+meridian. Otherwise this will not be possible. For instance, according
+to the system proposed by the resolution, the local time
+corresponding, say, to 0 hours of Monday at Greenwich, would, in
+passing round the earth to the eastward from the 180th meridian,
+gradually change from 12 hours of Sunday to 12 hours of Monday; and,
+on returning to that meridian, the break of time would occur, and one
+day would appear to be lost. But complete continuity both in the days
+and hours, and harmony with the universal day, that is, the Greenwich
+civil day, would be preserved for the whole earth, excepting on
+crossing the 180th meridian.
+
+The result of the system which was proposed at Rome would be to cause
+the break of dates to take place at Greenwich at noon, so that the
+morning hours of the civil day would have a different universal date
+from the afternoon hours, and this would be the case all over Europe.
+But if the universal day be made to correspond to the civil day of
+Greenwich, and the longitude is counted east in one direction and west
+in another direction to the 180th meridian, these difficulties would
+be overcome, and a perfectly simple rule would suffice for converting
+local into universal time. As regards what was said upon the subject
+of longitude being plus or minus, according as you move to the east or
+west, it appears to me that there is a positive, clear, and rational
+reason for calling longitude eastward plus and longitude westward
+minus. The time is later to the east, and therefore the hour is
+indicated by a higher number. In converting universal into local time,
+if the place is east of Greenwich, you add the longitude to the
+universal time, and therefore increase the number of the hour; if the
+place be west of Greenwich, you subtract the longitude, and therefore
+diminish the number of the hour. It is natural, therefore, to call
+east longitude positive and the other negative.
+
+It appears to me also that the passage of the sun over the meridian
+is, in reality, what may be called the index of the day, the day
+consisting of 24 hours, distributed equally on either side of the
+meridian. Noon of the universal day would thus coincide with the time
+of the sun passing the initial meridian. There is perfect consistency,
+therefore, in adopting the reckoning of longitude and time that is
+proposed in the resolution before us. It is a rational and symmetrical
+method.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, the Delegate of Spain. I listened with great
+pleasure to the observations which our honorable colleague, the
+Delegate of England, General STRACHEY, has just made.
+
+I am not sufficiently acquainted with the English tongue to make a
+speech, though I know it well enough to follow the debate. Moreover,
+as I had beforehand studied the subject which is now before us, I have
+quite well understood all that has been said on this point. I proposed
+an amendment yesterday, in order to obtain what I consider the most
+simple formula for converting local time into cosmical time. This
+formula is not, perhaps, the most suitable for astronomers and
+sailors, but they form the minority, and it is, I am sure, the easiest
+for the mass of the people. This formula would be based on the
+considerations which are now under discussion. I am not sufficiently
+familiar with the language to give the reasons upon which I based my
+amendment, but, as I demonstrated in the pamphlet which I had the
+honor of addressing to my learned colleagues, the means, in my
+opinion, of obtaining the simplest and the most suitable formula is to
+make the beginning of civil time and of dates on the first meridian
+coincide with the cosmical time and date, and to count longitude
+continuously in the same direction from the initial meridian. This is
+what I proposed to obtain by my amendment.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. Mr. President, I now propose
+that the Conference take a recess for a few moments before a vote is
+taken upon the resolution.
+
+No objection being made to the motion, the President announced that a
+recess would be taken until the Chair called the Conference to order.
+
+THE PRESIDENT, having called the Conference to order, said. The recess
+has given an opportunity for an interchange of opinion upon the
+subject pending, and if the Conference be ready the vote will now be
+taken.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I
+think that the informal discussion which we have had upon this
+question of the method of counting longitude must lead to the
+conclusion that there is a great difference of opinion. So far as I
+have been able to learn, many of the delegates have come here
+instructed to favor the resolution adopted by the Roman Conference. It
+is my own opinion that the recommendation to count longitude
+continuously from the prime meridian from west to east, as recommended
+by the conference at Rome, is not so good as the proposition now
+before us. Personally, however, I would prefer to see it counted
+continuously from east to west, as being more in conformity with
+present usage among astronomers. But, as it appears that so many
+delegates are instructed by their Governments to favor counting in the
+opposite direction, and as, if this Congress adopts any other plan
+than that proposed by the Conference at Rome, they will have to lay
+before their Governments as the action of this Congress something that
+will be opposed to the recommendation of the Roman Conference, and as
+these two recommendations would naturally tend to neutralize each
+other, I would favor the proposition which is now before us as being
+the most expedient.
+
+I would suggest, however, that, instead of making a positive
+declaration upon the question, we leave it as it now stands; that is
+to say, that longitude shall be counted east and west from the prime
+meridian, without specifying which direction shall be considered
+positive, and declare it to be the opinion of this Congress that it is
+not expedient to change the present method of counting longitude both
+ways from the prime meridian.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate from Sweden. In my opinion the delegates
+have not undertaken to recommend the resolutions adopted by a majority
+of the Conference, but only the resolutions for which they have
+themselves voted. As regards the fact that there may be great
+differences of opinion concerning the questions which remain for our
+consideration, I am unable to see in it any reason for our not
+proceeding to vote upon them. On the contrary it will be of great
+interest to our Governments to know the exact position taken by each
+of the delegates, and even if any delegate should abstain from voting,
+such abstention would be of interest in the event of future
+negotiations on the subject. I am therefore of opinion that we should
+proceed to vote on the remaining resolutions.
+
+The vote was then taken upon the resolution of the Delegate of the
+United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, which is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That from this meridian (_id est_, Greenwich)
+ longitude shall be counted in two directions up to 180
+ degrees, east longitude being plus and west longitude
+ minus."
+
+The following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Chili, Liberia,
+ Colombia, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Russia,
+ Guatemala, Salvador,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+
+The following States voted in the negative:
+
+ Italy, Sweden,
+ Netherlands, Switzerland.
+ Spain,
+
+The following States abstained from voting:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Germany,
+ Brazil, San Domingo,
+ France, Turkey.
+
+Ayes, 14; noes, 5; abstaining, 6.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the resolution was adopted.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I now
+propose to read the third resolution from the printed circular which
+has been furnished to the delegates. It is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local time where desirable. This universal day is to be a
+ mean solar day; is to begin for all the world at the moment
+ of midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the
+ beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is
+ to be counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+This resolution is somewhat complex, and in order to facilitate
+debate, I propose that we first occupy ourselves only with the first
+clause, namely:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local time where desirable."
+
+After having disposed of that clause we can proceed to dispose of the
+other parts of the resolution.
+
+The PRESIDENT. You propose, then, to divide the resolution as printed
+in the circular into two resolutions, and you now offer the first part
+for consideration.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. If that is the more
+convenient form of putting it, it meets my views. It will be more easy
+to discuss the subject, more easy to arrive at a decision, in that
+form.
+
+M. le Comte ALBERT DE FORESTA, Delegate of Italy. I propose as an
+amendment the fifth resolution of the Roman Conference, which reads as
+follows:
+
+ "The Conference recognizes, for certain scientific needs and
+ for the internal service of great administrations of ways of
+ communications, such as those of railroads, lines of
+ steamships, telegraphic and postal lines, the utility of
+ adopting a universal time, in connection with local or
+ national times, which will necessarily continue to be
+ employed in civil life."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question is now upon the amendment offered by the
+Delegate of Italy.
+
+Professor ABBE, Delegate of the United States. I would like to ask
+whether this amendment adds anything substantially to the resolution.
+I think it does not. It simply specifies the details of the resolution
+pending before us. That resolution "proposes the adoption of a
+universal day for all purposes for which it may be found convenient."
+That is general. The amendment merely specifies certain of these
+purposes. That is a matter of detail.
+
+Mr. ALLEN, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I desire to
+offer an amendment to the amendment, as follows:
+
+ "Civil or local time is to be understood as the mean time of
+ the approximately central meridian of a section of the
+ earth's surface, in which a single standard of time may be
+ conveniently used."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, it does
+not seem to me that it is within the competence of this Conference to
+define what is local time. That is a thing beyond us.
+
+Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Delegate of the United States, then said: Mr.
+President and gentlemen, all efforts to arrive at uniformity in
+scientific or every-day usage originate in a desire to attain greater
+convenience in practice. The multiplicity of coins of which the
+relative value can only be expressed by fractions, the various common
+standards of weights and of measures, are inconvenient both to the
+business man and the scientist. Alike inconvenient to both are the
+diverse standards of time by which the cities of the world are
+governed, differing, as they do, by all possible fractions of hours.
+
+All coins have a relative and interchangeable value based upon their
+weight and fineness. Weights and measures remain the same by whatever
+unit they may be expressed; but, primarily, time can only be measured
+by a standard actually or apparently in motion. Absolutely accurate
+mean local time, varying, as it does, by infinitesimal differences at
+every point in the circuit of the earth, may be shown on a stationary
+object, but cannot in general be kept by an individual or object in
+motion. The mean local time of some fixed point in each locality must
+be taken as the standard for practical use. The important question to
+be determined is, over what extent of territory, measuring east and
+west from such fixed point, its mean time may be employed for all
+ordinary purposes without inconvenience. This can be absolutely
+determined only by practical experience.
+
+Careful study of this phase of this subject led, perhaps, more
+directly than any one single cause, to the proposal of the detailed
+system of standard time which now satisfactorily controls the
+operations of one hundred and twenty thousand miles of railway in the
+United States and Canada, and governs the movements of fifty millions
+of people.
+
+Before the recent change there were a number of localities where
+standards of time were exclusively employed which varied as much as
+thirty minutes, both on the east and the west, from mean local time,
+without appreciable inconvenience to those using them. From this fact
+the conclusion was inevitable that within those limits a single
+standard might be employed. The result has proved this conclusion to
+have been well founded.
+
+No public reform can be accomplished unless the evil to be remedied
+can be made plainly apparent. That an improvement will be effected
+must be clearly demonstrated, or the new status of affairs which will
+exist after the change, must be shown to have been already
+successfully tried. Here, as in law, custom and precedent are all
+powerful. It would be a difficult task to secure the general adoption
+of any system of time-reckoning which cannot be employed by all
+classes of the community. Business men would refuse to regard as a
+reform any proposition which introduced diversity where uniformity now
+exists, nor would railway managers consent to adopt for their own use
+a standard of time not coinciding with or bearing a ready relation to
+the standard employed in other business circles. To adopt the time of
+a universal day for all transportation purposes throughout the world,
+and to use it collaterally with local time, would simply restore, and
+possibly still more complicate, the very condition of things in this
+country which the movement of last year was intended to and did to a
+great extent obviate. Railway managers desire that the time used in
+their service shall be either precisely the same as that used by the
+public, or shall differ from it at as few points as possible, and then
+by the most readily calculated differences. The public, on the other
+hand, have little use for absolutely accurate time, except in
+connection with matters of transportation, but will refuse to adopt a
+standard which would materially alter their accustomed habits of
+thought and of language in every-day life. That this position is
+absurd may be argued, and, perhaps, admitted, but it is a fact, and
+one which cannot be disregarded.
+
+The adoption of the universal day or any system of time-reckoning
+based upon infrequent--such as the great quadrant--meridians, to be
+used by transportation lines collaterally with local time, is,
+therefore, practically impossible.
+
+Shall it, then, be concluded that there is no hope of securing
+uniformity in time-reckoning for practical purposes? Or does the
+proposition for the general division of the earth's surface into
+specified sections, governed by standards based upon meridians fifteen
+degrees or one hour apart, supply the remedy? Objections have been
+urged against this proposition on account of difficulties encountered,
+or supposed to be encountered, in the vicinity of the boundary lines
+between the sections. It is argued that the contact of two sections
+with standards of time differing by one hour will cause numerous and
+insuperable difficulties. In railway business, in which time is more
+largely referred to than in any other, the experience of the past year
+has proved this fear to be groundless. It is true that the approximate
+local time of a number of cities near the boundary lines between the
+eastern and central sections in the United States is still retained. A
+curious chapter of incidents could be related which led to this
+retention, not affecting, however, the merits of the case; but the
+fact serves to show that changes much greater than thirty minutes from
+local time would not be acceptable.
+
+Adjacent to and on either side of all national boundary lines the
+inhabitants become accustomed to the standards of weights, measures,
+and money of both countries, and constantly refer to and use them
+without material inconvenience. In the readjustment of a boundary upon
+new lines of demarcation it must be expected that some temporary
+difficulties in business transactions will be encountered, but all
+history shows that such difficulties soon adjust themselves. Legal
+enactments will finally determine the precise boundaries of the
+several sections. If different laws respecting many other affairs of
+life may exist on either side of a State or national boundary line,
+with positive advantage or without material inconvenience, why should
+laws respecting time-reckoning be an exception? Coins and measures are
+distinguished by their names. So, also, may standards of time be
+distinguished.
+
+The adoption of standard time for all purposes of daily life, based
+upon meridians fifteen degrees apart, would practically abolish the
+use of exact local time, except upon those meridians. Numerous
+circumstances might be related demonstrating how very inaccurate and
+undetermined was the local time used in many cities in this country
+before the recent change.
+
+Except for certain philosophical purposes, does the inherent advantage
+claimed in the use of even approximately accurate local time really
+exist? Would the proposed change affect any custom of undoubted value
+to the community? These questions have been answered in the negative
+by the experience of Great Britain since January 13, 1848, of Sweden
+since January 1, 1879, and of the United States and Canada since
+November 18, 1883.
+
+Greenwich time is exclusively used in Great Britain, and differs from
+mean local time about eight minutes on the east and about twenty-two
+and a half minutes on the west. In Sweden the time of the fifteenth
+degree of east longitude is the standard for all purposes. It differs
+from mean local time about thirty-six and a half minutes on the east
+and about sixteen minutes on the west. In the United States the
+standards recently adopted are used exclusively in cities like
+Portland, Me., (33,800 inhabitants,) and Atlanta, Ga., (37,400
+inhabitants,) of which the local times are, respectively, nineteen
+minutes and twenty two minutes faster than the standard, and at Omaha,
+Neb., (30,500 inhabitants,) and Houston, Tex., (16,500 inhabitants,)
+each twenty-four minutes slower. At Ellsworth, Me., a city of six
+thousand inhabitants, a change of twenty-six minutes has been made.
+Nearly eighty-five per cent. of the total number of cities in the
+United States of over ten thousand inhabitants have adopted the new
+standard time for all purposes, and it is used upon ninety-seven and a
+half per cent. of all the miles of railway lines.
+
+Let us now consider whether insuperable practical difficulties owing
+to geographical peculiarities will prevent the adoption of this system
+throughout the world.
+
+A table has been prepared, and accompanies this paper, upon which are
+designated the several governing meridians and names suggested for the
+corresponding sectional times. For the use of this table I am
+indebted to Mr. E. B. Elliott, of this city.
+
+On the North American continent, in the United States and Canada, the
+75th, 90th, 105th, and 120th west Greenwich meridians now govern time.
+In Mexico the 105th west meridian is approximately central, except for
+Yucatan, which is traversed by the 90th. For Guatemala, Salvador, and
+Costa Rica, the 90th west meridian is approximately central. San
+Domingo closely approaches and Cuba touches the 75th.
+
+In South America--the United States of Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, the
+western portion of Bolivia, and Chili would use the time of the 75th
+west meridian, while Venezuela, Guiana, western Brazil, including the
+Amazon River region, eastern Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the
+Argentine Republic, would be governed by the time of the 60th
+meridian. In eastern Brazil the 45th west meridian would govern.
