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+Project Gutenberg's First Book in Physiology and Hygiene, by J.H. Kellogg
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: First Book in Physiology and Hygiene
+
+Author: J.H. Kellogg
+
+Release Date: December 21, 2005 [EBook #17367]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRST BOOK IN PHYSIOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Janet Blenkinship, Brian
+Janes and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I THE CIRCULATION]
+
+
+
+
+  FIRST BOOK
+
+  IN
+
+  PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE
+
+  BY
+
+  J.H. KELLOGG, M.D.
+
+  MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH
+  ASSOCIATION, SOCIÉTÉ D'HYGIÈNE OF FRANCE, BRITISH AND AMERICAN
+  ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, MICHIGAN
+  STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, ETC.
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+  NEW AND REVISED EDITION
+
+  NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
+
+  AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+  Copyright, 1887, by HARPER & BROTHERS.
+
+  Copyright, 1888, by HARPER & BROTHERS
+
+  _All rights reserved._
+
+  W.P. 7
+
+
+
+
+TO THE TEACHER.
+
+
+This book is intended for children. The special objects which the author
+has aimed to accomplish in the preparation of the work have been:
+
+1. To present as fully as possible and proper in a work of this
+character a statement of the laws of healthful living, giving such
+special prominence to the subject of stimulants and narcotics as its
+recognized importance and the recent laws relating to the study of this
+branch of hygiene demand.
+
+2. To present in a simple manner such anatomical and physiological facts
+as shall give the child a good fundamental knowledge of the structure
+and functions of the human body.
+
+3. To present each topic in such clear and simple language as to enable
+the pupil to comprehend the subject-matter with little aid from the
+teacher; and to observe in the manner of presentation the principle that
+the things to be studied should be placed before the mind of the child
+before they are named. A natural and logical order has been observed in
+the sequence of topics. Technical terms have been used very sparingly,
+and only in their natural order, and are then fully explained and their
+pronunciation indicated, so that it is not thought necessary to append a
+glossary.
+
+4. To present the subjects of Physiology and Hygiene in the light of
+the most recent authentic researches in these branches of science, and
+to avoid the numerous errors which have for many years been current in
+the school literature of these subjects.
+
+There is no subject in the presentation of which object-teaching may be
+employed with greater facility and profit than in teaching Physiology,
+and none which may be more advantageously impressed upon the student's
+mind by means of simple experimentation than the subject of Hygiene.
+Every teacher who uses this book is urgently requested to supplement
+each lesson by the use of object-teaching or experiments. A great number
+of simple experiments illustrative of both Physiology and Hygiene may be
+readily arranged. Many little experiments are suggested in the text,
+which should invariably be made before the class, each member of which
+should also be encouraged to repeat them at home.
+
+It is also most desirable that the teacher should have the aid of
+suitable charts and models.
+
+In conclusion, the author would acknowledge his indebtedness for a large
+number of useful suggestions and criticisms to several medical friends
+and experienced teachers, and especially to Prof. Henry Sewall, of the
+University of Michigan, for criticisms of the portions of the work
+relating to Physiology.
+
+
+
+
+         CONTENTS.
+
+         CHAPTER                                    PAGE
+
+         TO THE TEACHER                              iii
+
+  I.     THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN                         1
+
+  II.    A GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY                   5
+
+  III.   THE INSIDE OF THE BODY                       7
+
+  IV.    OUR FOODS                                   11
+
+  V.     UNHEALTHFUL FOODS                           14
+
+  VI.    OUR DRINKS                                  19
+
+  VII.   HOW WE DIGEST                               27
+
+  VIII.  DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD            35
+
+  IX.    BAD HABITS IN EATING                        39
+
+  X.     A DROP OF BLOOD                             46
+
+  XI.    WHY THE HEART BEATS                         48
+
+  XII.   HOW TO KEEP THE HEART AND THE BLOOD HEALTHY 56
+
+  XIII.  WHY AND HOW WE BREATHE                      63
+
+  XIV.   HOW TO KEEP THE LUNGS HEALTHY               75
+
+  XV.    THE SKIN AND WHAT IT DOES                   81
+
+  XVI.   HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE SKIN                88
+
+  XVII.  THE KIDNEYS AND THEIR WORK                  91
+
+  XVIII. OUR BONES AND THEIR USES                    93
+
+  XIX.   HOW TO KEEP THE BONES HEALTHY              100
+
+  XX.    THE MUSCLES, AND HOW WE USE THEM           105
+
+  XXI.   HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY            109
+
+  XXII.  HOW WE FEEL AND THINK                      115
+
+  XXIII. HOW TO KEEP THE BRAIN AND NERVES HEALTHY   126
+
+  XXIV.  BAD EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BRAIN AND
+           NERVES                                   130
+
+  XXV.   HOW WE HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE; AND FEEL   138
+
+  XXVI.  ALCOHOL                                    154
+
+         QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW                       170
+
+
+
+
+FIRST BOOK
+OF
+PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN.
+
+
+~1. Object of this Book.~--The object of this book is to tell the little
+boys and girls who read it about a wonderful house. You have all seen
+some very beautiful houses. Perhaps they were made of brick or stone,
+with fine porches, having around them tall shade trees, smooth lawns,
+pretty flower-beds, walks, and sparkling fountains.
+
+~2.~ Perhaps some of you live in such a house, or have visited some
+friend who does. If so, you know that the inside of the house is even
+more beautiful than the outside. There are elegant chairs and sofas in
+the rooms, rich carpets and rugs on the floors, fine mirrors and
+beautiful pictures upon the walls--everything one could wish to have in
+a house. Do you not think such a house a nice one to live in?
+
+~3. The Body is Like a House.~--Each of us has a house of his own which
+is far more wonderful and more curious than the grandest palace ever
+built. It is not a very large house. It has just room enough in it for
+one person. This house, which belongs to each one of us, is called the
+body.
+
+~4. What is a Machine?~--Do you know what a machine is? Men make
+machines to help them work and to do many useful things. A wheelbarrow
+or a wagon is a machine to carry loads. A sewing-machine helps to make
+garments for us to wear. Clocks and watches are machines for keeping
+time.
+
+~5. A Machine has Different Parts.~--A wheelbarrow has a box in which to
+carry things, two handles to hold by, and a wheel for rolling it along.
+Some machines, like wheelbarrows and wagons, have but few parts, and it
+is very easy for us to learn how they work. But there are other
+machines, like watches and sewing-machines, which have many different
+parts, and it is more difficult to learn all about them and what they
+do.
+
+~6. The Body is Like a Machine.~--In some ways the body is more like a
+machine than like a house. It has many different parts which are made
+to do a great many different kinds of work. We see with our eyes, hear
+with our ears, walk with our legs and feet, and do a great many things
+with our hands. If you have ever seen the inside of a watch or a clock
+you know how many curious little wheels it has. And yet a watch or a
+clock can do but one thing, and that is to tell us the time of day. The
+body has a great many more parts than a watch has, and for this reason
+the body can do many more things than a watch can do. It is more
+difficult, too, to learn about the body than about a watch.
+
+~7.~ If we want to know all about a machine and how it works, we must
+study all its different parts and learn how they are put together, and
+what each part does. Then, if we want the machine to work well and to
+last a long time, we must know how to use it and how to take proper care
+of it. Do you think your watch would keep the time well if you should
+neglect to wind it, or if you should break any of its wheels?
+
+~8.~ It is just the same with the human machine which we call the body.
+We must learn its parts, and what they are for, how they are made, how
+they are put together, and how they work. Then we must learn how to take
+proper care of the body, so that its parts will be able to work well
+and last a long time.
+
+~9.~ Each part of the body which is made to do some special kind of work
+is called an _organ_. The eye, the ear, the nose, a hand, an arm, any
+part of the body that does something, is an organ.
+
+~10.~ The study of the various parts of the body and how they are put
+together is _anatomy_ (a-nat´-o-my). The study of what each part of the
+body does is _physiology_ (phys-i-ol´-o-gy). The study of how to take
+care of the body is _hygiene_ (hy´-jeen).
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The body is something like a house. It has an outside and an inside;
+it has hollow places inside of it, and there are many wonderful things
+in them.
+
+2. The body is also like a wonderful machine.
+
+3. It is necessary to take good care of the body in order to keep it
+well and useful, just as we would take good care of a machine to keep it
+from wearing out too soon.
+
+4. The body has many different parts, called organs, each of which has
+some particular work to do.
+
+5. In learning about the body, we have to study anatomy, physiology, and
+hygiene.
+
+6. The study of the various parts of the body, how they are formed and
+joined together, is anatomy. Physiology tells us what the body does,
+hygiene tells us how to take care of it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+A GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY.
+
+
+~1. Parts of the Body.~--What do we call the main part of a tree? The
+trunk, you say. The main part of the body is also called its _trunk_.
+There are two arms and two legs growing out of the human trunk. The
+branches of a tree we call limbs, and so we speak of the arms and legs
+as _limbs_. We sometimes call the arms the _upper extremities_, and the
+legs the _lower extremities_. At the top of the trunk is the head.
+
+~2. Names of the Parts.~--Now let us look more closely at these
+different parts. As we speak the name of each part, let each one touch
+that part of himself which is named. We will begin with the head. The
+chief parts of the head are the _skull_ and the _face_. The _forehead_,
+the _temples_, the _cheeks_, the _eyes_, the _ears_, the _nose_, the
+_mouth_, and the _chin_ are parts of the face.
+
+~3.~ The chief parts of the trunk are the _chest_, the _abdomen_
+(ab-do´-men), and the _backbone_. The head is joined to the trunk by the
+_neck_.
+
+~4.~ Each arm has a _shoulder_, _upper-arm_, _fore-arm_, _wrist_, and
+_hand_. The _fingers_ are a part of the hand.
+
+~5.~ Each leg has a _hip_, _thigh_, _lower leg_, _ankle_, and _foot_.
+The _toes_ are a part of the foot.
+
+~6.~ Our hands and face and the whole body are covered with something as
+soft and smooth as the finest silk. It is the _skin_. What is it that
+grows from the skin on the head? and what at the ends of the fingers and
+the toes? We shall learn more about the skin, the hair, and the nails in
+another lesson.
+
+~7.~ The body has two sides, the right side and the left side, which are
+alike. We have two eyes, two ears, two arms, etc. We have but one nose,
+one mouth, and one chin, but each of these organs has two halves, which
+are just alike.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The body has a head and trunk, two arms, and two legs.
+
+2. The parts of the head are the skull and face. The forehead, temples,
+cheeks, eyes, ears, nose, mouth and chin are parts of the face.
+
+3. The parts of the trunk are, the chest, abdomen, and backbone. The
+neck joins the head and trunk.
+
+4. Each arm has a shoulder, upper-arm, fore-arm, wrist, and hand. The
+fingers belong to the hand.
+
+5. Each leg has a hip, thigh, lower leg, ankle, and foot. The toes
+belong to the foot.
+
+6. The whole body is covered by the skin.
+
+7. The two sides of the body are alike.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE INSIDE OF THE BODY.
+
+
+~1.~ Thus far we have taken only a brief look at the outside of the
+body, just as if we had looked at the case of a watch, and of course we
+have found out very little about its many wonderful parts. Very likely
+you want to ask a great many questions, such as, How does the inside of
+the body look? What is in the skull? What is in the chest? What is in
+the abdomen? Why do we eat and drink? Why do we become hungry and
+thirsty? What makes us tired and sleepy? How do we keep warm? Why do we
+breathe? How do we grow? How do we move about? How do we talk, laugh,
+and sing? How do we see, hear, feel, taste, and smell? How do we
+remember, think, and reason? All these, and a great many more
+interesting questions, you will find answered in the following lessons,
+if you study each one well.
+
+~2.~ When we study the inside of the body, we begin to understand how
+wonderfully we are made. We cannot all see the inside of the body, and
+it is not necessary that we should do so. Many learned men have spent
+their whole lives in seeking to find out all about our bodies and the
+bodies of various animals.
+
+~3. The Bones.~--If you take hold of your arm, it seems soft on the
+outside; and if you press upon it, you will feel something hard inside.
+The soft part is called _flesh_. The hard part is called _bone_. If you
+wish, you can easily get one of the bones of an animal at the butcher's
+shop, or you may find one in the fields.
+
+~4. The Skeleton.~--All the bones of an animal, when placed properly
+together, have nearly the shape of the body, and are called the
+_skeleton_ (skel´-e-ton). The skeleton forms the framework of the body,
+just as the heavy timbers of a house form its framework. It supports all
+the parts.
+
+~5. The Skull.~--The bony part of the head is called the _skull_. In the
+skull is a hollow place or chamber. You know that a rich man often has a
+strong room or box in his fine house, in which to keep his gold and
+other valuable things. The chamber in the skull is the strong-room of
+the body. It has strong, tough walls of bone, and contains the _brain_.
+The brain is the most important, and also the most tender and delicate
+organ in the whole body. This is why it is so carefully guarded from
+injury.
+
+~6. The Backbone.~--The framework of the back is called the _backbone_.
+This is not a single bone, but a row of bones arranged one above
+another. Each bone has a hole through it, about as large as one of your
+fingers. A large branch from the brain, called the _spinal cord_, runs
+down through the middle of the backbone, so that the separate bones look
+as if they were strung on the spinal cord, like beads on a string.
+
+~7. The Trunk.~--The trunk of the body, like the skull, is hollow. Its
+walls are formed partly by the backbone and the ribs and partly by
+flesh. A fleshy wall divides the hollow of the trunk into two parts, an
+upper chamber called the _chest_, and a lower called the _abdomen_.
+
+~8. The Lungs and Heart.~--The chest contains a pair of organs called
+the _lungs_, with which we breathe. It also contains something which we
+can feel beating at the left side. This is the _heart_. The heart lies
+between the two lungs, and a little to the left side.
+
+~9. The Stomach and Liver.~--In the abdomen are some very wonderful
+organs that do different kinds of work for the body. Among them are the
+_stomach_, the _bowels_, and the _liver_. There are, also, other organs
+whose names we shall learn when we come to study them.
+
+~10. Care of the Body.~--We have only begun to study the beautiful
+house in which we live, and yet have we not learned enough to show us
+how great and wise is the Creator who made us and all the wonderful
+machinery within our bodies? If some one should give you a beautiful
+present, would you treat it carelessly and spoil it, or would you take
+good care of it and keep it nice as long as possible? Ought we not to
+take such care of our bodies as to keep them in that perfect and
+beautiful condition in which our kind and good Creator gave them to us?
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The body has a framework, called the skeleton.
+
+2. The skeleton is made up of many different parts, each of which is
+called a bone.
+
+3. The bones are covered by the flesh.
+
+4. The bones of the head form the skull, which is hollow and contains
+the brain.
+
+5. A row of bones arranged in the back, one above another, forms the
+backbone. The backbone has a canal running through it lengthwise, in
+which lies the spinal cord.
+
+6. The trunk is hollow, and has two chambers, one called the cavity of
+the chest, and the other the cavity of the abdomen.
+
+7. The chest contains the two lungs and the heart.
+
+8. The abdomen contains the stomach, liver, and many other very
+important organs.
+
+9. Is it not our duty to take good care of our bodies as we would of
+some nice present from a friend?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+OUR FOODS.
+
+
+~1.~ We all know very well that if we do not eat we shall rapidly lose
+in weight, and become very weak and feeble. Did you ever think how much
+one eats in the course of a lifetime? Let us see if we can figure it up.
+How much do you suppose a boy eats in a day? Let us say two pounds. How
+much does he eat in a year? There are three hundred and sixty-five days
+in a year; 365 multiplied by 2 equals 730. So a boy eats a good many
+times his own weight in a year. How much would a person eat in fifty
+years?
+
+~2.~ Our bodies are composed of what we eat. If we eat bad food, our
+bodies will be made out of poor material, and will not be able to do
+their work well. So you see how important it is to learn something about
+our foods. We ought to know what things are good for us to eat, and what
+will do us harm.
+
+~3. Foods and Poisons.~--Foods are those substances which nourish the
+body and keep it in good working order.
+
+~4.~ Our foods are obtained from both animals and plants. All food
+really comes from plants, however, since those animals which we
+sometimes use as food themselves live upon the vegetables which they
+eat. For example, the ox and the cow eat grass and furnish us beef and
+milk. Chickens eat corn and other grains, and supply us with eggs.
+
+~5.~ The principal animal foods are milk, cheese, eggs, and the
+different kinds of flesh--beef, mutton, pork, fish, fowl, and wild game.
+
+We obtain a great many more kinds of food from plants than from animals.
+Most plant foods are included in three classes--_fruits_, _grains_, and
+_vegetables_.
+
+~6.~ _Fruits_ are the fleshy parts of plants which contain the seeds.
+Our most common fruits are apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, and
+various kinds of nuts. Perhaps you know of some other kinds of fruits
+besides those mentioned. Your teacher will tell you that tomatoes,
+watermelons, and pumpkins are really fruits, though they are not
+generally so called.
+
+~7.~ The seeds of grass-like plants are known as _grains_, of which we
+have wheat, rye, barley, corn, and rice. There are a few seeds that grow
+in pods, such as pease and beans, which somewhat resemble grains.
+
+~8.~ We eat the leaves, stems, or roots of some plants, as cabbages,
+celery, turnips, and potatoes. Foods of this kind are called
+_vegetables_.
+
+~9.~ There are other things, which, if we eat or drink them, will make
+us sick or otherwise do us harm. These are called _poisons_. Only such
+food as is pure and free from poisons is good or safe for us to use.
+
+~10. Narcotics and Stimulants.~--There are a number of substances known
+as narcotics and stimulants, which, from their effects upon the body,
+may be classed as poisons. Tobacco, opium, alcohol, and chloral are
+included in this class. Death has often been caused by taking small
+quantities of any of these poisonous drugs. We shall learn more of the
+effects of tobacco and alcohol in future lessons.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Our bodies are made of what we eat.
+
+2. Things which will help us to grow strong and well, if we eat them,
+are foods.
+
+3. We get foods from plants and animals.
+
+4. There are several kinds of animal foods, and three classes of plant
+foods--fruits, grains, and vegetables.
+
+5. Things which make us sick when we eat them, are poisons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+UNHEALTHFUL FOODS.
+
+
+~1.~ Most persons eat many things which are not good for them. Some
+people do not stop to think whether what they eat is good for them or
+likely to do them harm. Sometimes, without knowing it, we eat things
+which are harmful to us. Do you not think that we should try to learn
+what is good to eat and what is not good, and then be very careful not
+to eat anything which is likely to do us harm?
+
+~2. Diseased Foods.~--When a person is sick, he is said to be diseased.
