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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo weavers, by Washington Matthews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Navajo weavers
+       Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1881-'82,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1884, pages 371-392.
+
+Author: Washington Matthews
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2006 [EBook #17742]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAVAJO WEAVERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Jeannie
+Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliothčque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+NAVAJO WEAVERS.
+
+BY
+
+DR. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
+to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1881-'82,
+Government Printing Office, Washington, 1884, pages 371-392.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+PLATE XXXIV.--Navajo woman spinning                           376
+       XXXV.--Weaving of diamond-shaped diagonals             380
+      XXXVI.--Navajo woman weaving a belt                     384
+     XXXVII.--Zuņi women weaving a belt                       388
+    XXXVIII.--Bringing down the batten                        390
+    FIG. 42.--Ordinary Navajo blanket loom                    378
+         43.--Diagram showing formation of warp               379
+         44.--Weaving of saddle-girth                         382
+         45.--Diagram showing arrangement of threads of
+              the warp in the healds and on the rod           383
+         46.--Weaving of saddle-girth                         383
+         47.--Diagram showing arrangement of healds in
+              diagonal weaving                                384
+         48.--Diagonal cloth                                  384
+         49.--Navajo blanket of the finest quality            385
+         50.--Navajo blankets                                 386
+         51.--Navajo blanket                                  386
+         52.--Navajo blanket                                  387
+         53.--Navajo blanket                                  387
+         54.--Part of Navajo blanket                          388
+         55.--Part of Navajo blanket                          388
+         56.--Diagram showing formation of warp of sash       388
+         57.--Section of Navajo belt                          389
+         58.--Wooden heald of the Zuņis                       389
+         59.--Girl weaving (from an Aztec picture)            391
+
+
+
+
+NAVAJO WEAVERS.
+
+BY DR. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS.
+
+
+§ I. The art of weaving, as it exists among the Navajo Indians of New
+Mexico and Arizona, possesses points of great interest to the student
+of ethnography. It is of aboriginal origin; and while European art has
+undoubtedly modified it, the extent and nature of the foreign
+influence is easily traced. It is by no means certain, still there are
+many reasons for supposing, that the Navajos learned their craft from
+the Pueblo Indians, and that, too, since the advent of the Spaniards;
+yet the pupils, if such they be, far excel their masters to-day in the
+beauty and quality of their work. It may be safely stated that with no
+native tribe in America, north of the Mexican boundary, has the art of
+weaving been carried to greater perfection than among the Navajos,
+while with none in the entire continent is it less Europeanized. As in
+language, habits, and opinions, so in arts, the Navajos have been less
+influenced than their sedentary neighbors of the pueblos by the
+civilization of the Old World.
+
+The superiority of the Navajo to the Pueblo work results not only from
+a constant advance of the weaver's art among the former, but from a
+constant deterioration of it among the latter. The chief cause of this
+deterioration is that the Pueblos find it more remunerative to buy, at
+least the finer _serapes_, from the Navajos, and give their time to
+other pursuits, than to manufacture for themselves; they are nearer
+the white settlements and can get better prices for their produce;
+they give more attention to agriculture; they have within their
+country, mines of turquoise which the Navajos prize, and they have no
+trouble in procuring whisky, which some of the Navajos prize even more
+than gems. Consequently, while the wilder Indian has incentives to
+improve his art, the more advanced has many temptations to abandon it
+altogether. In some pueblos the skill of the loom has been almost
+forgotten. A growing fondness for European clothing has also had its
+influence, no doubt.
+
+§ II. Cotton, which grows well in New Mexico and Arizona, the tough
+fibers of yucca leaves and the fibers of other plants, the hair of
+different quadrupeds, and the down of birds furnished in prehistoric
+days the materials of textile fabrics in this country. While some of
+the Pueblos still weave their native cotton to a slight extent, the
+Navajos grow no cotton and spin nothing but the wool of the domestic
+sheep, which animal is, of course, of Spanish introduction, and of
+which the Navajos have vast herds.
+
+The wool is not washed until it is sheared. At the present time it is
+combed with hand cards purchased from the Americans. In spinning, the
+simplest form of the spindle--a slender stick thrust through the
+center of a round wooden disk--is used. The Mexicans on the Rio Grande
+use spinning-wheels, and although the Navajos have often seen these
+wheels, have had abundant opportunities for buying and stealing them,
+and possess, I think, sufficient ingenuity to make them, they have
+never abandoned the rude implement of their ancestors. Plate XXXIV
+illustrates the Navajo method of handling the spindle, a method
+different from that of the people of Zuņi.
+
+They still employ to a great extent their native dyes: of yellow,
+reddish, and black. There is good evidence that they formerly had a
+blue dye; but indigo, originally introduced, I think, by the Mexicans,
+has superseded this. If they, in former days, had a native blue and a
+native yellow, they must also, of course, have had a green, and they
+now make green of their native yellow and indigo, the latter being the
+only imported dye-stuff I have ever seen in use among them. Besides
+the hues above indicated, this people have had, ever since the
+introduction of sheep, wool of three different natural colors--white,
+rusty black, and gray--so they had always a fair range of tints with
+which to execute their artistic designs. The brilliant red figures in
+their finer blankets were, a few years ago, made entirely of _bayeta_,
+and this material is still largely used. Bayeta is a bright scarlet
+cloth with a long nap, much finer in appearance than the scarlet
+strouding which forms such an important article in the Indian trade of
+the North. It was originally brought to the Navajo country from
+Mexico, but is now supplied to the trade from our eastern cities. The
+Indians ravel it and use the weft. While many handsome blankets are
+still made only of the colors and material above described, American
+yarn has lately become very popular among the Navajos, and many fine
+blankets are now made wholly, or in part, of Germantown wool.
+
+The black dye mentioned above is made of the twigs and leaves of the
+aromatic sumac (_Rhus aromatica_), a native yellow ocher, and the gum
+of the piņon (_Pinus edulis_). The process of preparing it is as
+follows: They put into a pot of water some of the leaves of the sumac,
+and as many of the branchlets as can be crowded in without much
+breaking or crushing, and the water is allowed to boil for five or six
+hours until a strong decoction is made. While the water is boiling
+they attend to other parts of the process. The ocher is reduced to a
+fine powder between two stones and then slowly roasted over the fire
+in an earthen or metal vessel until it assumes a light-brown color; it
+is then taken from the fire and combined with about an equal quantity
+in size of piņon gum; again the mixture is put on the fire and
+constantly stirred. At first the gum melts and the whole mass assumes
+a mushy consistency; but as the roasting progresses it gradually
+becomes drier and darker until it is at last reduced to a fine black
+powder. This is removed from the fire, and when it has cooled
+somewhat it is thrown into the decoction of sumac, with which it
+instantly forms a rich, blue-black fluid. This dye is essentially an
+ink, the tannic acid of the sumac combining with the sesquioxide of
+iron in the roasted ocher, the whole enriched by the carbon of the
+calcined gum.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXIV.--NAVAJO WOMAN SPINNING.]
+
+There are, the Indians tell me, three different processes for dyeing
+yellow; two of these I have witnessed. The first process is thus
+conducted: The flowering tops of _Bigelovia graveolens_ are boiled for
+about six hours until a decoction of deep yellow color is produced.
+When the dyer thinks the decoction strong enough, she heats over the
+fire in a pan or earthen vessel some native almogen (an impure native
+alum), until it is reduced to a somewhat pasty consistency; this she
+adds gradually to the decoction and then puts the wool in the dye to
+boil. From time to time a portion of the wool is taken out and
+inspected until (in about half an hour from the time it is first
+immersed) it is seen to have assumed the proper color. The work is
+then done. The tint produced is nearly that of lemon yellow. In the
+second process they use the large, fleshy root of a plant which, as I
+have never yet seen it in fruit or flower, I am unable to determine.
+The fresh root is crushed to a soft paste on the _metate_, and, for a
+mordant, the almogen is added while the grinding is going on. The cold
+paste is then rubbed between the hands into the wool. If the wool does
+not seem to take the color readily a little water is dashed on the
+mixture of wool and paste, and the whole is very slightly warmed. The
+entire process does not occupy over an hour and the result is a color
+much like that now known as "old gold."
+
+The reddish dye is made of the bark of _Alnus incana_ var. _virescens_
+(Watson) and the bark of the root of _Cercocarpus parvifolius_; the
+mordant being fine juniper ashes. On buckskin this makes a brilliant
+tan-color; but applied to wool it produces a much paler tint.
+
+§ III. Plate XXXVIII and Fig. 42 illustrate ordinary blanket-looms.
+Two posts, _a a_, are set firmly in the ground; to these are lashed
+two cross-pieces or braces, _b c_, the whole forming the frame of the
+loom. Sometimes two slender trees, growing at a convenient distance
+from one another, are made to answer for the posts, _d_ is a
+horizontal pole, which I call the supplementary yarn-beam, attached to
+the upper brace, _b_, by means of a rope, _e e_, spirally applied. _f_
+is the upper beam of the loom. As it is analogous to the yarn-beam of
+our looms, I will call it by this name, although once only have I seen
+the warp wound around it. It lies parallel to the pole _d_, about 2 or
+3 inches below it, and is attached to the latter by a number of loops,
+_g g_. A spiral cord wound around the yarn-beam holds the upper border
+cord _h h_, which, in turn, secures the upper end of the warp _i i_.
+The lower beam of the loom is shown at _k_. I will call this the
+cloth-beam, although the finished web is never wound around it; it is
+tied firmly to the lower brace, _c_, of the frame, and to it is
+secured the lower border cord of the blanket. The original distance
+between the two beams is the length of the blanket. Lying between the
+threads of the warp is depicted a broad, thin, oaken stick, _l_, which
+I will call the batten. A set of healds attached to a heald-rod, _m_,
+are shown above the batten. These healds are made of cord or yarn;
+they include alternate threads of the warp, and serve when drawn
+forward to open the lower shed. The upper shed is kept patent by a
+stout rod, _n_ (having no healds attached), which I name the shed-rod.
+Their substitute for the reed of our looms is a wooden fork, which
+will be designated as the reed-fork (Fig. 44, _a_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Ordinary Navajo blanket loom.]
+
+For convenience of description, I am obliged to use the word
+"shuttle," although, strictly speaking, the Navajo has no shuttle. If
+the figure to be woven is a long stripe, or one where the weft must be
+passed through 6 inches or more of the shed at one time, the yarn is
+wound on a slender twig or splinter, or shoved through on the end of
+such a piece of wood; but where the pattern is intricate, and the weft
+passes at each turn through only a few inches of the shed, the yarn is
+wound into small skeins or balls and shoved through with the finger.
+
+§ IV. The warp is thus constructed: A frame of four sticks is made,
+not unlike the frame of the loom, but lying on or near the ground,
+instead of standing erect. The two sticks forming the sides of the
+frame are rough saplings or rails; the two forming the top and bottom
+are smooth rounded poles--often the poles which afterwards serve as
+the beams of the loom; these are placed parallel to one another, their
+distance apart depending on the length of the projected blanket.
+
+On these poles the warp is laid in a continuous string. It is first
+firmly tied to one of the poles, which I will call No. 1 (Fig. 43);
+then it is passed over the other pole, No. 2, brought back under No. 2
+and over No. 1, forward again under No. 1 and over No. 2, and so on to
+the end. Thus the first, third, fifth, &c., turns of the cord cross in
+the middle the second, fourth, sixth, &c., forming a series of
+elongated figures 8, as shown in the following diagram--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Diagram showing formation of warp.]
+
+and making, in the very beginning of the process, the two sheds, which
+are kept distinct throughout the whole work. When sufficient string
+has been laid the end is tied to pole No. 2, and a rod is placed in
+each shed to keep it open, the rods being afterwards tied together at
+the ends to prevent them from falling out.
+
+This done, the weaver takes three strings (which are afterwards
+twilled into one, as will appear) and ties them together at one end.
+She now sits outside one of the poles, looking towards the centre of
+the frame, and proceeds thus: (1) She secures the triple cord to the
+pole immediately to the left of the warp; (2) then she takes one of
+the threads (or strands as they now become) and passes it under the
+first turn of the warp; (3) next she takes a second strand, and
+twilling it once or oftener with the other strands, includes with it
+the second bend of the warp; (4) this done, she takes the third strand
+and, twilling it as before, passes it under the third bend of the
+warp, and thus she goes on until the entire warp in one place is
+secured between the strands of the cord; (5) then she pulls the string
+to its fullest extent, and in doing so separates the threads of the
+warp from one another; (6) a similar three stranded cord is applied to
+the other end of the warp, along the outside of the other pole.
+
+At this stage of the work these stout cords lie along the outer
+surfaces of the poles, parallel with the axes of the latter, but when
+the warp is taken off the poles and applied to the beams of the loom
+by the spiral thread, as above described, and as depicted in Plate
+XXXVIII and Fig. 42, and all is ready for weaving, the cords appear on
+the inner sides of the beams, _i.e._, one (Pl. XXXVIII and Fig. 42, _h
+h_) at the lower side of the yarn-beam, the other at the upper side of
+the cloth-beam, and when the blanket is finished they form the stout
+end margins of the web. In the coarser grade of blankets the cords are
+removed and the ends of the warp tied in pairs and made to form a
+fringe. (See Figs. 54 and 55.)