+
+Passing to Europe, we find Great Britain already governed by the zero
+meridian time, which can also be used in the Netherlands, Belgium,
+France, Spain, and Portugal. The 15th east meridian, which is about as
+far east of Berlin as west of Vienna, and no more distant from Rome
+than from Stockholm, now governs all time in Sweden. This time could
+also be advantageously used in Denmark, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
+Switzerland, Italy, and Servia. The time of the 30th east meridian,
+which is nearly the mean between Constantinople and St. Petersburg
+times, could be used in Western Russia, Turkey, Roumania, Bulgaria,
+East Roumelia, and Greece. When the development of Eastern Russia in
+Europe shall require it, the division of that great country between
+the times of the 30th and 45th east meridians, upon lines of
+convenience similar to those employed in the United States, can
+doubtless be arranged. The governing meridians for Africa appear to
+present some advantages, especially for Egypt, and no insuperable
+difficulties; but for continents where the boundaries of countries are
+so loosely defined, the limits of time-reckoning cannot well and need
+not now be shown. They would ultimately adjust themselves.
+
+In Asia the 60th east meridian passes through Khiva. Bombay would use
+the 75th and Calcutta the 90th. The 105th east meridian touches Siam,
+the 120th is near Shanghai, and the 135th passes through Japan and
+near Corea. The 150th meridian of west longitude is sufficiently near
+Hawaii. In Australia the 150th, 135th, and 120th meridians of east
+longitude are admirably located for governing, respectively, the time
+of the eastern, central, and western divisions of that continent.
+
+In none of the localities defined or mentioned, would the standards
+proposed vary more from mean local time than has already been
+demonstrated to be practicable without detriment to any material
+interest. Convenience of use, based largely upon the direction of
+greater commercial intercourse, would determine the action of
+communities other than those mentioned, and probably somewhat modify
+the schedule proposed.
+
+That no practical difficulty of usage would prevent the universal
+adoption of the hour-section system of time-reckoning is apparent. Its
+convenience has been abundantly realized. In adopting it, practically
+no expense whatever is incurred. The alteration of the works or faces
+of watches or clocks is not required. Their hands are simply set to
+the new standard, and the desired result is accomplished.
+
+By the adoption of this system, the exact hours of time-reckoning,
+although called by different names in the several sections for
+every-day life, but specifically designated, if desired, for
+scientific purposes, would be indicated at the same moment of time at
+all points. The minutes and seconds would everywhere agree. The
+absolute time of the occurrence of any event could, therefore, be
+readily determined. The counting of the hour meridians should begin
+where the day begins at the transition line.
+
+It would then be one of the possibilities of the powers of electricity
+that the pendulum of a single centrally located clock, beating
+seconds, could regulate the local time-reckoning of every city on the
+face of the earth.
+
+_Table of Standards governing the Hour-Section System of
+Time-reckoning._
+
+======================================================================
+Longitude | HOUR MERIDIANS. |Simultaneous
+ from |----------------------------------------------| hours in
+Greenwich.| | | the several
+ |Proposed names of sectional times. | Numbers. | sections.
+----------+-----------------------------------+----------+------------
+_Degrees._| | |
+----------| | |
+180 |Transition time | 0 or 24th|12 midnight
+165 west |Alaskan | 1st......| 1 A. M.
+150 |Hawaii | 2d ......| 2
+135 |Sitka | 3d ......| 3
+120 |Pacific (Adopted in U.S. and Can.)| 4th......| 4
+105 |Mountain " " | 5th......| 5
+90 |Central (American) time " " | 6th......| 6
+75 |Eastern (or Coastwise) " " | 7th......| 7
+60 |La Plata | 8th......| 8
+45 |Brazilian | 9th......| 9
+30 |Central Atlantic |10th......|10
+15 |West African |11th......|11
+0 |Int'l or Unvs'l (Used in Gt. Brit.)|12th......|12 noon.
+15 east |Continental (Used in Sweden.) |13th......| 1 P. M.
+30 |Bosporus |14th......| 2
+45 |Caucasus |15th......| 3
+60 |Ural |16th......| 4
+75 |Bombay |17th......| 5
+90 |Central Asian |18th......| 6
+105 |Siam |19th......| 7
+120 |East Asian |20th......| 8
+135 |Japan |21st......| 9
+150 |East Australian |22d.......|10
+165 |New Caledonian |23d.......|11
+-----------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+I have no desire, however, to press on the Conference the
+consideration of the question of local time reckoning. But, as the
+system adopted in the United States and Canada has proved successful,
+and is now firmly established, I have deemed it proper that a
+statement of this fact and of the possibilities of the application of
+the system to other parts of the world should be made to the Congress.
+I will now, therefore, withdraw my amendment.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. The Delegate of Italy
+has moved, as an amendment to the first part of the resolution offered
+by me, the fifth resolution adopted in the Conference at Rome. Really,
+in spirit and in substance, there is little or no difference between
+them, except that the Conference at Rome has specified that the
+objects they had in view as suitable for regulation by universal time
+were these, namely: "For the internal service of the great
+administrations of means of communication, such as railways,
+steamships, telegraphs, and post-offices."
+
+Now, I submit that in the words used in my resolution all this is
+embraced, and a good deal more, for this universal day is to be
+adopted "for all purposes for which it may be found convenient." If it
+were desirable that every purpose for which the universal day may be
+found convenient should be specified, it would make a very long
+resolution. On the other hand, however, we might find in the end that
+we had omitted some of the purposes for which it was eminently
+convenient. It appears, also, that in this same fifth Roman resolution
+all questions of chronology of universal date, etc., are omitted,
+although they are brought forward and appear in the sixth resolution.
+It seems to me, Mr. President, that nothing would be gained by the
+adoption of this amendment, for everything that is embraced there is
+more comprehensively embraced in the original resolution.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. In explanation of the
+amendment offered by the Delegate of Italy, let me call attention to
+what really passed at the Roman Conference. I find, first of all, in
+the report of the Roman Conference, in the abstract of the discussion
+before the Special Committee, these words, (p. 49 of the reprint:)
+
+ "The fourth resolution, in favor of a universal hour for
+ certain scientific and practical purposes, is unanimously
+ adopted."
+
+There appears no discussion whatever upon it; not a word seems to have
+been said as to how it should be defined or acted upon. I then turn
+back to the report of the committee which prepared the resolutions,
+and there we see what, in reality, they had in their minds when they
+drew up that resolution. It is perfectly evident that they had no
+intention of tying the hands of anybody. This is what they say on page
+26 of the report:
+
+ "The administrations of railroads, of the great steamship
+ lines, telegraph lines, and postal routes, which would thus
+ secure for their relations with each other a uniform time,
+ excluding all complication and error, could nevertheless
+ not entirely avoid the use of local time in their relations
+ with the public. They would probably use the universal time
+ only in their internal service, for the rules of the road,
+ for the time-tables of their engineers and conductors, for
+ the connection of trains at frontiers, etc.; but the
+ time-tables for the use of the public could hardly be
+ expressed otherwise than in local or national time. The
+ depots or stations of the railroads, post-offices, and
+ telegraph offices, and the waiting-rooms, could exhibit
+ outwardly clocks showing local or national time, while
+ within the offices there would be, besides, clocks
+ indicating universal time. Telegraphic dispatches could show
+ in future the time of despatch and of receipt, both in local
+ and universal time."
+
+Now, I think that the subject of universal time is dealt with in a
+better manner in the proposition offered by Mr. RUTHERFURD than in the
+proposition which emanated from the Congress at Rome. This Conference
+cannot designate positively the manner in which local time may be best
+reckoned. We are concerned now only with universal time. It may,
+however, be proper that the resolution offered by Mr. RUTHERFURD in
+regard to the employment of universal time should be supplemented by
+something more specific--something, for instance, of this sort:
+
+ The Conference will not designate the system on which local
+ time may best be reckoned so as to conform, as far as
+ possible, to universal time; this should be determined by
+ each nation to suit its convenience.
+
+ The arrangements for adopting universal time for the use of
+ international telegraphs will be left for regulation by the
+ telegraph international congress.
+
+This last idea was expressed, I forget now by whom, but by one of the
+Delegates since the Conference met, and it appears to me that inasmuch
+as there is an international congress specially appointed to regulate
+all matters of international telegraphy, this subject can be left to
+them with the firm belief that it will be regulated satisfactorily.
+
+The question was then put to the vote; and upon the amendment offered
+by the Delegate of Italy the following States voted in the
+affirmative:
+
+ Colombia, Paraguay,
+ Italy, Spain,
+ Netherlands, Sweden.
+
+The following in the negative:
+
+ Brazil, Liberia,
+ Chili, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Russia,
+ France, Salvador,
+ Germany, San Domingo,
+ Great Britain, Switzerland,
+ Guatemala, Turkey,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+
+Austria-Hungary abstained from voting.
+
+Ayes, 6; noes, 18; abstaining, 1.
+
+So the amendment was lost.
+
+The question then recurred upon the original resolution.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, it has
+been represented to me that it may, perhaps, be found advantageous in
+different countries and different localities to use a time that would
+not be accurately described as local time. In one place the standard
+of time may be strictly local time; in another place it may be
+national time; in another place it may be railroad time.
+
+In order to meet this condition of things, I propose to alter the
+phraseology of the original resolution in this way: by inserting the
+words "or other," so that it shall read "which shall not interfere
+with the use of local or _other_ time where desirable."
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. May it not be better to
+put it in this way: "Which shall not interfere with the use of local
+or other _standard_ time where desirable."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. I accept the amendment
+offered by the Delegate of Great Britain.
+
+Mr. JEAN VALERA, Delegate of Spain. As I consider that both the
+amendment which was just rejected and the present proposition really
+signify the same thing, I shall vote for the proposition, as I before
+did for the amendment.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question is now upon the resolution, as modified.
+It will be read.
+
+The resolution was then read, as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference proposes the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local or other standard time where desirable."
+
+The following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, Salvador,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Sweden,
+ Guatemala, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Liberia,
+
+There were no negative votes.
+
+Germany and San Domingo abstained from voting.
+
+Ayes, 23; noes, 0; abstaining, 2.
+
+So the resolution was carried.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I now
+propose to offer the other portion of the resolution, or rather I
+propose to offer the other portion in the form of a distinct
+resolution. It will run as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That this universal day is to be a mean solar
+ day; is to begin for all the world at the moment of midnight
+ of the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginning of
+ the civil day and date of that meridian; and is to be
+ counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+This is, in substance, the resolution adopted by the Conference at
+Rome, with the exception that the Conference at Rome proposed that the
+universal day should coincide with the astronomical day instead of the
+civil day, and begin at Greenwich noon, instead of Greenwich midnight.
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. I desire to make one
+remark merely. Would it not be a little more correct if we said "at
+the moment of mean midnight?" I think I have mentioned this before,
+but, to be clear, I think it should be made.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD accepted Professor ADAMS'S suggestion.
+
+Mr. JUAN VALERA, Delegate of Spain. Mr. President, I wish to call
+special attention to the proposition now before us, on which we are
+called upon to vote, as it is of very great importance.
+
+As for me, I acknowledge that my mission is already fulfilled. The
+Government of Spain had directed me to admit the necessity or the
+usefulness of a common prime meridian, and also to accept the meridian
+of Greenwich as the universal meridian. I have attended to these
+directions.
+
+We have now to deal with a scientific question on which I cannot well
+express an opinion, as I do not feel that I am competent in such
+matters; besides, I am not authorized to do so. This may be due to my
+ignorance in matters of this kind, but I fear that extraordinary
+difficulties may arise in the adoption of this proposition, and if we
+proceed with too great haste, we run the risk of placing ourselves in
+contradiction to common sense. All the popular ideas of men for
+thousands of years past will, perhaps, be overturned. It may happen
+that when the day begins at Greenwich it will be 23 hours later at
+Berlin. The east will be confounded with the west, and the west with
+the east. If we made the day begin at the anti-meridian these
+questions would be avoided, and we should at one be with the rest of
+the human race. I believe that it would be better to adjourn till
+to-morrow to give us time to reflect; in this way we shall not risk by
+our devotion to science drawing upon ourselves popular criticism.
+
+I propose, therefore, that the vote on this question be put off till
+to-morrow.
+
+M. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. Not to-morrow.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I beg to propose as an amendment
+the sixth resolution adopted by the Conference at Rome, which is as
+follows:
+
+The Conference recommends as initial point for the universal hour and
+the cosmic day the mean midday of Greenwich, coinciding with the
+moment of midnight or the beginning of the civic day at the meridian
+12 hours or 180 deg. from Greenwich.
+
+The universal hours are to be counted from 0 up to 24 hours.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair quite concurs with the Delegate of Spain in
+thinking that it would be very proper for us to take some time to
+consider this matter.
+
+A motion to adjourn would be in order, but before that motion is made,
+the Chair would like to read a communication which he has just
+received from the Assistant Secretary of State. It is this:
+
+ "The President of the United States will receive the members
+ of the Conference on Thursday, the 16th instant, at 12
+ o'clock, at the White House."
+
+The Assistant Secretary of State proposes that we shall meet here at a
+quarter before 12, and go to the White House from this hall.
+
+The PRESIDENT. If the Delegate of Spain will withdraw his motion to
+adjourn for one moment, the Delegate of Sweden desires to offer a
+resolution.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden, then read the following
+proposal:
+
+ Hereafter the reports of the speeches, whether in English or
+ French, will be sent as soon as possible to the Delegates
+ who made them, and the proofs should be corrected and
+ returned by them without delay to the Secretary. No
+ correction will be allowed afterward, except such as are
+ considered necessary by the Secretaries, who will meet as
+ soon as possible after the first corrections shall have been
+ printed to prepare the protocols for the approval of the
+ Conference.
+
+The motion being put to a vote by the President, was unanimously
+carried.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would very informally state that he has
+received to-day a letter from Sir William Thomson, the distinguished
+scientist who addressed the Conference yesterday, expressing his
+regret that he did not then say something which he had in his mind and
+which he wished to say, namely, that the meridian of Greenwich passes
+directly through the great commercial port of Havre.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Since the Chairman refers to this
+subject, I may state to my colleagues that I have received a telegram
+from Sir William Thomson, in which he makes certain propositions of
+the nature described.
+
+Yet it is not possible to make out precisely, by this telegram, what
+are Sir William Thomson's ideas. All that I can say is, that whatever
+proceeds from such an eminent man should be treated with great
+consideration, and that is a reason for asking Sir W. Thomson to be
+good enough to explain to me his ideas more fully. If we could adjourn
+to Monday, I think that it would be better. The preparation of the
+protocols is very much behind-hand, and it is desirable that the
+members of the Conference be kept fully acquainted with all the
+discussions. I would, therefore, suggest that we adjourn till Monday.
+
+The PRESIDENT. There are several propositions to adjourn to different
+days. The Chair will take them up in order and will first put the
+question upon the motion to adjourn until Monday.
+
+The motion was carried, and at four o'clock the Conference adjourned
+until Monday, the 20th instant, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+
+
+
+VI.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 20, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met, pursuant to adjournment, in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austro-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHAEFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. V. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. R. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Gautemala: Mr. MILES ROCK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. Wm. COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILO RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Mr.
+ JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Hawaii: Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Some days ago a Committee was appointed to report on
+communications addressed to the Conference through the Chair. All
+communications that have been received from time to time, and they
+have been numerous, have been referred to this committee, of which the
+Delegate from England, Prof. ADAMS, is the chairman. He now informs
+the Chair that he is prepared to make a report.
+
+The Delegate of England, Prof. ADAMS, then read the following report:
+
+ _Letter from the President of the Conference._
+
+ INTERNATIONAL MERIDIAN CONFERENCE,
+ DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, _Oct. 14, 1884_.
+
+ SIR: I have the honor to submit to the Committee of which
+ you are the Chairman the following communications:
+
+ No. 1. Letters from Mr. Roumanet du Cailland, through Mr.