+Animals are sometimes sick or diseased. Vegetables are also sometimes
+diseased. Animals and vegetables that are diseased are not good for
+food. Dishonest men, however, sometimes sell them to those who do not
+know that they are unfit to be eaten.
+
+~3.~ Pork, the flesh of the hog, is more likely to be diseased than any
+other kind of animal food.
+
+~4.~ Beef and mutton may be diseased also. Sheep and cattle are
+sometimes sick of diseases very much like those which human beings
+have. Meat which is pale, yellowish, or of a dark red color, is
+unhealthful, and should not be eaten. Meat should never be eaten raw. It
+should always be well cooked.
+
+~5. Unripe Foods.~--Most vegetable foods are unfit to be eaten when
+green or unripe, especially if uncooked. Sometimes persons are made very
+sick indeed by eating such articles as green apples or unripe peaches.
+
+~6. Stale or Decayed Foods.~--Food which has been allowed to stand until
+it is spoiled, or has become _stale_, _musty_, or _mouldy_, such as
+mouldy bread or fruit, or tainted meat, is unfit to be eaten, and is
+often a cause of very severe sickness. Canned fish or other meats spoil
+very quickly after the cans are opened, and should be eaten the same
+day.
+
+~7. Adulterated Foods.~--Many of our foods are sometimes spoiled or
+injured by persons who put into them cheap substances which are harmful
+to health. They do this so as to make more money in selling them. This
+is called _adulteration_. The foods which are most likely to be injured
+by adulteration are milk, sugar, and butter.
+
+~8.~ Milk is most often adulterated by adding water, though sometimes
+other things are added. Sometimes the water is not pure, and people are
+made sick and die. The adulteration of milk or any other food is a very
+wicked practice.
+
+~9.~ Butter is sometimes made almost wholly from lard or tallow. This is
+called _oleomargarine_ or _butterine_. If the lard or tallow is from
+diseased animals, the false butter made from it may cause disease.
+
+~10.~ A great deal of the sugar and syrups which we buy is made from
+corn by a curious process, which changes the starch of the corn into
+sugar. Sugar which has been made in this way is not so sweet as cane
+sugar, and is not healthful.
+
+~11. Condiments or Seasonings.~--These are substances which are added to
+our food for the purpose of giving to it special flavors. Condiments are
+not foods, because they do not nourish the body in any way, and are not
+necessary to preserve it in health.
+
+~12.~ The most common condiments are, mustard, pepper, pepper-sauce,
+ginger, cayenne-pepper, and spices. All these substances are irritating.
+If we put mustard upon the skin, it will make the skin red, and in a
+little time will raise a blister. If we happen to get a little pepper in
+the eye, it makes it smart and become very red and inflamed. When we
+take these things into the stomach, they cause the stomach to smart,
+and its lining membrane becomes red just as the skin or the eye does.
+
+~13.~ Nature has put into our foods very nice flavors to make us enjoy
+eating them. Condiments are likely to do us great harm, and hence it is
+far better not to use them.
+
+~14. Tobacco.~--Most of you know that tobacco is obtained from a plant
+which has long, broad leaves. These leaves are dried and then rolled up
+into cigars, ground into snuff, or prepared for chewing.
+
+[Illustration: Tobacco-Plant.]
+
+~15.~ Tobacco has a smarting, sickening taste. Do you think it would be
+good to eat? Why not?
+
+~16.~ You know that tobacco makes people sick when they first begin to
+use it. This is because it contains a very deadly poison, called
+_nicotine_.
+
+~17.~ If you give tobacco to a cat or a dog, it will become very sick. A
+boy once gave a piece of tobacco to a monkey, which swallowed it not
+knowing what a bad thing it was. The monkey soon became sick and died.
+
+~18.~ Many learned doctors have noticed the effects which come from
+using tobacco, and they all say it does great harm to boys, that it
+makes them puny and weak, and prevents their growing up into strong and
+useful men. If tobacco is not good for boys, do you think it can be good
+for men? Certainly you will say, No.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Both animals and plants are sometimes diseased. Flesh obtained from
+sick or diseased animals is unfit for food.
+
+2. Unripe, stale, and mouldy foods are unfit to be eaten and likely to
+cause severe illness.
+
+3. Foods are sometimes spoiled by having things mixed with them which
+are not food, or which are poisonous.
+
+4. The foods most liable to be adulterated in this way are milk, sugar,
+and butter.
+
+5. Tobacco, while not actually eaten, is thought by some persons to be a
+food, but it is not. It is a poison, and injures all who use it.
+
+6. Boys who use tobacco do not grow strong in body and mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+OUR DRINKS.
+
+
+~1.~ Water is really the only drink. It is the only substance which will
+satisfy thirst. All other fluids which we drink consist mostly of water.
+Thus, lemonade is lemon-juice and water. Milk is chiefly water. Wine,
+beer, cider, and such liquids contain alcohol and many other things,
+mixed with water.
+
+~2. Why we Need Water.~--If we should wet a sponge and lay it away, it
+would become dry in a few hours, as the water would pass off into the
+air. Our bodies are losing water all the time, and we need to drink to
+keep ourselves from drying up.
+
+~3.~ Water is also very necessary for other purposes. It softens our
+food so that we can chew and swallow it, and helps to carry it around in
+the body after it has been digested, in a way about which we shall learn
+in future lessons.
+
+~4.~ Still another use for water is to dissolve and wash out of our
+bodies, through the sweat of the skin, and in other ways, the waste and
+worn-out particles which are no longer of any use.
+
+~5. Impure Water.~--Most waters have more or less substances dissolved
+in them. Water which has much lime in it is called hard water. Such
+water is not so good to drink, or for use in cooking, as soft water.
+That water is best which holds no substances in solution. Well-water
+sometimes contains substances which soak into wells from vaults or
+cesspools. Slops which are poured upon the ground soak down out of
+sight; but the foul substances which they contain are not destroyed.
+They remain in the soil, and when the rains come, they are washed down
+into the well if it is near by. You can see some of the things found in
+bad water in the illustration given on opposite page.
+
+~6.~ It is best not to drink iced water when the body is heated, or
+during meals. If it is necessary to drink very cold water, the bad
+effects may be avoided by sipping it very slowly.
+
+~7. Tea and Coffee.~--Many people drink tea or coffee at their meals,
+and some persons think that these drinks are useful foods; but they
+really have little or no value as foods. Both tea and coffee contain a
+poison which, when separated in a pure form, is so deadly that a very
+small quantity is enough to kill a cat or a dog. This poison often does
+much harm to those who drink tea or coffee very strong for any great
+length of time.
+
+[Illustration: A DROP OF IMPURE WATER MAGNIFIED.]
+
+~8. Alcohol~ (al´-co-hol).--All of you know something about alcohol.
+Perhaps you have seen it burn in a lamp. It will burn without a lamp, if
+we light it. It is so clear and colorless that it looks like water. The
+Indians call it "fire-water." Alcohol differs very much from foods. It
+is not produced from plants, as fruits and grains are; neither is it
+supplied by Nature ready for our use, as are air and water.
+
+~9. Fermentation.~--When a baker makes bread he puts some yeast in the
+dough to make it "rise," so the bread will be light. The yeast destroys
+some of the sugar and starch in the flour and changes it into alcohol
+and a gas. The gas bubbles up through the dough, and this is what makes
+the bread light. This is called _fermentation_ (fer-men-ta´-tion). The
+little alcohol which is formed in the bread does no harm, because it is
+all driven off by the heat when the bread is baked.
+
+[Illustration: FERMENTATION.]
+
+~10.~ Any moist substance or liquid which contains sugar will ferment if
+yeast is added to it, or if it is kept in a warm place. You know that
+canned fruit sometimes spoils. This is because it ferments. Fermentation
+is a sort of decay. When the juice of grapes, apples, or other fruit is
+allowed to stand in a warm place it "works," or ferments, and thus
+produces alcohol. Wine is fermented grape-juice; hard cider is fermented
+apple-juice.
+
+~11.~ Beer, ale, and similar drinks are made from grains. The grain is
+first moistened and allowed to sprout. In sprouting, the starch of the
+grain is changed to sugar. The grain is next dried and ground, and is
+then boiled with water. The water dissolves the sugar. The sweet liquid
+thus obtained is separated from the grain, and yeast is added to it.
+This causes it to ferment, which changes the sugar to alcohol. Thus we
+see that the grain does not contain alcohol in the first place, but that
+it is produced by fermentation.
+
+~12.~ All fermented liquids contain more or less alcohol, mixed with
+water and a good many other things. Rum, brandy, gin, whiskey, and pure
+alcohol are made by separating the alcohol from the other substances.
+This is done by means of a still, and is called _distillation_.
+
+[Illustration: DISTILLATION.]
+
+~13.~ You can learn how a still separates the alcohol by a little
+experiment. When a tea-pot is boiling on the stove and the steam is
+coming out at the nozzle, hold up to the nozzle a common drinking-glass
+filled with iced water, first taking care to wipe the outside of the
+glass perfectly dry. Little drops of water will soon gather upon the
+side of the glass. If you touch these to the tongue you will observe
+that they taste of the tea. It is because a little of the tea has
+escaped with the steam and condensed upon the glass. This is
+distillation.
+
+~14.~ If the tea-pot had contained wine, or beer, or hard cider, the
+distilled water would have contained alcohol instead of tea. By
+distilling the liquid several times the alcohol may be obtained almost
+pure.
+
+~15. Alcohol kills Animals and Plants.~--Strong alcohol has a deadly
+effect upon all living things. Once a man gave a dog a few
+tablespoonfuls of alcohol, and in a little while the dog was dead. If
+you should pour alcohol upon a plant it would die very soon.
+
+~16.~ A man once made a cruel experiment. He put some minnows into a jar
+of water and then poured in a few teaspoonfuls of alcohol. The minnows
+tried very hard to get out, but they could not, and in a little while
+they were all dead, poisoned by the alcohol. A Frenchman once gave
+alcohol to some pigs with their food. They soon became sick and died.
+
+~17. Alcohol not a Food.~--There are some people who imagine that
+alcohol is good for food because it is made from fruits and grains which
+are good for food. This is a serious mistake. A person can live on the
+fruits or grains from which alcohol is made, but no one would attempt
+to live upon alcohol. If he did, he would soon starve to death. In fact,
+men have often died in consequence of trying to use whiskey in place of
+food.
+
+~18.~ We should remember, also, that people do not take alcohol as a
+food, but for certain effects which it produces, which are not those of
+a food, but of a poison.
+
+~19.~ Many people who would not drink strong or distilled liquors, think
+that they will suffer no harm if they use only wine, beer, or cider.
+This is a great mistake. These liquids contain alcohol, as do all
+fermented drinks. A person will become drunk or intoxicated by drinking
+wine, beer, or cider--only a larger quantity is required to produce the
+same effect as rum or whiskey.
+
+~20.~ Another very serious thing to be thought of is that if a person
+forms the habit of drinking wine, cider, or other fermented drinks, he
+becomes so fond of the _effect they produce_ that he soon wants some
+stronger drink, and thus he is led to use whiskey or other strong
+liquors. On this account it is not safe to use any kind of alcoholic
+drinks, either fermented or distilled. The only safe plan is to avoid
+the use of every sort of stimulating or intoxicating drinks.
+
+~21.~ It has been found by observation that those persons who use
+intoxicating drinks are not so healthy as those who do not use them,
+and, as a rule, they do not live so long.
+
+~22.~ This is found to be true not only of those who use whiskey and
+other strong liquors, but also of those who use fermented drinks, as
+wine and beer. Beer drinkers are much more likely to suffer from disease
+than those who are strictly temperate. It is often noticed by physicians
+that when a beer-drinker becomes sick or meets with an accident, he does
+not recover so readily as one who uses no kind of alcoholic drinks.
+
+~23.~ Alcoholic drinks not only make people unhealthy and shorten their
+lives, but they are also the cause of much poverty and crime and an
+untold amount of misery.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Water is the only thing that will satisfy thirst.
+
+2. In going through our bodies, water washes out many impurities. We
+also need water to soften our food.
+
+3. The purest water is the best. Impure water causes sickness.
+
+4. Good water has no color, taste, or odor.
+
+5. Tea and coffee are not good drinks. They are very injurious to
+children, and often do older persons much harm.
+
+6. Alcohol is made by fermentation.
+
+7. Pure alcohol and strong liquors are made by distillation.
+
+8. Alcohol is not a food, it is a poison. It kills plants and animals,
+and is very injurious to human beings.
+
+9. Even the moderate use of alcoholic drinks produces disease and
+shortens life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HOW WE DIGEST.
+
+
+~1.~ Did you ever see a Venus's fly-trap? This curious plant grows in
+North Carolina. It is called a fly-trap because it has on each of its
+leaves something like a steel-trap, by means of which it catches flies.
+You can see one of these traps in the picture. When a fly touches the
+leaf, the trap shuts up at once, and the poor fly is caught and cannot
+get away. The harder it tries to escape, the more tightly the trap
+closes upon it, until after a time it is crushed to death.
+
+[Illustration: VENUS'S FLY-TRAP.]
+
+~2.~ But we have yet to learn the most curious thing about this strange
+plant, which seems to act so much like an animal. If we open the leaf
+after a few days, it will be found that the fly has almost entirely
+disappeared. The fly has not escaped, but it has been dissolved by a
+fluid formed inside of the trap, and the plant has absorbed a portion of
+the fly. In fact, it has really eaten it. The process by which food is
+dissolved and changed so that it can be absorbed and may nourish the
+body, is called _digestion_ (di-ges´-tion).
+
+~3.~ The Venus's fly-trap has a very simple way of digesting its food.
+Its remarkable little trap serves it as a mouth to catch and hold its
+food, and as a stomach to digest it. The arrangement by which our food
+is digested is much less simple than this. Let us study the different
+parts by which this wonderful work is done.
+
+[Illustration: THE DIGESTIVE TUBE.]
+
+~4. The Digestive Tube.~--The most important part of the work of
+digesting our food is done in a long tube within the body, called the
+_digestive tube_ or _canal_.
+
+~5.~ This tube is twenty-five or thirty feet long in a full-grown man;
+but it is so coiled up and folded away that it occupies but little
+space. It begins at the mouth, and ends at the lower part of the trunk.
+The greater part of it is coiled up in the abdomen.
+
+~6. The Mouth.~--The space between the upper and the lower jaw is called
+the _mouth_. The lips form the front part and the cheeks the sides. At
+the back part are three openings. One, the upper, leads into the nose.
+There are two lower openings. One of these leads into the stomach, and
+the other leads to the lungs. The back part of the mouth joins the two
+tubes which lead from the mouth to the lungs and the stomach, and is
+called the _throat_. The mouth contains the _tongue_ and the _teeth_.
+
+[Illustration: THE TEETH.]
+
+~7. The Teeth.~--The first teeth, those which come when we are small
+children, are called _temporary_ or _milk teeth_. We lose these teeth
+as the jaws get larger and the second or _permanent_ teeth take their
+place. There are twenty teeth in the first set, and thirty-two in the
+second. Very old persons sometimes have a third set of teeth.
+
+[Illustration: SALIVARY GLANDS.]
+
+~8. The Salivary~ (sal´-i-vary)~ Glands.~--There are three pairs of
+_salivary glands_. They form a fluid called the _saliva_ (sa-li´-va). It
+is this fluid which moistens the mouth at all times. When we eat or
+taste something which we like, the salivary glands make so much saliva
+that we sometimes say the mouth waters. One pair of the salivary glands
+is at the back part of the lower jaw, in front of the ears. The other
+two pairs of glands are placed at the under side of the mouth. The
+saliva produced by the salivary glands is sent into the mouth through
+little tubes called _ducts_.
+
+~9. The Gullet.~--At the back part of the throat begins a narrow tube,
+which passes down to the stomach. This tube is about nine inches long.
+It is called the _gullet_, _food-pipe_, or _oesophagus_
+(e-soph´-a-gus).
+
+~10. The Stomach.~--At the lower end of the oesophagus the digestive
+tube becomes enlarged, and has a shape somewhat like a pear. This is the
+_stomach_. In a full-grown person the stomach is sufficiently large to
+hold about three pints. At each end of the stomach is a narrow opening
+so arranged that it can be opened or tightly closed, as may be
+necessary. The upper opening allows the food to pass into the stomach,
+the lower one allows it to pass out into the intestines. This opening is
+called the _pylorus_ (py-lo´-rus), or gate-keeper, because it closes so
+as to keep the food in the stomach until it is ready to pass out.
+
+~11.~ In the membrane which lines the stomach there are many little
+pocket-like glands, in which a fluid called the _gastric juice_ is
+formed. This fluid is one of the most important of all the fluids formed
+in the digestive canal.
+
+[Illustration: GASTRIC GLAND.]
+
+~12. The Intestine~(in-tes´-tine).--At the lower end of the stomach
+the digestive canal becomes narrow again. This narrow portion, called
+the _intestine_, is about twenty-five feet long in a grown person. The
+last few feet of the intestine is larger than the rest, and is called
+the _colon_. This long tube is coiled up and snugly packed away in the
+cavity of the abdomen. In the membrane lining the intestines are to be
+found little glands, which make a fluid called _intestinal juice_.
+
+~13. The Liver.~--Close up under the ribs, on the right side of the
+body, is a large chocolate-colored organ, called the _liver_. The liver
+is about half as large as the head, and is shaped so as to fit snugly
+into its corner of the abdomen. The chief business of the liver is to
+make a fluid called _bile_, which is very necessary for the digestion of
+our food.
+
+~14.~ The bile is a bitter fluid of a golden-brown color. It is carried
+to the intestine by means of a little tube or duct, which enters the
+small intestine a few inches below the stomach. When the bile is made
+faster than it is needed for immediate use, it is stored up in a little
+pear-shaped sac called the _gall-bladder_, which hangs from the under
+side of the liver.
+
+~15.~ The liver is a very wonderful organ, and does many useful things
+besides making bile. It aids in various ways in digesting the food, and
+helps to keep the blood pure by removing from it harmful substances
+which are formed within the body.
+
+~16. The Pancreas~(pan´-cre-as).--The _pancreas_ is another large and
+very important gland which is found close to the stomach, lying just
+behind it in the abdominal cavity. The pancreas forms a fluid called the
+_pancreatic juice_, which enters the small intestine at nearly the same
+place as the bile.
+
+~17. The Spleen.~--Close to the pancreas, at the left side of the body,
+is a dark, roundish organ about the size of the fist, called the
+_spleen_. It is not known that the spleen has much to do in the work of
+digestion, but it is so closely connected with the digestive organs that
+we need to know about it.
+
+~18.~ Please note that there are five important organs of digestion. The
+mouth, the stomach, the intestines, the pancreas, and the liver.