+
+When the warp is transferred to the loom the rod which was placed in
+the upper shed remains there, or another rod, straighter and
+smoother, is substituted for it; but with the lower shed, healds are
+applied to the anterior threads and the rod is withdrawn.
+
+§ V. The mode of applying the healds is simple: (1) the weaver sits
+facing the loom in the position for weaving; (2) she lays at the right
+(her right) side of the loom a ball of string which she knows contains
+more than sufficient material to make the healds; (3) she takes the
+end of this string and passes it to the left through the shed, leaving
+the ball in its original position; (4) she ties a loop at the end of
+the string large enough to admit the heald-rod; (5) she holds
+horizontally in her left hand a straightish slender rod, which is to
+become the heald-rod--its right extremity touching the left edge of
+the warp--and passes the rod through the loop until the point of the
+stick is even with the third (second anterior from the left) thread of
+the warp; (6) she puts her finger through the space between the first
+and third threads and draws out a fold of the heald-string; (7) she
+twists this once around, so as to form a loop, and pushes the point of
+the heald-rod on to the right through this loop; (8) she puts her
+finger into the next space and forms another loop; (9) and so on she
+continues to advance her rod and form her loops from left to right
+until each of the anterior (alternate) warp-threads of the lower shed
+is included in a loop of the heald; (10) when the last loop is made
+she ties the string firmly to the rod near its right end.
+
+When the weaving is nearly done and it becomes necessary to remove the
+healds, the rod is drawn out of the loops, a slight pull is made at
+the thread, the loops fall in an instant, and the straightened string
+is drawn out of the shed. Illustrations of the healds may be seen in
+Plates XXXV and XXXVIII and Figs. 42, 44, and 46, that in Fig. 46
+being the most distinct.
+
+§ VI. In making a blanket the operator sits on the ground with her
+legs folded under her. The warp hangs vertically before her, and
+(excepting in a case to be mentioned) she weaves from below upwards.
+As she never rises from this squatting posture when at work, it is
+evident that when she has woven the web to a certain height further
+work must become inconvenient or impossible unless by some arrangement
+the finished web is drawn downwards. Her cloth-beam does not revolve
+as in our looms, so she brings her work within easy reach by the
+following method: The spiral rope (Plate XXXVIII and Fig. 42) is
+loosened, the yarn-beam is lowered to the desired distance, a fold is
+made in the loosened web, and the upper edge of the fold is sewed down
+tightly to the cloth-beam. In all new blankets over two feet long the
+marks of this sewing are to be seen, and they often remain until the
+blanket is worn out. Plate XXXV, representing a blanket nearly
+finished, illustrates this procedure.
+
+Except in belts, girths, and perhaps occasionally in very narrow
+blankets, the shuttle is never passed through the whole width of the
+warp at once, but only through a space which does not exceed the
+length of the batten; for it is by means of the batten, which is
+rarely more than 3 feet long, that the shed is opened.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXV.--WEAVING OF DIAMOND-SHAPED DIAGONALS.]
+
+Suppose the woman begins by weaving in the lower shed. She draws
+apportion of the healds towards her, and with them the anterior
+threads of the shed; by this motion she opens the shed about 1 inch,
+which is not sufficient for the easy passage of the woof. She inserts
+her batten edgewise into this opening and then turns it half around on
+its long axis, so that its broad surfaces lie horizontally; in this
+way the shed is opened to the extent of the width of the batten--about
+3 inches; next the weft is passed through. In fig. 42 the batten is
+shown lying edgewise (its broad surfaces vertical), as it appears when
+just inserted into the shed, and the weft, which has been passed
+through only a portion of the shed, is seen hanging out with its end
+on the ground. In Plate XXXV the batten is shown in the second
+position described, with the shed open to the fullest extent
+necessary, and the weaver is represented in the act of passing the
+shuttle through. When the weft is in, it is shoved down into its
+proper position by means of the reed-fork, and then the batten,
+restored to its first position (edgewise), is brought down with firm
+blows on the weft. It is by the vigorous use of the batten that the
+Navajo serapes are rendered water-proof. In Plate XXXVIII the weaver
+is seen bringing down this instrument "in the manner and for the
+purpose described," as the letters patent say.
+
+When the lower shed has received its thread of weft the weaver opens
+the upper shed. This is done by releasing the healds and shoving the
+shed-rod down until it comes in contact with the healds; this opens
+the upper shed down to the web. Then the weft is inserted and the
+batten and reed-fork used as before. Thus she goes on with each shed
+alternately until the web is finished.
+
+It is, of course, desirable, at least in handsome blankets of
+intricate pattern, to have both ends uniform even if the figure be a
+little faulty in the center. To accomplish this some of the best
+weavers depend on a careful estimate of the length of each figure
+before they begin, and weave continuously in one direction; but the
+majority weave a little portion of the upper end before they finish
+the middle. Sometimes this is done by weaving from above downwards; at
+other times it is done by turning the loom upside down and working
+from below upwards in the ordinary manner. In Fig. 49, which
+represents one of the very finest results of Navajo work, by the best
+weaver in the tribe, it will be seen that exact uniformity in the ends
+has not been attained. The figure was of such a nature that the
+blanket had to be woven in one direction only.
+
+I have described how the ends of the blanket are bordered with a stout
+three-ply string applied to the folds of the warp. The lateral edges
+of the blanket are similarly protected by stout cords applied to the
+weft. The way in which these are woven in, next demands our attention.
+Two stout worsted cords, tied together, are firmly attached at each
+end of the cloth-beam just outside of the warp; they are then carried
+upwards and loosely tied to the yarn-beam or the supplementary
+yarn-beam. Every time the weft is turned at the edge these two strings
+are twisted together and the weft is passed through the twist; thus
+one thread or strand of this border is always on the outside. As it is
+constantly twisted in one direction, it is evident that, after a
+while, a counter-twist must form which would render the passage of the
+weft between the cords difficult, if the cords could not be untwisted
+again. Here the object of tying these cords loosely to one of the
+upper beams, as before described, is displayed. From time to time the
+cords are untied and the unwoven portion straightened as the work
+progresses. Fig. 44 and Plate XXXVIII show these cords. The coarse
+blankets do not have them. (Fig 42.)
+
+Navajo blankets are single-ply, with designs the same on both sides,
+no matter how elaborate these designs may be. To produce their
+varigated patterns they have a separate skein, shuttle, or thread for
+each component of the pattern. Take, for instance, the blanket
+depicted in Fig. 49. Across this blanket, between the points _a--b_,
+we have two serrated borders, two white spaces, a small diamond in the
+center, and twenty-four serrated stripes, making in all twenty-nine
+component parts of the pattern. Now, when the weaver was working in
+this place, twenty-nine different threads of weft might have been seen
+hanging from the face of the web at one time. In the girth pictured in
+Fig. 44 five different threads of woof are shown depending from the
+loom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Weaving of saddle-girth.]
+
+When the web is so nearly finished that the batten can no longer be
+inserted in the warp, slender rods are placed in the shed, while the
+weft is passed with increased difficulty on the end of a delicate
+splinter and the reed-fork alone presses the warp home. Later it
+becomes necessary to remove even the rod and the shed; then the
+alternate threads are separated by a slender stick worked in tediously
+between them, and two threads of woof are inserted--one above and the
+other below the stick. The very last thread is sometimes put in with a
+darning needle. The weaving of the last three inches requires more
+labor than any foot of the previous work.
+
+In Figs. 49, 50, 51, 52, and 53 it will be seen that there are small
+fringes or tassels at the corners of the blankets; these are made of
+the redundant ends of the four border-cords (_i.e._, the portions of
+the cord by which they were tied to the beams), either simply tied
+together or secured in the web with a few stitches.
+
+The above is a description of the simplest mechanism by which the
+Navajos make their blankets; but in manufacturing diagonals, sashes,
+garters, and hair-bands the mechanism is much more complicated.
+
+§ VII. For making diagonals the warp is divided into four sheds; the
+uppermost one of these is provided with a shed-rod, the others are
+supplied with healds. I will number the healds and sheds from below
+upwards. The following diagram shows how the threads of the warp are
+arranged in the healds and on the rod.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Diagram showing arrangement of threads of the
+warp in the healds and on the rod.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Weaving of saddle-girth.]
+
+When the weaver wishes the diagonal ridges to run upwards from right
+to left, she opens the sheds in regular order from below upwards thus:
+First, second, third, fourth, first, second, third, fourth, &c. When
+she wishes the ridges to trend in the contrary direction she opens the
+sheds in the inverse order. I found it convenient to take my
+illustrations of this mode of weaving from a girth. In Figs. 44 and 46
+the mechanism is plainly shown. The lowest (first) shed is opened and
+the first set of healds drawn forward. The rings of the girth take the
+place of the beams of the loom.
+
+There is a variety of diagonal weaving practiced by the Navajos which
+produces diamond figures; for this the mechanism is the same as that
+just described, except that the healds are arranged differently on the
+warp. The following diagram will explain this arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Diagram showing arrangement of helds in
+diagonal weaving.]
+
+To make the most approved series of diamonds the sheds are opened
+twice in the direct order (_i.e._, from below upwards) and twice in
+the inverse order, thus: First, second, third, fourth, first, second,
+third, fourth, third, second, first, fourth, third, second, first,
+fourth, and so on. If this order is departed from the figures become
+irregular. If the weaver continues more than twice consecutively in
+either order, a row of V-shaped figures is formed, thus: VVVV. Plate
+XXXV represents a woman weaving a blanket of this pattern, and Fig. 48
+shows a portion of a blanket which is part plain diagonal and part
+diamond.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Diagonal cloth.]
+
+§ VIII. I have heretofore spoken of the Navajo weavers always as of
+the feminine gender because the large majority of them are women.
+There are, however, a few men who practice the textile art, and among
+them are to found the best artisans in the tribe.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVI.--NAVAJO WOMAN WEAVING A BELT.]
+
+§ IX. Navajo blankets represent a wide range in quality and finish and
+an endless variety in design, notwithstanding that all their figures
+consist of straight lines and angles, no curves being used. As
+illustrating the great fertility of this people in design I have to
+relate that in the finer blankets of intricate pattern out of
+thousands which I have examined, I do not remember to have ever seen
+two exactly alike. Among the coarse striped blankets there is great
+uniformity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Navajo blanket of the finest quality.]
+
+The accompanying pictures of blankets represent some in my private
+collection. Fig. 49 depicts a blanket measuring 6 feet 9 inches by 5
+feet 6 inches, and weighing nearly 6 pounds. It is made entirely of
+Germantown yarn in seven strongly contrasting colors, and is the work
+of a man who is generally conceded to be the best weaver in the tribe.
+A month was spent in its manufacture. Its figures are mostly in
+serrated stripes, which are the most difficult to execute with
+regularity. I have heard that the man who wove this often draws his
+designs on sand before he begins to work them on the loom. Fig. 50 _a_
+shows a blanket of more antique design and material. It is 6 feet 6
+inches by 5 feet 3 inches, and is made of native yarn and _bayeta_.
+Its colors are black, white, dark-blue, red (_bayeta_) and--in a
+portion of the stair-like figures--a pale blue. Fig. 50 _b_ depicts a
+tufted blanket or rug, of a kind not common, having much the
+appearance of an Oriental rug; it is made of shredded red flannel,
+with a few simple figures in yellow, dark blue, and green. Fig. 51
+represents a gaudy blanket of smaller size (5 feet 4 inches by 3 feet
+7 inches) worn by a woman. Its colors are yellow, green, dark blue,
+gray, and red, all but the latter color being in native yarn. Figs. 52
+and 53 illustrate small or half-size blankets made for children's
+wear. Such articles are often used for saddle blankets (although the
+saddle-cloth is usually of coarser material) and are in great demand
+among the Americans for rugs. Fig. 53 has a regular border of uniform
+device all the way around--a very rare thing in Navajo blankets. Figs.
+54 and 55 show portions of coarse blankets made more for use use than
+ornament. Fig. 55 is made of loosely-twilled yarn, and is very warm
+but not water-proof. Such blankets make excellent bedding for troops
+in the field. Fig. 54 is a water-proof _serape_ of well-twilled native
+wool.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Navajo blankets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Part of Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Part of Navajo blanket.]
+
+The aboriginal woman's dress is made of two small blankets, equal in
+size and similar in design, sewed together at the sides, with
+apertures left for the arms and no sleeves. It is invariably woven in
+black or dark-blue native wool with a broad variegated stripe in red
+imported yarn or red _bayeta_ at each end, the designs being of
+countless variety. Plates XXXIV and XXXV represent women wearing such
+dresses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Diagram showing formation of warp of sash.]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVII.--ZUŅI WOMAN WEAVING A BELT.]
+
+§ X. Their way of weaving long ribbon-like articles, such as sashes or
+belts, garters, and hair-bands, which we will next consider, presents
+many interesting variations from, the method pursued in making
+blankets. To form, a sash the weaver proceeds as follows: She drives
+into the ground four sticks and on them she winds her warp as a
+continuous string (however, as the warp usually consists of threads of
+three different colors it is not always _one_ continuous string) from,
+below upwards in such a way as to secure two sheds, as shown in the
+diagram, Fig. 56.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Section of Navajo belt.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Wooden heald of the Zuņis.]