+ Hunter, Ass't Sec. of State.
+
+ No. 2. Letter and communication from Mr. C. M.
+ Raffensparger.
+
+ No. 3. Letter from Mr. A. S. de Chancourtois, accompanying
+ books from Paris.
+
+ No. 4. Letter from Mr. A. W. Spofford, enclosing letter of
+ Mr. J. W. Stolting, of Dobbs' Ferry.
+
+ No. 5. Letter from Mr. B. Aycrigg, Passaic, N. J.
+
+ No. 6. Letter from J. T. Field, St. Louis, Mo.
+
+ No. 7. Letter and two enclosures from Mr. Theodor Paesche.
+
+ No. 8. Description of the Universal Time-Piece of Dr. A. M.
+ Cory.
+
+ No. 9. Letter and enclosure from Mr. E. R. Knorr.
+
+ No. 10. Letter from Mr. J. E. Hilgard, of the U. S. Coast
+ Survey and Geodetic Survey.
+
+ No. 11. Arguments by Committee of New York and New Jersey
+ branch, and other papers relating to weights and measures.
+
+ No. 12. Letter from Lt. C. A. S. Totten, U.S.A., in relation
+ to a Standard Meridian.
+
+ No. 13. Letter from Mr. J. P. Merritt, in relation to the
+ Metric System.
+
+ No. 14. Postal card from W. H. Yates, in relation to the
+ Mercator Projection.
+
+ No. 15. A New System of Mensuration, by Lawrence S. Benson.
+
+ No. 16. Letter of T. C. Octman, of Hope Mills, N. C.,
+ calling attention to the fact that the meridian of Greenwich
+ passes through Havre.
+
+ No. 17. Letter from Dr. H. K. Whitner, explaining his
+ notation of 24 hours.
+
+ I am, sir, with great respect, your obedient servant,
+
+ C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _President International Meridian Conference_.
+
+ Prof. J. C. ADAMS.
+
+
+ _Report of the Committee._
+
+ The Committee on communications respectfully reports as
+ follows:
+
+ We have carefully examined all of the communications
+ referred to us, as enumerated in the letter of President
+ Rodgers, with the following results:
+
+ No. 1 recommends that the meridian of Bethlehem be adopted
+ as the initial meridian. This question has been already
+ disposed of by the Conference; therefore further
+ consideration of the proposition is unnecessary.
+
+ No. 2 refers to an invention, the author of which states
+ that "a patent has been applied for," consequently your
+ Committee does not feel called upon to express any opinion
+ upon it.
+
+ No. 3 is a letter from M. de Chancourtois, accompanying a
+ work by him which contains an elaborate program of a system
+ of geography based on decimal measures, both of time and of
+ angles, and on the adoption of an international meridian.
+
+ The work also contains copious historical notices on the
+ metric system and on the initial meridian.
+
+ A copy of this work was presented to each of the Delegates
+ prior to the discussions of the Conference with regard to
+ the choice of an initial meridian, and therefore no special
+ report of the author's views on this subject appears to your
+ committee to be necessary. These views are nearly identical
+ with those which were so ably laid before the Conference by
+ Professor Janssen, but which failed to meet with their
+ approval.
+
+ The author further proposes to supersede the present mode of
+ measuring both angles and time by a system in which the
+ entire circumference and the length of the day should each
+ be first divided into four equal parts, and then each of
+ these parts should be subdivided decimally.
+
+ However deserving of consideration these proposals may be,
+ in the abstract, your Committee are clearly of the opinion
+ that they do not fall within the limits indicated by the
+ instructions which we have received from our respective
+ governments, and that, therefore, any discussion of them
+ would only be of a purely academical character, and could
+ lead to no practical result. Such a discussion would be sure
+ to elicit great differences of opinion, and would,
+ therefore, occupy a considerable time.
+
+ Hence, your Committee think that it would be very
+ undesirable for the Conference to enter upon it.
+
+ No. 4 is a letter from Mr. Spofford, Librarian of Congress,
+ including a communication of Mr. J. W. Stolting, Dobbs'
+ Ferry, N. Y. The author recommends the adoption of the
+ meridian 162 deg. W. from Greenwich as the prime meridian; he
+ proposes further, not to say east or west, but first or
+ second half, and also recommends the adoption of a universal
+ time, not to interfere with local or other standard time,
+ and to reckon from "1 to 24." He expresses no opinion as to
+ whether the day should begin at noon or midnight. There
+ seems to be nothing in the communication to influence the
+ decisions of the Conference.
+
+ No. 5. See report as to letter No. 1.
+
+ No. 6 suggests that the prime meridian should be 180 deg. from
+ Greenwich, and that longitude should be reckoned from 0 deg. to
+ 360 deg.. This proposition has been already considered and
+ rejected by the Conference.
+
+ No. 7. This communication proposes "to adopt as the prime
+ meridian the frontier line between Russia and the United
+ States, as defined in the treaty of March 30, 1867." As the
+ initial meridian has already been agreed to by the
+ Conference, this proposition needs no further notice.
+
+ No. 8. This communication refers to an invention which has
+ no bearing on the question before the Conference. The
+ committee therefore abstain from expressing an opinion as to
+ its merits.
+
+ No. 9. Two letters from Mr. E. R. Knorr, of Washington,
+ D.C., advocating the advisability of reckoning longitude
+ "westward from 0 deg. to 359 deg.," and marking them on charts by
+ time instead of by degrees. The Conference has already taken
+ action on the question involved.
+
+ No. 10. A letter from Prof. Hilgard, enclosing a pamphlet by
+ Lt. C. A. S. Totten on the metrology of the great pyramid, a
+ subject which does not fall within the scope of the subjects
+ presented for the consideration of this Conference. In the
+ enclosing letter Prof. Hilgard says: "I am purely and
+ squarely for Greenwich midnight as the beginning of the
+ universal day, and an east and west count of longitude; that
+ is, 180 deg. each way."
+
+ No. 11 advocates the preservation of the Anglo-Saxon system
+ of weights and measures. This subject being foreign to the
+ questions under consideration by this Conference, the
+ Committee deems further comment unnecessary.
+
+ No. 12. A letter from Lieut. C. A. S. Totten, U.S.A.,
+ advocating a prime meridian through the great pyramid. The
+ proposition involved has already been decided by the
+ Conference.
+
+ No. 13 recommends redistribution of time according to the
+ decimal system. As already remarked under No. 3, this
+ proposition is clearly not within the limits indicated by
+ the instructions which we have received from our respective
+ governments.
+
+ No. 14 states that the author has a plan by which
+ "chronometers will record the longitude equably." This
+ proposition is foreign to the subjects under consideration
+ by the Conference.
+
+ No. 15 proposes a new system of mensuration; and, therefore,
+ this does not fall within the subjects for consideration by
+ the Conference.
+
+ No. 16. This communication suggests that as the prime
+ meridian passes through Havre, it should be allowable to
+ call it by that name. This Committee recommends that the
+ prime meridian be not named after the localities through
+ which it passes, but be called simply "The Prime Meridian."
+
+ No. 17 is the subject of a patent. The Committee does not
+ feel called upon to express an opinion respecting it.
+
+ This report is respectfully submitted to the Conference.
+
+ J. C. ADAMS,
+ _Chairman Committee on Communications._
+
+ WASHINGTON, _Oct. 18th, 1884_.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The report of the Committee is before the Conference.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United States. I move that the
+report be accepted, and its conclusions adopted.
+
+There being no objection, the report was adopted.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In the regular order of business to-day, the first
+subject before the Conference is the resolution offered on Saturday by
+the Delegate of the United States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, with the amendment
+offered by the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT.
+
+The resolution is as follows:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That this universal day is to be a mean solar
+ day, is to begin for all the world at the moment of mean
+ midnight of the initial meridian coinciding with the
+ beginning of the civil day and date of that meridian, and is
+ to be counted from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+The amendment offered is as follows:
+
+ "The Conference recommends as initial point for the
+ universal hour and the cosmic day the mean mid-day of
+ Greenwich, coinciding with the moment of midnight or the
+ beginning of the civil day at the meridian 12 hours or 180 deg.
+ from Greenwich.
+
+ "The universal hours are to be counted from 0 up to 24
+ hours."
+
+Mr. VALERA, the Delegate of Spain, said that he thought that the
+amendment of the Delegate of Sweden should be first discussed.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, the Delegate of France. At the last session I informed
+the Congress that I had received a telegram from Sir William Thomson
+upon the question of the meridian. Since then, that illustrious
+foreign member of the Institute of France has written me a very kind
+letter upon the subject, in which he expresses his complete
+appreciation of the disinterested attitude taken by France in this
+Congress. I thank Sir William Thomson for his sentiments towards
+France, and I am persuaded that, with such excellent feelings, we
+should arrive at an understanding, upon scientific bases, in which the
+moral and material interests of all would be equitably adjusted, as we
+have always understood them.
+
+But the question is not open now, and this Congress would, doubtless,
+not be disposed to reopen it. Sir William Thomson will understand,
+therefore, that in the present condition of affairs we have only to
+maintain the attitude which we have taken and the votes which we have
+given.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair will simply say to the Conference that he
+very informally alluded to the letter that he had received from Sir
+William Thomson, and the Chair would also say in answer to the Spanish
+Minister that the rule in this Conference, a simple one, is to discuss
+the last amendment offered and dispose of it, instead, as suggested by
+the Delegate of Spain, of taking up the one most important in its
+character. It would be somewhat difficult for the Chair to decide on
+all occasions which amendment is the most important. I think,
+therefore, as Chairman, that I will pursue the rule in force in this
+country, and, unless the Conference order otherwise, shall present the
+amendment which is the last offered.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. Mr. Chairman, the Spanish
+Minister has not referred to the most important amendment, but to the
+most radical. For instance, here there are several propositions to
+select a meridian; one of them must be considered, and it seems to me
+that my amendment, which is the most radical, is the one to be first
+presented to the Conference.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Unless the Conference shall direct otherwise, the Chair
+must pursue the principle on which it has acted hitherto, taking the
+amendments in the order in which they are offered, and presenting them
+inversely for the action of the Conference. The proposition before the
+Conference, therefore, is the amendment offered by the Delegate of
+Spain, Mr. ARBOL, which is as follows:
+
+ "Having accepted the meridian of Greenwich to account the
+ longitudes, as a general need for practical purposes, but
+ thinking that the introduction of any new system of
+ time-reckoning is far more scientific and important, and
+ liable to great difficulties and confusion in the future, we
+ propose the following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, The Congress, taking in consideration that
+ there is already a meridian tacitly accepted by almost all
+ the civilized nations as the origin of dates, the
+ anti-meridian of Rome, abstains from designating any other
+ meridian to reckon the universal time."
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. It is proposed to introduce an
+absolute universal or cosmopolitan system of time-reckoning, which, it
+is hoped, will, at a more or less distant day, be generally adopted,
+not only for scientific purposes, but for all the ordinary purposes of
+life for which it can possibly be used; and it is further proposed to
+designate a meridian at which this cosmopolitan time-reckoning is to
+begin. What I have to state is, that this method of absolute
+time-reckoning already exists, (although we do not use it,) as does
+this universal meridian which has been tacitly chosen by almost all
+civilized nations--that is to say, by all such as have adopted the
+Julian calendar, with or without the Gregorian correction. Thus it is
+that anything involving even a slight modification of our present
+system is nothing more than a chronological reform, which I do not
+feel certain that it will be well for us to introduce or recommend,
+and with regard to which I have my doubts whether it will be received
+with unanimous or hearty approval.
+
+In fact, gentlemen, all nations that have adopted the Julian and
+Gregorian systems of time-reckoning have necessarily accepted their
+consequences, and these consequences are, as Rome told us in the time
+of Caesar and in that of Gregory XIII, that we must reckon our days
+according to certain fixed dates; some part of the world had to reckon
+their dates before all the rest, and as Rome consented that countries
+situated to the east of it should reckon their date before it and
+countries situated to the west after it, it is evident that both
+reckonings had to meet at some point on some meridian, which was and
+could be no other than the anti-meridian of Rome. Nature itself seems
+to have lent its sanction to this, since the anti-meridian of Rome
+crosses no continent, and, probably, no land whatever.
+
+Let us suppose, for the sake of illustration, that it were agreed to
+abandon the Gregorian system of reckoning at a given moment, and to
+adopt another; that it were agreed to abandon it at all points on the
+globe when the hour should be twelve o'clock at noon at Greenwich, on
+the first day of January, 1885; and let us suppose that for historical
+or scientific purposes we were interested in knowing exactly how long
+the Gregorian system had been in use. Is it possible to ascertain
+this? It is; and very easily. Using that system of universal
+time-reckoning which it is proposed to establish, but logically
+referring it to the origin of that cosmopolitan reckoning which really
+exists, that is to say, to the anti-meridian of Rome, we shall find
+that 1885 years have been reckoned according to the Gregorian system,
+plus the difference of longitude between the anti-meridians of
+Greenwich and Rome. Nothing is more certain than this, and there is no
+other way of solving the problem. As I have already shown, when the
+Gregorian correction was made, the day which, according to the old
+mode of reckoning, would have been the 5th of October, was called the
+15th of October, 1582; the countries situated to the east of Rome had,
+however, previously begun to reckon according to the new system
+(previously in absolute time I mean,) and the countries situated to
+the west adopted it successively afterwards. Now, then, as that
+portion of the globe which lies to the east of any given point or
+meridian is nothing more or less than one hemisphere, and as that
+which lies to the west is another hemisphere, it is evident that, at
+the anti-meridian of Rome, the two meridians, which constantly differ
+by one day in their dates, are confounded, and that the anti-meridian
+of Rome, being the first one in the world that adopted the Julian and
+the Gregorian systems of reckoning, is the prime meridian of the
+world, the meridian by which we now reckon, and ought to reckon
+universal time, until the establishment of a different system. If we
+had, at the present time, to settle any question depending on dates,
+in the region where there is some confusion in regard to them, we
+should have to do so on this principle. If we desired to compel the
+entire world to keep a regular and logical account of dates, we should
+have to do so by compelling all the nations to the west of the
+anti-meridian of Rome to go on reckoning their dates uninterruptedly
+after they have begun to be reckoned at the said anti-meridian, and by
+forbidding all the nations to the east of it to reckon any date until
+it has been reckoned at the anti-meridian of Rome. For this reason I
+say that the express designation, for the reckoning of universal time,
+of the meridian of Greenwich or of any other than the anti-meridian of
+Rome, involves a chronological reform, inasmuch as it will involve the
+abandonment of the system to which we now adhere, and which we now use
+by common consent.
+
+This reform will cause a change of nearly 13 hours--that is to say, 12
+hours plus the difference of longitude between Rome and Greenwich, if
+the meridian of Greenwich is designated as the new initial point of
+the universal date. I do not believe, however, that you will adopt
+this choice irrevocably, since its curious and strange consequences
+may be shown by one example, which I will adduce: This table is of
+about sufficient extent to allow the difference between the
+geographical longitude of its two ends to be observed and appreciated.
+Let us suppose that these sessions were held at Greenwich, and that
+the table were placed east and west, so that the meridian intersected
+it lengthwise; let us further suppose that we had agreed to reckon the
+new universal time by this meridian--that is to say, by that of
+Greenwich--and that, in signing the protocol, we wished to set an
+example to the world by using the universal date, the present civil
+date and the future civil date, which, by the daily use of the
+universal date, the nations will or may finally accept, to the
+exclusion of all others, for the ordinary purposes of life. Well, now,
+gentlemen, we should bring our own choice into discredit. We could not
+sign, according to these three dates. As regards the last, we should
+find that half the table and half the Congress were under one date,
+and the other half under another; even our chairman, if seated in the
+middle, would find that he had been presiding over our sessions with
+his right side in one day and his left in the next.