+
+~19.~ Also observe that there are five digestive fluids, saliva,
+gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The process of dissolving and changing the food so that it may be
+absorbed and may nourish the body is digestion.
+
+2. The work of digestion is chiefly done in the digestive tube or canal,
+which is about thirty feet in length.
+
+3. The mouth contains the teeth, and has three pairs of salivary glands
+connected with it, which make saliva.
+
+4. The gullet leads from the mouth to the stomach.
+
+5. The stomach is pear-shaped, and holds about three pints.
+
+6. It has an upper and a lower opening, each of which is guarded by a
+muscle, which keeps its contents from escaping.
+
+7. The lower opening of the stomach is called the pylorus.
+
+8. The stomach forms the gastric juice.
+
+9. The intestines are about twenty-five feet long. They form the
+intestinal juice.
+
+10. The liver lies under the ribs of the right side. It is about half as
+large as the head. It makes bile.
+
+11. When not needed for immediate use, the bile is stored up in a sac
+called the gall-bladder.
+
+12. The pancreas is a gland which lies just back of the stomach. It
+makes pancreatic juice.
+
+13. The spleen is found near the pancreas.
+
+14. There are five important digestive organs--the mouth, the stomach,
+the intestines, the liver, and the pancreas.
+
+15. There are five digestive fluids--saliva, gastric juice, intestinal
+juice, bile, and pancreatic juice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD.
+
+
+~1.~ Let us suppose that we have eaten a mouthful of bread, and can
+watch it as it goes through all the different processes of digestion.
+
+~2. Mastication.~--First, we chew or masticate the food with the teeth.
+We use the tongue to move the food from one side of the mouth to the
+other, and to keep the food between the teeth.
+
+~3. Mouth Digestion.~--While the bread is being chewed, the saliva is
+mixed with it and acts upon it. The saliva moistens and softens the food
+so that it can be easily swallowed and readily acted upon by the other
+digestive juices. You have noticed that if you chew a bit of hard bread
+a few minutes it becomes sweet. This is because the saliva changes some
+of the starch of the food into sugar.
+
+~4.~ After we have chewed the food, we swallow it, and it passes down
+through the oesophagus into the stomach.
+
+~5. Stomach Digestion.~--As soon as the morsel of food enters the
+stomach, the gastric juice begins to flow out of the little glands in
+which it is formed. This mingles with the food and digests another
+portion which the saliva has not acted upon. While this is being done,
+the stomach keeps working the food much as a baker kneads dough. This is
+done to mix the gastric juice with the food.
+
+~6.~ After an hour or two the stomach squeezes the food so hard that a
+little of it, which has been digested by the gastric juice and the
+saliva, escapes through the lower opening, the pylorus, of which we have
+already learned. As the action of the stomach continues, more of the
+digested food escapes, until all that has been properly acted upon has
+passed out.
+
+~7. Intestinal Digestion.~--We sometimes eat butter with bread, or take
+some other form of fat in our food. This is not acted upon by the saliva
+or the gastric juice. When food passes out of the stomach into the small
+intestine, a large quantity of bile is at once poured upon it. This bile
+has been made beforehand by the liver and stored up in the gall-bladder.
+The bile helps to digest fats, which the saliva and the gastric juice
+cannot digest.
+
+~8.~ The pancreatic juice does the same kind of work that is done by the
+saliva, the gastric juice, and the bile. It also finishes up the work
+done by these fluids. It is one of the most important of all the
+digestive juices.
+
+~9.~ The intestinal juice digests nearly all the different elements of
+the food, so that it is well fitted to complete the wonderful process by
+which the food is made ready to enter the blood and to nourish the body.
+
+~10.~ While the food is being acted upon by the bile, the pancreatic
+juice, and intestinal juice, it is gradually moved along the intestines.
+After all those portions of food which can be digested have been
+softened and dissolved, they are ready to be taken into the blood and
+distributed through the body.
+
+~11. Absorption.~--If you put a dry sponge into water, it very soon
+becomes wet by soaking up the water. Indeed, if you only touch a corner
+of the sponge to the water, the whole sponge will soon become wet. We
+say that the sponge absorbs the water. It is in a somewhat similar way
+that the food is taken up or absorbed by the walls of the stomach and
+intestines. When the food is absorbed, the greater part of it is taken
+into the blood-vessels, of which we shall learn in a future lesson.
+
+~12. Liver Digestion.~--After the food has been absorbed, the most of it
+is carried to the liver, where the process of digestion is completed.
+The liver also acts like an inspector to examine the digested food and
+remove hurtful substances which may be taken with it, such as alcohol,
+mustard, pepper, and other irritating things.
+
+~13. The Thoracic Duct.~--A portion of the food, especially the digested
+fats, is absorbed by a portion of the lymphatic vessels called
+_lacteals_, which empty into a small vessel called the _thoracic duct_.
+This duct passes upward in front of the spine and empties into a vein
+near the heart.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+How a mouthful of food is digested:
+
+1. It is first masticated--that is, it is chewed and moistened with
+saliva.
+
+2. Then it is swallowed, passing through the oesophagus to the
+stomach.
+
+3. There it is acted upon, and a part of it digested by the gastric
+juice.
+
+4. It is then passed into the small intestine, where it is acted upon by
+the bile, the pancreatic fluid, and the intestinal juice.
+
+5. The digested food is then absorbed by the walls of the stomach and
+intestines.
+
+6. The greater portion of the food is next passed through the liver,
+where hurtful substances are removed.
+
+7. A smaller portion is carried through the thoracic duct and emptied
+into a vein near the heart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+BAD HABITS IN EATING.
+
+
+~1. Eating too Fast.~--A most common fault is eating too fast. When the
+food is chewed too rapidly, and swallowed too quickly, it is not
+properly divided and softened. Such food cannot be easily acted upon by
+the various digestive juices.
+
+~2. Eating too Much.~--A person who eats food too rapidly is also very
+likely to injure himself by eating too much. The digestive organs are
+able to do well only a certain amount of work. When too much food is
+eaten, none of it is digested as well as it should be. Food which is not
+well digested will not nourish the body.
+
+~3. Eating too Often~--Many children make themselves sick by eating too
+often. It is very harmful to take lunches or to eat at other than the
+proper meal-times. The stomach needs time to rest, just as our legs and
+arms and the other parts of the body do. For the same reason, it is well
+for us to avoid eating late at night. The stomach needs to sleep with
+the rest of the body. If one goes to bed with the stomach full of food,
+the stomach cannot rest, and the work of digestion will go on so slowly
+that the sleep will likely be disturbed. Such sleep is not refreshing.
+
+~4.~ If we wish to keep our digestive organs in good order, we must take
+care to eat at regular hours. We ought not to eat when we are very
+tired. The stomach cannot digest well when we are very much fatigued.
+
+~5. Sweet Foods.~--We ought not to eat too much sugar or sweet foods, as
+they are likely to sour or ferment in the stomach, and so make us sick.
+Candies often contain a great many things which are not good for us, and
+which may make us sick. The colors used in candies are sometimes
+poisonous. The flavors used in them are also sometimes very harmful.
+
+~6. Fatty Foods Hurtful.~--Too much butter, fat meats, and other greasy
+foods are hurtful. Cream is the most digestible form of fat, because it
+readily dissolves in the fluids of the stomach, and mixes with the other
+foods without preventing their digestion. Melted fats are especially
+harmful. Cheese, fried foods, and rich pastry are very poor foods, and
+likely to cause sickness.
+
+~7. Eating too many Kinds of Foods.~--Children should avoid eating
+freely of flesh meats. They ought also to avoid eating all
+highly-seasoned dishes, and taking too many kinds of food at a meal. A
+simple diet is much the more healthful. Milk and grain foods, as
+oatmeal, cracked wheat, graham bread, with such delicious fruits as
+apples, pears, and grapes, are much the best food for children.
+
+~8. Avoid Use of Cold Foods.~--We ought not to take very cold foods or
+liquids with our meals. Cold foods, ice-water, and other iced drinks
+make the stomach so cold that it cannot digest the food. For this reason
+it is very harmful to drink iced water or iced tea, or to eat ice-cream
+at meals. These things are injurious to us at any time, but they do the
+greatest amount of harm when taken with the food.
+
+~9. Things sometimes Eaten which are not Foods.~--Things which are not
+foods are often used as foods, such as mustard, pepper, and the various
+kinds of seasonings. Soda, saleratus, and baking-powders also belong to
+this class. All of these substances are more or less harmful,
+particularly mustard, pepper, and hot sauces.
+
+~10. Common Salt.~--The only apparent exception to the general rule that
+all condiments and other substances which are not foods are harmful is
+in the case of common salt. This is very commonly used among civilized
+nations, although there are many barbarous tribes that never taste it.
+It is quite certain that much more salt is used than is needed. When
+much salt is added to the food, the action of the digestive fluids is
+greatly hindered. Salt meats, and other foods which have much salt added
+to them, are hard to digest because the salt hardens the fibres of the
+meat, so that they are not easily dissolved by the digestive fluids.
+
+~11. Care of the Teeth.~--The teeth are the first organs employed in the
+work of digestion. It is of great importance that they should be kept in
+health. Many persons neglect their teeth, and treat them so badly that
+they begin to decay at a very early age.
+
+~12.~ The mouth and teeth should be carefully cleansed immediately on
+rising in the morning, and after each meal. All particles of food should
+be removed from between the teeth by carefully rubbing both the inner
+and the outer surfaces of the teeth with a soft brush, and rinsing very
+thoroughly with water. A little soap may be used in cleansing the teeth,
+but clear water is sufficient, if used frequently and thoroughly. The
+teeth should not be used in breaking nuts or other hard substances. The
+teeth are brittle, and are often broken in this way. The use of candy
+and too much sweet food is also likely to injure the teeth.
+
+~13.~ Some people think that it is not necessary to take care of the
+first set of teeth. This is a great mistake. If the first set are lost
+or are unhealthy, the second set will not be as perfect as they should
+be. It is plain that we should not neglect our teeth at any time of
+life.
+
+~14. Tobacco.~--When a person first uses tobacco, it is apt to make him
+very sick at the stomach. After he has used tobacco a few times it does
+not make him sick, but it continues to do his stomach and other organs
+harm, and after a time may injure him very seriously. Smokers sometimes
+suffer from a horrible disease of the mouth or throat known as cancer.
+
+~15. Effects of Alcohol upon the Stomach.~--If you should put a little
+alcohol into your eye, the eye would become very red. When men take
+strong liquors into their stomachs, the delicate membrane lining the
+stomach becomes red in the same way. Perhaps you will ask how do we know
+that alcohol has such an effect upon the stomach. More than sixty years
+ago there lived in Michigan a man named Alexis St. Martin. One day he
+was, by accident, shot in such a way that a large opening was made right
+through the skin and flesh and into the stomach. The good doctor who
+attended him took such excellent care of him that he got well. But when
+he recovered, the hole in his stomach remained, so that the doctor could
+look in and see just what was going on. St. Martin sometimes drank
+whiskey, and when he did, the doctor often looked into his stomach to
+see what the effect was, and he noticed that the inside of the stomach
+looked very red and inflamed.
+
+~16.~ If St. Martin continued to drink whiskey for several days, the
+lining of the stomach looked very red and raw like a sore eye. A sore
+stomach cannot digest food well, and so the whole body becomes sick and
+weak. What would you think of a man who should keep his eyes always sore
+and inflamed and finally destroy his eyesight by putting pepper or
+alcohol or some other irritating substance into them every day? Is it
+not equally foolish and wicked to injure the stomach and destroy one's
+digestion by the use of alcoholic drinks? Alcohol, even when it is not
+very strong, not only hurts the lining of the stomach, but injures the
+gastric juice, so that it cannot digest the food well.
+
+~17. Effects of Alcohol upon the Liver.~--The liver, as well as the
+stomach, is greatly damaged by the use of alcohol. You will recollect
+that nearly all the food digested and absorbed is filtered through the
+liver before it goes to the heart to be distributed to the rest of the
+body. In trying to save the rest of the body from the bad effects of
+alcohol, the liver is badly burned by the fiery liquid, and sometimes
+becomes so shrivelled up that it can no longer produce bile and perform
+its other duties. Even beer, ale, and wine, which do not contain so much
+alcohol as do rum, gin, and whiskey, have enough of the poison in them
+to do the liver a great deal of harm, and to injure many other organs of
+the body as well.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+                                     {Eating too fast.
+                                     {Eating too much.
+                                     {Eating too frequently.
+                                     {Eating irregularly.
+  1. CAUSES OF INDIGESTION.          {Eating when tired.
+                                     {Eating too much of sweet foods.
+                                     {Eating too many kinds of food
+                                       at a meal.
+                                     {Using iced foods or drinks.
+
+2. Irritating substances and things which are not foods should not be
+eaten.
+
+3. The teeth must be carefully used and kept clean.
+
+4. Tobacco-using does the stomach harm, and sometimes causes cancer of
+the mouth.
+
+5. Alcohol injures the gastric juice, and causes disease of the stomach
+and the liver.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+A DROP OF BLOOD.
+
+
+~1. The Blood.~--Did you ever cut or prick your finger so as to make it
+bleed? Probably you have more than once met with an accident of this
+sort. All parts of the body contain blood. If the skin is broken in any
+place the blood flows out.
+
+~2.~ How many of you know what a microscope is? It is an instrument
+which magnifies objects, or makes them look a great deal larger than
+they really are. Some microscopes are so powerful that they will make a
+little speck of dust look as large as a great rock.
+
+~3. The Blood Corpuscles.~--If you should look at a tiny drop of blood
+through such a microscope, you would find it to be full of very small,
+round objects called _blood corpuscles_.
+
+~4.~ You would notice also that these corpuscles are of two kinds. Most
+of them are slightly reddish, and give to the blood its red color. A
+very few are white.
+
+~5. Use of the Corpuscles.~--Do you wonder what these peculiar little
+corpuscles do in the body? They are very necessary. We could not live a
+moment without them. We need to take into our bodies oxygen from the
+air. It is the business of the red corpuscles to take up the oxygen in
+the lungs and carry it round through the body in a wonderful way, of
+which we shall learn more in a future lesson.
+
+~6.~ The white corpuscles have something to do with keeping the body in
+good repair. They are carried by the blood into all parts of the body
+and stop where they are needed to do any kind of work. They may be
+compared to the men who go around to mend old umbrellas, and to do other
+kinds of tinkering. It is thought that the white corpuscles turn into
+red ones when they become old.
+
+~7.~ The corpuscles float in a clear, almost colorless fluid which
+contains the digested food and other elements by which the body is
+nourished.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The blood contains very small objects called blood corpuscles.
+
+2. There are two kinds of corpuscles, red and white.
+
+3. The red corpuscles carry oxygen.
+
+4. The white corpuscles repair parts that are worn.
+
+5. The corpuscles float in a clear, almost colorless fluid, which
+nourishes the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+WHY THE HEART BEATS.
+
+
+~1.~ If you place your hand on the left side of your chest, you will
+feel something beating. If you cannot feel the beats easily, you may run
+up and down stairs two or three times, and then you can feel them very
+distinctly. How many of you know the name of this curious machine inside
+the chest, that beats so steadily? You say at once that it is the heart.
+
+[Illustration: THE HEART.]
+
+~2.~ The Heart.--The heart may be called a live pump, which keeps
+pumping away during our whole lives. If it should stop, even for a
+minute or two, we would die. If you will place your hand over your heart
+and count the beats for exactly one minute, you will find that it beats
+about seventy-five or eighty times. When you are older, your heart will
+beat a little more slowly. If you count the beats while you are lying
+down, you will find that the heart beats more slowly than when you are
+sitting or standing. When we run or jump, the heart beats much harder
+and faster.
+
+~3. Why the Heart Beats.~--We have learned in preceding lessons that the
+digested food is taken into the blood. We have also learned that both
+water and oxygen are taken into the blood. Thus the blood contains all
+the materials that are needed by the various parts of the body to make
+good the wastes that are constantly taking place. But if the blood were
+all in one place it could do little good, as the new materials are
+needed in every part of the body. There has been provided a wonderful
+system of tubes running through every part of the body. By means of
+these tubes the blood is carried into every part where it is required.
+These tubes are connected with the heart. When the heart beats, it
+forces the blood through the tubes just as water is forced through a
+pipe by a pump or by a fire-engine.
+
+~4. The Heart Chambers.~--The heart has four chambers, two upper and
+two lower chambers. The blood is received into the upper chambers, and
+is then passed down into the lower chambers. From the lower chambers it
+is sent out to various parts of the body.
+
+[Illustration: THE INSIDE OF THE HEART.]
+
+~5. The Blood-Vessels.~--The tubes through which the blood is carried
+are called _blood-vessels_. There are three kinds of blood-vessels. One
+set carry the blood away from the heart, and are called _arteries_
+(ar´-te-ries). Another set return the blood to the heart, and are called
+_veins_. The arteries and veins are connected at the ends farthest from
+the heart by many very small vessels. These minute, hairlike vessels are
+called _capillaries_ (cap´-il-la-ries).
+
+~6. The Arteries.~--An artery leads out from the lower chamber of each
+side of the heart. The one from the right side of the heart carries the
+blood only to the lungs. The one from the left side of the heart carries
+blood to every part of the body. It is the largest artery in the body,
+and is called the _aorta_. Soon after it leaves the heart the aorta
+begins to send out branches to various organs. These divide in the
+tissues again and again until they become so small that only one
+corpuscle can pass through at a time, as shown in the colored plate.
+(Frontispiece.)
+
+~7. The Veins.~--These very small vessels now begin to unite and form
+larger ones, the veins. The small veins join to form larger ones, until
+finally all are gathered into two large veins which empty into the upper
+chamber of the right side of the heart. The veins which carry blood from
+the lungs to the heart empty into the upper chamber of the left side of
+the heart.
+
+~8. What is Done in the Blood-Vessels.~--While the blood is passing
+through the small blood-vessels in the various parts of the body, each
+part takes out just what it needs to build up its own tissues. At the
+same time, the tissues give in exchange their worn-out or waste matters.
+The red blood corpuscles in the capillaries give up their oxygen, and
+the blood receives in its stead a poisonous substance called
+carbonic-acid gas.
+
+~9. Red and Blue Blood.~--While in the arteries the blood is of a bright
+red color; but while it is passing through the capillaries the color
+changes to a bluish red or purple color. The red blood is called
+_arterial blood_, because it is found in the arteries. The purple blood
+is called _venous blood_, because it is found in the veins. The loss of
+oxygen in the corpuscles causes the change of color.