+
+Every turn of the warp passes over the sticks _a_, and _b_; but it is
+alternate turns that pass over _c_ and _d_. When the warp is laid she
+ties a string around the intersection of the sheds at _e_, so as to
+keep the sheds separate while she is mounting the warp on the beams.
+She then places the upper beam of the loom in the place of the stick
+_b_ and the lower beam in the place of the stick _a_. Sometimes the
+upper and lower beams are secured to the two side rails forming a
+frame such as the warp of a blanket is wound on (§ IV), but more
+commonly the loom is arranged in the manner shown in Plate XXXVI; that
+is, the upper beam is secured to a rafter, post, or tree, while to the
+lower beam is attached a loop of rope that passes under the thighs of
+the weaver, and the warp is rendered tense by her weight. Next, the
+upper shed is supplied with a shed-rod, and the lower shed with a set
+of healds. Then the stick at _f_ (upper stick in Plate XXXVI) is put
+in; this is simply a round stick, about which one loop of each thread
+of the warp is thrown. (Although the warp may consist of only one
+thread I must now speak of each turn as a separate thread.) Its use is
+to keep the different threads in place and prevent them from crossing
+and straggling; for it must be remembered that the warp in this case
+is not secured at two points between three stranded cords as is the
+blanket warp.
+
+When this is all ready the insertion of the weft begins. The reed-fork
+is rarely needed and the batten used is much shorter than that
+employed in making blankets. Fig. 57 represents a section of a belt.
+It will be seen that the center is ornamented with peculiar raised
+figures; these are made by inserting a slender stick into the warp, so
+as to hold up certain of the threads while the weft is passed twice or
+oftener underneath them. It is practically a variety of damask or
+two-ply weaving; the figures on the opposite side of the belt being
+different. There is a limited variety of these figures. I think I have
+seen about a dozen different kinds. The experienced weaver is so well
+acquainted with the "count" or arrangements of the raised threads
+appropriate to each pattern that she goes on inserting and withdrawing
+the slender stick referred to without a moment's hesitation, making
+the web at the rate of 10 or 12 inches an hour. When the web has grown
+to the point at which she cannot weave it further without bringing the
+unfilled warp nearer to her, she is not obliged to resort to the
+clumsy method used with blankets. She merely seizes the anterior layer
+of the warp and pulls it down towards her; for the warp is not
+attached to the beams, but is movable on them; in other words, while
+still on the loom the belt is endless. When all the warp has been
+filled except about one foot, the weaving is completed; for then the
+unfilled warp is cut in the center and becomes the terminal fringes of
+the now finished belt.
+
+The only marked difference that I have observed between the mechanical
+appliances of the Navajo weaver and those of her Pueblo neighbor is to
+be seen in the belt loom. The Zuņi woman lays out her warp, not as a
+continuous thread around two beams, but as several disunited threads.
+She attaches one end of these to a fixed object, usually a rafter in
+her dwelling, and the other to the belt she wears around her body. She
+has a set of wooden healds by which she actuates the alternate threads
+of the warp. Instead of using the slender stick of the Navajos to
+elevate the threads of the warp in forming her figures, she lifts
+these threads with her fingers. This is an easy matter with her
+style of loom; but it would be a very difficult task with that of the
+Navajos. Plate XXXVII represents a Zuņi woman weaving a belt. The
+wooden healds are shown, and again, enlarged, in Fig. 58. The Zuņi
+women weave all their long, narrow webs according to the same system;
+but Mr. Bandelier has informed me that the Indians of the Pueblo of
+Cochiti make the narrow garters and hair-bands after the manner of the
+Zuņis, and the broad belts after the manner of the Navajos.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVIII.--BRINGING DOWN THE BATTEN.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Girl weaving (from an Aztec picture).]
+
+§ XI. I will close by inviting the reader to compare Plate XXXVI and
+Fig. 59. The former shows a Navajo woman weaving a belt; the latter a
+girl of ancient Mexico weaving a web of some other description. The
+one is from a photograph, taken from life; the other I have copied
+from Tylor's "Anthropology" (p. 248); but it appears earlier in the
+copy of Codex Vaticana in Lord Kingsborough's "Antiquities of Mexico."
+The way in which the warp is held down and made tense, by a rope or
+band secured to the lower beam and sat upon by the weaver, is the same
+in both cases. And it seems that the artist who drew the original rude
+sketch, sought to represent the girl, not as working "the cross-thread
+of the woof in and out on a stick," but as manipulating the reed-fork
+with one hand and grasping the heald-rod and shed-rod in the other.
+
+  NOTE.--The engravings were prepared while the author was in New
+  Mexico and could not be submitted for his inspection until the
+  paper was ready for the press. Some alterations were made from the
+  original pictures. The following are the most important to be
+  noted: In Plate XXXVIII the batten should appear held
+  horizontally, not obliquely. Fig. 5 is reduced and cannot fairly
+  delineate the gradations in color and regular sharp outlines of
+  the finely-serrated figures. Fig. 53 does not convey the fact that
+  the stripes are of uniform width and all the right-angles
+  accurately made.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Blankets, Navajo 380-388
+
+  Codex, The Vatican; Illustrating Mexican weaving 391
+  Colors prepared for Navajo fabrics 376
+  Cotton woven in Pueblos, Native 375
+
+  Dyeing among Navajoes 377
+  Dyes used by Navajoes 377
+
+  Fabrics; Prehistoric textiles of the United States 393-425
+
+  Healds of Navajo loom 378
+    Mode of applying the 380, 384
+    Zuņi 389
+
+  Looms, Navajo 377
+
+  Mathews, Dr. W., Navajo weavers 371-391
+
+  Navajo blankets, Varieties of 385-388
+    Mode of weaving 383
+    diagonal 383
+    diamond 384
+    dyeing 377
+    dyes 376
+    healds in loom used 380
+    looms 377
+    position in weaving 380
+    warp of blankets 378-379
+    sash 388
+    weavers 371-391
+    wool 375
+
+  Taylor, E.B., Anthropology cited 391
+
+  Warp, Construction of Navajo blanket 378
+  Warp, Construction of Navajo sash 388
+  Weavers, Navajo, by Dr. Washington Mathews 371-391
+  Weaving, Navajo position in 380
+    wool by Navajoes 375
+
+  Zuņi, healds 389
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo weavers, by Washington Matthews
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo weavers, by Washington Matthews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Navajo weavers
+       Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1881-'82,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1884, pages 371-392.
+
+Author: Washington Matthews
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2006 [EBook #17742]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAVAJO WEAVERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Jeannie
+Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliothčque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span><br />
+
+<h3>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION&mdash;BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</h3>
+<br />
+<br />
+<h1>NAVAJO WEAVERS.</h1>
+<br />
+<br />
+<h4>BY</h4>
+<br />
+<h2 class="sc">Dr. Washington Matthews, U.S.A.</h2>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+
+<h5>Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
+to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, <br />
+1881-'82, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1884, pages 371-392.</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span><br />
+<a name="toi" id="toi"></a><hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span>
+<br />
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h3>
+<br />
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr">Page.</td>
+  </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdrsc" width="20%">Plate <a href="#plate34">XXXIV.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl" width="70%">Navajo woman spinning</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%">376</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#plate35">XXXV.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Weaving of diamond-shaped diagonals</td>
+  <td class="tdr">380</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#plate36">XXXVI.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Navajo woman weaving a belt</td>
+  <td class="tdr">384</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#plate37">XXXVII.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Zu&ntilde;i women weaving a belt</td>
+  <td class="tdr">388</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#plate38">XXXVIII.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Bringing down the batten</td>
+  <td class="tdr">390</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdrsc">Fig. <a href="#fig42">42.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Ordinary Navajo blanket loom</td>
+  <td class="tdr">378</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig43">43.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Diagram showing formation of warp</td>
+  <td class="tdr">379</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig44">44.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Weaving of saddle-girth</td>
+  <td class="tdr">382</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig45">45.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Diagram showing arrangement of threads of
+          the warp in the healds and on the rod</td>
+  <td class="tdr">383</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig46">46.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Weaving of saddle-girth</td>
+  <td class="tdr">383</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig47">47.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Diagram showing arrangement of healds in
+          diagonal weaving</td>
+  <td class="tdr">384</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig48">48.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Diagonal cloth</td>
+  <td class="tdr">384</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig49">49.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Navajo blanket of the finest quality</td>
+  <td class="tdr">385</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig50">50.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Navajo blankets</td>
+  <td class="tdr">386</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig51">51.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Navajo blanket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">386</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig52">52.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Navajo blanket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">387</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig53">53.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Navajo blanket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">387</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig54">54.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Part of Navajo blanket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">388</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig55">55.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Part of Navajo blanket</td>
+  <td class="tdr">388</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig56">56.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Diagram showing formation of warp of sash</td>
+  <td class="tdr">388</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig57">57.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Section of Navajo belt</td>
+  <td class="tdr">389</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig58">58.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Wooden heald of the Zu&ntilde;is</td>
+  <td class="tdr">389</td>
+ </tr>
+ <tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#fig59">59.</a>&mdash;</td>
+  <td class="tdl">Girl weaving (from an Aztec picture)</td>
+  <td class="tdr">391</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span><br />
+
+<h2>NAVAJO WEAVERS.</h2>
+
+<h3 class="sc">By Dr. Washington Matthews.</h3>
+<br />
+
+<p>&sect; I. The art of weaving, as it exists among the Navajo Indians of New
+Mexico and Arizona, possesses points of great interest to the student
+of ethnography. It is of aboriginal origin; and while European art
+has undoubtedly modified it, the extent and nature of the foreign
+influence is easily traced. It is by no means certain, still there
+are many reasons for supposing, that the Navajos learned their craft
+from the Pueblo Indians, and that, too, since the advent of the
+Spaniards; yet the pupils, if such they be, far excel their masters
+to-day in the beauty and quality of their work. It may be safely
+stated that with no native tribe in America, north of the Mexican
+boundary, has the art of weaving been carried to greater perfection
+than among the Navajos, while with none in the entire continent is it
+less Europeanized. As in language, habits, and opinions, so in arts,
+the Navajos have been less influenced than their sedentary neighbors
+of the pueblos by the civilization of the Old World.</p>
+
+<p>The superiority of the Navajo to the Pueblo work results not only
+from a constant advance of the weaver's art among the former, but
+from a constant deterioration of it among the latter. The chief cause
+of this deterioration is that the Pueblos find it more remunerative
+to buy, at least the finer <i>serapes</i>, from the Navajos, and give
+their time to other pursuits, than to manufacture for themselves;
+they are nearer the white settlements and can get better prices for
+their produce; they give more attention to agriculture; they have
+within their country, mines of turquoise which the Navajos prize, and
+they have no trouble in procuring whisky, which some of the Navajos
+prize even more than gems. Consequently, while the wilder Indian has
+incentives to improve his art, the more advanced has many temptations
+to abandon it altogether. In some pueblos the skill of the loom has
+been almost forgotten. A growing fondness for European clothing has
+also had its influence, no doubt.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; II. Cotton, which grows well in New Mexico and Arizona, the tough
+fibers of yucca leaves and the fibers of other plants, the hair of
+different quadrupeds, and the down of birds furnished in prehistoric
+days the materials of textile fabrics in this country. While some of
+the Pueblos still weave their native cotton to a slight extent, the
+Navajos grow no cotton and spin nothing but the wool of the domestic
+sheep, which animal is, of course, of Spanish introduction, and of
+which the Navajos have vast herds.</p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span>
+
+<p>The wool is not washed until it is sheared. At the present time it is
+combed with hand cards purchased from the Americans. In spinning, the
+simplest form of the spindle&mdash;a slender stick thrust through the
+center of a round wooden disk&mdash;is used. The Mexicans on the Rio
+Grande use spinning-wheels, and although the Navajos have often seen
+these wheels, have had abundant opportunities for buying and stealing
+them, and possess, I think, sufficient ingenuity to make them, they
+have never abandoned the rude implement of their ancestors. Plate
+XXXIV illustrates the Navajo method of handling the spindle, a method
+different from that of the people of Zu&ntilde;i.</p>
+
+<p>They still employ to a great extent their native dyes: of yellow,
+reddish, and black. There is good evidence that they formerly had a
+blue dye; but indigo, originally introduced, I think, by the
+Mexicans, has superseded this. If they, in former days, had a native
+blue and a native yellow, they must also, of course, have had a
+green, and they now make green of their native yellow and indigo, the
+latter being the only imported dye-stuff I have ever seen in use
+among them. Besides the hues above indicated, this people have had,
+ever since the introduction of sheep, wool of three different natural
+colors&mdash;white, rusty black, and gray&mdash;so they had always a fair range
+of tints with which to execute their artistic designs. The brilliant
+red figures in their finer blankets were, a few years ago, made
+entirely of <i>bayeta</i>, and this material is still largely used. Bayeta
+is a bright scarlet cloth with a long nap, much finer in appearance
+than the scarlet strouding which forms such an important article in
+the Indian trade of the North. It was originally brought to the
+Navajo country from Mexico, but is now supplied to the trade from our
+eastern cities. The Indians ravel it and use the weft. While many
+handsome blankets are still made only of the colors and material
+above described, American yarn has lately become very popular among
+the Navajos, and many fine blankets are now made wholly, or in part,
+of Germantown wool.</p>
+
+<p>The black dye mentioned above is made of the twigs and leaves of the
+aromatic sumac (<i>Rhus aromatica</i>), a native yellow ocher, and the gum
+of the pi&ntilde;on (<i>Pinus edulis</i>). The process of preparing it is as
+follows: They put into a pot of water some of the leaves of the
+sumac, and as many of the branchlets as can be crowded in without
+much breaking or crushing, and the water is allowed to boil for five
+or six hours until a strong decoction is made. While the water is
+boiling they attend to other parts of the process. The ocher is
+reduced to a fine powder between two stones and then slowly roasted
+over the fire in an earthen or metal vessel until it assumes a
+light-brown color; it is then taken from the fire and combined with
+about an equal quantity in size of pi&ntilde;on gum; again the mixture is
+put on the fire and constantly stirred. At first the gum melts and
+the whole mass assumes a mushy consistency; but as the roasting
+progresses it gradually becomes drier and darker until it is at last
+reduced to a fine black powder. This is removed from the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>fire, and
+when it has cooled somewhat it is thrown into the decoction of sumac,
+with which it instantly forms a rich, blue-black fluid. This dye is
+essentially an ink, the tannic acid of the sumac combining with the
+sesquioxide of iron in the roasted ocher, the whole enriched by the
+carbon of the calcined gum.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="plate34" id="plate34"></a>
+<a href="images/platexxxiv.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/platexxxiv.jpg" width="60%" alt="Navajo Woman Spinning" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">PL. XXXIV.&mdash;NAVAJO WOMAN SPINNING.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>There are, the Indians tell me, three different processes for dyeing
+yellow; two of these I have witnessed. The first process is thus
+conducted: The flowering tops of <i>Bigelovia graveolens</i> are boiled
+for about six hours until a decoction of deep yellow color is
+produced. When the dyer thinks the decoction strong enough, she heats
+over the fire in a pan or earthen vessel some native almogen (an
+impure native alum), until it is reduced to a somewhat pasty
+consistency; this she adds gradually to the decoction and then puts
+the wool in the dye to boil. From time to time a portion of the wool
+is taken out and inspected until (in about half an hour from the time
+it is first immersed) it is seen to have assumed the proper color.