+
+I may be told that this would happen, whatever might be the meridian
+chosen, but we could afford to allow it to happen at sea, or in some
+isolated and uninhabited region where congresses never sit, and where
+no ray of civilization ever penetrates.
+
+But to return to the reform, what are you going to do? I will say that
+if, instead of the meridian of Greenwich, you designate the
+anti-meridian for the reckoning of universal time and for the initial
+point of cosmopolitan dates for the present, but for the future as the
+initial point also of local dates, the reform will amount to about an
+hour only, but it will still be a reform. In a word, the anti-meridian
+of Rome is the one which now furnishes dates to the entire world, and
+you propose to make the meridian of Greenwich or the anti-meridian do
+so in future.
+
+I therefore tell you, if you desire a common hour for postal and
+commercial purposes, designate no meridian at all; let the railway and
+telegraph companies, the postal authorities and the governments make
+an arrangement and select an artificial hour, so to speak, whatever
+it be the hour of Rome, London, Paris, or even that of Greenwich, but
+do not make a premature declaration which will be an authoritative one
+as emanating from this Congress, an apparently insignificant reform,
+but in reality one of very great importance, since, giving the
+preference to determinate localities in the face of what is
+scientific, historical, and logical, you render difficult, in the
+future, the adoption of that very reform, which will, perhaps, then be
+more necessary, and which can perhaps then be introduced more
+intelligently.
+
+You see that I am not speaking in behalf of any special meridian, not
+even that of Rome, since I admit that the reform may be necessary. You
+see, and I assure you, that I have not the slightest wish that the
+meridian which is to be the initial point of universal time should
+bear the name of any observatory or place in Spain, although that
+nation discovered the New World in which this Congress is holding its
+sessions, and although it may be said of that nation that it
+discovered those very meridians concerning which we are now speaking,
+inasmuch as terrestial meridians were indefinite and unknown lines,
+and were even without form until one was given them by Sebastian
+Elcano. I therefore hope that if you do not honor my proposition by
+accepting it, you will at least do justice to my intentions.
+
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I shall be very
+short in any remarks which I may make upon the proposition before us.
+
+As far as I understand it, it is that, although we have adopted the
+meridian of Greenwich as a prime meridian from which to count
+longitudes, we should begin to count our time according to the
+meridian at Rome. I cannot consent to that proposition. It appears to
+me to be wanting in every element of simplicity, which should be our
+chief aim in this Conference. To count longitude from one meridian and
+time from another, is something that will never be adopted. I do not
+understand that that was at all the proposition recommended by the
+Roman Conference. On the contrary, I think that it was quite a
+different one.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. Mr. President, I do not in
+reality propose to adopt the meridian or anti-meridian of Rome. What I
+have been contending for is that we should abstain at present from
+adopting any meridian as a point of departure for the calculation of
+time; otherwise, we introduce a new element of confusion for the
+future. We should change the chronological reckoning which is now in
+vogue, and I contend that we have no right, scientific or historical,
+to make that change now. According to my views, the meridian of
+longitude is relatively an unimportant affair. It is a practical one;
+it cannot be changed in twenty years, probably, and it will take that
+time to correct all existing charts. But if you adopt a meridian for
+time, it will be very difficult to alter it in the future. I cannot
+now clearly see what the difficulties will be, but I apprehend that
+the application of this new principle to the various details of
+scientific and civil matters will necessarily be attended with great
+inconvenience, and may result in proving to be quite impracticable. I
+understand it very well that it is proposed to confine this principle
+to certain subjects, and that it is adopted for the purpose of
+avoiding dangers in communications, in navigation, in railways, and in
+transmitting telegrams, &c.; but this is purely an administrative
+matter, and can be left for settlement to other bodies.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would remind the Delegate of Spain, Mr. RUIZ
+DEL ARBOL, that at its last session the Conference resolved, with
+singular unanimity, that it was expedient to adopt "a universal day
+for all purposes for which it may be found convenient, and which shall
+not interfere with the local or other standard time where desirable."
+The Chair would politely suggest that the subject now under
+consideration is the adoption of the proposition recommended by the
+Conference at Rome, and which has been presented here by the Delegate
+of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. My proposition is to abstain
+from the adoption of any one meridian, and that we leave the matter to
+some other Congress, organized with the special object of regulating
+this question.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, as
+near as I can follow the Delegate of Spain, he seems to be under the
+apprehension that by the adoption of the universal day, which has been
+proposed here, we should either gain or lose time in our chronology;
+that we should skip 12 hours, more or less. But, of course, that is
+not the case. Any event which has occurred, or which will occur, at
+the time of the adoption of the universal day will be expressed just
+as exactly with reference to time as if the time had been calculated
+from the beginning of the Christian era. There will not only be no
+confusion, but it seems to me the adoption of the universal day will
+tend to avoid confusion hereafter, because confusion must exist where
+we have so many standards of time. Now, if any event which is taking
+place, or has taken place at any past time in the history of the
+world, is referred to the prime meridian, or is expressed in the time
+of any locality or of several localities, these times will all be
+different. The adoption of the universal day is to avoid any
+difficulty of that sort, and any event which has transpired will, when
+expressed in the time of the universal day--that is, according to the
+universal method--represent exactly the interval of time which has
+elapsed since the beginning of the Christian era. Nothing is gained or
+lost.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. It seems to me that the
+Congress having accepted the resolution to which reference was made a
+little while ago, adopting the universal day, it is incumbent upon us,
+in the nature of things, to determine when that universal day shall
+begin. The resolution presented by the Delegate of the United States
+proposes to define how that universal day shall be reckoned; that is,
+when it shall begin and how its hours shall be counted.
+
+It was explained by him that the difference between his proposition
+and the proposition made at Rome consisted in altering the time of the
+commencement of the so-called universal day from noon at Greenwich to
+the commencement of the civil day. Certainly what Commander SAMPSON
+just said is perfectly true. The adoption of this so-called universal
+day will not interfere in the smallest degree with any purpose for
+which time is employed in civil life. The two objects are entirely
+distinct. It is obvious that the conception of the necessity of having
+a universal day has arisen from the more clear conception of the fact
+that time on the globe is essentially local; that the time upon any
+given line (supposing it to be a meridian) is not the time at the same
+moment on either side of that line, however small the departure from
+it may be; and for scientific accuracy it has, therefore, been thought
+desirable to have some absolute standard to which days and hours can
+be referred. Up to the present time it has been the practice to say,
+in an indefinite way, that an event happened, say, on the 1st of
+January at 6 o'clock in the morning, and such a statement of the time
+has been considered sufficient; but, in truth, this does not
+completely describe a definite epoch of time, for if the event
+occurred at Madrid and was so reported, that report would not
+designate the same moment as a report of an event which was described
+to have occurred at precisely the same date and hour at Greenwich, or
+Rome, or Washington. What is required and desired is that we should
+have an absolute and definite standard for reckoning events of a
+certain description, for which complete precision is desirable. I
+consider, therefore, that the Delegate of Spain leads us astray in the
+proposition which he has offered, by which he virtually proposes to
+nullify the resolution already adopted. We have already decided that a
+universal day was expedient, and it is for the Conference to settle
+now when that universal day shall begin.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. I understand that the
+consequences, perhaps, would not be troublesome at first; but who can
+look into the future and say, if we take the meridian of Greenwich as
+the standard of time, what difficulties we may be driven into? Every
+country will be obliged to count both ways. They will have to use
+civil time and universal time. Perhaps all countries may get
+accustomed to this radical change sooner or later, but we cannot
+foresee the difficulty now. I have here a treatise (a book) on
+"Analytic Chronology," showing the rules by which to bring into accord
+different dates of different calendars and eras, and I do not know how
+they would be affected by this universal time; but it is unnecessary
+for me to speak of that, as I think you are acquainted with the
+subject.
+
+Mr. JUAN PASTORIN, Delegate of Spain. The Congress has already come to
+very important decisions on the subject of the reckoning of longitude,
+and it will also certainly approve to-day those which have just been
+submitted on the subject of the universal day.
+
+I say certainly, because the result of the former votes being already
+known, it cannot be doubted on which side the majority will be, and
+because, from a scientific point of view, having chosen Greenwich as
+the prime meridian for the calculation of longitude, and having
+decided to reckon longitude in two directions from zero hours to
+twenty-four hours, with the sign plus towards the east and minus
+towards the west, it will be advantageous to make the civil day of
+Greenwich coincide with the universal day, if we would have an easy
+formula for passing from local to cosmic time.
+
+So many of the resolutions submitted to the Congress by Mr. RUTHERFURD
+having been approved one after another, the plan that our colleague
+has carefully studied will be accepted in its entirety; but it will be
+impossible for the Conference to know in all their details other plans
+which, perhaps, would not be less worthy of attention.
+
+Is the resolution adopted by a majority of the Congress the best?
+Should we reach the end of the reform in complete harmony with the
+hopes of all the governments represented here? On the contrary
+hypothesis, it seems to me, that the sessions of this Congress will
+only be another step towards that reform, but not the reform itself.
+
+If the majority of the Congress, in accordance with the logical
+consequence of its work, adopts as the cosmic time the civil time of
+Greenwich, that decision will be contrary to the most ancient ideas of
+the human race. For many centuries the day has been reckoned as
+starting from the east, and the world will not easily abandon the
+traditions of its predecessors.
+
+The civil day of the world commences near the anti-meridian of Rome,
+Greenwich, or Paris. Therefore it is not natural that one of these
+meridians should be chosen as the point of departure of dates.
+
+Really, one phenomenon cannot be the commencement of a series of
+phenomena if there is another which precedes it periodically.
+
+If the majority, as is logical, adopts the formula, "cosmic time=local
+time-longitude," and applies in the calculation longitude with the
+signs plus and minus, according as the longitude is east and west, the
+system will be source of frequent mistakes, and those, in their turn,
+will be the cause of disastrous accidents, especially on railroads.
+
+Let us take the 31st of December, for instance. It is three o'clock at
+a point nine hours east of Greenwich; at the same moment they will
+count at Greenwich eighteen civil hours of the 30th of the same month,
+after the actual manner of reckoning the civil day, and that civil
+time of Greenwich will be the cosmic time.
+
+Apply to the proposed example the formula which I suppose the majority
+of the Congress will adopt, and the result will be a negative
+quantity, minus six hours--a result not sufficiently comprehensible in
+itself, and one that could not be easily applied by the general
+public.
+
+Can a majority prevail in questions, such as those we are speaking of,
+simply by the force of numbers? The whole world for several centuries
+thought that the earth was the centre of our planetary system; in
+fact, until an insignificant minority rose against this theory, for a
+long time considered by their ancestors indisputable.
+
+I will conclude by expressing my opinion upon the subject with which
+the Congress is occupied. My opinion is not new, in spite of its
+having been modified in the course of our sitting. The works of our
+eminent colleague and indefatigable propagandist, Mr. SANDFORD
+FLEMING, the resolution of the Conference at Rome, the valuable
+opinions of Messrs. Faye, Otto Struve, Beaumont de Boutiller, Hugo
+Gylden, the scientific work of Monsieur Chancourtois, and the report
+which M. Gaspari has just presented to the Academy of Sciences of
+Paris are the text upon which I base the simplest and most practical
+method of solving the problem, namely, to adopt as the prime meridian
+for cosmic time and longitude a meridian near the point at which our
+dates change, and to reckon longitude from zero hours to twenty-four
+hours towards the west, contrary to the movement of the earth. The
+formula would be then: Cosmic time = local time + longitude.
+
+I think that the best way of finding cosmic time in relation to local
+time and longitude is to add a quantity to the civil hour of each
+point of the globe.
+
+But as the majority of this Congress, so worthy of respect, admits no
+modifications of the system which we may call Greenwich, let us lay
+aside the question of longitude and consider cosmic time separately.
+
+I have the honor, therefore, to present the following resolutions, and
+I ask the Congress to consider them, and to accept them as a means of
+compromise:
+
+I. We agree to choose as the prime meridian for cosmic time that
+meridian near which the civil day of the world commences, namely, the
+anti-meridian of Rome, Greenwich, or Havre.
+
+II. The cosmic day consists of twenty-four hours, and commences at
+midnight of the prime meridian.
+
+III. The earth is divided from the initial meridian into twenty-four
+hour-spaces, counted in a direction contrary to the movement of the
+earth from _0h._ to _24h_.
+
+We shall, then, have the following formula: T = t + R, where R
+represents the difference reckoned from _0h._ to _24h_. between the
+local time of the prime meridian and the local time of each point of
+the globe; T the Cosmic Time and t the local time.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair would ask the Delegate of Spain, Mr.
+PASTORIN, whether he offers his resolution as an amendment to that
+offered by his colleague, Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. Mr. Chairman, the amendment
+last offered is not intended to interfere with my proposition.
+
+The PRESIDENT then put the question to the Conference upon the
+amendment offered by the Delegate of Spain, Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL.
+
+Upon a vote being taken, the amendment was lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question now recurs upon the amendment offered by
+the Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN. That amendment runs as follows:
+
+ "I. We agree to choose as the prime meridian for cosmic time
+ that meridian near which the civil day of the world
+ commences, namely, the anti-meridian of Greenwich or Havre.
+
+ "II. The cosmic day consists of twenty-four hours, and
+ commences at midnight of the prime meridian.
+
+ "III. The earth is divided from the initial meridian into
+ twenty-four hour spaces, counted in a direction contrary to
+ the movement of the earth.
+
+ "We shall, then, have the following formula: F = A + R where
+ R represents the difference reckoned from 0h. to 24h.
+ between the local time of the prime meridian and the local
+ time of each point of the globe; F the cosmic time, and A
+ the local time."
+
+The PRESIDENT. In order that this amendment may be presented more
+clearly to the Conference, I would propose a recess for a few minutes.
+If there be no objection, a recess will be taken.
+
+No objection being made, the Conference took a recess.
+
+ * * * * *
+
+The PRESIDENT having called the Conference to order stated that,
+unless further remarks were presented, the vote would be taken upon
+the resolution offered by the Delegate of Spain, Mr. PASTORIN.
+
+No objection being made, the vote was then taken upon the amendment,
+and it was lost.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question now recurs upon the resolution offered by
+the Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, which will again be read.
+The resolution is as follows:
+
+ "The Conference recommends as initial point for the
+ universal hour and the cosmic day the mean mid-day of
+ Greenwich, coinciding with the moment of midnight or the
+ beginning of the civil day at the meridian 12 hours or 180 deg.
+ from Greenwich. The universal hours are to be counted from
+ 0 up to 24 hours."
+
+Professor ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I intended
+to speak on the resolution offered by the Delegate of the United
+States, Mr. RUTHERFURD, but the remarks which I have put together
+apply equally well to the amendment to that resolution now offered by
+the Delegate of Sweden, which is identical with one of the
+recommendations of the Conference at Rome, because, in fact, in my
+remarks I discuss these propositions alternatively. Therefore, with
+your permission, I will lay before you the observations which I wish
+to make.
+
+I beg leave to express my entire approval of the resolution which has
+been laid before the Conference by Mr. RUTHERFURD. There is only one
+point involved in the resolution which seems to call for or even to
+admit of any discussion.
+
+It appears evident that the universal day and date should coincide
+with the day and date of the initial meridian. The only question,
+therefore, which we have now to decide is, when shall this day of the
+initial meridian be considered to commence? And the proper answer to
+be given to this question does not appear to me in any degree
+doubtful.