+
+~10. Change of Blood in the Lungs.~--Exactly the opposite change occurs
+in the blood when it passes through the lungs. The blood which has been
+gathered up from the various parts of the body is dark, impure blood. In
+the lungs this dark blood is spread out in very minute capillaries and
+exposed to the air. While passing through the capillaries of the lungs,
+the blood gives up some of its impurities in exchange for oxygen from
+the air. The red corpuscles absorb the oxygen and the color of the blood
+changes from dark purple to bright red again. The purified blood is then
+carried back to the upper chamber of the left side of the heart through
+four large veins. The blood is now ready to begin another journey around
+the body.
+
+~11. The Pulse.~--If you place your finger on your wrist at just the
+right spot, you can feel a slight beating. This beating is called the
+_pulse_. It is caused by the movement of the blood in the artery of the
+wrist at each beat of the heart. The pulse can be felt at the neck and
+in other parts of the body where an artery comes near to the surface.
+
+~12. How much Work the Heart Does.~--The heart is a small organ, only
+about as large as your fist, and yet it does an amount of work which is
+almost beyond belief. Each time it beats, it does as much work as your
+arm would do in lifting a large apple from the ground to your mouth. It
+beats when we are asleep as well as when we are awake. When we run we
+know by the way in which it beats that it is working very fast. Do you
+know how much a ton is? Well, in twenty-four hours the heart does as
+much work as a man would do in lifting stones enough to weigh more than
+one hundred and twenty tons.
+
+~13. The Lymphatics.~--While the blood is passing through the
+capillaries, some of the white corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels.
+What do you suppose becomes of these runaway corpuscles? Nature has
+provided a way by which they can get back to the heart. In the little
+spaces among the tissues outside of the blood-vessels very minute
+channels called _lymph channels_ or _lymphatics_ (lym--phat´-ics) begin.
+The whole body is filled with these small channels, which run together
+much like the meshes of a net. In the centre of the body the small
+lymphatics run into large ones, which empty into the veins near the
+heart. This is the way the stray white blood corpuscles get back into
+the blood.
+
+~14. The Lymph.~--In the lymph channels the white corpuscles float in a
+colorless fluid called _lymph_. The lymph is composed of the fluid
+portion of the blood which has soaked through the walls of the small
+vessels. The chief purpose of the lymphatics is to carry the lymph from
+the tissues back to the heart.
+
+~15. Lymphatic Glands.~--Here and there, scattered through the body, are
+oval structures into each of which many lymphatic vessels are found to
+run, as shown in the illustration. These are called _lymphatic glands_.
+
+[Illustration: LYMPH GLAND AND VESSELS.]
+
+~16.~ The heart and blood-vessels are among the most wonderful
+structures in the body. It is no wonder, then, that alcohol, tobacco,
+and other narcotics and stimulants produce their most deadly effects
+upon these delicate organs. What these effects are we shall learn more
+fully in the next chapter.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The heart beats to circulate the blood.
+
+2. The heart has four chambers, two upper and two lower.
+
+3. There are tubes called blood-vessels which carry the blood to all
+parts of the body.
+
+4. These tubes are connected with the heart.
+
+5. The vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called
+arteries, and those which carry blood back to the heart are called
+veins.
+
+6. The arteries and veins are connected by small tubes called
+capillaries.
+
+7. The blood found in the arteries is red; that in the veins is dark
+blue or purple.
+
+8. The color of the blood changes from red to blue in going through the
+capillaries. The change is due to the loss of oxygen.
+
+9. In the circulation of the lungs, the blood in the arteries is blue,
+that in the veins, red.
+
+10. The change from blue to red takes place while the blood is passing
+through the capillaries of the lungs. The change is due to the oxygen
+which the corpuscles of the blood take up in the lungs.
+
+11. The pulse is caused by the beating of the heart.
+
+12. The heart does a great deal of work every day in forcing the blood
+into different parts of the body.
+
+13. Some of the white blood corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels
+through the thin walls of the capillaries.
+
+14. These corpuscles return to the heart through small vessels called
+lymph channels or lymphatics.
+
+15. The lymphatics in many parts of the body run into small roundish
+bodies called lymphatic glands.
+
+16. The object of the lymphatics is to remove from the tissues and
+return to the general circulation the lymph and white blood corpuscles
+which escape through the walls of the capillaries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE HEART AND THE BLOOD HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1.~ The heart is one of the most important of all the organs of the
+body. If we take good care of it, it will do good service for us during
+a long life. Let us notice some ways in which the heart is likely to be
+injured.
+
+~2. Violent Exercise.~--Did you ever run so hard that you were out of
+breath? Do you know why you had to breathe so fast? It was because the
+violent exercise made your heart beat so rapidly that the blood could
+not get out of the lungs as fast as the heart forced it in. The lungs
+became so filled with blood that they could not do their work well.
+Sometimes, when a person runs very fast or takes any kind of violent
+exercise, the lungs become so filled with blood that a blood-vessel is
+broken. The person may then bleed to death. It is very unwise to overtax
+the heart in any way, for it may be strained or otherwise injured, so
+that it can never again do its work properly.
+
+~3. Effects of Bad Air.~--Bad air is very harmful to the heart and to
+the blood also. We should always remember that the blood of the body
+while passing through the lungs is exposed to the air which we breathe.
+If the air is impure, the blood will be poisoned. In churches and in
+other places where the air becomes foul, people often faint from the
+effects of the impure air upon the heart. It is important that the air
+of the rooms in which we live and sleep should be kept very pure by good
+ventilation.
+
+~4. Effects of Bad Food.~--The blood is made from what we eat, and if we
+eat impure and unwholesome food, the blood becomes impure. We ought to
+avoid the use of rich or highly-seasoned foods, candies, and all foods
+which are not nutritious. They not only injure the blood by making it
+impure, but they cause poor digestion.
+
+~5. Plenty of Sleep Necessary.~--If we should take a drop of blood from
+the finger of a person who had not had as much sleep as he needed, and
+examine it with a microscope, we should find that there were too few of
+the little red-blood corpuscles. This is one reason why a person who has
+not had sufficient sleep looks pale.
+
+~6. Proper Clothing.~--We should be properly clothed, according to the
+weather. In cold weather we need very warm clothing. In warm weather we
+should wear lighter clothing. Our clothing should be so arranged that it
+will keep all parts of the body equally warm, and thus allow the blood
+to circulate properly. The feet are apt to be cold, being so far away
+from the heart, and we should take extra pains to keep them warm and
+dry.
+
+~7. Effects of Excessive Heat.~--In very hot weather, many persons are
+injured by exposing themselves to the sun too long at a time. Persons
+who drink intoxicating liquors are very often injured in this way, and
+sometimes die of sunstroke.
+
+~8. Effects of Anger.~--When a person gets very angry, the heart
+sometimes almost stops beating. Indeed, persons have died instantly in a
+fit of passion. So you see it is dangerous for a person to allow himself
+to become very angry.
+
+~9. Effects of Alcohol upon the Blood.~--If you should take a drop of
+blood upon your finger, and put it under the microscope, and then add a
+little alcohol to it, you would see that the corpuscles would be quickly
+destroyed. In a few seconds they would be so shrivelled up that no one
+could tell that they had ever been the beautiful little corpuscles which
+are so necessary to health. When alcohol is taken as a drink, it does
+not destroy the corpuscles so quickly, but it injures them so that they
+are not able to do their work of absorbing and carrying oxygen well.
+This is one reason why the faces of men who use alcoholic drinks often
+look so blue.
+
+~10. Alcohol Overworks the Heart.~--Dr. Parkes, a very learned English
+physician, took the pains to observe carefully the effects of alcohol
+upon the heart of a soldier who was addicted to the use of liquor. He
+counted the beats of the soldier's pulse when he was sober; and then
+counted them again when he was using alcohol, and found that when the
+soldier took a pint of gin a day his heart was obliged to do one fourth
+more work than it ought to do.
+
+~11. Effects of Alcohol upon the Blood-Vessels.~--If you put your hands
+into warm water, they soon become red. This is because the blood-vessels
+of the skin become enlarged by the heat, so that they hold more blood.
+Alcohol causes the blood to come to the surface in the same way. It is
+this that causes the flushed cheeks and the red eyes of the drunkard.
+Sometimes, after a man has been using alcohol a long time, the
+blood-vessels of his face remain enlarged all the time. This makes his
+nose grow too fast, and so in time it gets too large, and then he has a
+rum-blossom.
+
+~12. Effects of Tobacco on the Heart and the Blood.~--When a boy first
+tries to use tobacco, it makes him feel very sick. If you should feel
+his pulse just then, you would find it very weak. This means that the
+heart is almost paralyzed by the powerful poison of the tobacco. Tobacco
+also injures the blood corpuscles.
+
+~13.~ _Tea_ and _coffee_ also do their share of mischief to the heart.
+Those who use them very strong often complain of palpitation, or heavy
+and irregular beating of the heart.
+
+~14. Taking Cold.~--People usually "catch cold" by allowing the
+circulation to become disturbed in some way, as by getting the feet wet,
+being chilled from not wearing sufficient clothing, sitting in a
+draught, and in other similar ways. It is very important for you to know
+that a cold is a serious thing, and should be carefully avoided.
+
+~15. Hemorrhage~ (hem´-or-rhage) ~or Loss of Blood.~--A severe loss of
+blood is likely to occur as the result of accidents or injuries of
+various sorts, and it is important to know what to do at once, as there
+may not be time to send for a doctor before it will be too late to save
+the injured person's life. Here are a few things to be remembered in all
+such cases:
+
+~16.~ If the blood from a cut or other wound flows in spurts, and is of
+a bright red color, it is from an artery. If it is dark-colored, and
+flows in a steady stream, it is from a vein.
+
+~17. How to Stop the Bleeding of Wounds.~--If the bleeding vessel is an
+artery, apply pressure on the side of the wound next to the heart. If
+the bleeding is from a vein, apply it on the opposite side. It is
+generally best to apply pressure directly over the wound or on both
+sides. The pressure can be made with the thumbs or with the whole hand.
+Grasp the part firmly and press very hard, or tie a handkerchief or
+towel around the wounded part and twist it very tight. If an arm or limb
+is the part injured, the person should be made to lie down, and the
+injured part should be held up. This is of itself an excellent means of
+stopping hemorrhage.
+
+~18. Nose-Bleed.~--For nose-bleed a very good remedy is holding one or
+both hands above the head. The head should be held up instead of being
+bent forward, and the corner of a dry handkerchief should be pressed
+into the bleeding nostril. It is well to bathe the face with very hot
+water, and to snuff hot water into the nostril if the bleeding is very
+severe. If the bleeding is very bad or is not readily stopped, a
+physician should be called.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Violent exercise is likely to injure the heart.
+
+2. Bad air makes the blood impure and disturbs the action of the heart.
+
+3. Unwholesome food produces bad blood.
+
+4. Too little sleep makes the blood poor.
+
+5. Proper clothing is necessary to make the blood circulate equally in
+different parts of the body.
+
+6. Violent anger may cause death by stopping the beating of the heart.
+
+7. Alcohol injures the blood.
+
+8. Alcohol overworks the heart.
+
+9. Alcohol enlarges the blood-vessels.
+
+10. Tobacco injures the blood.
+
+11. Tobacco weakens the heart and makes the pulse irregular.
+
+12. The use of strong tea and coffee causes palpitation of the heart.
+
+13. A cold is caused by a disturbance of the circulation. A cold should
+never be neglected.
+
+14. When an artery is wounded, the blood is bright red and flows in
+spurts.
+
+15. When a vein is wounded, the blood is purple and flows in a steady
+    stream.
+
+16. To stop bleeding from an artery, press on the side of the wound
+towards the heart, or on both sides of the wound.
+
+17. When a vein is wounded, press on the side away from the heart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+WHY AND HOW WE BREATHE.
+
+
+~1. An Experiment.~--Let us perform a little experiment. We must have a
+small bit of candle, a fruit jar, or a bottle with a large mouth, and a
+piece of wire about a foot long. Let us notice carefully what we are
+about to do and what happens.
+
+~2.~ We will fasten the candle to the end of the wire. Now we will light
+it, and next we will let it down to the bottom of the jar. Now place the
+cover on the top of the jar and wait the results. Soon the candle burns
+dimly and in a little time the light goes out altogether.
+
+~3.~ What do you think is the reason that the candle will not burn when
+shut up in a bottle? A candle uses air when it burns. If shut up in a
+small, tight place, it soon uses up so much air that it can burn no
+longer. Try the experiment again, and when the candle begins to burn
+dimly, take it out quickly. We see that at once the light burns bright
+again.
+
+~4.~ Suppose we shut the stove draught tight, what is the result? The
+fire will burn low, and after a time it will probably go out. Why is
+this? Evidently the stove needs air to make the wood or coal burn, just
+as the candle needs air to make it burn.
+
+~5. Animals Die without Air.~--If you should shut up a mouse or any
+other small animal in a fruit-jar, its life would go out just as the
+light of the candle went out. The little animal would die in a short
+time. A child shut up in a close place would die from the same cause in
+a very little time. In fact, many children are dying every day for want
+of a sufficient supply of pure air.
+
+~6. Oxygen.~--The reason why animals need air, and why the fire will not
+burn without it, is that the air contains _oxygen_, and it is the oxygen
+of the air which burns the wood or coal and produces heat. So it is the
+oxygen that burns in our bodies and keeps us warm.
+
+~7.~ When wood and coal are burned, heat is produced; but some parts of
+the fuel are not made into heat. While the fire burns, smoke escapes
+through the pipe or chimney; but a part of the fuel remains in the stove
+in the form of ashes. Smoke and ashes are the waste parts of the fuel.
+
+~8. Poison in the Breath.~--The burning which takes place in our bodies
+produces something similar to the smoke and ashes produced by the fire
+in a stove. The smoke is called _carbonic-acid gas_,[A] an invisible
+vapor, and escapes through the lungs. The ashes are various waste and
+poisonous matters which are formed in all parts of the body. These waste
+matters are carried out of the body through the skin, the kidneys, the
+liver, and other organs.
+
+~9. Another Experiment.~--We cannot see the gas escape from our lungs,
+but we can make an experiment which will show us that it really does
+pass out. Get two drinking-glasses and a tube. A glass tube is best, but
+a straw will do very well. Put a little pure water into one glass and
+the same quantity of lime-water into the other glass. Now put one end of
+the tube into the mouth and place the other end in the pure water.
+Breathe through the tube a few times. Look at the water in the glass and
+see that no change has taken place. Now breathe through the lime-water
+in the same way. After breathing two or three times, you will notice
+that the lime-water begins to look milky. In a short time it becomes
+almost as white as milk. This is because the lime-water catches the
+carbonic-acid gas which escapes from our lungs with each breath, while
+the pure water does not.
+
+~10. Why we Breathe.~--By this experiment we learn another reason why
+we breathe. We must breathe to get rid of the carbonic-acid gas, which
+is brought to the lungs by the blood to be exchanged for oxygen. There
+are two reasons then why we breathe: (_a_) to obtain oxygen; (_b_) to
+get rid of carbonic-acid gas.
+
+~11. How a Frog Breathes.~--Did you ever see a frog breathe? If not,
+improve the first opportunity to do so. You will see that the frog has a
+very curious way of breathing. He comes to the top of the water, puts
+his nose out a little, and then drinks the air. You can watch his throat
+and see him swallowing the air, a mouthful at a time, just as you would
+drink water.
+
+~12.~ If you had a chance to see the inside of a frog you would find
+there a queer-shaped bag. This is his air-bag. This bag has a tube
+running up to the throat. When the frog comes to the surface of the
+water he fills this bag with air. Then he can dive down into the mud out
+of sight until he has used up the supply of air. When the air has been
+changed to carbonic-acid gas, he must come to the surface to empty his
+air-bag and drink it full again.
+
+~13. The Lungs.~--We do not drink air as the frog does, but like the
+frog we have an air-bag in our bodies. Our air-bag has to be emptied
+and filled so often that we cannot live under water long at a time, as
+a frog does. We call this air-bag the lungs. We have learned before that
+the lungs are in the chest. We need so much air and have to change the
+air in our lungs so often that we would not have time to swallow it as a
+frog does. So nature has made for us a breathing apparatus of such a
+kind that we can work it like a pair of bellows. Let us now study our
+breathing-bellows and learn how they do their work.
+
+~14. The Windpipe and Air-tubes.~--A large tube called the _windpipe_
+extends from the root of the tongue down the middle of the chest. The
+windpipe divides into two main branches, which subdivide again and
+again, until the finest branches are not larger than a sewing-needle.
+The branches are called _bronchial tubes_. At the end of each tube is a
+cluster of small cavities called _air-cells_. The air-tubes and
+air-cells are well shown on the following page.
+
+~15. The Voice-box.~--If you will place the ends of your fingers upon
+your throat just above the breast-bone, you will feel the windpipe, and
+may notice the ridges upon it. These are rings of cartilage, a hard
+substance commonly called gristle. The purpose of these rings is to keep
+the windpipe open. Close under the chin you can find something which
+feels like a lump, and which moves up and down when you swallow.
+
+[Illustration: AIR-TUBES AND AIR-CELLS.]
+
+This is a little box made of cartilage, called the voice-box, because by
+means of this curious little apparatus we are able to talk and sing. Two
+little white bands are stretched across the inside of the voice-box.
+When we speak, these bands vibrate just as do the strings of the piano.
+These bands are called the _vocal cords_.
+
+~16. The Epiglottis.~--At the top of the voice-box is placed a curious
+trap-door which can be shut down so as to close the entrance to the
+air-passages of the lungs. This little door has a name rather hard to
+remember. It is called the _epiglottis_ (ep-i-glot´-tis). The cover of
+the voice-box closes whenever we swallow anything. This keeps food or
+liquids from entering the air passages. If we eat or drink too fast the
+voice-box will not have time to close its little door and prevent our
+being choked. Persons have been choked to death by trying to swallow
+their food too fast. Do you not think this is a very wonderful door that
+can open and shut just when it should do so without our thinking
+anything about it?
+
+~17. The Nostrils and the Soft Palate.~--The air finds its way to the
+lungs through the mouth or through the two openings in the nose called
+the _nostrils_. From each nostril, three small passages lead backward
+through the nose. At the back part of the nasal cavity the passages of
+the two sides of the nose come together in an open space, just behind
+the soft curtain which hangs down at the back part of the mouth. This
+curtain is called the _soft palate_. Through the opening behind this
+curtain the air passes down into the voice-box and then into the lungs.
+
+~18. The Pleura.~--In the chest the air tubes and lung of each side are
+enclosed in a very thin covering, called the _pleura_. The cavity of the
+chest in which the lungs are suspended is also lined by the pleura. A
+limpid fluid exudes from the pleura which keeps it moist, so that when
+the two surfaces rub together, as the lungs move, they do not become
+chafed and irritated.