+The work is then done. The tint produced is nearly that of lemon
+yellow. In the second process they use the large, fleshy root of a
+plant which, as I have never yet seen it in fruit or flower, I am
+unable to determine. The fresh root is crushed to a soft paste on the
+<i>metate</i>, and, for a mordant, the almogen is added while the grinding
+is going on. The cold paste is then rubbed between the hands into the
+wool. If the wool does not seem to take the color readily a little
+water is dashed on the mixture of wool and paste, and the whole is
+very slightly warmed. The entire process does not occupy over an hour
+and the result is a color much like that now known as "old gold."</p>
+
+<p>The reddish dye is made of the bark of <i>Alnus incana</i> var.
+<i>virescens</i> (Watson) and the bark of the root of <i>Cercocarpus
+parvifolius</i>; the mordant being fine juniper ashes. On buckskin this
+makes a brilliant tan-color; but applied to wool it produces a much
+paler tint.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; III. Plate XXXVIII and Fig. 42 illustrate ordinary blanket-looms.
+Two posts, <i>a a</i>, are set firmly in the ground; to these are lashed
+two cross-pieces or braces, <i>b c</i>, the whole forming the frame of the
+loom. Sometimes two slender trees, growing at a convenient distance
+from one another, are made to answer for the posts, <i>d</i> is a
+horizontal pole, which I call the supplementary yarn-beam, attached
+to the upper brace, <i>b</i>, by means of a rope, <i>e e</i>, spirally applied.
+<i>f</i> is the upper beam of the loom. As it is analogous to the
+yarn-beam of our looms, I will call it by this name, although once
+only have I seen the warp wound around it. It lies parallel to the
+pole <i>d</i>, about 2 or 3 inches below it, and is attached to the latter
+by a number of loops, <i>g g</i>. A spiral cord wound around the yarn-beam
+holds the upper border cord <i>h h</i>, which, in turn, secures the upper
+end of the warp <i>i i</i>. The lower beam of the loom is shown at <i>k</i>. I
+will call this the cloth-beam, although the finished web is never
+wound around it; it is tied firmly to the lower brace, <i>c</i>, of the
+frame, and to it is secured the lower border cord of the blanket. The
+original distance between the two beams is the length of the blanket.
+Lying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> between the threads of the warp is depicted a broad, thin,
+oaken stick, <i>l</i>, which I will call the batten. A set of healds
+attached to a heald-rod, <i>m</i>, are shown above the batten. These
+healds are made of cord or yarn; they include alternate threads of
+the warp, and serve when drawn forward to open the lower shed. The
+upper shed is kept patent by a stout rod, <i>n</i> (having no healds
+attached), which I name the shed-rod. Their substitute for the reed
+of our looms is a wooden fork, which will be designated as the
+reed-fork (Fig. 44, <i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a>
+<a href="images/fig42.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig42.jpg" width="80%" alt="Figure 42: Ordinary Navajo blanket loom." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 42.&mdash;Ordinary Navajo blanket loom.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>For convenience of description, I am obliged to use the word
+"shuttle," although, strictly speaking, the Navajo has no shuttle. If
+the figure to be woven is a long stripe, or one where the weft must
+be passed through 6 inches or more of the shed at one time, the yarn
+is wound on a slender twig or splinter, or shoved through on the end
+of such a piece of wood; but where the pattern is intricate, and the
+weft passes at each turn through only a few inches of the shed, the
+yarn is wound into small skeins or balls and shoved through with the
+finger.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; IV. The warp is thus constructed: A frame of four sticks is made,
+not unlike the frame of the loom, but lying on or near the ground,
+instead of standing erect. The two sticks forming the sides of the
+frame are rough saplings or rails; the two forming the top and bottom
+are smooth rounded poles&mdash;often the poles which afterwards serve as
+the beams of the loom; these are placed parallel to one another,
+their distance apart depending on the length of the projected
+blanket.</p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span>
+
+<p>On these poles the warp is laid in a continuous string. It is first
+firmly tied to one of the poles, which I will call No. 1 (Fig. 43);
+then it is passed over the other pole, No. 2, brought back under No.
+2 and over No. 1, forward again under No. 1 and over No. 2, and so on
+to the end. Thus the first, third, fifth, &amp;c., turns of the cord
+cross in the middle the second, fourth, sixth, &amp;c., forming a series
+of elongated figures 8, as shown in the following diagram&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a>
+<a href="images/fig43.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig43.jpg" width="90%" alt="Figure 43: Diagram showing formation of warp." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 43.&mdash;Diagram showing formation of warp.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noin">and making, in the very beginning of the process, the two sheds,
+which are kept distinct throughout the whole work. When sufficient
+string has been laid the end is tied to pole No. 2, and a rod is
+placed in each shed to keep it open, the rods being afterwards tied
+together at the ends to prevent them from falling out.</p>
+
+<p>This done, the weaver takes three strings (which are afterwards
+twilled into one, as will appear) and ties them together at one end.
+She now sits outside one of the poles, looking towards the centre of
+the frame, and proceeds thus: (1) She secures the triple cord to the
+pole immediately to the left of the warp; (2) then she takes one of
+the threads (or strands as they now become) and passes it under the
+first turn of the warp; (3) next she takes a second strand, and
+twilling it once or oftener with the other strands, includes with it
+the second bend of the warp; (4) this done, she takes the third
+strand and, twilling it as before, passes it under the third bend of
+the warp, and thus she goes on until the entire warp in one place is
+secured between the strands of the cord; (5) then she pulls the
+string to its fullest extent, and in doing so separates the threads
+of the warp from one another; (6) a similar three stranded cord is
+applied to the other end of the warp, along the outside of the other
+pole.</p>
+
+<p>At this stage of the work these stout cords lie along the outer
+surfaces of the poles, parallel with the axes of the latter, but when
+the warp is taken off the poles and applied to the beams of the loom
+by the spiral thread, as above described, and as depicted in Plate
+XXXVIII and Fig. 42, and all is ready for weaving, the cords appear
+on the inner sides of the beams, <i>i.e.</i>, one (Pl. XXXVIII and Fig.
+42, <i>h h</i>) at the lower side of the yarn-beam, the other at the upper
+side of the cloth-beam, and when the blanket is finished they form
+the stout end margins of the web. In the coarser grade of blankets
+the cords are removed and the ends of the warp tied in pairs and made
+to form a fringe. (See Figs. 54 and 55.)</p>
+
+<p>When the warp is transferred to the loom the rod which was placed in
+the upper shed remains there, or another rod, straighter and
+smoother, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>is substituted for it; but with the lower shed, healds are
+applied to the anterior threads and the rod is withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; V. The mode of applying the healds is simple: (1) the weaver sits
+facing the loom in the position for weaving; (2) she lays at the
+right (her right) side of the loom a ball of string which she knows
+contains more than sufficient material to make the healds; (3) she
+takes the end of this string and passes it to the left through the
+shed, leaving the ball in its original position; (4) she ties a loop
+at the end of the string large enough to admit the heald-rod; (5) she
+holds horizontally in her left hand a straightish slender rod, which
+is to become the heald-rod&mdash;its right extremity touching the left
+edge of the warp&mdash;and passes the rod through the loop until the point
+of the stick is even with the third (second anterior from the left)
+thread of the warp; (6) she puts her finger through the space between
+the first and third threads and draws out a fold of the heald-string;
+(7) she twists this once around, so as to form a loop, and pushes the
+point of the heald-rod on to the right through this loop; (8) she
+puts her finger into the next space and forms another loop; (9) and
+so on she continues to advance her rod and form her loops from left
+to right until each of the anterior (alternate) warp-threads of the
+lower shed is included in a loop of the heald; (10) when the last
+loop is made she ties the string firmly to the rod near its right
+end.</p>
+
+<p>When the weaving is nearly done and it becomes necessary to remove
+the healds, the rod is drawn out of the loops, a slight pull is made
+at the thread, the loops fall in an instant, and the straightened
+string is drawn out of the shed. Illustrations of the healds may be
+seen in Plates XXXV and XXXVIII and Figs. 42, 44, and 46, that in
+Fig. 46 being the most distinct.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; VI. In making a blanket the operator sits on the ground with her
+legs folded under her. The warp hangs vertically before her, and
+(excepting in a case to be mentioned) she weaves from below upwards.