+
+In modern times it is the universal practice to reckon dates by _days_
+and not by _nights_. The word "day" is used in two different
+significations, being sometimes applied to the period of daylight and
+sometimes to the period of 24 hours, including both day and night; but
+in whichever of these senses the word _day_ is employed, the term
+mid-day has one and the same signification, viz., the instant of noon
+or of the sun's passage over the meridian. In the present case, where
+we are concerned with mean time, mid-day means the instant of mean
+noon, or of the passage of the mean sun over the meridian.
+
+Accordingly, the civil day, by which all the ordinary affairs of life
+are regulated, begins and ends at midnight, and has its middle or
+mid-day at noon.
+
+It appears, then, most natural that the universal day should follow
+this example, and should begin and end at the instant of mean midnight
+on the initial meridian, and should have its middle at the instant of
+mean noon on the same meridian.
+
+I fail, therefore, to see the force of the reasons which induced the
+Conference at Rome to recommend that the universal day should commence
+at _noon_ on the initial meridian.
+
+The only ground for making this recommendation is that astronomers,
+instead of adopting the use of the civil day, like the rest of the
+world, are accustomed to employ a so-called astronomical day, which
+begins at noon. The advantage thus gained is that they avoid the
+necessity of changing the date in the course of the night, which is
+the time of their greatest activity; but this advantage is surely very
+small when compared with the inconvenience of having two conflicting
+methods of reckoning dates, and of being obliged to specify, in giving
+any date, which mode of reckoning is adopted. If this diversity is to
+disappear, it is plain that it is the astronomers who will have to
+yield. They are few in number compared with the rest of the world.
+They are intelligent, and could make the required change without any
+difficulty, and with very slight or no inconvenience.
+
+The requisite changes in the astronomical and nautical ephemerides
+would be easily made. As these ephemerides are published several years
+in advance, there would be plenty of time for navigators to become
+familiar with the proposed change in time-reckoning before they were
+called upon to employ it in their calculations.
+
+I believe that they would soon come to think it more convenient and
+natural to reckon according to civil time than according to the
+present astronomical time. I am told that this practice is already
+universally adopted in keeping the log on board ship. To avoid any
+chance of mistake, it should be prominently stated on each page of the
+ephemerides that mean time reckoned from mean _midnight_ is kept
+throughout.
+
+Whether or not astronomers agree to adopt the civil reckoning, I think
+we ought to adopt the instant of midnight on the initial meridian as
+the commencement of the universal day.
+
+The relation between the local time at any place and the universal
+time would then be expressed by the simple formula:
+
+Local time = universal time + longitude.
+
+Whereas, if the proposition of the Roman Conference were adopted, we
+should have to employ the less simple formula:
+
+Local time = universal time + longitude - 12 hours.
+
+In recommending the mean noon at Greenwich as the commencement of the
+universal day and of cosmopolitan dates, the Roman Conference refers
+to this instant as coinciding with the instant of midnight, or with
+the commencement of the civil day, under the meridian situated at 12
+h. or 180 deg. from Greenwich. Now, this reference to the civil day and
+date on the meridian opposite to Greenwich appears not only to be
+unnecessary and to be wanting in simplicity, but it may also lead to
+ambiguity in the date, as expressed in universal days, unless this
+ambiguity be avoided by making an arbitrary assumption. No doubt the
+Greenwich mean noon of January 1 coincides with midnight on the
+meridian 12 h. from Greenwich, but with what midnight. What shall be
+its designation and the corresponding date given to the universal day?
+Shall we call the instant above defined the commencement of the
+universal day denoted by January 1 or by January 2? Each of these
+dates has equal claims to be chosen, and the choice between them must
+clearly be an arbitrary one, and may, therefore, lead to ambiguity.
+
+By adopting Greenwich mean midnight as the commencement of the
+universal day, bearing the same designation as the corresponding
+Greenwich civil day, all ambiguity is avoided, and there is no need to
+refer to the opposite meridian at all.
+
+Those are the ideas I wish to express with regard to the commencement
+of the universal day.
+
+I may mention in connection with this subject that Professor
+Valentiner is one of the gentlemen who were invited, a week or two
+ago, to attend the meetings of this Conference, in order that, if
+requested, they might express their opinions from a scientific
+standpoint upon the questions before it; but as Professor Valentiner
+had to leave Washington before our sessions were at an end, I thought
+it would be expedient to ask him for his opinion in writing upon the
+matter which is now pending before this Conference. He has written a
+letter in German, expressing his opinion. I have caused that letter to
+be translated into English, and if the Conference allows me I will
+read it.
+
+The PRESIDENT. If there be no objection to the proposition of the
+Delegate of Great Britain the letter will be read.
+
+No objection being made, Professor ADAMS continued: It is well known
+that Professor Valentiner is an eminent practical astronomer, and I
+think that any opinion coming from him on this subject, which
+interests astronomers very much, will be considered of great weight.
+The letter runs as follows:
+
+ CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA.,
+ _October 12th, 1884_.
+
+ HONORED SIR: You had the kindness to ask me for my views as
+ to the choice of the moment for the beginning of the day. As
+ I cannot remain longer in Washington, I allow myself thus
+ briefly to write to you.
+
+ When, as in the present case, the object is to introduce
+ uniformity in the time-reckoning of the astronomical and the
+ civil world, I am of the opinion that it is the astronomer
+ only that must give way. For all purposes of civil life one
+ cannot begin the day in the middle of the day-light--that is
+ to say, in the middle of that interval during which work is
+ prosecuted. In general it appears to me natural that the
+ middle of the day, and not the beginning of the day, should
+ be indicated by the highest position of the sun which
+ governs all civil life. In fact, it would in civil life be
+ simply impossible to bring about a change of date in the
+ middle of the daylight. For the astronomer there certainly
+ exist difficulties. His activity occurs mostly in the civil
+ night, and he, therefore, has to make the change of date in
+ the midst of his observations; and this difficulty is
+ increased, since he almost exclusively observes according to
+ sidereal time, so that often a computation must be made in
+ order to ascertain whether the observations were made before
+ or after the midnight or moment of change of date. However,
+ this difficulty can be overcome by habit, and I believe that
+ scarcely any doubt will occur as soon as a uniformnity of
+ expression has established itself through the astronomical
+ world. As regards the ephemerides, we already employ, in
+ fact, the beginning of the date at midnight, since the
+ places of planets and comets, are generally computed for 12
+ o'clock midnight of Berlin or Greenwich or other places.
+ But these are points that have themselves long since been
+ discussed.
+
+ I scarcely need to say anything further. I would not
+ hesitate for a moment to give the preference to making the
+ change of date take place at midnight, according to civil
+ reckoning, in order to establish a uniformity with the
+ customs of civil life.
+
+ It, perhaps, may be important to remark that we could not
+ introduce this change immediately, since the ephemerides are
+ already computed and published for three or four years in
+ advance. It would, therefore, be well to fix the epoch of
+ change of normal dates to some distant time, such as 1890.
+
+ I remain, very respectfully yours,
+
+ W. VALENTINER.
+
+I may also mention that the practice that prevails among astronomers
+at the present time of reckoning the day from noon is by no means
+without exceptions. There are very important astronomical tables which
+reckon the day from midnight; for instance, in Delambre's Tables of
+the Sun; in Burg's, Burckhardt's and Damoiseau's Tables of the Moon;
+in Bouvard's Tables of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, and in Damoiseau's
+Tables of Jupiter's Satellites, mean midnight is employed as the epoch
+of the tables. I may also mention that Laplace, in his Mecanique
+Celeste, adopts the mean midnight of Paris as the origin from which
+his day is reckoned. Hence there are great authorities, even among
+astronomers, in favor of commencing the day at midnight.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, I observe that a
+very eminent American authority is present in this room, I mean
+Professor Hilgard. As he was invited to attend the meeting of this
+Conference, I suggest that the views of the Conference may be taken,
+whether he may not be invited to express his opinion on the point now
+under consideration.
+
+The PRESIDENT. With the concurrence of the Conference, the Chair will
+be most happy to ask Professor Hilgard to do us the favor to give us
+his opinion upon the question now before the Conference.
+
+No objection was made to the proposition of the President.
+
+Professor HILGARD arose and said. I thank you and the Conference very
+much for this invitation, and General STRACHEY for having proposed it
+to the Conference, but my opinion has been squarely expressed both in
+French and English in the report of a certain committee, that I am in
+favor of midnight at Greenwich as the beginning of the universal day,
+and of longitude being calculated both ways from Greenwich. I really
+cannot add anything to what has been said in the arguments already
+presented by Professor ADAMS, and I do not think that I ought to
+detain this Conference a moment by repeating the opinion he has
+expressed to all the experts in this matter.
+
+I beg you will excuse me for not further ventilating my views. Absence
+from the city, I regret, has prevented me from availing myself of the
+invitation earlier.
+
+Sir FREDERICK EVANS, Delegate of Great Britain. I have the honor to
+address the Conference once more upon the practical aspect of the
+subject before us as affecting the large body of navigators. I wish to
+say upon this point that there appears to me, in the address of my
+colleague, Professor ADAMS, somewhat of a mixing together of two
+subjects.
+
+The question immediately before us, as I understand it, is whether the
+commencement of the universal day shall be midnight or noon of the
+initial meridian. That is what we practically have to decide. Now, I
+gather from Professor ADAMS' remarks that upon this question the
+ephemerides which we now employ have some important bearing. I do not
+think that that should influence us, for this reason, that the next
+resolution which will come before the Conference "expresses the hope
+that as soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical days
+will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight."
+
+This resolution, so far as I understand it, will be the warning to
+astronomers to begin to make the changes growing out of this
+resolution which may be necessary for seamen. Therefore, I consider
+that we may at once proceed to vote upon the question whether the day
+is to commence at midnight or noon, without any reference to the
+practice or interests of navigation. In reality, it does not appear to
+me to affect that subject at all.
+
+I have given some consideration to the practical bearings of this
+question--whether it should be midnight or noon. What we ought to
+decide is what will be the least inconvenience to the world at large.
+I have ascertained from two of my colleagues, who have given this
+matter the greatest consideration, that the adoption of midnight will
+really cause less confusion than noon, for this reason, that all the
+great colonies of the world would be less affected; that is to say,
+that the times they are using now would be less affected by midnight
+than by noon. That being so, it appears to me to be an essential point
+in coming to a settlement of this question.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. I have only to say that I have
+listened to the remarks about navigators changing the reckoning of
+time. I do not know whether there are many navigators here, but it is
+a fact that seamen reckon the day from noon.
+
+The PRESIDENT. I beg the pardon of the Delegate of Spain; but, in the
+United States navy, we reckon the day from midnight.
+
+Mr. RUIZ DEL ARBOL, Delegate of Spain. I am speaking generally. Now,
+there is some reason for this rule among seamen, for the only way to
+find out the position of a ship is to observe the meridian altitude of
+the sun; and everybody requires to know, at sea, what has taken place
+in the course of every day, from the beginning to the last moment of
+the day; and I think that whatever the rule may be in the United
+States navy, navigators generally will count their time as they count
+it now.
+
+I think that navigators will not change the rule now in force, no
+matter what we may adopt in this Conference.
+
+Commander SAMPSON, Delegate of the United States. I think, Mr.
+President and gentlemen, that the change to the adoption of the
+universal day, beginning at midnight, would be a very decided
+advantage to navigators. The quantities as now given in the nautical
+ephemerides are for noon of the meridian for which they are computed,
+as Washington, Greenwich, &c. It is very evident that every navigator,
+in making use of the quantities given in the nautical almanac, must
+find the corresponding time at Greenwich, wherever he may be on the
+surface of the earth. Consequently, if we suppose that navigators are
+pretty equally distributed, one-half on one side of the earth and
+one-half on the other side, the Greenwich day for one portion would be
+the local night for the other.
+
+The usual observations made by navigators at sea consist in a meridian
+observation of the sun for latitude, and a morning and possibly
+afternoon observation of the sun near the prime vertical for
+longitude. Consequently all navigators, when in the vicinity of the
+initial meridian, might have their day's work occurring in two
+astronomical days. On the other hand, those navigators who were in the
+neighborhood of the 180th meridian would have all their work of one
+day occurring in the same astronomical day. The first would have the
+advantage of interpolating for short intervals only, while the second
+would be obliged to interpolate for much larger intervals.
+
+Consequently, on the whole, it would make no difference to navigators
+whether the quantities given in the nautical almanacs were for noon or
+midnight of the initial meridian. Another consideration, however,
+would make it very advantageous to have the quantities given for
+midnight. That consideration is this: if midnight were chosen, then
+the universal day would be identical with the nautical almanac day,
+and navigators would have only ship time and universal time to deal
+with, while, if the quantities were given for noon, they would have
+astronomical time, in addition to the other two. This consideration I
+think a very important one.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The question will be on the amendment offered by the
+Delegate of Sweden, Count LEWENHAUPT, which has been read.
+
+The vote was then taken, as follows:
+
+States voting in the affirmative:
+
+ Austria, Sweden,
+ Italy, Switzerland,
+ Netherlands, Turkey.
+
+In the negative:
+
+ Brazil, Japan,
+ Chili, Liberia,
+ Colombia, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Russia,
+ Guatemala, United States,
+ Hawaii, Venezuela.
+
+Abstaining from voting:
+
+ France, San Domingo,
+ Germany, Spain.
+
+Ayes, 6; noes, 14; abstaining from voting, 4.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the amendment was lost.
+
+The question then recurred on the original resolution offered by the
+Delegate of the United States.
+
+RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey. Mr. President, I have listened
+with a great deal of interest and attention to the learned arguments
+bearing upon the proposition under discussion offered by the Hon. Mr.
+RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United States for the adoption of a
+universal hour.
+
+This question is of such high importance, and of such interest to
+every one, that I consider it my duty to make a few remarks upon the
+subject, as I wish to state clearly the position my government
+proposes to take in the matter.
+
+I do not pretend to discuss scientifically this subject, which has
+already been so ably treated by several of the gentlemen present. My
+task is of a different and inferior order. I merely propose to briefly
+examine the manner in which the proposition ought to be made, in order
+that it may be adopted by our respective governments.
+
+The question of a universal hour is not of equal interest and
+importance to all. The United States of America, although
+comparatively a young nation, have done so much in the pursuit of
+science and scientific investigation that they must have more than a
+common interest on the subject. The vast expanse of their country,
+stretching over sixty degrees of longitude, with a difference of time
+of more than four hours, almost compels them to adopt a universal
+hour. The thousands of miles of railroad tracts covering this
+continent, facilitating the intercourse between distant places,
+necessitate a uniform system to avoid confusion. It was, therefore,
+natural that the United States and Canada should have taken the lead
+in proposing such a reform, which would likewise benefit other
+countries, as, for instance, the British Empire, Russia, and Germany.
+But there are, at the same time, other countries, like France, Spain,
+Italy, Scandinavia, etc., that may content themselves with a national
+hour, owing to the small difference in time within their dominion. For
+them, the adoption of a universal hour would only be of secondary
+importance, because it would only affect their international
+relations.
+
+I hope I may be permitted to remind you of the conclusions arrived at
+by a commission consisting of scientists, railroad and telegraph
+officials, &c., appointed by the French Government to express their
+opinion upon this subject. If I am not mistaken, they recommended a
+universal hour, stating, however, at the same time, that the benefit
+to be derived from such an hour would be only of secondary importance
+for their country. The learned Delegate from France, Professor
+JANSSEN, will probably be kind enough to inform us whether I am right
+or not.
+
+The few remarks I have made bring me to the point I wanted to consider
+more specially. I mean that the originators of the pending
+proposition, and those directly interested in it, should be induced to
+modify their proposition somewhat if they wish it to be adopted by
+other countries. In other words, to leave to each country the greatest
+latitude possible in adopting a universal hour.