+
+~19. Walls of the Chest.~--The ribs form a part of the framework of the
+chest. The ribs are elastic. The spaces between them are filled up with
+muscles, some of which draw the ribs together, while others draw them
+apart. Can you tell any reason why the walls of the chest are elastic?
+The lower wall or floor of the chest cavity is formed by a muscle called
+the _diaphragm_, which divides the trunk into two cavities, the chest
+and the abdomen.
+
+~20. How we Use the Lungs.~--Now let us notice how we use the lungs and
+what takes place in them. When we use a pair of bellows, we take hold of
+the handles and draw them apart. The sides of the bellows are drawn
+apart so that there is more room between the sides. The air then rushes
+in to fill the space. When the bellows are full, we press the handles
+together and the air is forced out.
+
+~21.~ It is in just this way that we breathe. When we are about to take
+a long breath, the muscles pull upon the sides of the chest in such a
+way as to draw them apart. At the same time the diaphragm draws itself
+downward. By these means, the cavity of the chest is made larger and air
+rushes in through the nose or mouth to fill the space. When the muscles
+stop pulling, the walls of the chest fall back again to their usual
+position and the diaphragm rises. The cavity of the chest then becomes
+smaller and the air is forced out through the nose or mouth. This
+process is repeated every time we breathe.
+
+~22.~ We breathe once for each four heart-beats. Small children breathe
+more rapidly than grown persons. We usually breathe about eighteen or
+twenty times in a minute.
+
+~23. How Much the Lungs Hold.~--Every time we breathe, we take into our
+lungs about two thirds of a pint of air and breathe out the same
+quantity. Our lungs hold, however, very much more than this amount. A
+man, after he has taken a full breath, can breathe out a gallon of air,
+or more than ten times the usual amount. After he has breathed out all
+he can, there is still almost half a gallon of air in his lungs which he
+cannot breathe out. So you see the lungs hold almost a gallon and a half
+of air.
+
+~24.~ Do you think you can tell why Nature has given us so much more
+room in the lungs than we ordinarily use in breathing? If you will run
+up and down stairs three or four times you will see why we need this
+extra lung-room. It is because when we exercise vigorously the heart
+works very much faster and beats harder, and we must breathe much faster
+and fuller to enable the lungs to purify the blood as fast as the heart
+pumps it into them.
+
+~25. The Two Breaths.~--We have learned that the air which we breathe
+out contains something which is not found in the air which we breathe
+in. This is carbonic-acid gas. How many of you remember how we found
+this out? We can also tell this in another way. If we put a candle down
+in a wide jar it will burn for some time. If we breathe into the jar
+first, however, the candle will go out as soon as we put it into the
+jar. This shows that the air which we breathe out contains something
+which will put a candle out. This is carbonic-acid gas, which is a
+poison and will destroy life.
+
+~26. Other Poisons.~--The air which we breathe out also contains other
+invisible poisons which are very much worse than the carbonic-acid gas.
+These poisons make the air of a crowded or unventilated room smell very
+unpleasant to one who has just come in from the fresh air. Such air is
+unfit to breathe.
+
+~27. The Lungs Purify the Blood.~--We have learned that the blood
+becomes dark in its journey through the body. This is because it loses
+its oxygen and receives carbonic-acid gas. While passing through the
+capillaries of the lungs, the blood gives out the carbonic-acid gas
+which it has gathered up in the tissues, and takes up a new supply of
+oxygen, which restores its scarlet hue.
+
+~28. How the Air is Purified.~--Perhaps it occurs to you that with so
+many people and animals breathing all the while, the air would after a
+time become so filled with carbonic-acid gas that it would be unfit to
+breathe. This is prevented by a wonderful arrangement of Nature. The
+carbonic-acid gas which is so poisonous to us is one of the most
+necessary foods for plants. Plants take in carbonic-acid gas through
+their leaves, and send the oxygen back into the air ready for us to use
+again.
+
+~29.~ We have already learned that the oxygen taken in by the lungs is
+carried to the various parts of the body by the little blood corpuscles.
+The effect of strong liquors is to injure these corpuscles so that they
+cannot carry so much oxygen as they ought to do. For this reason, the
+blood of a drunkard is darker in color than that of a temperate person,
+and contains more carbonic-acid gas. The drunkard's lungs may supply all
+the air he needs, but his blood has been so damaged that he cannot use
+it. Excessive smoking has a similar effect.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Our bodies need air, just as a candle or a fire does.
+
+2. A small animal shut up in a close jar soon dies for want of air. We
+need the oxygen which the air contains.
+
+3. Oxygen causes a sort of burning in our bodies.
+
+4. The burning in our bodies keeps us warm, and destroys some of the
+waste matters.
+
+5. The breathing organs are the windpipe and bronchial tubes, the
+voice-box, the epiglottis, the nostrils, the soft palate, the lungs, the
+air-cells, the pleura, the diaphragm, and the chest walls.
+
+6. When we breathe we use our lungs like a pair of bellows.
+
+7. A man's lungs hold nearly one and a half gallons of air.
+
+8. In ordinary breathing we use less than a pint of air, but when
+   necessary we can use much more.
+
+9. The air we breathe out contains carbonic-acid gas and another
+invisible poison.
+
+10. A candle will not burn in air which has been breathed, and animals
+die when confined in such air.
+
+11. The lungs purify the blood. While passing through the lungs, the
+color of the blood changes from purple to bright red.
+
+12. Plants purify the air by removing the carbonic-acid gas.
+
+13. Alcohol and tobacco injure the blood corpuscles so that they cannot
+take up the oxygen from the air which the lungs receive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE LUNGS HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. Pure Air Necessary.~--A person may go without eating for a month, or
+without drinking for several days, and still live; but a strong man will
+die in a few moments if deprived of air. It is very important that we
+breathe plenty of pure air. There are many ways in which the air becomes
+impure.
+
+~2. Bad Odors.~--Anything which rots or decays will in so doing produce
+an unpleasant odor. Bad odors produced in this way are very harmful and
+likely to make us sick. Many people have rotting potatoes and other
+vegetables in their cellars, and swill barrels, and heaps of refuse in
+their back yards. These are all dangerous to health, and often give rise
+to very serious disease. We should always remember that bad odors caused
+by decaying substances are signs of danger to health and life, and that
+these substances should be removed from us, or we should get away from
+them, as soon as possible.
+
+~3. Germs.~--The chief reason why bad odors are dangerous is that they
+almost always have with them little living things called _germs_. Germs
+are so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye: it takes a
+strong microscope to enable us to see them, but they are so powerful to
+do harm that if we receive them into our bodies they are likely to make
+us very sick, and they often cause death.
+
+~4. Contagious Diseases.~--You have heard about diphtheria and scarlet
+fever and measles, and other "catching diseases." When a person is sick
+with one of these diseases, the air about him is poisoned with germs or
+something similar, which may give the same disease to other persons who
+inhale it. So when a person is sick from one of these diseases, it is
+very important that he should be put in a room by himself and shut away
+from every one but the doctor and the nurse. It is also necessary that
+all the clothing and bedding used by the sick person, and everything in
+the room, as well as the room itself, should be carefully cleansed and
+disinfected when the person has recovered, so as to wipe out every trace
+of the disease. The writer has known many cases in which persons who
+have been sick with some of these diseases were careless and gave the
+disease to others who died of it, although they themselves recovered. Do
+you not think it very wrong for a person to give to another through
+carelessness a disease which may cause his death?
+
+~5.~ Unhealthful vapors and odors of various sorts arise from cisterns
+and damp, close places under a house. Rooms which are shaded and shut up
+so closely that fresh air and sunshine seldom get into them should be
+avoided as dangerous to health.
+
+~6. Breath-Poisoned Air.~--The most dangerous of all the poisons to
+which we are exposed through the air are those of the breath, of which
+we learned in a preceding lesson. We need plenty of fresh air to take
+the place of the air which we poison by our breath. Every time we
+breathe, we spoil at least _half a barrelful of air_. We breathe twenty
+times a minute, and hence spoil ten barrels of air in one minute. How
+many barrels would this make in one hour? We need an equal quantity of
+pure air to take the place of the spoiled air, or not less than ten
+barrels every minute, or _six hundred barrels every hour_.
+
+~7. Ventilation.~--The only way to obtain the amount of fresh air
+needed, when we are shut up in-doors, is to have some means provided by
+which the fresh air shall be brought in and the old and impure air
+carried out. Changing the air by such means is called _ventilation_.
+Every house, and especially every sleeping-room, should be well
+ventilated. School-houses, churches, and other places where many people
+gather, need perfect ventilation. Ask your teacher to show you how the
+school-room is ventilated; and when you go home, talk to your parents
+about the ventilation of the house in which you live.
+
+~8.~ Many people ventilate their houses by opening the doors and
+windows. This is a very good way of ventilating a house in warm weather,
+but is a very poor way in cold weather, as it causes cold draughts, and
+makes the floor cold, so that it is difficult to keep the feet warm. It
+is much better to have the air warmed by a furnace or some similar
+means, before it enters the rooms. There ought also to be in each room a
+register to take the foul air out, so that it will not be necessary to
+open the windows. This register should be placed at the floor, because
+when the pure air enters the room warm, it first rises to the upper part
+of the room, and then as it cools and at the same time becomes impure,
+it settles to the floor, where it should be taken out by the register.
+
+~9. How to Breathe.~--We should always take pains to expand the lungs
+well in breathing, and to use the entire chest, both the upper and the
+lower part. Clothing should be worn in such a way that every portion of
+the chest can be expanded. For this reason it is very wrong to wear the
+clothing tight about the waist. Clothing so worn is likely to cause the
+lungs to become diseased.
+
+~10. Bad Habits.~--Students are very apt to make themselves flat-chested
+and round-shouldered by leaning over their desks while writing or
+studying. This is very harmful. We should always use great care to sit
+erect and to draw the shoulders well back. Then, if we take pains to
+fill the lungs well a great many times every day, we shall form the
+habit of expanding the lungs, and shall breathe deeper, even when we are
+not thinking about doing so.
+
+~11. Breathing through the Nose.~--In breathing, we should always take
+care to draw the air in through the nose, and not through the mouth. The
+nose acts as a strainer, to remove particles of dust which might do harm
+if allowed to enter the lungs. It also warms and moistens the air in
+cold weather. The habit of breathing through the mouth often gives rise
+to serious disease of the throat and lungs.
+
+~12. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Lungs.~--Both alcohol and
+tobacco produce disease of the breathing organs. Smoking injures the
+throat and sometimes causes loss of smell. Serious and even fatal
+diseases of the lungs are often caused by alcohol.
+
+~13.~ Many people suppose that the use of alcohol will save a man from
+consumption. This is not true. A man may become a drunkard by the use of
+alcohol, and yet he is more likely to have consumption than he would
+have been if he had been a total abstainer. "Drunkard's consumption" is
+one of the most dreadful forms of this disease.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Pure air is as necessary as food and drink.
+
+2. Anything which is rotting or undergoing decay causes a bad odor, and
+thus makes the air impure.
+
+3. Foul air contains germs which cause disease and often death.
+
+4. Persons sick with "catching" diseases should be carefully avoided.
+Such persons should be shut away from those who are well, and their
+rooms and clothing should be carefully cleansed and disinfected.
+
+5. The breath poisons the air about us. Each breath spoils half a
+barrelful of air.
+
+6. We should change the air in our houses, or ventilate them, so that we
+may always have pure air.
+
+7. We should always keep the body erect, and expand the lungs well in
+breathing.
+
+8. The clothing about the chest and waist should be loose, so that the
+lungs may have room to expand.
+
+9. Always breathe through the nose.
+
+10. Tobacco causes disease of the throat and nose.
+
+11. Alcohol causes consumption and other diseases of the lungs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE SKIN AND WHAT IT DOES.
+
+
+~1. The Skin.~--The skin is the covering of the body. It fits so exactly
+that it has the precise shape of the body, like a closely fitting
+garment. If you will take up a little fold of the skin you will see that
+it can be stretched like a piece of india-rubber. Like rubber, when it
+is released it quickly contracts and appears as before.
+
+~2. The Bark of Trees.~--Did you ever peel the bark off of a young tree?
+If so, you have noticed that there were really two barks, an outer bark,
+as thin as paper, through which you could almost see, and an inner and
+much thicker bark, which lay next to the wood of the tree. You can peel
+the outer bark off without doing the tree much harm. Indeed, if you will
+notice some of the fruit or shade trees in the yard, at home, you will
+see that the outer bark of the tree peels itself off, a little at a
+time, and that new bark grows in its place. If you tear off the inner
+bark, however, it will injure the tree. It will make it bleed, or cause
+the sap to run. The sap is the blood of the tree. The bark is the skin
+of the tree. When the bare place heals over, an ugly scar will be left.
+
+~3. The Cuticle.~--Our bodies, like trees, have two skins, or really one
+skin with an outer and an inner layer. When a person burns himself so as
+to make a blister, the outer skin, called the _cuticle_, is separated
+from the inner by a quantity of water or serum poured out from the
+blood. This causes the blister to rise above the surrounding skin. If
+you puncture the blister the water runs out. Now we may easily remove
+the cuticle and examine it. The cuticle, we shall find, looks very much
+like the skin which lines the inside of an egg-shell, and it is almost
+as thin.
+
+~4.~ The cuticle is very thin in most parts of the body, but in some
+places, as the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, it is quite
+thick. This is because these parts of the skin come in contact with
+objects in such a way as to be liable to injury if not thus protected.
+The cuticle has no blood-vessels and very few nerves. With a fine needle
+and thread you can easily take a stitch in it without making it bleed or
+causing any pain.
+
+~5. The Pigment.~--The under side of the cuticle is colored by little
+particles of pigment or coloring matter. The color of this pigment
+differs in different races. In the negro, the color of the pigment is
+black. In some races the pigment is brown. In white persons there is
+very little pigment, and in some persons, called albinos, there is none
+at all.
+
+~6. The Inner or True Skin.~--The inner skin, like the inner bark of a
+tree, is much thicker than the outer skin. It is much more important,
+and for this reason is sometimes called the _true skin_. It contains
+nerves and blood-vessels.
+
+[Illustration: SKIN OF PALM OF HAND MAGNIFIED.]
+
+~7. The Sweat Glands.~--If you look at the palm of the hand you will see
+many coarse lines, and by looking much closer you will see that the palm
+is completely covered with very fine ridges and furrows. Now, if you
+examine these ridges with a magnifying-glass, you will find arranged
+along each ridge a number of little dark spots. Each of these points is
+the mouth of a very small tube. This is called a _sweat duct_. These
+ducts run down through both the outer and inner layers of the skin. At
+the under side of the true skin the end of the tube is rolled up in a
+coil, as you can see by looking at the illustration on the following
+page. The coiled parts of the tubes are called _sweat glands_, because
+they separate from the blood the fluid which we call sweat or
+perspiration.
+
+~8. The Oil Glands.~--There are other little glands in the skin which
+make fat or oil. The oil is poured out upon the skin to keep it soft and
+smooth.
+
+[Illustration: THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.]
+
+~9. The Hair.~--There are some curious little pockets in the skin. Out
+of each of these pockets grows a hair. On some parts of the body the
+hairs are coarse and long; on other parts they are fine and short.
+
+~10.~ Many of the ducts leading from the oil glands open into the
+pockets or pouches from which the hairs grow. The oil makes the hair
+soft and glossy. Nature has thus provided an excellent means for oiling
+the hair.
+
+~11.~ The hair is chiefly useful as a protection. It is also an
+ornament.
+
+~12. The Nails.~--The nails of the fingers and the toes grow out of
+little pockets in the skin just as the hairs do. Both the hair and the
+nails are really parts of the outer skin, which is curiously changed and
+hardened. The nails lie upon the surface of the true skin and grow from
+the under side as well as from the little fold of skin at the root of
+the nail. They are made to give firmness and protection to the ends of
+the fingers and toes. The nails of the fingers are also useful in
+picking up small objects and in many other ways.
+
+~13. Uses of the Skin.~--The skin is useful in several ways:
+
+(1) _It Removes Waste._--The sweat glands and ducts are constantly at
+work removing from the blood particles which have been worn out and can
+be of no further use. If we get very warm, or if we run or work very
+hard, the skin becomes wet with sweat. In a little while, if we stop to
+rest, the sweat is all gone. What becomes of it? You say it dries up,
+which means that it has passed off into the air. Sweating is going on
+all the time, but we do not sweat so much when we are quiet and are not
+too warm, and so the sweat dries up as fast as it is produced, and we do
+not see it. Nearly a quart of sweat escapes from the skin daily.
+
+(2) _Breathing through the Skin._--We breathe to a slight extent through
+the skin. There are some lower animals which breathe with their skins
+altogether. A frog can breathe with its skin so well that it can live
+for some time after its lungs have been removed. Breathing is an
+important part of the work of the skin, and we should be careful, by
+keeping it clean and healthy, to give it a good chance to breathe all
+that it can.
+
+(3) _The Skin Absorbs._--The skin absorbs many substances which come in
+contact with it, and hence should be kept clean. If the foul substances
+which are removed in the sweat are allowed to remain upon the skin, they
+may be taken back into the system and thus do much harm.
+
+(4) _The Skin has Feeling._--When anything touches the skin we know it
+by the feeling. We can tell a great many things about objects by feeling
+of them. If we happen to stick a pin into the skin we feel pain. We are
+also able to tell the difference between things which are hot and those
+which are cold. Thus the sense of feeling which the skin has is very
+useful to us.
+
+(5) _The Skin Protects the Body._--The skin is a natural clothing which
+protects us much better than any other kind of clothing could. It is so
+soft and pliable that it cannot hurt the most delicate part which it
+covers, yet it is very strong and tough.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The skin is the covering of the body. It has two layers, the outer,
+called the cuticle, and the inner, called the true skin.
+
+2. A substance called pigment is found between the two skins. This gives
+the skin its color.
+
+3. The true skin has blood-vessels and nerves, but the cuticle has no
+blood-vessels and very few nerves.
+
+4. In the true skin are glands which produce sweat, and others which
+make fat, or oil.
+
+5. The nails are really a part of the skin. They are firm and hard, and
+protect the ends of the fingers and the toes.
+
+6. The hair grows from the true skin. The hair is made soft and glossy
+by oil from the oil glands of the skin.
+
+7. The skin is a very useful organ. It removes waste matters, it
+breathes, it absorbs, it has feeling, and it protects the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE SKIN.
+
+
+~1. Uses of the Pores of the Skin.~--Many years ago, at a great
+celebration, a little boy was covered all over with varnish and gold
+leaf, so as to make him represent an angel. The little gilded boy looked
+very pretty for a short time, but soon he became very sick, and in a few
+hours he was dead. Can you guess what made him die? He died because the
+pores of his skin were stopped up, and the sweat glands could not carry
+off the poisonous matter from his body.