+As she never rises from this squatting posture when at work, it is
+evident that when she has woven the web to a certain height further
+work must become inconvenient or impossible unless by some
+arrangement the finished web is drawn downwards. Her cloth-beam does
+not revolve as in our looms, so she brings her work within easy reach
+by the following method: The spiral rope (Plate XXXVIII and Fig. 42)
+is loosened, the yarn-beam is lowered to the desired distance, a fold
+is made in the loosened web, and the upper edge of the fold is sewed
+down tightly to the cloth-beam. In all new blankets over two feet
+long the marks of this sewing are to be seen, and they often remain
+until the blanket is worn out. Plate XXXV, representing a blanket
+nearly finished, illustrates this procedure.</p>
+
+<p>Except in belts, girths, and perhaps occasionally in very narrow
+blankets, the shuttle is never passed through the whole width of the
+warp at once, but only through a space which does not exceed the
+length of the batten; for it is by means of the batten, which is
+rarely more than 3 feet long, that the shed is opened.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="plate35" id="plate35"></a>
+<a href="images/platexxxv.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/platexxxv.jpg" width="90%" alt="Weaving Of Diamond-shaped Diagonals" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">PL. XXXV.&mdash;WEAVING OF DIAMOND-SHAPED DIAGONALS.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span>
+Suppose the woman begins by weaving in the lower shed. She draws
+apportion of the healds towards her, and with them the anterior
+threads of the shed; by this motion she opens the shed about 1 inch,
+which is not sufficient for the easy passage of the woof. She inserts
+her batten edgewise into this opening and then turns it half around
+on its long axis, so that its broad surfaces lie horizontally; in
+this way the shed is opened to the extent of the width of the
+batten&mdash;about 3 inches; next the weft is passed through. In fig. 42
+the batten is shown lying edgewise (its broad surfaces vertical), as
+it appears when just inserted into the shed, and the weft, which has
+been passed through only a portion of the shed, is seen hanging out
+with its end on the ground. In Plate XXXV the batten is shown in the
+second position described, with the shed open to the fullest extent
+necessary, and the weaver is represented in the act of passing the
+shuttle through. When the weft is in, it is shoved down into its
+proper position by means of the reed-fork, and then the batten,
+restored to its first position (edgewise), is brought down with firm
+blows on the weft. It is by the vigorous use of the batten that the
+Navajo serapes are rendered water-proof. In Plate XXXVIII the weaver
+is seen bringing down this instrument "in the manner and for the
+purpose described," as the letters patent say.</p>
+
+<p>When the lower shed has received its thread of weft the weaver opens
+the upper shed. This is done by releasing the healds and shoving the
+shed-rod down until it comes in contact with the healds; this opens
+the upper shed down to the web. Then the weft is inserted and the
+batten and reed-fork used as before. Thus she goes on with each shed
+alternately until the web is finished.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, desirable, at least in handsome blankets of
+intricate pattern, to have both ends uniform even if the figure be a
+little faulty in the center. To accomplish this some of the best
+weavers depend on a careful estimate of the length of each figure
+before they begin, and weave continuously in one direction; but the
+majority weave a little portion of the upper end before they finish
+the middle. Sometimes this is done by weaving from above downwards;
+at other times it is done by turning the loom upside down and working
+from below upwards in the ordinary manner. In Fig. 49, which
+represents one of the very finest results of Navajo work, by the best
+weaver in the tribe, it will be seen that exact uniformity in the
+ends has not been attained. The figure was of such a nature that the
+blanket had to be woven in one direction only.</p>
+
+<p>I have described how the ends of the blanket are bordered with a
+stout three-ply string applied to the folds of the warp. The lateral
+edges of the blanket are similarly protected by stout cords applied
+to the weft. The way in which these are woven in, next demands our
+attention. Two stout worsted cords, tied together, are firmly
+attached at each end of the cloth-beam just outside of the warp; they
+are then carried upwards and loosely tied to the yarn-beam or the
+supplementary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> yarn-beam. Every time the weft is turned at the edge
+these two strings are twisted together and the weft is passed through
+the twist; thus one thread or strand of this border is always on the
+outside. As it is constantly twisted in one direction, it is evident
+that, after a while, a counter-twist must form which would render the
+passage of the weft between the cords difficult, if the cords could
+not be untwisted again. Here the object of tying these cords loosely
+to one of the upper beams, as before described, is displayed. From
+time to time the cords are untied and the unwoven portion
+straightened as the work progresses. Fig. 44 and Plate XXXVIII show
+these cords. The coarse blankets do not have them. (Fig 42.)</p>
+
+<div style="float: left; width: 30%;">
+<div class="img">
+<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a>
+<a href="images/fig44.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig44.jpg" width="100%" alt="Figure 44: Weaving of saddle-girth." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 44.&mdash;Weaving of saddle-girth.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div></div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Navajo blankets are single-ply, with designs the same on both sides,
+no matter how elaborate these designs may be. To produce their
+varigated patterns they have a separate skein, shuttle, or thread for
+each component of the pattern. Take, for instance, the blanket
+depicted in Fig. 49. Across this blanket, between the points <i>a&mdash;b</i>,
+we have two serrated borders, two white spaces, a small diamond in
+the center, and twenty-four serrated stripes, making in all
+twenty-nine component parts of the pattern. Now, when the weaver was
+working in this place, twenty-nine different threads of weft might
+have been seen hanging from the face of the web at one time. In the
+girth pictured in Fig. 44 five different threads of woof are shown
+depending from the loom.</p>
+
+<p>When the web is so nearly finished that the batten can no longer be
+inserted in the warp, slender rods are placed in the shed, while the
+weft is passed with increased difficulty on the end of a delicate
+splinter and the reed-fork alone presses the warp home. Later it
+becomes necessary to remove even the rod and the shed; then the
+alternate threads are separated by a slender stick worked in
+tediously between them, and two threads of woof are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> inserted&mdash;one
+above and the other below the stick. The very last thread is
+sometimes put in with a darning needle. The weaving of the last three
+inches requires more labor than any foot of the previous work.</p>
+
+<p>In Figs. 49, 50, 51, 52, and 53 it will be seen that there are small
+fringes or tassels at the corners of the blankets; these are made of
+the redundant ends of the four border-cords (<i>i.e.</i>, the portions of
+the cord by which they were tied to the beams), either simply tied
+together or secured in the web with a few stitches.</p>
+
+<p>The above is a description of the simplest mechanism by which the
+Navajos make their blankets; but in manufacturing diagonals, sashes,
+garters, and hair-bands the mechanism is much more complicated.</p>
+
+<p>&sect; VII. For making diagonals the warp is divided into four sheds; the
+uppermost one of these is provided with a shed-rod, the others are
+supplied with healds. I will number the healds and sheds from below
+upwards. The following diagram shows how the threads of the warp are
+arranged in the healds and on the rod.</p>
+
+<br /><br /><br />
+
+<div class="img"><a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a>
+<a href="images/fig45.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig45.jpg" width="40%" alt="Figure 45: Diagram showing arrangement of threads of the warp in the healds and on the rod." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 45.&mdash;Diagram showing arrangement of
+threads of the warp in the healds and on the rod.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a>
+<a href="images/fig46.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig46.jpg" width="45%" alt="Figure 46: Weaving of saddle-girth." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 46.&mdash;Weaving of saddle-girth.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>When the weaver wishes the diagonal ridges to run upwards from right
+to left, she opens the sheds in regular order from below upwards
+thus: First, second, third, fourth, first, second, third, fourth, &amp;c.
+When she wishes the ridges to trend in the contrary direction she
+opens the sheds in the inverse order. I found it convenient to take
+my illustrations of this mode of weaving from a girth. In Figs. 44
+and 46 the mechanism is plainly shown. The lowest (first) shed is
+opened and the first set of healds drawn forward. The rings of the
+girth take the place of the beams of the loom.</p>
+
+<p>There is a variety of diagonal weaving practiced by the Navajos which
+produces diamond figures; for this the mechanism is the same <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span>as that
+just described, except that the healds are arranged differently on
+the warp. The following diagram will explain this arrangement.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a>
+<a href="images/fig47.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig47.jpg" width="80%" alt="Figure 47: Diagram showing arrangement of helds in diagonal weaving." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 47.&mdash;Diagram showing arrangement of helds in diagonal weaving.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>To make the most approved series of diamonds the sheds are opened
+twice in the direct order (<i>i.e.</i>, from below upwards) and twice in
+the inverse order, thus: First, second, third, fourth, first, second,
+third, fourth, third, second, first, fourth, third, second, first,
+fourth, and so on. If this order is departed from the figures become
+irregular. If the weaver continues more than twice consecutively in
+either order, a row of V-shaped figures is formed, thus: VVVV. Plate
+XXXV represents a woman weaving a blanket of this pattern, and Fig.
+48 shows a portion of a blanket which is part plain diagonal and part
+diamond.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a>
+<a href="images/fig48.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig48.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 48: Diagonal cloth." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 48.&mdash;Diagonal cloth.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>&sect; VIII. I have heretofore spoken of the Navajo weavers always as of
+the feminine gender because the large majority of them are women.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>
+There are, however, a few men who practice the textile art, and among
+them are to found the best artisans in the tribe.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="plate36" id="plate36"></a>
+<a href="images/platexxxvi.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/platexxxvi.jpg" width="62%" alt="Navajo Woman Weaving a Belt" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">PL. XXXVI.&mdash;NAVAJO WOMAN WEAVING A BELT.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>&sect; IX. Navajo blankets represent a wide range in quality and finish
+and an endless variety in design, notwithstanding that all their
+figures consist of straight lines and angles, no curves being used.
+As illustrating the great fertility of this people in design I have
+to relate that in the finer blankets of intricate pattern out of
+thousands which I have examined, I do not remember to have ever seen
+two exactly alike. Among the coarse striped blankets there is great
+uniformity.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a>
+<a href="images/fig49.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig49.jpg" width="58%" alt="Figure 49: Navajo blanket of the finest quality." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: 0em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 49.&mdash;Navajo blanket of the finest quality.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>The accompanying pictures of blankets represent some in my private
+collection. Fig. 49 depicts a blanket measuring 6 feet 9 inches by 5
+feet 6 inches, and weighing nearly 6 pounds. It is made entirely of
+Germantown yarn in seven strongly contrasting colors, and is the work
+of a man who is generally conceded to be the best weaver in the
+tribe. A month was spent in its manufacture. Its figures are mostly
+in serrated stripes, which are the most difficult to execute with
+regularity. I have heard that the man who wove this often draws his
+designs on sand before he begins to work them on the loom. Fig. 50
+<i>a</i> shows a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> blanket of more antique design and material. It is 6
+feet 6 inches by 5 feet 3 inches, and is made of native yarn and
+<i>bayeta</i>. Its colors are black, white, dark-blue, red (<i>bayeta</i>)
+and&mdash;in a portion of the stair-like figures&mdash;a pale blue. Fig. 50 <i>b</i>
+depicts a tufted blanket or rug, of a kind not common, having much
+the appearance of an Oriental rug; it is made of shredded red
+flannel, with a few simple figures in yellow, dark blue, and green.
+Fig. 51 represents a gaudy blanket of smaller size (5 feet 4 inches
+by 3 feet 7 inches) worn by a woman. Its colors are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> yellow, green,
+dark blue, gray, and red, all but the latter color being in native
+yarn. Figs. 52 and 53 illustrate small or half-size blankets made for
+children's wear. Such articles are often used for saddle blankets
+(although the saddle-cloth is usually of coarser material) and are in
+great demand among the Americans for rugs. Fig. 53 has a regular
+border of uniform device all the way around&mdash;a very rare thing in
+Navajo blankets. Figs. 54 and 55 show portions of coarse blankets
+made more for use use than ornament. Fig. 55 is made of
+loosely-twilled yarn, and is very warm but not water-proof. Such
+blankets <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span>make excellent bedding for troops in the field. Fig. 54 is
+a water-proof <i>serape</i> of well-twilled native wool.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a>
+<a href="images/fig50.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig50.jpg" width="80%" alt="Figure 50: Navajo blankets." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: 0em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 50.&mdash;Navajo blankets.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a>
+<a href="images/fig51.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig51.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 51: Navajo blanket." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 51.&mdash;Navajo blanket.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a>
+<a href="images/fig52.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig52.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 52: Navajo blanket." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;Navajo blanket.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a>
+<a href="images/fig53.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig53.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 53: Navajo blanket." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 53.&mdash;Navajo blanket.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a>
+<a href="images/fig54.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig54.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 54: Part of Navajo blanket." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 54.&mdash;Part of Navajo blanket.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a>
+<a href="images/fig54.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig55.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 55: Part of Navajo blanket." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 55.&mdash;Part of Navajo blanket.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The aboriginal woman's dress is made of two small blankets, equal in
+size and similar in design, sewed together at the sides, with
+apertures left for the arms and no sleeves. It is invariably woven in
+black or dark-blue native wool with a broad variegated stripe in red
+imported yarn or red <i>bayeta</i> at each end, the designs being of
+countless variety. Plates XXXIV and XXXV represent women wearing such
+dresses.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a>
+<a href="images/fig56.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig56.jpg" width="80%" alt="Figure 56: Diagram showing formation of warp of sash." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 56.&mdash;Diagram showing formation of warp of sash.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="plate37" id="plate37"></a>
+<a href="images/platexxxvii.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/platexxxvii.jpg" width="90%" alt="Zu&ntilde;i Woman Weaving A Belt." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">PL. XXXVII.&mdash;ZU&Ntilde;I WOMAN WEAVING A BELT.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span>&sect; X. Their way of weaving long ribbon-like articles, such as sashes
+or belts, garters, and hair-bands, which we will next consider,
+presents many interesting variations from, the method pursued in
+making blankets. To form, a sash the weaver proceeds as follows: She
+drives into the ground four sticks and on them she winds her warp as
+a continuous string (however, as the warp usually consists of threads
+of three different colors it is not always <i>one</i> continuous string)
+from, below upwards in such a way as to secure two sheds, as shown in
+the diagram, Fig. 56.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a>
+<a href="images/fig57.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig57.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 57: Section of Navajo belt." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 57.&mdash;Section of Navajo belt.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a>
+<a href="images/fig58.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig58.jpg" width="70%" alt="Figure 58: Wooden heald of the Zu&ntilde;is." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 58.&mdash;Wooden heald of the Zu&ntilde;is.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>Every turn of the warp passes over the sticks <i>a</i>, and <i>b</i>; but it is
+alternate turns that pass over <i>c</i> and <i>d</i>. When the warp is laid she
+ties a string around the intersection of the sheds at <i>e</i>, so as to
+keep the sheds separate while she is mounting the warp on the beams.
+She then places the upper beam of the loom in the place of the stick
+<i>b</i> and the lower beam in the place of the stick <i>a</i>. Sometimes the
+upper and lower beams are secured to the two side rails forming a
+frame such as the warp of a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span>blanket is wound on (&sect; IV), but more
+commonly the loom is arranged in the manner shown in Plate XXXVI;
+that is, the upper beam is secured to a rafter, post, or tree, while
+to the lower beam is attached a loop of rope that passes under the
+thighs of the weaver, and the warp is rendered tense by her weight.
+Next, the upper shed is supplied with a shed-rod, and the lower shed
+with a set of healds. Then the stick at <i>f</i> (upper stick in Plate
+XXXVI) is put in; this is simply a round stick, about which one loop
+of each thread of the warp is thrown. (Although the warp may consist
+of only one thread I must now speak of each turn as a separate
+thread.) Its use is to keep the different threads in place and
+prevent them from crossing and straggling; for it must be remembered
+that the warp in this case is not secured at two points between three
+stranded cords as is the blanket warp.</p>
+
+<p>When this is all ready the insertion of the weft begins. The
+reed-fork is rarely needed and the batten used is much shorter than
+that employed in making blankets. Fig. 57 represents a section of a
+belt. It will be seen that the center is ornamented with peculiar
+raised figures; these are made by inserting a slender stick into the
+warp, so as to hold up certain of the threads while the weft is
+passed twice or oftener underneath them. It is practically a variety
+of damask or two-ply weaving; the figures on the opposite side of the
+belt being different. There is a limited variety of these figures. I
+think I have seen about a dozen different kinds. The experienced
+weaver is so well acquainted with the "count" or arrangements of the
+raised threads appropriate to each pattern that she goes on inserting
+and withdrawing the slender stick referred to without a moment's
+hesitation, making the web at the rate of 10 or 12 inches an hour.