+
+With regard to the Ottoman Empire, I must state that it is placed in a
+somewhat exceptional position in this respect, and is, therefore,
+obliged to ask for more latitude even than the other countries
+concerned.
+
+In our country we have two modes of reckoning time: one from noon to
+noon, or from midnight to midnight, as everywhere else, (heure a la
+franque), the other (heure a la turque) from sundown to sundown. In
+this latter case the hours count from the moment when the disk of the
+sun is bisected by the horizon, and we count twice from _0h._ to
+_12h._, instead of counting without any interruption from _0h._ to
+_24h._ We are well aware of the inconveniences this system of counting
+produces, because _0h._ necessarily varies from day to day, for the
+interval of time between one sunset and the one following is not
+exactly 24 hours. According to the season the sun will set earlier or
+later, and our watches and clocks at Constantinople will be at most
+about three minutes fast or slow from day to day, according to the
+season.
+
+Reasons of a national and religious character prevent us, however,
+from abandoning this mode of counting our time. The majority of our
+population is agricultural, working in the fields, and prefer to count
+to sunset; besides, the hours for the Moslem prayers are counted from
+sundown to sundown.
+
+Therefore it is impossible for us to abandon our old system of time,
+although in our navy we generally use the customary reckoning or
+"heure a la franque."
+
+Finally, permit me to state that I am ready to cast my vote in favor
+of a universal hour, with the precise understanding that the universal
+hour will have to be limited to international transactions, and that
+will not interfere with the rules up to now in force in my own
+country.
+
+Before resuming my seat I wish to thank the President and the members
+of the Conference for their kind indulgence in having listened to my
+remarks.
+
+The PRESIDENT, The Chair would remind the Delegate of Turkey that the
+following resolution was passed at our last session:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference propose the adoption of a
+ universal day for all purposes for which it may be found
+ convenient, and which shall not interfere with the use of
+ local or other standard time where desirable."
+
+The very difficulty which the Delegate of Turkey anticipates was thus
+carefully provided for in the resolution just read.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. To my mind it is of
+very great importance that this resolution should be adopted. I have
+already given generally my views on this question, and therefore I do
+not intend to trespass on the attention of the Conference beyond
+saying a very few words. From what I have already ventured to submit,
+it will be obvious that I hold that all our usages in respect to the
+reckoning of time are arbitrary. Of one thing there can be no doubt.
+There is only one, and there can only be one flow of time, although
+our inherited usages have given us a chaotic number of arbitrary
+reckonings of this one conception. There can be no doubt of another
+matter; the progress of civilization requires a simple and more
+rational system than we now have. We have, it seems to me, reached a
+stage when a unification of the infinite number of time-reckonings is
+demanded.
+
+This unification will be, to a large extent, accomplished if the
+resolution be adopted, and by adopting it, it seems to me to be in the
+power of the Conference to confer lasting benefits on the world.
+
+Universal time will in no way interfere with local time. Each separate
+community may continue the usages of the past in respect to local
+time, or may accept whatever change the peculiar conditions in each
+case may call for. But the use of universal time will not necessarily
+involve a change; it will rather be something added to what all now
+possess. It will be a boon to those who avail themselves of it.
+
+To the east of the prime meridian all possible local days will be in
+advance; to the west all possible days will be behind the universal
+day.
+
+The universal day, as defined by the resolution, will at once be the
+mean of all possible local days, and the standard to which they will
+all be related by a certain known interval, that interval being
+determined by the longitude.
+
+In my judgment, the resolution is an exceedingly proper one, and the
+Conference will act wisely in passing it.
+
+The PRESIDENT. In taking the vote upon the resolution, it is requested
+that the roll be called.
+
+The following States voted in the affirmative:
+
+ Brazil, Liberia,
+ Chili, Mexico,
+ Colombia, Netherlands,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Turkey,
+ Guatemala, United States,
+ Hawaii, Venezuela.
+ Japan,
+
+States voting in the negative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Spain.
+
+Abstaining from voting:
+
+ France, San Domingo,
+ Germany, Sweden,
+ Italy, Switzerland.
+ Netherlands,
+
+Ayes, 15; noes, 2; abstained, 7.
+
+The PRESIDENT then announced that the resolution was passed.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I now
+present for the consideration of the Conference the following
+resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference expresses the hope that as
+ soon as may be practicable the astronomical and nautical
+ days will be arranged everywhere to begin at midnight."
+
+Before action is taken upon this resolution, I would make a verbal
+correction. I think that the word "_mean_" ought to be introduced
+before the word "_midnight_" and I therefore alter my resolution in
+that way.
+
+The vote was then taken upon the resolution just offered, and it was
+carried without division.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair begs leave to state that the protocols in
+French and in English of the first and second sessions of the
+Conference, have been examined, and are now before the Conference for
+adoption. If any Delegate wishes to make any correction in these
+protocols, he can submit it to the Conference, and, if approved, it
+can be immediately made.
+
+No objection was raised, and the President put the question to the
+Conference on the adoption of the protocols of the first and second
+sessions in French and English, and they were unanimously adopted.
+
+M. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Mr. President, we have been directed
+to present for the approval of the Congress the desire that studies
+relative to the application of the decimal system to the division of
+angular space and of time should be resumed in order that this
+application may be extended to all cases--and they are numerous and
+important--where it presents real advantages.
+
+I would say that a similar desire upon the same subject was expressed
+by the Conference at Rome.
+
+You are aware, gentlemen, that at the time of the establishment of the
+metrical system the decimal division had been extended to the
+measurement of angular space and of time. Numerous instruments were
+even made according to the new system. As to time, the reform was
+introduced too abruptly, and, we might say, without enough discretion,
+and it came into conflict with old habits and was quickly abandoned;
+but as to the division of angular space, in which the decimal division
+presented many advantages, the reform sustained itself much better,
+and is still used for certain purposes. So, the division of the
+circumference into 400 parts was adopted by Laplace, and we find it
+constantly employed in the Mecanique Celeste. Delambre and Mechain
+used, for the measurement of the are of the meridian from which the
+metre was derived, repeating circles divided into "_grades_." Finally,
+in our own time, Colonel Perrier, Chief of the Geographical Division
+of our Department of War, has used instruments decimally divided, and
+at the present time logarithmic tables appropriate to that method of
+division are in course of calculation.
+
+But it is especially when it is a question of making long
+calculations of angular space that the decimal system presents great
+advantages. In this respect we find, so to speak, only one opinion
+expressed by scientists.
+
+The Conference at Rome, which brought together so many astronomers,
+geodetists, eminent topographers--that is to say, the men most
+competent and most interested in the question--expressed in respect to
+it a desire, the high authority of which it is impossible to mistake.
+
+It is, therefore, now evident that the decimal system, which has
+already done such good service in the measurements of length, volume,
+and weight, is called upon to render analagous services in the domain
+of angular dimensions and of time.
+
+I know that this question of the decimal division encounters
+legitimate doubts, principally as to its application to the
+measurement of time. It is feared that we want to destroy habits fixed
+for centuries, and upset established usages.
+
+In this respect, gentlemen, I think that we ought to be fully
+satisfied. The teachings of the past will be respected. It will be
+perceived that if we failed at the time of the Revolution, it is
+because we put forward a reform which was not limited to the domain of
+science, but which did violence to the habits of daily life. It is
+necessary to take the question up again, but with due regard to the
+limits which common sense and experience would prescribe to wise and
+well-informed men.
+
+I think that the character of the reform would be well defined by
+saying that it is intended especially to make a new effort towards the
+application of the decimal system in scientific matters.
+
+But, gentlemen, I have not to discuss here the bearing of the reforms
+which the study of this question will lead to. It is sufficient for me
+to show that there is in that direction an indispensable step to be
+made, and to ask you to express the desire that the question should be
+studied. I do not think that there is anybody here who would desire to
+oppose a request which does not in truth commit us to any specific
+solution of the question, and which appears so opportune at the
+present time. I would ask the President to be so kind as to submit the
+following proposition to the Conference:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference expresses the hope that the
+ studies designed to regulate and extend the application of
+ the decimal system to the division of angular space and of
+ time shall be resumed, so as to permit the extension of this
+ application to all cases where it presents real advantages."
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair is of opinion that the Conference was called
+for a special and somewhat narrow purpose, and the consideration of
+the decimal system, proposed by the Delegate of France, seems to it
+foreign to that purpose and beyond the scope of the Conference. The
+President, however, simply acts for the Conference, and if the
+Conference shall decide to take the matter up, he will acquiesce, but
+it strikes the Chair that the resolution is out of order.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, I desire to express my
+personal views on this subject. I should be very happy to join the
+Delegate of France in voting for such a resolution, but I fear that
+there is a feeling among many of the delegates that it is not within
+our competence to discuss it. If that is so, I would suggest whether
+it might not be better that it should not be pressed to a vote. It
+would be a pity if there should be on the records of the proceedings
+of this Conference anything in the shape of a vote against the
+subject-matter of this resolution. I consequently think that if
+delegates have formed any decided opinion on the subject, they might
+express their opinion without voting; but I repeat that it would be a
+great pity if a negative vote should be taken on the subject of the
+decimal system of dividing the circle and time, particularly as it was
+received with unanimity in the Conference at Rome.
+
+Prof. ADAMS, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I may say that
+while I agree with Gen. STRACHEY in thinking that I should not like to
+vote against the proposition brought forward by our eminent colleague,
+Mr. JANSSEN, yet I feel it is somewhat beyond the scope of the
+subjects which we have to discuss, and, therefore, I should abstain
+from voting. I quite recognize that, for certain purposes, the decimal
+division of the circle is very valuable.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Unless the Conference decides to entertain this
+proposition, the Chair suggests that no discussion shall take place.
+If any member present desires to bring the matter up, he can do so by
+taking an appeal from the decision just made.
+
+Gen. STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Do I understand, sir, that
+the subject is dropped?
+
+The PRESIDENT. The Chair has decided that the resolution offered by
+the Delegate of France is out of order, and unless a difference of
+opinion is expressed by the Conference, the subject will be dropped.
+The Chair wishes to treat with the most distinguished deference the
+Delegate of France, because we are all most happy to do honor to him
+in every way. Does the Chair understand that the Delegate of France
+appeals from its decision, and wishes to take the sense of the
+Conference upon it?
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, replied in the affirmative.
+
+Commodore FRANKLIN, Delegate of Colombia. Mr. President, I would like
+hear the resolution read again. If it be merely a suggestion to
+consider the subject of the decimal system, I should like to know it.
+
+The vote was then taken upon the appeal of the Delegate of France from
+the decision of the Chair.
+
+States voting in favor of the appeal:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Netherlands,
+ Brazil, San Domingo,
+ Chili, Spain,
+ France, Switzerland,
+ Italy, Turkey,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Mexico,
+
+States voting against the appeal:
+
+ Colombia, Hawaii,
+ Costa Rica, Liberia,
+ Germany, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, United States.
+ Guatemala,
+
+Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Russia, Sweden.
+
+Ayes, 13; noes, 9; abstained, 2.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The appeal from the decision of the Chair is sustained,
+and the proposition offered by the Delegate of France is now before
+the Conference. If no delegate wishes to speak upon the resolution,
+the vote will be taken.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France. Mr. President, before the definitive
+vote I desire to again call my colleague's attention to the fact that
+it is a question here of the much-needed extension of the decimal
+system, an extension desired by a large number of the highest
+scientific authorities and of the most distinguished observers. As I
+said only a moment ago, the Congress at Rome, whose high authority in
+the matters which have occupied us is acknowledged, was a still higher
+authority as to astronomy, geodesy, topography; that is to say, in the
+domain to which our proposition relates. At Rome a wish, similar to
+that which we ask you to formulate, was expressed. Besides, if we
+observe that it is a question here only of expressing the desire that
+studies should be resumed upon the matter in question, is there anyone
+among us who would wish to oppose the liberal proposition which
+prejudges nothing in the solution of the question, but which will
+surely lead to important progress. I do not doubt, then, that all our
+colleagues will desire to unite in a resolution, which by its object
+and by the manner in which it is expressed, ought, it appears to me,
+to unite the suffrages of all.
+
+No further remarks were made upon the resolution, and the vote was
+accordingly taken on the question whether it should be adopted.
+
+States voting in the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, San Domingo,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Liberia,
+
+ States voting in the negative: None.
+
+ Abstained from voting:
+
+ Germany, Sweden.
+ Guatemala,
+
+Ayes, 21; noes, 0; abstained, 3.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The resolution of the Delegate of France is, therefore,
+adopted.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. Sir, before concluding
+the session to-day, I hope that the Delegates will be in a position to
+listen to the two resolutions which I now desire to propose, and which
+I think will tend to clear up a good deal of the discussion which we
+have had. The first of these resolutions is as follows:
+
+ "The Conference adopts the opinion that, for the purposes of
+ civil life, it will be convenient to reckon time, according
+ to the local civil time at successive meridians destributed
+ round the earth, at time-intervals of either ten minutes, or
+ some integral multiple of ten minutes, from the prime
+ meridian; but that the application of this principle be
+ left to the various nations or communities concerned by it."
+
+This resolution, as it stands, embraces all the practical suggestions
+which have been made on the subject up to the present time. The only
+limitation it proposes to put upon the adoption of what may be called
+local standard time is that the breaks shall be at definite intervals
+of ten minutes or more.
+
+The second resolution which I propose is a very simple one. It is
+this:
+
+ "The arrangements for adopting the universal day in
+ international telegraphy should be left for the
+ consideration of the international telegraph congress."
+
+There has been established by an international arrangement a congress
+which meets every two years to settle questions of international
+telegraphy, and I think that the precise manner in which universal
+time may be adapted to telegraphy would very properly be left to that
+congress.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. On behalf of the Delegates of
+Russia, I beg to make the following remarks:
+
+We have already expressed the opinion that the universal time could be
+properly used for international postal, railway, and telegraphic
+communications. But it is to be understood that local or any other
+standard time, which is intimately connected with daily life, will
+necessarily be used side by side with the universal time.
+
+It has been proposed, in order to establish an easier connection
+between local and universal time, to accept twenty-four meridians at
+equal distances of 1 hour or 15 deg., or to divide the whole circumference
+of the earth by meridians at distances of 10 minutes of time or 21/2 deg..
+
+This question not yet having been made the subject of special and
+thorough investigation by the respective Governments, and not having
+been discussed at the International Conference at Rome, we believe
+that it would as yet be difficult to express, in regard to Europe, any
+positive opinion on the practical convenience of the above mentioned
+or other possible methods of dividing the globe into equal time-zones.
+
+We would suggest to recommend that the system of counting the hours of
+the universal day from 0 to 24, which probably will be adopted for the
+universal day, might also be introduced for counting the local time
+side by side with the old method of counting the hours of 0 to 12 A.
+M. and 0 to 12 p. m.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate of Sweden. I have had the honor to transmit
+to the members of the Conference a resume of a report on this subject
+made by Professor Gylden, an eminent Swedish astronomer, whose name,
+no doubt, is familiar to many of the Delegates. The system proposed by
+Mr. Gylden is similar to the one now proposed by the Delegate for
+Great Britain. The only difference is that Mr. Gylden, in explaining
+the system, recommends the adoption of equidistant meridians,
+separated by intervals of 21/2 deg., or 10 minutes of time, while the
+proposition of the Delegate for Great Britain is so worded that this
+distance may be greater than 10 minutes. This difference is, however,
+only a question of detail. The basis of Mr. Gylden's system is that
+time meridians should be separated from the standard initial meridian
+by either 10 or some integral multiple of 10 minutes. Therefore, I
+shall, with pleasure, vote for the resolution of the Delegate from
+Great Britain.