+
+~2. Cleanliness.~--Did you ever know of a boy who had his skin
+varnished? Not exactly, perhaps; but there are many boys who do not have
+their skins washed as often as they ought to be, and the sweat and oil
+and dead scales form a sort of varnish which stops up the little ducts
+and prevents the air from getting to the skin, almost as much as a coat
+of varnish would do.
+
+~3. The Sweat Glands.~--The sweat glands and ducts are like little
+sewers, made to carry away some of the impurities of the body. There are
+so many of them that, if they were all put together, they would make a
+tube two or three miles long. These little sewers drain off almost a
+quart of impurities in the form of sweat every day. So you see that it
+is very important for the skin to be kept clean and healthy.
+
+~4. Bathing.~--A bird takes a bath every day. Dogs and many other
+animals like to go into the water to bathe. Some of you have seen a
+great elephant take a bath by showering the water over himself with his
+trunk. To keep the skin healthy we should bathe frequently.
+
+~5.~ When we take a bath for cleanliness it is necessary to use a little
+soap, so as to remove the oil which is mixed up with the dry sweat, dead
+scales, and dirt which may have become attached to the skin.
+
+~6.~ It is not well to take hot baths very often, as they have a
+tendency to make the skin too sensitive. Bathing in cool water hardens
+the skin, and renders one less likely to take cold.
+
+~7. The Clothing.~--The skin should be protected by proper clothing, but
+it is not well to wear more than is necessary, as it makes the skin so
+sensitive that one is liable to take cold.
+
+~8. The Proper Temperature of Rooms.~--It is also very unwise for a
+person to keep the rooms in which he lives too warm, and to stay too
+much in-doors, as it makes him very liable to take cold when he goes
+out-of-doors. One who is out of doors in all kinds of weather seldom
+takes cold.
+
+~9. Care of the Hair and the Nails.~--The scalp should be kept clean by
+thorough and frequent washing and daily brushing. Hair oils are seldom
+needed. If the skin of the head is kept in a healthy condition, the hair
+requires no oil.
+
+~10.~ The habit of biting and picking the fingernails is a very
+unpleasant one, and keeps the nails in a broken and unhealthy condition.
+The nails should be carefully trimmed with a sharp knife or a pair of
+scissors.
+
+~11. Effects of Narcotics and Stimulants upon the Skin.~--Alcohol,
+tobacco, opium, and all other narcotics and stimulants have a bad effect
+upon the skin. Alcohol often causes the skin to become red and blotched,
+and tobacco gives it a dingy and unhealthy appearance.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. If the pores of the skin are closed, a person will die.
+
+2. We should bathe often enough to keep the skin clean.
+
+3. We should not keep our rooms too warm, and should avoid wearing too
+much clothing.
+
+4. Alcohol, tobacco, and other stimulants and narcotics injure the skin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE KIDNEYS AND THEIR WORK.
+
+
+~1. The Kidneys.~--The kidneys are among the most important organs of
+the body. They are in the cavity of the abdomen, near the back-bone, up
+under the lower border of the ribs. Perhaps you have seen the kidneys of
+a sheep or a hog. If you have, you know very nearly how the kidneys of
+our own bodies appear.
+
+[Illustration: KIDNEY.]
+
+~2. The Work of the Kidneys.~--The work of the kidneys is to separate
+from the blood certain very poisonous substances, which would soon cause
+our death if they were not removed. It is very important to keep these
+useful organs in good health, because a person is certain to die very
+soon when the kidneys are in any way seriously injured.
+
+~3. How to Keep the Kidneys Healthy.~--One way of keeping the kidneys in
+good health is to drink plenty of pure water, and to avoid eating too
+much meat and rich food. Pepper, mustard, and other hot sauces are very
+harmful to the kidneys.
+
+~4. Importance of Keeping the Skin Clean.~--The work of the kidneys is
+very similar to that of the skin; and when the skin does not do its full
+duty, the kidneys have to do more than they should, and hence are likely
+to become diseased. For this reason, persons who allow their skins to
+become inactive by neglecting to bathe frequently are apt to have
+disease of the kidneys.
+
+~5. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Kidneys.~--A piece of beef
+placed in alcohol soon becomes dry and hard, and shrivels up as though
+it had been burned. The effect upon the kidneys of drinking strong
+liquor is almost the same. Beer and hard cider also do the kidneys harm,
+sometimes producing incurable disease of these important organs.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The kidneys somewhat resemble the skin in their structure and in
+their work.
+
+2. The kidneys remove from the blood some poisonous substances.
+
+3. To keep the kidneys healthy we should drink plenty of water, avoid
+irritating foods and drinks, and keep the skin in health by proper
+bathing.
+
+4. The drinking of strong liquors often causes incurable disease of the
+kidneys.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+OUR BONES AND THEIR USES.
+
+
+~1. The Bones.~--In an earlier chapter we learned something about the
+bones. This we must try to recall. You will remember that we called the
+bones the framework of the body, just as the timbers which are first put
+up in building a house are called its frame.
+
+~2. The Skeleton.~--All the bones together make up the _skeleton_. (See
+page 95.) There are about two hundred bones in all. They are of many
+different shapes. They vary in size from the little bones of the ear,
+which are the smallest, to the upper bone of the leg, which is the
+largest in the body.
+
+~3.~ The skeleton is divided into four parts: the _skull_, the _trunk_,
+the _arms_, and the _legs_. We must learn something more about the bones
+of each part.
+
+~4. The Skull.~--The _skull_ is somewhat like a shell. It is made of a
+number of bones joined together in such a way as to leave a hollow place
+inside to hold the brain. The front part of the skull forms the
+framework of the face and the jaws. In each ear there are three curious
+little bones, which aid us in hearing.
+
+~5. The Trunk.~--The bones of the trunk are, the _ribs_, the
+_breast-bone_, the _pelvis_, and the _back-bone_. The bones of the trunk
+form a framework to support and protect the various organs within its
+cavities.
+
+~6. The Ribs.~--There are twelve _ribs_ on each side. The ribs join the
+back-bone at the back. They are connected by cartilage to the
+breast-bone in front. They look somewhat like the hoops of a barrel.
+With the breast-bone and the back-bone they form a bony cage to contain
+and protect the heart and the lungs.
+
+~7. The Pelvis.~--The pelvis is at the lower part of the trunk. It is
+formed by three bones, closely joined together. The large bones at
+either side are called the hip-bones. Each hip-bone contains a deep
+round cavity in which the upper end of the thigh-bone rests.
+
+~8. The Back-bone.~--The _back-bone_, or spinal column, is made up of
+twenty-four small bones, joined together in such a way that the whole
+can be bent in various directions. The skull rests upon the upper end of
+the spinal column. The lower end of the back-bone forms a part of the
+pelvis.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF A MAN.]
+
+~9. The Spinal Canal.~--Each of the separate bones that make up the
+back-bone has an opening through it, and the bones are so arranged, one
+above another, that the openings make a sort of canal in the back-bone.
+By the connection of the spinal column to the head, this canal opens
+into the cavity of the skull. Through this canal there passes a peculiar
+substance called the _spinal cord_, of which we shall learn more at
+another time.
+
+~10. The Arms.~--Each of the arms has five bones, besides the small
+bones of the hand. They are the _collar-bone_, which connects the
+shoulder to the breast-bone, the _shoulder-blade_, at the back of the
+shoulders, the _upper arm-bone_, between the shoulder and the elbow, and
+the two _lower arm-bones_, between the elbow and the wrist. There are
+eight little bones in the wrist, five in that part of the hand next to
+the wrist, and fourteen in the fingers and thumb.
+
+~11. The Legs.~--The bones of the leg are the _thigh_ or _upper
+leg-bone_, the _knee-pan_ or _knee-cap_, which covers the front of the
+knee, the two bones of the _lower leg_, the _heel-bone_ and six other
+bones in the _ankle_, five bones in that part of the foot next to the
+ankle, and fourteen bones in the _toes_.
+
+~12. Use of the Bones.~--The skeleton is not only necessary as a
+framework for the body, but it is useful in other ways. Some of the
+bones, as the skull, protect delicate parts. The brain is so soft and
+delicate that it would be very unsafe without its solid bony covering.
+The spinal cord also needs the protection which it finds in the strong
+but flexible back-bone. The bones help to move our hands and arms, and
+assist us in walking.
+
+~13. The Joints.~--The places where two or more bones are fastened
+together are called _joints_. Some joints we can move very freely, as
+those of the shoulder and the hip. Others have no motion at all, as
+those of the bones of the skull.
+
+~14. Cartilage.~--The ends of bones which come together to form a joint
+are covered with a smooth, tough substance, which protects the bone from
+wear. This is called _gristle_ or _cartilage_. You have, no doubt, seen
+the gristle on the end of a "soup-bone" or on one of the bones of a
+"joint of beef."
+
+~15.~ The joint contains a fluid to oil it, so that the ends of the
+bones move upon each other very easily. If the joints were dry, every
+movement of the body would be very difficult and painful.
+
+~16.~ The bones are held together at the joints by means of strong bands
+called _ligaments_.
+
+~17. How the Bones are Made.~--The bones are not so solid as they seem
+to be. The outside of most bones is much harder and firmer than the
+inside. Long bones, like those of the arms and the legs, are hollow. The
+hollow space is filled with _marrow_, in which are the blood-vessels
+which nourish the bone.
+
+~18. An Experiment.~--If you will weigh a piece of bone, then burn it in
+the fire for several hours, and then weigh it again, you will find that
+it has lost about one third of its weight. You will also notice that it
+has become brittle, and that it seems like chalk.
+
+~19. Why the Bones are Brittle.~--The hard, brittle portion of a bone
+which is left after it has been burned contains a good deal of chalk and
+other earthy substances, sometimes called bone-earth. It is this which
+makes the bones so hard and firm that they do not bend by the weight of
+the body. When we are young, the bones have less of this bone-earth, and
+so they bend easily, and readily get out of shape. When we get old, they
+contain so much bone-earth that they become more brittle, and often
+break very easily.
+
+~20.~ A person's height depends upon the length of his bones. The use of
+alcohol and tobacco by a growing boy has a tendency to stunt the growth
+of his bones, so that they do not develop as they should.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. There are about two hundred bones in the body.
+
+2. All together they are called the skeleton.
+
+  3. The skeleton is divided as follows:
+
+  _a._ The skull.
+
+                   { Ribs.
+  _b._ The trunk.  { Breast-bone.
+                   { Pelvis.
+                   { Back-bone.
+                   { Collar-bone.
+                   { Shoulder-blade.
+
+                   { Upper arm-bones.
+ _c._ The arms.    { Lower arm-bones.
+                   { Wrist.
+                   { Hand and fingers.
+
+                   { Thigh.
+                   { Knee-pan.
+  _d._ The legs.   { Lower-leg bones.
+                   { Ankle, including heel-bone.
+                   { Foot and toes.
+
+4. The bones are useful for support, protection, and motion.
+
+5. The place where two bones join is called a joint.
+
+6. The tough substance which covers the ends of many bones is called
+cartilage or gristle.
+
+7. The joints are enabled to work easily by the aid of a fluid secreted
+for that purpose.
+
+8. The ends of the bones are held together in a joint by means of
+ligaments.
+
+9. Bones are about two thirds earthy matter and one third animal matter.
+
+10. The use of alcohol and tobacco may prevent proper development of the
+bones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE BONES HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. Composition of the Bones.~--Our bones, like the rest of our bodies,
+are made of what we eat. If our food does not contain enough of the
+substances which are needed to make healthy bone, the bones will become
+unhealthy. They may be too soft and become bent or otherwise misshapen.
+This is one of the reasons why bread made from the whole grain is so
+much more healthful than that made from very fine white flour. In making
+fine white flour the miller takes out the very best part of the grain,
+just what is needed to make strong and healthy bones. Oatmeal is a very
+good food for making healthy bones.
+
+~2. Bones of Children.~--Sometimes little children try to walk before
+the bones have become hard enough to support the weight of the body.
+This causes the legs to become crooked. In some countries young children
+work in factories and at various trades. This is wrong, because it
+dwarfs their growth, and makes them puny and sickly.
+
+~3. Improper Positions.~--The bones are so soft and flexible when we
+are young that they are very easily bent out of shape if we allow
+ourselves to take improper positions in sitting, lying, or standing.
+This is the way in which flat and hollow chests, uneven shoulders,
+curved spines, and many other deformities are caused.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROPER POSITION.]
+
+~4.~ In sitting, standing, and walking, we should always take care to
+keep the shoulders well back and the chest well expanded, so that we may
+not grow misshapen and deformed. Many boys and girls have ugly curves in
+their backbones which have been caused by sitting at high desks with one
+elbow on the desk, thus raising the shoulder of that side so high that
+the spine becomes crooked. The illustrations on this and the following
+page show good and bad positions and also the effects of bad positions.
+
+[Illustration: PROPER POSITION.]
+
+~5. Seats and Desks.~--The seats and desks of school-children should be
+of proper height. The seats should be low enough to allow the feet to
+rest easily upon the floor, but not too low. The desk should be of such
+a height that, in writing, one shoulder will not be raised above the
+other. If a young person bends the body forward, he will, after a time,
+become round-shouldered and his chest will become so flattened that the
+lungs cannot be well expanded.
+
+[Illustration: DESK TOO HIGH.]
+
+~6.~ Standing on one foot, sitting bent forward when reading or at work,
+sleeping with the head raised high upon a thick pillow or bolster, are
+ways in which young persons often grow out of shape.
+
+[Illustration: SEAT TOO HIGH.]
+
+~7. The Clothing.~--Wearing the clothing tight about the waist often
+produces serious deformities of the bones of the trunk, and makes the
+chest so small that the lungs have not room to act properly. Tight or
+high-heeled shoes also often deform and injure the feet and make the
+gait stiff and awkward.
+
+~8. Broken Bones.~--By rough play or by accident the bones may be broken
+in two just as you might break a stick. If the broken parts are placed
+right, Nature will cement them together and make the bone strong again;
+but sometimes the bones do not unite, and sometimes they grow together
+out of proper shape, so that permanent injury is done.
+
+~9. Sprains.~--In a similar manner the ligaments which hold the bones
+together, in a joint, are sometimes torn or over-stretched. Such an
+accident is called a sprain. A sprain is a very painful accident, and a
+joint injured in this way needs to rest quite a long time so that the
+torn ligaments may grow together.
+
+~10. Bones out of Joint.~--Sometimes the ligaments are torn so badly
+that the ends of the bones are displaced, and then we say they are put
+out of joint. This is a very bad accident indeed, but it often happens
+to boys while wrestling or playing at other rough games.
+
+~11.~ Children sometimes have a trick of pulling the fingers to cause
+the knuckles to "crack." This is a very foolish and harmful practice. It
+weakens the joints and causes them to grow large and unsightly.
+
+~12.~ When a man uses alcohol and tobacco, their effects upon the bones
+are not so apparent as are the effects upon the blood, the nerves, and
+other organs; but when the poisonous drugs are used by a growing boy,
+their damaging influence is very plainly seen. A boy who smokes cigars
+or cigarettes, or who uses strong alcoholic liquors, is likely to be so
+stunted that even his bones will not grow of a proper length and he will
+become dwarfed or deformed.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. To keep the bones healthy they must have plenty of healthful food.
+
+2. The whole-grain preparations furnish the best food for the bones.
+
+3. Walking at too early an age often makes the legs crooked.
+
+4. Hard work at too early an age stunts the growth.
+
+5. Bad positions and tight or poorly-fitting clothing are common causes
+of flat chests, round shoulders, and other deformities.
+
+6. Tight or high-heeled shoes deform the feet and make the gait awkward.
+
+7. The bones may be easily broken or put out of joint, or the ligaments
+may be torn by rough play.
+
+8. Alcohol prevents healthy growth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+THE MUSCLES AND HOW WE USE THEM.
+
+
+~1. The Muscles.~--Where do people obtain the beefsteak and the
+mutton-chops which they eat for breakfast? From the butcher, you will
+say; and the butcher gets them from the sheep and cattle which he kills.
+If you will clasp your arm you will notice that the bones are covered by
+a soft substance, the flesh. When the skin of an animal has been taken
+off, we can see that some of the flesh is white or yellow and some of it
+is red. The white or yellow flesh is fat. The red flesh is lean meat,
+and it is composed of muscles.
+
+~2. The Number of Muscles.~--We have about five hundred different
+muscles in the body. They are arranged in such a way as to cover the
+bones and make the body round and beautiful. They are of different forms
+and sizes.
+
+~3.~ With a very few exceptions the muscles are arranged in pairs; that
+is, we have two alike of each form and size, one for each side of the
+body.
+
+~4. How a Muscle is Formed.~--If you will examine a piece of corned or
+salted beef which has been well boiled, you will notice that it seems to
+be made up of bundles of small fibres or threads of flesh. With a little
+care you can pick one of the small fibres into fine threads. Now, if you
+look at one of these under a microscope you find that it is made of
+still finer fibres, which are much smaller than the threads of a
+spider's web. One of these smallest threads is called a _muscular
+fibre_. Many thousands of muscular fibres are required to make a muscle.
+
+[Illustration: MUSCULAR FIBRES.]
+
+~5.~ Most of the muscles are made fast to the bones. Generally, one end
+is attached to one bone, and the other to another bone. Sometimes one
+end is made fast to a bone and the other to the skin or to other
+muscles.
+
+~6. The Tendons.~--Many of the muscles are not joined to the bones
+directly, but are made fast to them by means of firm cords called
+_tendons_. If you will place the thumb of your left hand upon the wrist
+of the right hand, and then work the fingers of the right hand, you may
+feel these cords moving underneath the skin.
+
+~7. What the Muscles Do.~--With the left hand grasp the right arm just
+in front of the elbow. Now shut the right hand tightly. Now open it.
+Repeat several times. The left hand feels something moving in the flesh.
+The motion is caused by the working of the muscles, which shorten and
+harden when they act.
+
+~8.~ All the movements of the body are made by means of muscles. When we
+move our hands, even when we close the mouth or the eyes, or make a wry
+face, we use the muscles. We could not speak, laugh, sing, or breathe
+without muscles.
+
+~9. Self-acting Muscles.~--Did you ever have a fit of sneezing or
+hiccoughing? If you ever did, very likely you tried hard to stop but
+could not. Do you know why one cannot always stop sneezing or
+hiccoughing when he desires to do so? It is because there are certain
+muscles in the body which do not act simply when we wish them to act,
+but when it is necessary that they should. The muscles which act when we
+sneeze or hiccough are of this kind. The arm and the hand do not act
+unless we wish them to do so. Suppose it were the same with the heart.