+When the web has grown to the point at which she cannot weave it
+further without bringing the unfilled warp nearer to her, she is not
+obliged to resort to the clumsy method used with blankets. She merely
+seizes the anterior layer of the warp and pulls it down towards her;
+for the warp is not attached to the beams, but is movable on them; in
+other words, while still on the loom the belt is endless. When all
+the warp has been filled except about one foot, the weaving is
+completed; for then the unfilled warp is cut in the center and
+becomes the terminal fringes of the now finished belt.</p>
+
+<p>The only marked difference that I have observed between the
+mechanical appliances of the Navajo weaver and those of her Pueblo
+neighbor is to be seen in the belt loom. The Zu&ntilde;i woman lays out her
+warp, not as a continuous thread around two beams, but as several
+disunited threads. She attaches one end of these to a fixed object,
+usually a rafter in her dwelling, and the other to the belt she wears
+around her body. She has a set of wooden healds by which she actuates
+the alternate threads of the warp. Instead of using the slender stick
+of the Navajos to elevate the threads of the warp in forming her
+figures, she lifts these threads with her fingers. This is an easy
+matter with her <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span>style of loom; but it would be a very difficult
+task with that of the Navajos. Plate XXXVII represents a Zu&ntilde;i woman
+weaving a belt. The wooden healds are shown, and again, enlarged, in
+Fig. 58. The Zu&ntilde;i women weave all their long, narrow webs according
+to the same system; but Mr. Bandelier has informed me that the
+Indians of the Pueblo of Cochiti make the narrow garters and
+hair-bands after the manner of the Zu&ntilde;is, and the broad belts after
+the manner of the Navajos.</p>
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="plate38" id="plate38"></a>
+<a href="images/platexxxviii.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/platexxxviii.jpg" width="62%" alt="Bringing Down The Batten" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">PL. XXXVIII.&mdash;BRINGING DOWN THE BATTEN.<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<br />
+<div class="img"><a name="fig59" id="fig59"></a>
+<a href="images/fig59.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/fig59.jpg" width="60%" alt="Figure 59: Girl weaving (from an Aztec picture)." /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 59.&mdash;Girl weaving (from an Aztec picture).<span class="totoi"><a href="#toi">ToList</a></span></p>
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<p>&sect; XI. I will close by inviting the reader to compare Plate XXXVI and
+Fig. 59. The former shows a Navajo woman weaving a belt; the latter a
+girl of ancient Mexico weaving a web of some other description. The
+one is from a photograph, taken from life; the other I have copied
+from Tylor's "Anthropology" (p. 248); but it appears earlier in the
+copy of Codex Vaticana in Lord Kingsborough's "Antiquities of
+Mexico." The way in which the warp is held down and made tense, by a
+rope or band secured to the lower beam and sat upon by the weaver, is
+the same in both cases. And it seems that the artist who drew the
+original rude sketch, sought to represent the girl, not as working
+"the cross-thread of the woof in and out on a stick," but as
+manipulating the reed-fork with one hand and grasping the heald-rod
+and shed-rod in the other.</p>
+
+<br />
+
+<div class="block"><p><span class="sc">Note</span>.&mdash;The engravings were prepared while the author was
+in New Mexico and could not be submitted for his inspection until
+the paper was ready for the press. Some alterations were made from
+the original pictures. The following are the most important to be
+noted: In Plate XXXVIII the batten should appear held
+horizontally, not obliquely. Fig. 5 is reduced and cannot fairly
+delineate the gradations in color and regular sharp outlines of
+the finely-serrated figures. Fig. 53 does not convey the fact that
+the stripes are of uniform width and all the right-angles
+accurately made.</p></div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span>
+<br />
+
+<h3>INDEX</h3>
+<br />
+
+<ul><li>Blankets, Navajo <a href='#Page_380'>380-388</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Codex, The Vatican; Illustrating Mexican weaving <a href='#Page_391'>391</a></li>
+<li>Colors prepared for Navajo fabrics <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></li>
+<li>Cotton woven in Pueblos, Native <a href='#Page_375'>375</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Dyeing among Navajoes <a href='#Page_377'>377</a></li>
+<li>Dyes used by Navajoes <a href='#Page_377'>377</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Healds of Navajo loom <a href='#Page_378'>378</a>
+  <ul>
+  <li>  Mode of applying the <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>, <a href='#Page_384'>384</a></li>
+  <li>  Zu&ntilde;i <a href='#Page_389'>389</a></li>
+  </ul><br />
+</li>
+
+<li>Looms, Navajo <a href='#Page_377'>377</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Mathews, Dr. W., Navajo weavers <a href='#Page_371'>371-391</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Navajo blankets, Varieties of <a href='#Page_385'>385-388</a>
+
+  <ul>
+<li>  Mode of weaving <a href='#Page_383'>383</a></li>
+<li>  diagonal <a href='#Page_383'>383</a></li>
+<li>  diamond <a href='#Page_384'>384</a></li>
+<li>  dyeing <a href='#Page_377'>377</a></li>
+<li>  dyes <a href='#Page_376'>376</a></li>
+<li>  healds in loom used <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li>
+<li>  looms <a href='#Page_377'>377</a></li>
+<li>  position in weaving <a href='#Page_380'>380</a></li>
+<li>  warp of blankets <a href='#Page_378'>378-379</a></li>
+<li>  sash <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
+<li>  weavers <a href='#Page_371'>371-391</a></li>
+<li>  wool <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
+  </ul><br />
+</li>
+
+<li>Taylor, E.B., Anthropology cited <a href='#Page_391'>391</a><br /><br /></li>
+
+<li>Warp, Construction of Navajo blanket <a href='#Page_378'>378</a></li>
+<li>Warp, Construction of Navajo sash <a href='#Page_388'>388</a></li>
+<li>Weavers, Navajo, by Dr. Washington Mathews <a href='#Page_371'>371-391</a></li>
+<li>Weaving, Navajo position in <a href='#Page_380'>380</a>
+
+  <ul>
+<li>  wool by Navajoes <a href='#Page_375'>375</a></li>
+  </ul><br /><br />
+</li>
+
+<li>Zu&ntilde;i, healds <a href='#Page_389'>389</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<hr />
+<br />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo weavers, by Washington Matthews
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo weavers, by Washington Matthews
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Navajo weavers
+       Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1881-'82,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1884, pages 371-392.
+
+Author: Washington Matthews
+
+Release Date: February 10, 2006 [EBook #17742]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAVAJO WEAVERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by PM for Bureau of American Ethnology, Jeannie
+Howse and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by the Bibliotheque nationale
+de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION--BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+
+NAVAJO WEAVERS.
+
+BY
+
+DR. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, U.S.A.
+
+
+
+Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
+to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1881-'82,
+Government Printing Office, Washington, 1884, pages 371-392.
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+PLATE XXXIV.--Navajo woman spinning                           376
+       XXXV.--Weaving of diamond-shaped diagonals             380
+      XXXVI.--Navajo woman weaving a belt                     384
+     XXXVII.--Zuni women weaving a belt                       388
+    XXXVIII.--Bringing down the batten                        390
+    FIG. 42.--Ordinary Navajo blanket loom                    378
+         43.--Diagram showing formation of warp               379
+         44.--Weaving of saddle-girth                         382
+         45.--Diagram showing arrangement of threads of
+              the warp in the healds and on the rod           383
+         46.--Weaving of saddle-girth                         383
+         47.--Diagram showing arrangement of healds in
+              diagonal weaving                                384
+         48.--Diagonal cloth                                  384
+         49.--Navajo blanket of the finest quality            385
+         50.--Navajo blankets                                 386
+         51.--Navajo blanket                                  386
+         52.--Navajo blanket                                  387
+         53.--Navajo blanket                                  387
+         54.--Part of Navajo blanket                          388
+         55.--Part of Navajo blanket                          388
+         56.--Diagram showing formation of warp of sash       388
+         57.--Section of Navajo belt                          389
+         58.--Wooden heald of the Zunis                       389
+         59.--Girl weaving (from an Aztec picture)            391
+
+
+
+
+NAVAJO WEAVERS.
+
+BY DR. WASHINGTON MATTHEWS.
+
+
+Sec. I. The art of weaving, as it exists among the Navajo Indians of New
+Mexico and Arizona, possesses points of great interest to the student
+of ethnography. It is of aboriginal origin; and while European art has
+undoubtedly modified it, the extent and nature of the foreign
+influence is easily traced. It is by no means certain, still there are
+many reasons for supposing, that the Navajos learned their craft from
+the Pueblo Indians, and that, too, since the advent of the Spaniards;
+yet the pupils, if such they be, far excel their masters to-day in the
+beauty and quality of their work. It may be safely stated that with no
+native tribe in America, north of the Mexican boundary, has the art of
+weaving been carried to greater perfection than among the Navajos,
+while with none in the entire continent is it less Europeanized. As in
+language, habits, and opinions, so in arts, the Navajos have been less
+influenced than their sedentary neighbors of the pueblos by the
+civilization of the Old World.
+
+The superiority of the Navajo to the Pueblo work results not only from
+a constant advance of the weaver's art among the former, but from a
+constant deterioration of it among the latter. The chief cause of this
+deterioration is that the Pueblos find it more remunerative to buy, at
+least the finer _serapes_, from the Navajos, and give their time to
+other pursuits, than to manufacture for themselves; they are nearer
+the white settlements and can get better prices for their produce;
+they give more attention to agriculture; they have within their
+country, mines of turquoise which the Navajos prize, and they have no
+trouble in procuring whisky, which some of the Navajos prize even more
+than gems. Consequently, while the wilder Indian has incentives to
+improve his art, the more advanced has many temptations to abandon it
+altogether. In some pueblos the skill of the loom has been almost
+forgotten. A growing fondness for European clothing has also had its
+influence, no doubt.
+
+Sec. II. Cotton, which grows well in New Mexico and Arizona, the tough
+fibers of yucca leaves and the fibers of other plants, the hair of
+different quadrupeds, and the down of birds furnished in prehistoric
+days the materials of textile fabrics in this country. While some of
+the Pueblos still weave their native cotton to a slight extent, the
+Navajos grow no cotton and spin nothing but the wool of the domestic
+sheep, which animal is, of course, of Spanish introduction, and of
+which the Navajos have vast herds.
+
+The wool is not washed until it is sheared. At the present time it is
+combed with hand cards purchased from the Americans. In spinning, the
+simplest form of the spindle--a slender stick thrust through the
+center of a round wooden disk--is used. The Mexicans on the Rio Grande
+use spinning-wheels, and although the Navajos have often seen these
+wheels, have had abundant opportunities for buying and stealing them,
+and possess, I think, sufficient ingenuity to make them, they have
+never abandoned the rude implement of their ancestors. Plate XXXIV
+illustrates the Navajo method of handling the spindle, a method
+different from that of the people of Zuni.
+
+They still employ to a great extent their native dyes: of yellow,
+reddish, and black. There is good evidence that they formerly had a
+blue dye; but indigo, originally introduced, I think, by the Mexicans,
+has superseded this. If they, in former days, had a native blue and a
+native yellow, they must also, of course, have had a green, and they
+now make green of their native yellow and indigo, the latter being the
+only imported dye-stuff I have ever seen in use among them. Besides
+the hues above indicated, this people have had, ever since the
+introduction of sheep, wool of three different natural colors--white,
+rusty black, and gray--so they had always a fair range of tints with
+which to execute their artistic designs. The brilliant red figures in
+their finer blankets were, a few years ago, made entirely of _bayeta_,
+and this material is still largely used. Bayeta is a bright scarlet
+cloth with a long nap, much finer in appearance than the scarlet
+strouding which forms such an important article in the Indian trade of
+the North. It was originally brought to the Navajo country from
+Mexico, but is now supplied to the trade from our eastern cities. The
+Indians ravel it and use the weft. While many handsome blankets are
+still made only of the colors and material above described, American
+yarn has lately become very popular among the Navajos, and many fine
+blankets are now made wholly, or in part, of Germantown wool.
+
+The black dye mentioned above is made of the twigs and leaves of the
+aromatic sumac (_Rhus aromatica_), a native yellow ocher, and the gum
+of the pinon (_Pinus edulis_). The process of preparing it is as
+follows: They put into a pot of water some of the leaves of the sumac,
+and as many of the branchlets as can be crowded in without much
+breaking or crushing, and the water is allowed to boil for five or six
+hours until a strong decoction is made. While the water is boiling
+they attend to other parts of the process. The ocher is reduced to a
+fine powder between two stones and then slowly roasted over the fire
+in an earthen or metal vessel until it assumes a light-brown color; it
+is then taken from the fire and combined with about an equal quantity
+in size of pinon gum; again the mixture is put on the fire and
+constantly stirred. At first the gum melts and the whole mass assumes
+a mushy consistency; but as the roasting progresses it gradually
+becomes drier and darker until it is at last reduced to a fine black
+powder. This is removed from the fire, and when it has cooled
+somewhat it is thrown into the decoction of sumac, with which it
+instantly forms a rich, blue-black fluid. This dye is essentially an
+ink, the tannic acid of the sumac combining with the sesquioxide of
+iron in the roasted ocher, the whole enriched by the carbon of the
+calcined gum.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXIV.--NAVAJO WOMAN SPINNING.]