+
+I beg only permission of the Conference to insert Mr. Gylden's report
+as part of my remarks:
+
+ _RESUME OF A REPORT read before the Swedish Geographical
+ Society by Hugo Gylden, Professor of Astronomy and member of
+ the Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, concerning the use of
+ Equidistant Meridians for the fixation of the Hour._
+
+ If we suppose the meridian passing through the Observatory
+ of Greenwich extended round the globe, this grand circle
+ will cut the equator, at 180 deg. from Greenwich, at some place
+ a little east of New Zealand. This meridian falls almost
+ entirely in the Ocean, and cuts, in any case, not more than
+ a few small islands in the Pacific. If we suppose, further,
+ another great circle at 90 deg. from the meridian of Greenwich,
+ the western half touches very nearly New Orleans, and the
+ eastern half passes a few minutes from Calcutta. If, now,
+ the hour is fixed according to these four meridians, we have
+ four cardinal times--one European, one American, one
+ Asiatic, and one Oceanic.
+
+ It will, however, be necessary to fix much more than one
+ civil time for Europe. Therefore I suppose for Europe a
+ whole system of meridians, which, however, ought not to be
+ closer together than 21/2 deg.. The difference of time between
+ these meridians is then only 10 minutes, which, in general,
+ can be considered as an insignificant difference between the
+ civil and the true solar time. The starting point of this
+ system is the meridian of Greenwich. To the west the system
+ ought to extend 30 minutes; to the east 21/2 hours, or to a
+ meridian passing near Moscow.
+
+ I suppose as time zero the meridian of Greenwich. The next
+ meridian to the east is meridian 1. This meridian will not
+ pass far from the Observatory of Paris, because the
+ difference between this meridian 1 and the meridian of Paris
+ is only 40 seconds, an insignificant difference in civil
+ life. The meridian 1 can be called the meridian of Paris, or
+ French meridian.
+
+ The second meridian (to the east of Greenwich) does not
+ touch Utrecht, but will pass so close that the time of this
+ city could, without the least inconvenience, be regulated as
+ if the difference of time between Greenwich and Utrecht were
+ exactly 20 minutes. The second meridian would also pass
+ almost as close to Amsterdam, (22s.,) and would not be far
+ from Marseilles, (1m. 29s.) In the vicinity of the third
+ meridian we have, first, Bern, (16s.;) next, a little
+ further, Turin, (42s.) The fourth meridian is close to
+ Hamburg, Altona, and Gottingen, (respectively 6s. and 14s.)
+ Not far from the same meridian is Christiania, although at a
+ distance of a little over 2 minutes. The fifth meridian
+ passes also close to three large cities--Rome, (5s.,)
+ Leipzig, (26s.,) and Copenhagen, (20s.)
+
+ The sixth meridian does not touch any city of importance,
+ but it coincides very nearly with the meridian adopted for
+ the normal civil time in Sweden; the difference amounts only
+ to 15 seconds.
+
+ The seventh meridian touches the little town of Brieg, in
+ the vicinity of Breslau, and Koenigsberg is situated two
+ minutes from the eighth. The ninth meridian passes less than
+ one minute to the west of Abo, and is situated at a distance
+ of only a few seconds from Mistra, a town in Greece. The
+ tenth meridian almost touches Helsingfors in Finland. As
+ regards the eleventh meridian, I have not been able to find
+ any locality of importance exactly so situated that it
+ merits a place in this list, but I can, however, mention
+ the cities of Minsk and Jassy. The twelfth meridian is
+ situated 1m. 14s. to the west of the Academy of Sciences, in
+ St. Petersburg, and the distance from Kiew is about the
+ same. It is not necessary to continue the enumeration of the
+ other meridians to the east by intervals of 10 minutes, but
+ I will mention that Moscow is situated _2h. 30m. 17s._ to
+ the east of Greenwich, and in consequence the system would
+ be convenient with regard to this city.
+
+ If we pass to the west of Greenwich, we will find that the
+ first meridian west touches the little town of Almeria, in
+ the south of Spain, which country extends to equal distances
+ on both sides of this meridian, east and west, and the
+ situation of Portugal is the same with regard to the third
+ meridian west.
+
+ Then, in all the towns and localities given above, of which
+ the greater part are of some importance, the local time
+ coincides so closely with times differing from the Greenwich
+ time, by whole multiples of 10 minutes, that there is no
+ reason to fear any real inconvenience if these times were
+ taken to regulate local reckonings. If the different
+ countries in Europe should decide to adopt the system which
+ I have explained, the following system of normal times
+ would, perhaps, be found convenient:
+
+ EAST OF GREENWICH.
+
+ 1st Meridian, France.
+ 2d " Holland and Belgium.
+ 3d " Switzerland.
+ 4th " Norway, (and Western Germany.)
+ 5th " Denmark, Germany, and Italy.
+ 6th " Sweden and Austria.
+ 7th " Eastern Germany.
+ 8th " Hungary.
+ 9th " Poland and Greece.
+ 10th " Finland, Roumania, and Bulgaria,
+ 11th " European Turkey.
+ 12th " Western Russia.
+
+ WEST OF GREENWICH.
+
+ 1st Meridian, Spain.
+ 3d " Portugal.
+
+ It is, however, not at all necessary that each country
+ should adopt a single civil time for the whole of its
+ territory. If several normal times should be adopted, it is
+ still possible to use the system, provided only the several
+ times differ from Greenwich time by 10 minutes, 20 minutes,
+ &c.; but it would be necessary that the clocks should
+ indicate the times adopted with great precision, and that
+ the difference did not amount to even a few seconds, because
+ otherwise the advantages of the adoption of the system would
+ be materially reduced.
+
+ This circumstance, that it is possible for each country to
+ adopt the system, and at the same time to maintain a certain
+ independence with regard to the adoption of the most
+ convenient normal times, is of considerable importance with
+ regard to the possibility of introducing a system of this
+ kind. In fact, it is possible to arrive at the application
+ of the system in such a way that the transition would hardly
+ be observed by the great majority of the population. As
+ regards railroads and telegraphs, the advantages would be
+ the same as if the local times were everywhere identical,
+ because it is easy to remember the multiple of 10 minutes
+ which ought to be added to the time of a given country for
+ translation into the time of another country. The difference
+ of time between Sweden and Denmark would, for instance, be
+ 10 minutes--a circumstance which everybody would soon learn
+ to remember. A traveller leaving Sweden would then know that
+ his watch, if correct, shows exactly 10 minutes more than
+ the clocks of the Danish railroad stations, and if he
+ continued his voyage to Paris, he would know that the clocks
+ of Paris are exactly 50 minutes behind the clocks in Sweden.
+
+ I have tried to explain the advantages of this system for
+ the countries in Europe. I am not able to judge if similar
+ systems can be considered necessary in America and Asia. It
+ is possible that North America could be satisfied with one
+ single normal time, which, if America connects this time
+ with the European system, ought to be fixed exactly 6 hours
+ behind Greenwich. While starting from this normal meridian,
+ it is possible to establish a more or less elaborate system
+ of equidistant times analogous to the system which has been
+ proposed for Europe. The same can be said of the civil times
+ of Asia, which ought to be connected with a normal time 6
+ hours in advance of the time of Greenwich.
+
+ Africa ought to belong to the European system. The French
+ civil time could be adopted for Algeria and Tunis; the time
+ of Denmark, Germany, and Italy for Tripoli; for Egypt the
+ time of Russia; the Spanish time for Morocco; at the mouth
+ of the Congo where, no doubt, sooner or later, an important
+ centre of civilization will rise, the meridian of Sweden and
+ Austria could be used; the meridian of Hungary could be
+ adopted for the Cape of Good Hope.
+
+ It will not be possible to connect South America and
+ Australia with any of the four cardinal times mentioned, but
+ some other combination, into which it is not necessary to
+ enter on this occasion, can easily be found.
+
+The PRESIDENT. If the Chair hears no objection, the pamphlet referred
+by the Delegate of Sweden will be printed as proposed.
+
+Mr. LEFAIVRE, Delegate of France. Mr. President, I move that the
+Conference adjourn until Wednesday, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+The motion was put and agreed to, and the Conference thereupon
+adjourned at 4:30 p. m. until Wednesday, the 22d inst., at one o'clock
+p. m.
+
+
+
+
+VII.
+
+SESSION OF OCTOBER 22, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met pursuant to adjournment in the Diplomatic Hall of
+the Department of State, at one o'clock p. m.
+
+Present:
+
+ Austria-Hungary: Baron IGNATZ VON SCHAEFFER.
+ Brazil: Dr. LUIZ CRULS.
+ Chili: Mr. F. Y. GORMAS and Mr. A. B. TUPPER.
+ Colombia: Commodore S. E. FRANKLIN.
+ Costa Rica: Mr. JUAN FRANCISCO ECHEVERRIA.
+ France: Mr. A. LEFAIVRE, Mr. JANSSEN.
+ Germany: Baron H. VON ALVENSLEBEN, Mr. HINCKELDEYN.
+ Great Britain: Sir F. J. O. EVANS, Prof. J. C. ADAMS,
+ Lieut.-General STRACHEY, Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING.
+ Guatemala: Mr. MILES BOOK.
+ Hawaii: Hon. W. D. ALEXANDER, Hon. LUTHER AHOLO.
+ Italy: Count ALBERT DE FORESTA.
+ Japan: Professor KIKUCHI.
+ Liberia: Mr. WM. COPPINGER.
+ Mexico: Mr. LEANDRO FERNANDEZ, Mr. ANGEL ANGUIANO.
+ Netherlands: Mr. G. DE WECKHERLIN.
+ Paraguay: Capt. JOHN STEWART.
+ Russia: Mr. C. DE STRUVE, Major-General STEBNITZKI, Mr.
+ J. DE KOLOGRIVOFF.
+ San Domingo: Mr. DE J. GALVAN.
+ Spain: Mr. JUAN VALERA, Mr. EMILIO RUIZ DEL ARBOL,
+ and Mr. JUAN PASTORIN.
+ Sweden: Count CARL LEWENHAUPT.
+ Switzerland: Col. EMILE FREY.
+ Turkey: RUSTEM EFFENDI.
+ United States: Rear-Admiral C. R. P. RODGERS, Mr. LEWIS
+ M. RUTHERFURD, Mr. W. F. ALLEN, Commander W. T.
+ SAMPSON, Professor CLEVELAND ABBE.
+ Venezuela: Dr. A. M. SOTELDO.
+
+Absent:
+
+ Denmark: Mr. C. S. A. DE BILLE.
+ Salvador: Mr. ANTONIO BATRES.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The first business before the Conference to-day is the
+resolutions offered by the Delegate of Great Britain, General
+STRACHEY; but before we proceed the Delegate of San Domingo, Mr.
+GALVAN, asks permission, as a matter of privilege, to read a
+communication to the Conference.
+
+Mr. GALVAN, the Delegate of San Domingo. Before the sessions of the
+Conference come to a close, I feel compelled to make a declaration
+which will be a tribute to the illustrious scientists who have
+directed the decisions of the majority of the Conference, and at the
+same time a reservation of future freedom of action to the country
+which I have the honor to represent.
+
+The negative vote of San Domingo on the principal question was
+entirely in consequence of the proposal by the Delegates of France of
+a neutral International Meridian, which was rejected by the
+Conference.
+
+San Domingo, which had no part in the various important interests
+connected with the meridian of Greenwich, was bound to regard equity
+alone on the occurrence of the disagreement produced by the proposal
+of the Delegates of France, a nation renowned for being one of the
+first in intellectual progress.
+
+At the last session I was glad that another proposal of the Delegates
+of France was accepted almost unanimously by the Conference. That fact
+should be considered as a good omen of a more complete and unanimous
+agreement at some future time in behalf of the general interest of
+science.
+
+That day will be saluted with a cordial _hosanna_ by the Republic of
+San Domingo, which is always ready freely to give its assent to the
+progress of civilization.
+
+The PRESIDENT. The resolutions offered by the Delegate of Great
+Britain, General STRACHEY, are now before the Conference, and will be
+read.
+
+The resolutions were then read, as follows:
+
+ "1. The Conference adopts the opinion that, for the purposes
+ of civil life, it will be convenient to reckon time
+ according to the local civil time at successive meridians
+ distributed round the earth, at time-intervals of either ten
+ minutes, or some integral multiple of ten minutes, from the
+ prime meridian; but that the application of this principle
+ be left to the various nations or communities concerned by
+ it."
+
+ "2. The arrangements for the use of the universal day in
+ international telegraphy should be left for the
+ consideration of the International Telegraph Congress."
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. In consequence of the
+opinions I have heard expressed regarding the resolutions which I
+brought forward at our last meeting, I feel constrained to say that I
+am not disposed to ask the Congress to proceed to a vote upon them. I
+find that, although I had reason to think that those resolutions, in
+substance, that is in their main features, would be acceptable, still
+there is extreme difficulty in finding precise expressions that shall
+meet the views of everybody, and there are divisions of opinion as to
+the exact manner in which these resolutions should be modified.
+
+My object in bringing forward the resolutions was mainly to obtain a
+decided expression of opinion on the part of the Congress, that the
+method of counting local time, so as to harmonize as far as possible
+with universal time, should be left for settlement locally; and that,
+at the utmost, all the Congress could do would be to suggest some
+general principle such as that embodied in my resolution. There was,
+of course, never any intention of employing the universal day so as to
+interfere with the use of local standard time; and as I shall, no
+doubt, elicit a further clear expression of opinion on the part of the
+delegates, that there is no intention of bringing about this
+interference, I will now, with the permission of the Conference,
+withdraw the resolutions.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States. Mr. President, I think
+that all of us appreciate the desire which moved the Delegate of Great
+Britain to present these resolutions. There is a wish on his part that
+we should not seem, in any way, by our action here, to interfere with
+the convenience of the world in the use of its present civil time, or
+any other time which it may be found convenient to adopt, while he
+recognizes that some of the proposals made as to local time are such
+as could not be objected to. Still, I cannot refrain from expressing
+my satisfaction that he has come to the conclusion that these
+resolutions are not necessary.
+
+I think the whole question is covered by the resolutions already
+adopted by this Congress; that our universal day is for those purposes
+only for which it may be found convenient, and that it is not to
+interfere in any way with the use of civil or other standard time
+where that may be found convenient. This seems to me to be so fully
+embodied in our resolutions that it is unnecessary to enunciate again
+in a negative form the same idea, and I therefore express my
+satisfaction that the resolutions are withdrawn.
+
+Mr. SANDFORD FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. Mr. President, I have
+a few words bearing on the subject before the Conference which I wish
+to express before any action is taken.
+
+The PRESIDENT. There will be no subject before the Congress if the
+resolutions of General STRACHEY are withdrawn, and the Chair
+understands that the object of General STRACHEY in withdrawing these
+resolutions was to avoid a discussion upon a subject that could hardly
+lead to any satisfactory conclusion.
+
+If, however, Mr. FLEMING desires to address the Conference, he will be
+at liberty to do so.
+
+Mr. FLEMING, Delegate of Great Britain. I do not wish to intrude any
+new matter upon the Conference. What I had to say had a bearing upon
+the subject, but, if the resolutions are withdrawn and the Conference
+desires to end the matter, I shall not insist upon speaking.
+
+No objection being made, the resolutions offered by General STRACHEY
+at the last session of the Conference were then withdrawn.
+
+Count LEWENHAUPT, Delegate for Sweden, then proposed that the
+resolutions passed by the Conference should be formally recorded in a
+Final Act, stating the votes on each resolution that was adopted.