+We should have to stay awake all the while to keep it going, because it
+would not act when we were asleep. The same is true of our breathing. We
+breathe when we are asleep as well as when we are awake, because the
+breathing muscles work even when we do not think about them.
+
+~10.~ The stomach, the intestines, the blood-vessels, and many other
+organs within the body have this kind of muscles. The work of these
+self-acting muscles is very wonderful indeed. Without it we could not
+live a moment. This knowledge should lead us to consider how dependent
+we are, each moment of our lives, upon the delicate machinery by which
+the most important work of our bodies is performed, and how particular
+we should be to keep it in good order by taking proper care of
+ourselves.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The flesh, or lean meat, is composed of muscles.
+
+2. There are five hundred muscles in the body.
+
+3. Muscles are composed of many small threads called muscular fibres.
+
+4. Many of the muscles are joined to the bones by strong white cords
+called tendons.
+
+5. Muscular fibres can contract so as to lessen their length. It is in
+this way that the muscles perform their work.
+
+6. All bodily motions are due to the action of the muscles.
+
+7. Most of the muscles act only when we wish them to do so. Some
+muscles, however, act when it is necessary for them to do so, whether we
+will that they should act or not, and when we are asleep as well as when
+we are awake.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. How to Make the Muscles Strong.~--With which hand can you lift the
+more? with the right hand or with the left? Why do you think you can
+lift more with the right hand than with the left? A blacksmith swings a
+heavy hammer with his right arm, and that arm becomes very large and
+strong. If we wish our muscles to grow large and strong, so that our
+bodies will be healthy and vigorous, we must take plenty of exercise.
+
+~2. Effects of Idleness.~--If a boy should carry one hand in his pocket
+all the time, and use only the other hand and arm, the idle arm would
+become small and weak, while the other would grow large and strong. Any
+part of the body which is not used will after a time become weak. Little
+boys and girls who do not take plenty of exercise are likely to be pale
+and puny. It is important that we should take the proper amount of
+exercise every day, just as we take our food and drink every day.
+
+~3. Healthful Exercise.~--Some kinds of play, and almost all kinds of
+work which children have to do, are good ways of taking exercise. A very
+good kind of exercise for little boys and girls is that found in running
+errands or doing chores about the house.
+
+~4. Food and Strength.~--A great part of our food goes to nourish the
+muscles. Some foods make us strong, while others do not. Plain foods,
+such as bread, meat, potatoes, and milk, are good for the muscles; but
+cakes and pies, and things which are not food, such as mustard, pepper,
+and spices, do not give us strength, and are likely to do us harm.
+
+~5. Over-Exertion.~--We ought not to exert ourselves too much in lifting
+heavy weights, or trying to do things which are too hard for us.
+Sometimes the muscles are permanently injured in this way.
+
+~6. The Clothing.~--We ought not to wear our clothing so tight as to
+press hard upon any part of the body. If we do, it will cause the
+muscles of that part to become weak. If the clothing is worn tight about
+the waist, great mischief is often done. The lungs cannot expand
+properly, the stomach and liver are pressed out of shape, and the
+internal organs are crowded out of their proper places.
+
+~7. Tight Shoes.~--People are often made very lame from wearing tight
+shoes. Their muscles cannot act properly, and their feet grow out of
+shape.
+
+~8.~ In China, it is fashionable for rich ladies to have small feet, and
+they tie them up in cloths so that they cannot grow. The foot is
+squeezed out of shape. Here is a picture of a foot which has been
+treated in this way. It does not look much like a human foot, does it? A
+woman who has such feet finds it so difficult to walk that she has to be
+carried about much of the time. Do you not think it is very wrong and
+foolish to treat the feet so badly? You will say, "Yes;" but the Chinese
+woman thinks it is a great deal worse to lace the clothing tight about
+the body so as to make the waist small.
+
+[Illustration: FOOT OF CHINESE WOMAN.]
+
+~9. Effects of Alcohol upon the Muscles.~--When an intemperate man takes
+a glass of strong drink, it makes him feel strong; but when he tries to
+lift, or to do any kind of hard work, he cannot lift so much nor work so
+hard as he could have done without the liquor. This is because alcohol
+poisons the muscles and makes them weak.
+
+~10. Effects of Drunkenness.~--When a man has become addicted to strong
+drink, his muscles become partly paralyzed, so that he cannot walk as
+steadily or speak as readily or as clearly as before. His fingers are
+clumsy, and his movements uncertain. If he is an artist or a jeweller,
+he cannot do as fine work as when he is sober. When a man gets very
+drunk, he is for a time completely paralyzed, so that he cannot walk or
+move, and seems almost like a dead man.
+
+~11.~ If you had a good horse that had carried you a long way in a
+carriage, and you wanted to travel farther, what would you do if the
+horse were so tired that he kept stopping in the road? Would you let him
+rest and give him some water to drink and some nice hay and oats to eat,
+or would you strike him hard with a whip to make him go faster? If you
+should whip him he would act as though he were not tired at all, but do
+you think the whip would make him strong, as rest and hay and oats
+would?
+
+~12.~ When a tired man takes alcohol, it acts like a whip; it makes
+every part of the body work faster and harder than it ought to work, and
+thus wastes the man's strength and makes him weaker, although for a
+little while his nerves are made stupid, so that he does not know that
+he is tired and ought to rest.
+
+~13.~ When you grow up to be men and women you will want to have strong
+muscles. So you must be careful not to give alcohol a chance to injure
+them. If you never taste it in any form you will be sure to suffer no
+harm from it.
+
+~14. Effects of Tobacco on the Muscles.~--Boys who smoke cigars or
+cigarettes, or who chew tobacco, are not likely to grow up to be strong
+and healthy men. They do not have plump and rosy cheeks and strong
+muscles like other boys.
+
+~15.~ The evil effect of tobacco upon boys is now so well known that in
+many countries and in some states of this country laws have been made
+which do not allow alcohol or tobacco to be sold or given to boys. In
+Switzerland, if a boy is found smoking upon the streets, he is arrested
+just as though he had been caught stealing. And is not this really what
+a boy does when he smokes? He robs his constitution of its vigor, and
+allows tobacco to steal away from him the strength he will need when he
+becomes a man.
+
+~16. Tea and Coffee.~--Strong tea and coffee, while by no means so bad
+as alcohol and tobacco, may make us weak and sick. A person who drinks
+strong tea or coffee feels less tired while at work than if he had not
+taken it, but he is more tired afterwards. So you see that tea and
+coffee are also whips, small whips we might call them, and yet they
+really act in the same way as do other narcotics and stimulants. They
+make a person feel stronger than he really is, and thus he is led to use
+more strength than he can afford to do.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. We must use the muscles to make them grow large and strong.
+
+2. Exercise should be taken regularly.
+
+3. Exercise makes the muscles strong, the body beautiful, the lungs
+active, the heart vigorous, and the whole body healthy.
+
+4. Things we ought not to do: To run or play hard just before or after
+eating; to strain our muscles by lifting too heavy weights; to exercise
+so violently as to get out of breath; to lie, sit, stand, or walk in a
+cramped position, or awkward manner; to wear the clothing so tight as to
+press hard upon the muscles.
+
+5. Good food is necessary to make the muscles strong and healthy.
+
+6. Alcohol makes the muscles weak, although at first it makes us feel
+stronger.
+
+7. A boy who uses tobacco will not grow as strong and well as one who
+does not.
+
+8. The use of strong tea and coffee may injure the muscles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+HOW WE FEEL AND THINK.
+
+
+~1. How we Think.~--With what part of the body do we think? You will at
+once say that we think with the head; but we do not think with the whole
+head. Some parts of the head we use for other purposes, as the mouth to
+eat and speak with, and the nose to smell and breathe with. The part we
+think with is inside of the skull, safely placed in a little room at the
+top and back part of the head. Do you remember the name of this organ
+which fills the hollow place inside of the skull? We learned some time
+ago that it is called the _brain_. It is with the brain that we study
+and remember and reason. So the brain is one of the most important
+organs in our body, and we must try to learn all we can about it.
+
+~2. The Brain.~--You cannot see and examine your own brain because it is
+shut up in the skull; but perhaps you can find the brain of a sheep or a
+calf at the meat market. The brain of one of these animals looks very
+nearly like your own.
+
+~3. The Large Brain and the Small Brain.~--In examining a brain we
+should notice first of all that there are really two brains, a _large
+brain_ and a _small brain_. The large brain is in the top and front of
+the skull, and the small one lies beneath the back part of the larger
+one, If we look again we shall see that each brain is divided in the
+middle into a right and a left half. Each half is, in fact, a complete
+brain, so that we really have two pairs of brains.
+
+[Illustration: THE BRAIN.]
+
+~4. Brain Cells.~--The brain is a curious organ of a grayish color
+outside and white inside. It is soft, almost like jelly, and this is why
+it is placed so carefully in a strong, bony box. If we should put a
+little piece of the brain under a microscope, we should find that it is
+made up of a great number of very small objects called _nerve_ or
+_brain cells_. In the illustration you can see some of these brain
+cells.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN CELLS.]
+
+~5. The Nerves.~--Each cell has one or more branches. Some of the
+branches are joined to the branches of other cells so as to unite the
+cells together, just as children take hold of one another's hands. Other
+branches are drawn out very long.
+
+~6.~ The long branches are such slender threads that a great number of
+them together would not be as large as a fine silk thread. A great many
+of these fine nerve threads are bound up in little bundles which look
+like white cords. These are called _nerves_.
+
+~7.~ The nerves branch out from the brain through openings in the skull,
+and go to every part of the body. Every little muscle fibre, the heart,
+the stomach, the lungs, the liver, even the bones--all have nerves
+coming to them from the brain. So you see that the brain is not wholly
+shut up in the skull, because its cells have slender branches running
+into all parts of the body; and thus the brain itself is really in every
+part of the body, though we usually speak of it as being entirely in the
+skull.
+
+~8. The Spinal Cord.~--There are a number of small holes in the skull
+through which the nerves pass out, but most of the nerves are bound up
+in one large bundle and pass out through an opening at the back part of
+the skull and runs downward through a long canal in the backbone. This
+bundle of nerves forms the _spinal cord_. The spinal cord contains cells
+also, like those of the brain. It is really a continuation of the brain
+down through the backbone.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD.]
+
+~9. Nerves from the Spinal Cord.~--The spinal cord gives off branches of
+nerves which go to the arms, the chest, the legs, and other parts. One
+of the branches which goes to the hand runs along the back side of the
+arm, passing over the elbow. If we happen to strike the elbow against
+some sharp object, we sometimes hit this nerve. When we do so, the under
+side of the arm and the little finger feel very numb and strange. This
+is why you call this part of the elbow the "funny" or "crazy bone." The
+cells of the spinal cord also send out branches to the body and to other
+cells in the brain.
+
+~10. How we Feel.~--If we cut or burn ourselves we suffer pain. Can you
+tell why it hurts us to prick the flesh with a pin, or to pinch or burn
+or bruise it? It is because the flesh contains a great many
+nerve-branches from the brain. When we hurt the skin or the flesh, in
+any way, these nerves are injured. There are so many of these little
+nerves in the flesh and skin that we cannot put the finest needle into
+the flesh without hurting some of them.
+
+~11. The Use of Pain.~--It is not pleasant for us to have pain, but if
+the nerves gave us no pain when we are hurt we might get our limbs
+burned or frozen and know nothing about it until too late to save them.
+
+~12. Nerves of Feeling.~--We have different kinds of nerves of feeling.
+Those we have learned about feel pain. Others feel objects. If you take
+a marble or a pencil in the hand you know what it is by the feeling of
+the object. This kind of feeling is called the sense of touch.
+
+~13.~ There are other nerves of feeling by means of which we are able to
+hear, see, taste, and smell, of which we shall learn in another lesson.
+Besides these we have nerves which tell us whether objects are cold or
+hot, and heavy or light. Nerves of feeling also tell us when we are
+hungry, or thirsty, or tired, and when we need more air to breathe.
+
+~14. Nerves of Work.~--There are other nerves which are made just like
+the nerves of feeling, but which do not feel. These nerves have a very
+different use. They come from cells in the brain which have charge of
+the different kinds of work done in the body, and they send their
+branches to the parts which do the work; hence we call them _nerves of
+work_.
+
+~15.~ One set of cells sends nerves to the heart, and these make it go
+fast or slow as is necessary. Another sends nerves to the liver,
+stomach, and other digestive organs, and causes them to do their part in
+the digestion of the food. Other cells send branches to the muscles and
+make them act when we wish them to do so. Thus you see how very useful
+the brain and nerves are. They keep all the different parts of the body
+working together in harmony, just like a well-trained army, or a great
+number of workmen building a block of houses. Without the brain and
+nerves the body would be just like an army without a commander, or a lot
+of workmen without an overseer.
+
+~16. How we Use the Nerves.~--If you happen to touch your hand to a hot
+stove, what takes place? You will say that your arm pulls the hand away.
+Do you know why? Let us see. The nerves of feeling in the hand tell the
+nerve cells in the brain from which they come that the hand is being
+burned. The cells which feel cannot do anything for the hand, but some
+of their branches run over to another part of the brain, which sends
+nerves down to the muscles of the arm. These cells, through their nerve
+branches, cause the muscles to contract. The cells of feeling ask the
+cells which have charge of the muscles to make the muscles of the arm
+pull the hand away, which they do very quickly.
+
+~17.~ So you see the nerves are very much like telegraph or telephone
+wires. By means of them the brain finds out all about what is happening
+in the body, and sends out its orders to the various organs, which may
+be called its servants.
+
+~18. An Experiment.~--A man once tried an experiment which seemed very
+cruel. He took a dove and cut open its skull and took out its large
+brain. What do you think the effect was? The dove did not die at once,
+as you would expect. It lived for some time, but it did not know
+anything. It did not know when it was hungry, and would not eat or drink
+unless the food or water was placed in its mouth. If a man gets a blow
+on his head, so hard as to break his skull, the large brain is often
+hurt so badly that its cells cannot work, and so the man is in the same
+condition as the poor dove. He does not know anything. He cannot think
+or talk, and lies as though he were asleep.
+
+~19.~ By these and many other facts we know that the large brain is the
+part with which we remember, think, and reason. It is the seat of the
+mind. We go to sleep because the large brain is tired and cannot work
+any longer. We stop thinking when we are sound asleep, but sometimes we
+do not sleep soundly, and then the large brain works a little and we
+dream.
+
+~20. What the Little Brain Does.~--The little brain[B] thinks too, but
+it does not do the same kind of thinking as the large brain. We may use
+our arms and legs and many other parts when we wish to do so; and if we
+do not care to use them we may allow them to remain quiet. This is not
+the case with some other organs. It is necessary, for example, that the
+heart, the lungs, and many other organs of the body should keep at work
+all the time. If the large brain had to attend to all of these
+different kinds of work besides thinking about what we see, hear, and
+read, and other things which we do, it would have too much work to do,
+and would not be able to do it all well. Besides, the large brain
+sometimes falls asleep. So the large brain lets the little brain do the
+kinds of work which have to be attended to all the time, and the little
+brain keeps steadily at work when we are asleep as well as when we are
+awake.
+
+~21. What the Spinal Cord Does.~--If you tickle a person's foot when he
+is asleep, he will pull it up just as he would if he were awake, only
+not quite so quickly. What do you suppose makes the muscles of the leg
+contract when the brain is asleep and does not know that the foot is
+being tickled? And here is another curious fact. When you were coming to
+school this morning you did not have to think about every step you took.
+Perhaps you were talking or looking over your lessons; but your legs
+walked right along all the time, and without your thinking about them.
+Can you tell how?
+
+~22.~ It would be too much trouble for the large brain to stop to think
+every time we step, and the little brain has work enough to do in taking
+care of the heart and lungs and other organs, without keeping watch of
+the feet when we are asleep, so as to pull them up if some mischievous
+person tickles them. So Nature puts a few nerve cells in the spinal cord
+which can do a certain easy kind of thinking. When we do things over and
+over a great many times, these cells, after a time, learn to do them
+without the help of the large brain. This is the way a piano-player
+becomes so expert. He does not have to think all the time where each
+finger is to go. After the tunes have been played a great many times,
+the spinal cord knows them so well that it makes the hands play them
+almost without any effort of the large brain.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The part of the body with which we think is the brain.
+
+2. The brain is found filling the hollow place in the skull.
+
+3. There are two brains, the large brain and the small brain.
+
+4. Each brain is divided into two equal and complete halves, thus making
+two pairs of brains.
+
+5. The brain is largely made up of very small objects called nerve or
+brain cells.
+
+6. The nerve cells send out very fine branches which form the nerves.
+
+7. The nerve branches or fibres run to every part of the body. They pass
+out from the brain to the rest of the body through a number of openings
+in the skull.
+
+8. Most of the nerve branches pass out through a large opening at the
+back of the skull, in one large bundle called the spinal cord.
+
+9. The spinal cord runs down through a canal in the backbone, and all
+along gives off branches to the various parts of the body.
+
+10. It gives us pain to prick or hurt the flesh in any way, because when
+we do so we injure some of the little nerve branches of the brain cells.
+
+11. When we suffer, we really feel a pain in the brain. We know this
+because if a nerve is cut in two, we may hurt the part to which it goes
+without giving any pain.
+
+12. We have different kinds of nerves of feeling.
+
+13. There are other nerves besides those of feeling. These are nerves of
+work.
+
+14. The nerves of work have charge of the heart, the lungs, the muscles,
+the liver, the stomach, and every part of the body which can work or
+act.
+
+15. The brain and nerves control the body and make all the different
+parts work together in harmony, just as a general controls an army.
+
+16. The brain uses the nerves very much as a man uses the telephone or
+telegraph wires.
+
+17. With the large brain we remember, think, and reason.
+
+18. The little brain does the simple kind of thinking, by means of which
+the heart, lungs, and other vital organs are kept at work even when we
+are asleep.
+
+19. The spinal cord does a still more simple kind of work. It enables us
+to walk and to do other familiar acts without using the large brain to
+think every moment just what we are doing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE BRAIN AND NERVES HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. Uses of the Brain.~--What do you think a boy or girl would be good
+for without any brain or nerves? Such a boy or girl could not see, hear,
+feel, talk, run about, or play, and would not know any more than a
+cabbage or a potato knows. If the brain or nerves are sick, they cannot
+work well, and so are not worth as much as when they are healthy.
+
+~2. The Brain Sympathizes with Other Organs.~--Did you ever have a
+headache? Did you feel happy and good-natured when your head ached hard,
+and could you study and play as well as when you are well? It is very
+important that we should keep our brain and nerves healthy, and to do
+this we must take good care of the stomach and all other organs, because
+the brain sympathizes with them when they are sick.