+
+There are, the Indians tell me, three different processes for dyeing
+yellow; two of these I have witnessed. The first process is thus
+conducted: The flowering tops of _Bigelovia graveolens_ are boiled for
+about six hours until a decoction of deep yellow color is produced.
+When the dyer thinks the decoction strong enough, she heats over the
+fire in a pan or earthen vessel some native almogen (an impure native
+alum), until it is reduced to a somewhat pasty consistency; this she
+adds gradually to the decoction and then puts the wool in the dye to
+boil. From time to time a portion of the wool is taken out and
+inspected until (in about half an hour from the time it is first
+immersed) it is seen to have assumed the proper color. The work is
+then done. The tint produced is nearly that of lemon yellow. In the
+second process they use the large, fleshy root of a plant which, as I
+have never yet seen it in fruit or flower, I am unable to determine.
+The fresh root is crushed to a soft paste on the _metate_, and, for a
+mordant, the almogen is added while the grinding is going on. The cold
+paste is then rubbed between the hands into the wool. If the wool does
+not seem to take the color readily a little water is dashed on the
+mixture of wool and paste, and the whole is very slightly warmed. The
+entire process does not occupy over an hour and the result is a color
+much like that now known as "old gold."
+
+The reddish dye is made of the bark of _Alnus incana_ var. _virescens_
+(Watson) and the bark of the root of _Cercocarpus parvifolius_; the
+mordant being fine juniper ashes. On buckskin this makes a brilliant
+tan-color; but applied to wool it produces a much paler tint.
+
+Sec. III. Plate XXXVIII and Fig. 42 illustrate ordinary blanket-looms.
+Two posts, _a a_, are set firmly in the ground; to these are lashed
+two cross-pieces or braces, _b c_, the whole forming the frame of the
+loom. Sometimes two slender trees, growing at a convenient distance
+from one another, are made to answer for the posts, _d_ is a
+horizontal pole, which I call the supplementary yarn-beam, attached to
+the upper brace, _b_, by means of a rope, _e e_, spirally applied. _f_
+is the upper beam of the loom. As it is analogous to the yarn-beam of
+our looms, I will call it by this name, although once only have I seen
+the warp wound around it. It lies parallel to the pole _d_, about 2 or
+3 inches below it, and is attached to the latter by a number of loops,
+_g g_. A spiral cord wound around the yarn-beam holds the upper border
+cord _h h_, which, in turn, secures the upper end of the warp _i i_.
+The lower beam of the loom is shown at _k_. I will call this the
+cloth-beam, although the finished web is never wound around it; it is
+tied firmly to the lower brace, _c_, of the frame, and to it is
+secured the lower border cord of the blanket. The original distance
+between the two beams is the length of the blanket. Lying between the
+threads of the warp is depicted a broad, thin, oaken stick, _l_, which
+I will call the batten. A set of healds attached to a heald-rod, _m_,
+are shown above the batten. These healds are made of cord or yarn;
+they include alternate threads of the warp, and serve when drawn
+forward to open the lower shed. The upper shed is kept patent by a
+stout rod, _n_ (having no healds attached), which I name the shed-rod.
+Their substitute for the reed of our looms is a wooden fork, which
+will be designated as the reed-fork (Fig. 44, _a_).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--Ordinary Navajo blanket loom.]
+
+For convenience of description, I am obliged to use the word
+"shuttle," although, strictly speaking, the Navajo has no shuttle. If
+the figure to be woven is a long stripe, or one where the weft must be
+passed through 6 inches or more of the shed at one time, the yarn is
+wound on a slender twig or splinter, or shoved through on the end of
+such a piece of wood; but where the pattern is intricate, and the weft
+passes at each turn through only a few inches of the shed, the yarn is
+wound into small skeins or balls and shoved through with the finger.
+
+Sec. IV. The warp is thus constructed: A frame of four sticks is made,
+not unlike the frame of the loom, but lying on or near the ground,
+instead of standing erect. The two sticks forming the sides of the
+frame are rough saplings or rails; the two forming the top and bottom
+are smooth rounded poles--often the poles which afterwards serve as
+the beams of the loom; these are placed parallel to one another, their
+distance apart depending on the length of the projected blanket.
+
+On these poles the warp is laid in a continuous string. It is first
+firmly tied to one of the poles, which I will call No. 1 (Fig. 43);
+then it is passed over the other pole, No. 2, brought back under No. 2
+and over No. 1, forward again under No. 1 and over No. 2, and so on to
+the end. Thus the first, third, fifth, &c., turns of the cord cross in
+the middle the second, fourth, sixth, &c., forming a series of
+elongated figures 8, as shown in the following diagram--
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--Diagram showing formation of warp.]
+
+and making, in the very beginning of the process, the two sheds, which
+are kept distinct throughout the whole work. When sufficient string
+has been laid the end is tied to pole No. 2, and a rod is placed in
+each shed to keep it open, the rods being afterwards tied together at
+the ends to prevent them from falling out.
+
+This done, the weaver takes three strings (which are afterwards
+twilled into one, as will appear) and ties them together at one end.
+She now sits outside one of the poles, looking towards the centre of
+the frame, and proceeds thus: (1) She secures the triple cord to the
+pole immediately to the left of the warp; (2) then she takes one of
+the threads (or strands as they now become) and passes it under the
+first turn of the warp; (3) next she takes a second strand, and
+twilling it once or oftener with the other strands, includes with it
+the second bend of the warp; (4) this done, she takes the third strand
+and, twilling it as before, passes it under the third bend of the
+warp, and thus she goes on until the entire warp in one place is
+secured between the strands of the cord; (5) then she pulls the string
+to its fullest extent, and in doing so separates the threads of the
+warp from one another; (6) a similar three stranded cord is applied to
+the other end of the warp, along the outside of the other pole.
+
+At this stage of the work these stout cords lie along the outer
+surfaces of the poles, parallel with the axes of the latter, but when
+the warp is taken off the poles and applied to the beams of the loom
+by the spiral thread, as above described, and as depicted in Plate
+XXXVIII and Fig. 42, and all is ready for weaving, the cords appear on
+the inner sides of the beams, _i.e._, one (Pl. XXXVIII and Fig. 42, _h
+h_) at the lower side of the yarn-beam, the other at the upper side of
+the cloth-beam, and when the blanket is finished they form the stout
+end margins of the web. In the coarser grade of blankets the cords are
+removed and the ends of the warp tied in pairs and made to form a
+fringe. (See Figs. 54 and 55.)
+
+When the warp is transferred to the loom the rod which was placed in
+the upper shed remains there, or another rod, straighter and
+smoother, is substituted for it; but with the lower shed, healds are
+applied to the anterior threads and the rod is withdrawn.
+
+Sec. V. The mode of applying the healds is simple: (1) the weaver sits
+facing the loom in the position for weaving; (2) she lays at the right
+(her right) side of the loom a ball of string which she knows contains
+more than sufficient material to make the healds; (3) she takes the
+end of this string and passes it to the left through the shed, leaving
+the ball in its original position; (4) she ties a loop at the end of
+the string large enough to admit the heald-rod; (5) she holds
+horizontally in her left hand a straightish slender rod, which is to
+become the heald-rod--its right extremity touching the left edge of
+the warp--and passes the rod through the loop until the point of the
+stick is even with the third (second anterior from the left) thread of
+the warp; (6) she puts her finger through the space between the first
+and third threads and draws out a fold of the heald-string; (7) she
+twists this once around, so as to form a loop, and pushes the point of
+the heald-rod on to the right through this loop; (8) she puts her
+finger into the next space and forms another loop; (9) and so on she
+continues to advance her rod and form her loops from left to right
+until each of the anterior (alternate) warp-threads of the lower shed
+is included in a loop of the heald; (10) when the last loop is made
+she ties the string firmly to the rod near its right end.
+
+When the weaving is nearly done and it becomes necessary to remove the
+healds, the rod is drawn out of the loops, a slight pull is made at
+the thread, the loops fall in an instant, and the straightened string
+is drawn out of the shed. Illustrations of the healds may be seen in
+Plates XXXV and XXXVIII and Figs. 42, 44, and 46, that in Fig. 46
+being the most distinct.
+
+Sec. VI. In making a blanket the operator sits on the ground with her
+legs folded under her. The warp hangs vertically before her, and
+(excepting in a case to be mentioned) she weaves from below upwards.
+As she never rises from this squatting posture when at work, it is
+evident that when she has woven the web to a certain height further
+work must become inconvenient or impossible unless by some arrangement
+the finished web is drawn downwards. Her cloth-beam does not revolve
+as in our looms, so she brings her work within easy reach by the
+following method: The spiral rope (Plate XXXVIII and Fig. 42) is
+loosened, the yarn-beam is lowered to the desired distance, a fold is
+made in the loosened web, and the upper edge of the fold is sewed down
+tightly to the cloth-beam. In all new blankets over two feet long the
+marks of this sewing are to be seen, and they often remain until the
+blanket is worn out. Plate XXXV, representing a blanket nearly
+finished, illustrates this procedure.
+
+Except in belts, girths, and perhaps occasionally in very narrow
+blankets, the shuttle is never passed through the whole width of the
+warp at once, but only through a space which does not exceed the
+length of the batten; for it is by means of the batten, which is
+rarely more than 3 feet long, that the shed is opened.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXV.--WEAVING OF DIAMOND-SHAPED DIAGONALS.]
+
+Suppose the woman begins by weaving in the lower shed. She draws
+apportion of the healds towards her, and with them the anterior
+threads of the shed; by this motion she opens the shed about 1 inch,
+which is not sufficient for the easy passage of the woof. She inserts
+her batten edgewise into this opening and then turns it half around on
+its long axis, so that its broad surfaces lie horizontally; in this
+way the shed is opened to the extent of the width of the batten--about
+3 inches; next the weft is passed through. In fig. 42 the batten is
+shown lying edgewise (its broad surfaces vertical), as it appears when
+just inserted into the shed, and the weft, which has been passed
+through only a portion of the shed, is seen hanging out with its end
+on the ground. In Plate XXXV the batten is shown in the second
+position described, with the shed open to the fullest extent
+necessary, and the weaver is represented in the act of passing the
+shuttle through. When the weft is in, it is shoved down into its
+proper position by means of the reed-fork, and then the batten,
+restored to its first position (edgewise), is brought down with firm
+blows on the weft. It is by the vigorous use of the batten that the
+Navajo serapes are rendered water-proof. In Plate XXXVIII the weaver
+is seen bringing down this instrument "in the manner and for the
+purpose described," as the letters patent say.
+
+When the lower shed has received its thread of weft the weaver opens
+the upper shed. This is done by releasing the healds and shoving the
+shed-rod down until it comes in contact with the healds; this opens
+the upper shed down to the web. Then the weft is inserted and the
+batten and reed-fork used as before. Thus she goes on with each shed
+alternately until the web is finished.
+
+It is, of course, desirable, at least in handsome blankets of
+intricate pattern, to have both ends uniform even if the figure be a
+little faulty in the center. To accomplish this some of the best
+weavers depend on a careful estimate of the length of each figure
+before they begin, and weave continuously in one direction; but the
+majority weave a little portion of the upper end before they finish
+the middle. Sometimes this is done by weaving from above downwards; at
+other times it is done by turning the loom upside down and working
+from below upwards in the ordinary manner. In Fig. 49, which
+represents one of the very finest results of Navajo work, by the best
+weaver in the tribe, it will be seen that exact uniformity in the ends
+has not been attained. The figure was of such a nature that the
+blanket had to be woven in one direction only.
+
+I have described how the ends of the blanket are bordered with a stout
+three-ply string applied to the folds of the warp. The lateral edges
+of the blanket are similarly protected by stout cords applied to the
+weft. The way in which these are woven in, next demands our attention.
+Two stout worsted cords, tied together, are firmly attached at each
+end of the cloth-beam just outside of the warp; they are then carried
+upwards and loosely tied to the yarn-beam or the supplementary
+yarn-beam. Every time the weft is turned at the edge these two strings
+are twisted together and the weft is passed through the twist; thus
+one thread or strand of this border is always on the outside. As it is
+constantly twisted in one direction, it is evident that, after a
+while, a counter-twist must form which would render the passage of the
+weft between the cords difficult, if the cords could not be untwisted
+again. Here the object of tying these cords loosely to one of the
+upper beams, as before described, is displayed. From time to time the
+cords are untied and the unwoven portion straightened as the work
+progresses. Fig. 44 and Plate XXXVIII show these cords. The coarse
+blankets do not have them. (Fig 42.)