+
+The Conference took a recess, in order to allow the Delegates to
+examine the draft of the Final Act.
+
+After the recess the Final Act was unanimously adopted, as follows:
+
+ FINAL ACT.
+
+ The President of the United States of America, in pursuance
+ of a special provision of Congress, having extended to the
+ Governments of all nations in diplomatic relations with his
+ own, an invitation to send Delegates to meet Delegates from
+ the United States in the city of Washington on the first of
+ October, 1884, for the purpose of discussing, and, if
+ possible, fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+ common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+ throughout the whole world, this International Meridian
+ Conference assembled at the time and place designated; and,
+ after careful and patient discussion, has passed the
+ following resolutions:
+
+ I.
+
+ "That it is the opinion of this Congress that it is
+ desirable to adopt a single prime meridian for all nations,
+ in place of the multiplicity of initial meridians which now
+ exist."
+
+ This resolution was unanimously adopted.
+
+ II.
+
+ "That the Conference proposes to the Governments here
+ represented the adoption of the meridian passing through the
+ centre of the transit instrument at the Observatory of
+ Greenwich as the initial meridian for longitude."
+
+ The above resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Chili, Netherlands,
+ Colombia, Paraguay,
+ Costa Rica, Russia,
+ Germany, Salvador,
+ Great Britain, Spain,
+ Guatemala, Sweden,
+ Hawaii, Switzerland,
+ Italy, Turkey,
+ Japan, United States,
+ Liberia, Venezuela.
+
+ In the negative:
+
+ San Domingo.
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Brazil, France.
+
+ Ayes, 22; noes, 1; abstaining, 2.
+
+ III.
+
+ "That from this meridian longitude shall be counted in two
+ directions up to 180 degrees, east longitude being plus and
+ west longitude minus."
+
+ This resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Chili, Liberia,
+ Colombia, Mexico,
+ Costa Rica, Paraguay,
+ Great Britain, Russia,
+ Guatemala, Salvador,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+
+ In the negative:
+
+ Italy, Sweden,
+ Netherlands, Switzerland.
+ Spain,
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Germany,
+ Brazil, San Domingo,
+ France, Turkey.
+
+ Ayes, 14; noes, 5; abstaining, 6.
+
+ IV.
+
+ "That the Conference proposes the adoption of a universal
+ day for all purposes for which it may be found convenient,
+ and which shall not interfere with the use of local or other
+ standard time where desirable."
+
+ This resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico,
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, Salvador,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Sweden,
+ Guatemala, Switzerland,
+ Hawaii, Turkey,
+ Italy, United States,
+ Japan, Venezuela.
+ Liberia,
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Germany, San Domingo.
+
+ Ayes, 23; abstaining, 2.
+
+ V.
+
+ "That this universal day is to be a mean solar day; is to
+ begin for all the world at the moment of mean midnight of
+ the initial meridian, coinciding with the beginning of the
+ civil day and date of that meridian; and is to be counted
+ from zero up to twenty-four hours."
+
+ This resolution was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Brazil, Liberia,
+ Chili, Mexico,
+ Colombia, Paraguay,
+ Costa Rica, Russia,
+ Great Britain, Turkey,
+ Guatemala, United States,
+ Hawaii, Venezuela.
+ Japan,
+
+ In the negative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Spain.
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ France, San Domingo,
+ Germany, Sweden,
+ Italy, Switzerland.
+ Netherlands,
+
+ Ayes, 15; noes, 2; abstaining, 7.
+
+ VI.
+
+ "That the Conference expresses the hope that as soon as may
+ be practicable the astronomical and nautical days will be
+ arranged everywhere to begin at mean midnight."
+
+ This resolution was carried without division.
+
+ VII.
+
+ "That the Conference expresses the hope that the technical
+ studies designed to regulate and extend the application of
+ the decimal system to the division of angular space and of
+ time shall be resumed, so as to permit the extension of this
+ application to all cases in which it presents real
+ advantages."
+
+ The motion was adopted by the following vote:
+
+ In the affirmative:
+
+ Austria-Hungary, Mexico
+ Brazil, Netherlands,
+ Chili, Paraguay,
+ Colombia, Russia,
+ Costa Rica, San Domingo,
+ France, Spain,
+ Great Britain, Turkey,
+ Hawaii, United States,
+ Italy, Venezuela.
+ Japan,
+
+ Abstaining from voting:
+
+ Germany, Sweden.
+ Guatemala,
+
+ Ayes, 21; abstaining, 3.
+
+ Done at Washington, the 22d of October, 1884.
+
+ C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _President_.
+
+ R. STRACHEY, J. JANSSEN, L. CRULS,
+ _Secretaries._
+
+
+The following resolution was then adopted unanimously:
+
+ "That a copy of the resolutions passed by this Conference
+ shall be communicated to the Government of the United States
+ of America, at whose instance and within whose territory the
+ Conference has been convened."
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, Delegate of the United States, then presented the
+following resolution:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the Conference adjourn, to meet upon the
+ call of the President, for the purpose of verifying the
+ protocols."
+
+This resolution was then unanimously carried, and the Conference
+adjourned at half past three, to meet upon the call of the President.
+
+
+
+
+VIII.
+
+SESSION OF NOVEMBER 1, 1884.
+
+
+The Conference met at the call of the President for the approval of
+the protocols, as arranged at the last meeting, in the Diplomatic Hall
+of the Department of State, at 1 o'clock p. m.
+
+The PRESIDENT having called the Conference to order, said: The
+protocols in French and English, having been examined by the
+Secretaries of the Conference, have been submitted to all of the
+delegates for perusal. If any delegate should desire to make any
+observation on them the opportunity is now given for his doing so.
+
+RUSTEM EFFENDI, Delegate of Turkey, stated that he desired to change
+his vote on the fifth resolution of the Final Act, providing for the
+commencement of the universal day, from the affirmative to the
+negative.
+
+No objection being made, the change was ordered to be made.
+
+The PRESIDENT then said: No further observations having been made on
+the protocols, they will now be signed by the Secretaries and the
+President.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE, Delegate of Russia. Before the Conference terminates, I
+beg to express, in the name of my colleagues, our sincere gratitude
+for the hospitality extended to the Conference by the Government of
+the United States, and I beg to express our heartiest thanks to you,
+Mr. President, for the able and impartial manner in which you have
+presided over our deliberations. When we elected you, we unanimously
+elected the first Delegate of the United States. If we had to begin
+again, the personal feelings of all the delegates would supply
+powerful additional reasons for making the election equally
+unanimous.
+
+Mr. DE STRUVE'S observation met with the unanimous approval of the
+Delegates.
+
+The PRESIDENT. Gentlemen, I am greatly honored by the kind expression
+of your good feeling towards me as the President of this Conference,
+and I thank you very heartily for it. The duty assigned to us all has
+not been free from difficulty, but our meetings and discussions have
+been characterized by great courtesy and kindness, and by a
+conciliatory spirit.
+
+With patience and devotion the Delegates to this Congress have sought
+to discharge the trust committed to them, and, as your Chairman, I beg
+you to receive my most cordial thanks for the courteous consideration
+I have received at your hands. The President of the United States and
+the Secretary of State desire me to renew to you their thanks for your
+presence here, and their best wishes for your safe and happy return
+each to his own home.
+
+I shall esteem myself very happy hereafter whenever I shall have the
+good fortune to meet any of my colleagues of the International
+Meridian Conference.
+
+Mr. RUTHERFURD, the Delegate of the United States. Mr. President and
+gentlemen, I am sure that you will all unite with me in passing the
+resolution which I now propose to read:
+
+ "_Resolved_, That the thanks of the Conference be presented
+ to the Secretaries for the able manner in which they have
+ discharged their arduous duties."
+
+The resolution was unanimously adopted.
+
+General STRACHEY, Delegate of Great Britain. I wish, sir, as one of
+the Secretaries, to express my thanks for the manner in which my
+labors have been esteemed by the delegates present. All that I can say
+on the subject is, that however troublesome the duties of the
+Secretaries have been, I have not the least doubt that anybody else
+named instead of myself would equally have bestowed his best attention
+on the discharge of those duties.
+
+Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, then said: Before the dissolution of
+the Conference, Mr. CRULS and I desire specially to thank our
+colleagues for the honor they have done us by entrusting to us the
+revision of the French version of the protocols. In order that we
+might fully respond to that honor, we have examined with all possible
+care the French translations of the remarks of our colleagues. Our
+only regret is that, in consequence of the desire of several of them
+to quit Washington, we have been obliged to leave portions of the
+translations, particularly of the last protocols, much in the state in
+which we received them from the official translators, not having had
+the time to correct these translations as we would have desired.
+
+Upon motion of Mr. JANSSEN, Delegate of France, the Conference passed
+a vote of thanks to the delegate of Turkey for the aid he has rendered
+the Secretaries in the revision of the protocols.
+
+The PRESIDENT then said: Before our final adjournment I desire to
+express a very high appreciation of the ability, fidelity, and zeal
+with which Mr. W. F. PEDDRICK, the Secretary attached by the
+Department of State to this Conference, has performed his difficult
+duties, and to thank him for his services.
+
+The Conference expressed its cordial assent to these observations.
+
+The PRESIDENT then declared that the business of the Conference having
+been concluded, it would adjourn _sine die_.
+
+ C. R. P. RODGERS,
+ _President._
+
+ R. STRACHEY, J. JANSSEN, L. CRULS,
+ _Secretaries._
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX I.
+
+
+ AN ACT to authorize the President of the United States to
+ call an International Conference to fix on and recommend for
+ universal adoption a common prime meridian, to be used in
+ the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation of time
+ throughout the world.
+
+_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
+United States of America in Congress assembled_, That the President of
+the United States be authorized and requested to extend to the
+governments of all nations in diplomatic relations with our own an
+invitation to appoint delegates to meet delegates from the United
+States in the city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be
+employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+throughout the globe, and that the President be authorized to appoint
+delegates, not exceeding three in number, to represent the United
+States in such International Conference.
+
+Approved August 3, 1882.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX II.
+
+
+ AN ACT making appropriations for sundry civil expenses of
+ the Government for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth,
+ eighteen hundred and eighty-five, and for other purposes.
+
+_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the
+United States of America in Congress assembled_, That the following
+sums be, and the same are hereby, appropriated for the objects
+hereinafter expressed for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth,
+eighteen hundred and eighty-five, namely:
+
+Under the State Department:
+
+For expenses of the International Conference for fixing a common zero
+of longitude and standard of time-reckoning, including cost of
+printing and translations, to be expended under the direction of the
+Secretary of State, five thousand dollars; and the President is hereby
+authorized to appoint two delegates to represent the United States at
+said International Conference, in addition to the number authorized by
+the act approved August third, eighteen hundred and eighty-two, and
+who shall serve without compensation.
+
+Approved July 7, 1884.
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX III.
+
+
+Circular.]
+
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF STATE
+ WASHINGTON, _October 23, 1882_.
+
+SIR: On the 3d of August last the President approved an act of
+Congress, in the following words:
+
+ "_Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives
+ of the United States of America in Congress assembled_, That
+ the President of the United States be authorized and
+ requested to extend to the governments of all nations in
+ diplomatic relations with our own an invitation to appoint
+ delegates to meet delegates from the United States in the
+ city of Washington, at such time as he may see fit to
+ designate, for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper
+ to be employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of
+ time-reckoning throughout the globe, and that the President
+ be authorized to appoint delegates, not exceeding three in
+ number, to represent the United States in such international
+ conference."
+
+It may be well to state that, in the absence of a common and accepted
+standard for the computation of time for other than astronomical
+purposes, embarrassments are experienced in the ordinary affairs of
+modern commerce; that this embarrassment is especially felt since the
+extension of telegraphic and railway communications has joined States
+and continents possessing independent and widely separated meridional
+standards of time; that the subject of a common meridian has been for
+several years past discussed in this country and in Europe by
+commercial and scientific bodies, and the need of a general agreement
+upon a single standard recognized; and that, in recent European
+conferences especially, favor was shown to the suggestion that, as the
+United States possesses the greatest longitudinal extension of any
+country traversed by railway and telegraph lines, the initiatory
+measures for holding an international convention to consider so
+important a subject should be taken by this Government.
+
+The President, while convinced of the good to flow eventually from the
+adoption of a common time unit, applicable throughout the globe,
+thinks, however, that the effort now to be made should be to reach by
+consultation a conclusion as to the advisability of assembling an
+International Congress with the object of finally adopting a common
+meridian. He, therefore, abstains from extending an invitation for a
+meeting at an assigned day, until he has ascertained the views of the
+leading Governments of the world as to whether such International
+Conference is deemed desirable.
+
+I am accordingly directed by the President to request you to bring the
+matter to the attention of the Government of ----, through the
+Minister of Foreign Affairs, with a view to learning whether its
+appreciation of the benefits to accrue to the intimate intercourse of
+civilized peoples from the consideration and adoption of the suggested
+common standard of time so far coincides with that of this Government
+as to lead it to accept an invitation to participate in an
+International Conference at a date to be designated in the near
+future.
+
+You may leave a copy of this instruction with the Minister for Foreign
+Affairs, and request the views of his Government thereon, at as early
+a day as may be conveniently practicable.
+
+I am, sir, your obedient servant,
+
+ FRED'K T. FRELINGHUYSEN.
+
+
+ * * * * *
+
+
+
+
+ANNEX IV.
+
+
+Circular.]
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF STATE,
+ WASHINGTON, _December 1, 1883_.
+
+SIR: By a circular instruction of October 23, 1882, you were made
+acquainted with (the language of) an act of Congress, approved August
+3, 1882, authorizing and requesting the President to extend to other
+Governments an invitation to appoint delegates to meet in the city of
+Washington for the purpose of fixing upon a meridian proper to be
+employed as a common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning
+throughout the world; and you were instructed to bring the matter to
+the attention of the Government to which you are accredited and to
+inform it that the President deemed it advisable to abstain from the
+issuance of the formal invitation contemplated, until through
+preliminary consultation the views of the leading governments of the
+world as to the desirability of holding such an International
+Conference could be ascertained.
+
+In the year that has since elapsed this Government has received from
+most of those in diplomatic relations with the United States the
+approval of the project, while many have in terms signified their
+acceptance and even named their delegates.
+
+Besides this generally favorable reception of the suggestion so put
+forth, interest in the proposed reform has been shown by the
+Geographical Conference held at Rome in October last, which very
+decisively expressed its opinion in favor of the adoption of the
+meridian of Greenwich as the common zero of time longitude, and
+adjourned, leaving the discussion and final adoption of this or other
+equivalent unit, and the framing of practical rules for such adoption,
+to the International Conference to be held at Washington.
+
+The President therefore thinks the time has come to call the
+Convention referred to in my instruction of October 23, 1882. I am
+accordingly directed by the President to instruct you to tender to the
+Government of ----, through its Minister for Foreign Affairs, an
+invitation to be represented by one or more delegates (not exceeding
+three) to meet delegates from the United States and other nations in
+an international Conference to be held in the city of Washington on
+the first day of October next, 1884, for the purpose of discussing
+and, if possible, fixing upon a meridian proper to be employed as a
+common zero of longitude and standard of time-reckoning throughout the
+globe.
+
+You will seek the earliest convenient occasion to bring this invitation
+to the attention of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of ---- by handing
+him a copy hereof and requesting that the answer of his Government may
+be made known to you.
+
+I am, sir, your obedient servant,
+
+ FRED'K T. FRELINGHUYSEN.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of International Conference Held at
+Washington for the Purpose of Fixing a Prime Meridian and a Universal Day. October, 1884., by Various
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