+
+Navajo blankets are single-ply, with designs the same on both sides,
+no matter how elaborate these designs may be. To produce their
+varigated patterns they have a separate skein, shuttle, or thread for
+each component of the pattern. Take, for instance, the blanket
+depicted in Fig. 49. Across this blanket, between the points _a--b_,
+we have two serrated borders, two white spaces, a small diamond in the
+center, and twenty-four serrated stripes, making in all twenty-nine
+component parts of the pattern. Now, when the weaver was working in
+this place, twenty-nine different threads of weft might have been seen
+hanging from the face of the web at one time. In the girth pictured in
+Fig. 44 five different threads of woof are shown depending from the
+loom.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Weaving of saddle-girth.]
+
+When the web is so nearly finished that the batten can no longer be
+inserted in the warp, slender rods are placed in the shed, while the
+weft is passed with increased difficulty on the end of a delicate
+splinter and the reed-fork alone presses the warp home. Later it
+becomes necessary to remove even the rod and the shed; then the
+alternate threads are separated by a slender stick worked in tediously
+between them, and two threads of woof are inserted--one above and the
+other below the stick. The very last thread is sometimes put in with a
+darning needle. The weaving of the last three inches requires more
+labor than any foot of the previous work.
+
+In Figs. 49, 50, 51, 52, and 53 it will be seen that there are small
+fringes or tassels at the corners of the blankets; these are made of
+the redundant ends of the four border-cords (_i.e._, the portions of
+the cord by which they were tied to the beams), either simply tied
+together or secured in the web with a few stitches.
+
+The above is a description of the simplest mechanism by which the
+Navajos make their blankets; but in manufacturing diagonals, sashes,
+garters, and hair-bands the mechanism is much more complicated.
+
+Sec. VII. For making diagonals the warp is divided into four sheds; the
+uppermost one of these is provided with a shed-rod, the others are
+supplied with healds. I will number the healds and sheds from below
+upwards. The following diagram shows how the threads of the warp are
+arranged in the healds and on the rod.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Diagram showing arrangement of threads of the
+warp in the healds and on the rod.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--Weaving of saddle-girth.]
+
+When the weaver wishes the diagonal ridges to run upwards from right
+to left, she opens the sheds in regular order from below upwards thus:
+First, second, third, fourth, first, second, third, fourth, &c. When
+she wishes the ridges to trend in the contrary direction she opens the
+sheds in the inverse order. I found it convenient to take my
+illustrations of this mode of weaving from a girth. In Figs. 44 and 46
+the mechanism is plainly shown. The lowest (first) shed is opened and
+the first set of healds drawn forward. The rings of the girth take the
+place of the beams of the loom.
+
+There is a variety of diagonal weaving practiced by the Navajos which
+produces diamond figures; for this the mechanism is the same as that
+just described, except that the healds are arranged differently on the
+warp. The following diagram will explain this arrangement.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Diagram showing arrangement of helds in
+diagonal weaving.]
+
+To make the most approved series of diamonds the sheds are opened
+twice in the direct order (_i.e._, from below upwards) and twice in
+the inverse order, thus: First, second, third, fourth, first, second,
+third, fourth, third, second, first, fourth, third, second, first,
+fourth, and so on. If this order is departed from the figures become
+irregular. If the weaver continues more than twice consecutively in
+either order, a row of V-shaped figures is formed, thus: VVVV. Plate
+XXXV represents a woman weaving a blanket of this pattern, and Fig. 48
+shows a portion of a blanket which is part plain diagonal and part
+diamond.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--Diagonal cloth.]
+
+Sec. VIII. I have heretofore spoken of the Navajo weavers always as of
+the feminine gender because the large majority of them are women.
+There are, however, a few men who practice the textile art, and among
+them are to found the best artisans in the tribe.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVI.--NAVAJO WOMAN WEAVING A BELT.]
+
+Sec. IX. Navajo blankets represent a wide range in quality and finish and
+an endless variety in design, notwithstanding that all their figures
+consist of straight lines and angles, no curves being used. As
+illustrating the great fertility of this people in design I have to
+relate that in the finer blankets of intricate pattern out of
+thousands which I have examined, I do not remember to have ever seen
+two exactly alike. Among the coarse striped blankets there is great
+uniformity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--Navajo blanket of the finest quality.]
+
+The accompanying pictures of blankets represent some in my private
+collection. Fig. 49 depicts a blanket measuring 6 feet 9 inches by 5
+feet 6 inches, and weighing nearly 6 pounds. It is made entirely of
+Germantown yarn in seven strongly contrasting colors, and is the work
+of a man who is generally conceded to be the best weaver in the tribe.
+A month was spent in its manufacture. Its figures are mostly in
+serrated stripes, which are the most difficult to execute with
+regularity. I have heard that the man who wove this often draws his
+designs on sand before he begins to work them on the loom. Fig. 50 _a_
+shows a blanket of more antique design and material. It is 6 feet 6
+inches by 5 feet 3 inches, and is made of native yarn and _bayeta_.
+Its colors are black, white, dark-blue, red (_bayeta_) and--in a
+portion of the stair-like figures--a pale blue. Fig. 50 _b_ depicts a
+tufted blanket or rug, of a kind not common, having much the
+appearance of an Oriental rug; it is made of shredded red flannel,
+with a few simple figures in yellow, dark blue, and green. Fig. 51
+represents a gaudy blanket of smaller size (5 feet 4 inches by 3 feet
+7 inches) worn by a woman. Its colors are yellow, green, dark blue,
+gray, and red, all but the latter color being in native yarn. Figs. 52
+and 53 illustrate small or half-size blankets made for children's
+wear. Such articles are often used for saddle blankets (although the
+saddle-cloth is usually of coarser material) and are in great demand
+among the Americans for rugs. Fig. 53 has a regular border of uniform
+device all the way around--a very rare thing in Navajo blankets. Figs.
+54 and 55 show portions of coarse blankets made more for use use than
+ornament. Fig. 55 is made of loosely-twilled yarn, and is very warm
+but not water-proof. Such blankets make excellent bedding for troops
+in the field. Fig. 54 is a water-proof _serape_ of well-twilled native
+wool.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--Navajo blankets.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--Part of Navajo blanket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--Part of Navajo blanket.]
+
+The aboriginal woman's dress is made of two small blankets, equal in
+size and similar in design, sewed together at the sides, with
+apertures left for the arms and no sleeves. It is invariably woven in
+black or dark-blue native wool with a broad variegated stripe in red
+imported yarn or red _bayeta_ at each end, the designs being of
+countless variety. Plates XXXIV and XXXV represent women wearing such
+dresses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Diagram showing formation of warp of sash.]
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVII.--ZUNI WOMAN WEAVING A BELT.]
+
+Sec. X. Their way of weaving long ribbon-like articles, such as sashes or
+belts, garters, and hair-bands, which we will next consider, presents
+many interesting variations from, the method pursued in making
+blankets. To form, a sash the weaver proceeds as follows: She drives
+into the ground four sticks and on them she winds her warp as a
+continuous string (however, as the warp usually consists of threads of
+three different colors it is not always _one_ continuous string) from,
+below upwards in such a way as to secure two sheds, as shown in the
+diagram, Fig. 56.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Section of Navajo belt.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Wooden heald of the Zunis.]
+
+Every turn of the warp passes over the sticks _a_, and _b_; but it is
+alternate turns that pass over _c_ and _d_. When the warp is laid she
+ties a string around the intersection of the sheds at _e_, so as to
+keep the sheds separate while she is mounting the warp on the beams.
+She then places the upper beam of the loom in the place of the stick
+_b_ and the lower beam in the place of the stick _a_. Sometimes the
+upper and lower beams are secured to the two side rails forming a
+frame such as the warp of a blanket is wound on (Sec. IV), but more
+commonly the loom is arranged in the manner shown in Plate XXXVI; that
+is, the upper beam is secured to a rafter, post, or tree, while to the
+lower beam is attached a loop of rope that passes under the thighs of
+the weaver, and the warp is rendered tense by her weight. Next, the
+upper shed is supplied with a shed-rod, and the lower shed with a set
+of healds. Then the stick at _f_ (upper stick in Plate XXXVI) is put
+in; this is simply a round stick, about which one loop of each thread
+of the warp is thrown. (Although the warp may consist of only one
+thread I must now speak of each turn as a separate thread.) Its use is
+to keep the different threads in place and prevent them from crossing
+and straggling; for it must be remembered that the warp in this case
+is not secured at two points between three stranded cords as is the
+blanket warp.
+
+When this is all ready the insertion of the weft begins. The reed-fork
+is rarely needed and the batten used is much shorter than that
+employed in making blankets. Fig. 57 represents a section of a belt.
+It will be seen that the center is ornamented with peculiar raised
+figures; these are made by inserting a slender stick into the warp, so
+as to hold up certain of the threads while the weft is passed twice or
+oftener underneath them. It is practically a variety of damask or
+two-ply weaving; the figures on the opposite side of the belt being
+different. There is a limited variety of these figures. I think I have
+seen about a dozen different kinds. The experienced weaver is so well
+acquainted with the "count" or arrangements of the raised threads
+appropriate to each pattern that she goes on inserting and withdrawing
+the slender stick referred to without a moment's hesitation, making
+the web at the rate of 10 or 12 inches an hour. When the web has grown
+to the point at which she cannot weave it further without bringing the
+unfilled warp nearer to her, she is not obliged to resort to the
+clumsy method used with blankets. She merely seizes the anterior layer
+of the warp and pulls it down towards her; for the warp is not
+attached to the beams, but is movable on them; in other words, while
+still on the loom the belt is endless. When all the warp has been
+filled except about one foot, the weaving is completed; for then the
+unfilled warp is cut in the center and becomes the terminal fringes of
+the now finished belt.
+
+The only marked difference that I have observed between the mechanical
+appliances of the Navajo weaver and those of her Pueblo neighbor is to
+be seen in the belt loom. The Zuni woman lays out her warp, not as a
+continuous thread around two beams, but as several disunited threads.
+She attaches one end of these to a fixed object, usually a rafter in
+her dwelling, and the other to the belt she wears around her body. She
+has a set of wooden healds by which she actuates the alternate threads
+of the warp. Instead of using the slender stick of the Navajos to
+elevate the threads of the warp in forming her figures, she lifts
+these threads with her fingers. This is an easy matter with her
+style of loom; but it would be a very difficult task with that of the
+Navajos. Plate XXXVII represents a Zuni woman weaving a belt. The
+wooden healds are shown, and again, enlarged, in Fig. 58. The Zuni
+women weave all their long, narrow webs according to the same system;
+but Mr. Bandelier has informed me that the Indians of the Pueblo of
+Cochiti make the narrow garters and hair-bands after the manner of the
+Zunis, and the broad belts after the manner of the Navajos.
+
+[Illustration: PL. XXXVIII.--BRINGING DOWN THE BATTEN.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Girl weaving (from an Aztec picture).]
+
+Sec. XI. I will close by inviting the reader to compare Plate XXXVI and
+Fig. 59. The former shows a Navajo woman weaving a belt; the latter a
+girl of ancient Mexico weaving a web of some other description. The
+one is from a photograph, taken from life; the other I have copied
+from Tylor's "Anthropology" (p. 248); but it appears earlier in the
+copy of Codex Vaticana in Lord Kingsborough's "Antiquities of Mexico."
+The way in which the warp is held down and made tense, by a rope or
+band secured to the lower beam and sat upon by the weaver, is the same
+in both cases. And it seems that the artist who drew the original rude
+sketch, sought to represent the girl, not as working "the cross-thread
+of the woof in and out on a stick," but as manipulating the reed-fork
+with one hand and grasping the heald-rod and shed-rod in the other.
+
+  NOTE.--The engravings were prepared while the author was in New
+  Mexico and could not be submitted for his inspection until the
+  paper was ready for the press. Some alterations were made from the
+  original pictures. The following are the most important to be
+  noted: In Plate XXXVIII the batten should appear held
+  horizontally, not obliquely. Fig. 5 is reduced and cannot fairly
+  delineate the gradations in color and regular sharp outlines of
+  the finely-serrated figures. Fig. 53 does not convey the fact that
+  the stripes are of uniform width and all the right-angles
+  accurately made.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Blankets, Navajo 380-388
+
+  Codex, The Vatican; Illustrating Mexican weaving 391
+  Colors prepared for Navajo fabrics 376
+  Cotton woven in Pueblos, Native 375
+
+  Dyeing among Navajoes 377
+  Dyes used by Navajoes 377
+
+  Fabrics; Prehistoric textiles of the United States 393-425
+
+  Healds of Navajo loom 378
+    Mode of applying the 380, 384
+    Zuni 389
+
+  Looms, Navajo 377
+
+  Mathews, Dr. W., Navajo weavers 371-391
+
+  Navajo blankets, Varieties of 385-388
+    Mode of weaving 383
+    diagonal 383
+    diamond 384
+    dyeing 377
+    dyes 376
+    healds in loom used 380
+    looms 377
+    position in weaving 380
+    warp of blankets 378-379
+    sash 388
+    weavers 371-391
+    wool 375
+
+  Taylor, E.B., Anthropology cited 391
+
+  Warp, Construction of Navajo blanket 378
+  Warp, Construction of Navajo sash 388
+  Weavers, Navajo, by Dr. Washington Mathews 371-391
+  Weaving, Navajo position in 380
+    wool by Navajoes 375
+
+  Zuni, healds 389
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Navajo weavers, by Washington Matthews
+
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