+
+~3. We must have Pure Air.~--How do you feel when the school-room is too
+warm and close? Do you not feel dull and sleepy and so stupid that you
+can hardly study? This is because the brain needs good, pure blood to
+enable it to work well. So we must always be careful to have plenty of
+pure air to breathe.
+
+~4. We should Exercise the Brain.~--What do we do when we want to
+strengthen our muscles? We make them work hard every day, do we not? The
+exercise makes them grow large and strong. It is just the same with our
+brains. If we study hard and learn our lessons well, then our brains
+grow strong, and study becomes easy. But if we only half study, and do
+not learn our lessons perfectly, then the study does not do our brains
+very much good.
+
+~5. We should Take Muscular Exercise.~--When you get tired of study, an
+hour's play, or exercise of some sort, rests you and makes you feel
+brighter, so that you can learn more easily. This is because exercise is
+necessary to make the blood circulate well. It will then carry out the
+worn-out particles and supply the brain and nerves with fresh, pure
+blood. So the same exercise which makes our muscles strong makes our
+brains healthier also.
+
+~6. We should be Careful of our Diet.~--We ought to eat plenty of good,
+simple food, such as milk, fruits, grains, and vegetables. It is not
+well for children to eat freely of meat, as it is very stimulating and
+likely to excite the brain and make the nerves irritable. Mustard,
+pepper, and all hot sauces and spices have a tendency to injure the
+brain and nerves.
+
+~7. We should Allow the Brain to Rest at the Proper Time.~--When we are
+tired and sleepy we cannot think well, and cannot remember what we learn
+if we try to study. If we have plenty of sleep, free from bad or
+exciting dreams, we awake in the morning rested and refreshed, because
+while we have been asleep Nature has put the brain and nerves in good
+repair for us. We ought not to stay up late at night. We should not eat
+late or hearty suppers, as this will prevent our sleeping well.
+
+~8. We Ought Not to Allow Ourselves to Become Angry.~--When a person
+flies into a passion he does his brain and nerves great harm. It is
+really dangerous to get angry. Persons have dropped dead instantly in a
+fit of anger.
+
+~9. We should Shun Bad Habits.~--Bad habits are very hard to give up,
+and hence we should be careful to avoid them. When a child learns to
+swear, or to use slang phrases, the brain after a while will make him
+swear or use bad words before he thinks. In a similar manner other bad
+habits are acquired.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. A person without a brain or nerves would be of no more account than a
+vegetable.
+
+2. When the brain or nerves are sick they cannot perform their duties
+properly.
+
+3. To keep the brain and nerves in good health, we must take good care
+of the stomach and all other important organs of the body.
+
+4. There are many things which we may do to keep the brain and nerves
+strong and well.
+
+5. The brain needs pure blood, and so we must be careful to breathe pure
+air.
+
+6. The brain gets strength by exercise, just as the muscles do. Hence,
+study is healthful, and makes the brain strong.
+
+7. A good memory is very necessary, but we should not try to remember
+everything.
+
+8. It is very important that we learn how to observe things closely.
+
+9. Exercise in the open air rests and clears the brain by helping the
+blood to circulate.
+
+10. Plenty of wholesome and simple food is necessary to keep the brain
+and nerves in good health. Spices, condiments, and rich foods in general
+are stimulating and harmful.
+
+11. Plenty of sleep is needed to rest the brain and nerves.
+
+12. It is dangerous as well as wicked to become very angry.
+
+13. We should be careful to avoid forming bad habits of any sort, as
+they are hard to break, and often adhere to one through life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+BAD EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
+
+
+~1. Drunkenness.~--Did you ever see a man who was drunk? If you live in
+a city it is very likely that you have. How did the drunken man behave?
+Perhaps he was noisy and silly. Perhaps he was angry and tried to pick a
+quarrel with some one.
+
+~2.~ What made the man drunk? You say whiskey, but it may have been
+wine, or beer, or hard cider that he drank. Anything that contains
+alcohol will make a man drunk, for it is the alcohol which does all the
+mischief.
+
+~3. The Whiskey Flush.~--You can almost always tell when a man has been
+drinking, even when he has not taken enough to make him drunk. You know
+by his flushed face and red eyes. When a man's face blushes from the use
+of alcohol, his whole body blushes at the same time. His muscles, his
+lungs, and his liver blush; his brain and spinal cord blush also.
+
+~4.~ When a man has taken just enough alcohol to make his face blush a
+little, the extra amount of blood in the brain makes him think and talk
+more lively, and he is very jolly and gay. This makes many people think
+that alcohol does them good. But if we notice what a man says when he is
+excited by alcohol, we shall find that his remarks are often silly and
+reckless. He says very unwise and foolish things, for which he feels
+sorry when he becomes sober.
+
+~5. Alcohol Paralyzes.~--How does a drunken man walk? Let us see why he
+staggers. When a man takes a certain amount of alcohol his small brain
+and spinal cord become partly paralyzed, so that they cannot do their
+duty well; and so, when he tries to walk he reels and stumbles along,
+often falling down, and sometimes hurting himself very much. The fact is
+that the alcohol has put his spinal cord and small brain to sleep so
+that he cannot make his legs do what he wants them to do. Now, if still
+more alcohol is taken the whole brain becomes paralyzed, and then the
+man is so nearly dead that we say he is "dead drunk." It is exceedingly
+dangerous to become dead drunk, as the brain may be so completely
+paralyzed that it will not recover.
+
+~6.~ A small amount of alcohol does not make a man dead drunk, but it
+poisons and paralyzes his brain and nerves just according to the
+quantity he takes.
+
+~7.~ If a person holds a little alcohol in his mouth for a few moments,
+the tongue and cheeks feel numb. This is because the alcohol paralyzes
+them so that they cannot feel or taste. When taken into the stomach it
+has much the same kind of effect upon the nerves of the whole body.
+
+~8. Alcohol a Deceiver.~--A hungry man takes a drink of whiskey and
+benumbs the nerves of his stomach so that he does not feel hungry.
+Alcohol puts to sleep the sentinels which Nature has set in the body to
+warn us of danger. A man who is cold takes alcohol and feels warm,
+though he is really colder. He lies down in his false comfort and
+freezes to death. A tired man takes his glass of grog and feels rested
+and strong, though he is really weaker than before. A poor man gets
+drunk and feels so rich that he spends what little money he has. The
+alcohol paralyzes his judgment and steals away his good sense. Thus
+alcohol is always a deceiver.
+
+~9. Delirium Tremens.~ (De-lir´-i-um Tre´-mens.)--When a man takes
+strong liquors regularly he very soon injures his brain and nerves so
+that they do not get quiet, as they should, at night, and he does not
+sleep well. He has frightful dreams. He sees all sorts of wild animals
+and horrid shapes in his dreams. Perhaps you have sometimes had such
+dreams from eating late suppers or indigestible food.
+
+~10.~ Did you ever have a dream when you were awake? If a man drinks a
+great deal he is likely to have a terrible disease known as _delirium
+tremens_, in which he sees the same frightful things when he is wide
+awake that he dreams about when he is asleep. This is one of the
+terrible effects of alcohol upon the brain and nerves.
+
+~11. Alcohol Paralysis.~--You have seen how a drunken man staggers when
+he walks. Did you ever see a man who walked just as though he were drunk
+when he was really sober? This is because a part of the brain or spinal
+cord has been permanently injured or paralyzed. Alcohol is not the only
+cause of this disease, and so you must not think every person who
+staggers is or has been a drunkard; but alcohol is a very frequent cause
+of paralysis.
+
+~12. Effects of Alcohol upon the Mind and Character.~--When a man is
+under the influence of alcohol is his character good or bad? Is a man
+likely to be good, or to be bad, when he is drunk or excited by drink?
+Most men behave badly when they are drunk, and after they have been
+drunk a great many times they often behave badly all the time. A great
+many of the men who are shut up in prisons would not have been sent
+there if they had never learned to drink.
+
+~13. A Legacy.~--Do you know what a legacy is? If your father should die
+and leave to you a fine house or farm, or money in the bank, or books,
+or horses, or any other kind of property to have for your own, it would
+be a legacy. When a person gets anything in this way from a parent we
+say that he inherits it.
+
+~14.~ We inherit a great many things besides houses and lands and other
+kinds of property. For instance, perhaps you remember hearing some one
+say that you have eyes and hair the same color as your mother's, and
+that your nose and chin are like your father's. So you have inherited
+the color of your hair and eyes from your mother and the shape of your
+chin and nose from your father.
+
+~15. The Alcohol Legacy.~--The inside of a boy's head is just as much
+like his parents' as the outside of it. In other words, we inherit our
+brains just as we do our faces. So, if a man spoils his brain with
+alcohol and gets an alcohol appetite, his children will be likely to
+have unhealthy brains and an appetite for alcohol also, and may become
+drunkards. Is not that a dreadful kind of legacy to inherit?
+
+~16.~ A child that has no mind is called an idiot. Such a child cannot
+talk, or read, or sing, and does not know enough to take proper care of
+itself. This is one of the bad legacies which drunken parents sometimes
+leave to their children.
+
+~17. Effects of Tobacco on the Brain and Nerves.~--The effects of
+tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as those of alcohol.
+Tobacco, like alcohol, is a narcotic. It benumbs and paralyzes the
+nerves, and it is by this means that it obtains such an influence over
+those who use it.
+
+~18.~ The hand of a man or boy who uses tobacco often becomes so
+unsteady that he can scarcely write. Do you know what makes it so
+unsteady? It is because the cells which send nerves to the muscles of
+the hand are diseased. When a person has a trembling hand you say he is
+nervous. If you feel his pulse you will find that it does not beat
+steadily and regularly as it ought to do. The heart is nervous and
+trembles just the same as the muscles do. This shows that the tobacco
+has poisoned the cells in the brain which regulate the heart.
+
+~19.~ Wise physicians will tell you that one reason why tobacco is bad
+for boys is that it hurts their brains so that they cannot learn well,
+and do not become as useful and successful men as they might be.
+
+~20.~ Students in the naval and military schools of this country are not
+allowed to use tobacco on account of its bad effects upon the mind. In
+France the use of tobacco is forbidden to all students in the public
+schools.
+
+~21. Tobacco Leads to Vice.~--Boys who use tobacco are more liable to
+get into company with boys who have other bad habits, and so are apt to
+become bad in many other ways. The use of tobacco often makes men want
+strong drink, and thus leads to drunkenness. If you wish to grow up with
+a steady hand, a strong heart, and a good character you will never touch
+tobacco.
+
+~22. Effects of Tea and Coffee on the Nerves.~--People who use strong
+tea and coffee are often inclined to be nervous. This shows that strong
+tea and coffee, like alcohol and tobacco, are very injurious to the
+nerves.
+
+~23. Opium, Chloral, etc.~--There are several drugs which are given by
+physicians to relieve pain or to produce sleep. They are sometimes
+helpful, but their use is very dangerous. Opium and chloral belong to
+this class of medicines. The danger is that, after a person has used the
+medicine a little while, he will continue to use it. If a person takes a
+poisonous drug every time he has a little pain, he will soon form the
+habit of using it, and may never break it off. There are many thousands
+of people who use opium all the time, and they are very much injured by
+it in mind and body. The mind becomes dull and stupid and the body weak
+and feeble. No medicine of this sort should ever be taken unless
+prescribed by a physician.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. In order to be well and useful we must keep the brain and nerves
+healthy.
+
+2. To keep the brain healthy we need plenty of pure air to breathe;
+proper exercise of the brain by study; sufficient exercise of the
+muscles in play and work; plenty of good food to make pure blood; a
+proper amount of rest and sleep.
+
+3. There are several things we ought not to do. We should not read or
+study too much. We should not allow ourselves to become excited or
+angry. We should avoid learning bad habits.
+
+4. Alcohol paralyzes the brain and nerves.
+
+5. Alcohol deceives a person who takes it by making him feel strong when
+he is weak; warm when he is cold; rich when he is poor; well when he is
+sick.
+
+6. Alcohol makes men wicked. Most men who commit crimes are men who use
+liquor.
+
+7. The effects of tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as
+those of alcohol. Tobacco is very injurious to the mind.
+
+8. Tobacco-using often leads boys to drunkenness and other vices.
+
+9. The use of opium and chloral produces even worse effects than the use
+of alcohol or tobacco.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOW WE HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE, AND FEEL.
+
+
+~1. The Senses.~--We have five senses--_hearing_, _seeing_, _smelling_,
+_tasting_, and _feeling_. These are called special senses because they
+are very different from each other. They also differ from the general
+sense of feeling by means of which we feel pain when any part is hurt.
+
+~2. Organs of the Special Senses.~--Each of the special senses has a
+special set of nerves and also special cells in the brain which have
+charge of them. We say that we see with our eyes, hear with our ears,
+feel with our fingers, etc.; but, really, we see, hear, taste, and smell
+in the brain just as we feel in the brain. The eyes, ears, nose, and
+other organs of the special senses are the instruments by means of which
+the brain sees, hears, smells, etc.
+
+~3. Sound and the Vibrations which it Causes.~--All sounds are made by
+jars or vibrations of objects. Sounds cause objects to vibrate or
+tremble. A loud sound sometimes jars a whole house, while other sounds
+are so gentle and soft that we cannot feel them in the same way that we
+feel loud sounds. But Nature has made for us an ingenious organ by means
+of which we can feel these very fine vibrations as well as loud ones. We
+call this organ the _ear_.
+
+~4. The Ear.~--The part of the ear which we can see is shaped somewhat
+like a trumpet. The small opening near the middle of the ear leads into
+a _canal_ or tube which extends into the head about an inch. At the
+inner end there is a curious little chamber. This is called the _drum_
+of the ear, because between it and the canal of the ear there is
+stretched a thin membrane like the head of a drum. The ear-drum is also
+called the _middle ear_.
+
+[Illustration: THE EAR.]
+
+~5. Bones of the Ear.~--Within the drum of the ear there are three
+curious little bones which are joined together so as to make a complete
+chain, reaching from the drum-head to the other side of the drum. The
+last bone fits into a little hole which leads into another curious
+chamber. This chamber, which is called the _inner ear_, is filled with
+fluid, and in this fluid the nerve of hearing is spread out. A part of
+the inner ear looks very much like a snail shell.
+
+[Illustration: THE INSIDE OF THE EAR.]
+
+~6. How we Hear.~--Scratch with a pin upon one end of a long wooden
+pole. Have some one listen with the ear placed close against the other
+end of the pole. He will tell you that he hears the scratching of the
+pin very plainly. This is because the scratching jars the ear and
+especially the drum-head, which vibrates just as the head of a drum does
+when it is beaten with a drum-stick. When the drum-head vibrates it
+moves the bones of the ear, and these carry the vibration to the nerves
+of hearing in the inner chamber. We hear all sounds in the same way,
+only most sounds come to the ear through the air.
+
+The snail-shell of the inner part of the ear hears musical sounds. The
+rest of the inner ear hears ordinary sounds or noises.
+
+~7. How to Keep the Ears Healthy.~--The ears are very delicate organs
+and must be carefully treated. The following things about the care of
+the ears should never be forgotten:
+
+(1.) Never use a pin, toothpick, or any other sharp instrument to clean
+out the ear. There is great danger that the drum-head will be torn, and
+thus the hearing will be injured. Neither is it ever necessary to use an
+ear-spoon to remove the wax. Working at the ear causes more wax to form.
+
+(2.) Do not allow cold water to enter the ear or a cold wind to blow
+directly into it.
+
+(3.) If anything accidentally gets into the ear, do not work at it, but
+hold the head over to one side while water is made to run in from a
+syringe. If an insect has gone into the ear, pour in a little oil. This
+will kill the insect or make it come out.
+
+(4.) Never shout into another person's ear. The ear may be greatly
+injured in this way.
+
+(5.) Boxing or pulling the ears is likely to produce deafness, and ought
+never to be done.
+
+~8. The Eye.~--The eye is one of the most wonderful organs in the whole
+body. It enables us to know what is going on at some distance from us,
+and to enjoy many beautiful things which our sense of hearing and other
+senses can tell us nothing about. It also enables us to read. Let us
+learn how this wonderful organ is made.
+
+~9. The Eyeball.~--Looking at the eye, we see first a round part which
+rolls in different directions. This is the _eyeball_. We see only the
+front side of the eyeball as it fits into a hollow in the skull. Being
+thus in a safe place, it is not likely to get hurt.
+
+[Illustration: THE EYE.]
+
+The eyeball is mostly filled with a clear substance very much like
+jelly. It is so clear that the light can shine through it just as easily
+as it can shine through water.
+
+~10. The Pupil.~--If you look sharply at the eyeball you will see a
+small black hole just in the centre. This is a little window which lets
+the light into the inside of the eyeball. We call this the _pupil_. Just
+around the pupil is a colored ring which gives the eye its color. We say
+a person has blue or brown or gray eyes according as this ring is blue
+or brown or gray. This colored ring is a kind of curtain for the window
+of the eye.
+
+~11.~ If you observe the pupil closely, you will see that it is
+sometimes larger and sometimes smaller. If you look at the light the
+pupil is small; if you turn away from the light the pupil grows larger
+at once. This is because the curtain closes when in a bright light and
+opens in the darkness. It does this of itself without our thinking about
+it. In this way the eye is protected from too strong a light, which
+would do it great harm.
+
+~12.~ If you look a little sidewise at the eyeball, you will see that
+the curtain has something in front of it which is clear as glass. It is
+about the shape of a watch crystal, only very much smaller. This is to
+the eye what the glass is to the windows of a house. It closes the
+opening in the front of the eyeball and yet lets the light shine in.
+
+~13. The White of the Eye.~--The white of the eye is a tough, firm
+membrane which encloses the eyeball and keeps it in a round shape.
+
+~14. The Lens.~--Do you know what a lens is? Perhaps you do not know it
+by this name, but you are familiar with the spectacles which people
+sometimes wear to help their eyes. The glasses in the spectacle frames
+are called lenses. Well, there is something in the eye almost exactly
+like one of these lenses, only smaller. It is also called a _lens_. If
+some one will get the eye of an ox for you, you can cut it open and find
+this part. The lens is placed in the eyeball just behind the pupil. (See
+picture.)
+
+[Illustration: THE INSIDE OF THE EYE.]
+
+~15. The Nerves of Sight.~--But a person might have an eyeball with all
+the parts we have learned about and yet not be able to see. Can you tell
+what more is needed? There must be a nerve. This nerve comes from some
+little nerve cells in the brain and enters the eyeball at the back of
+the eye; there it is spread out on the inside of the black lining of the
+white of the eye.
+
+~16. The Eyelids.~--Now we know all that it is necessary for us to learn
+about the eyeball, so let us notice some other parts about the eye.
+First there are the eyelids. They are little folds of skin fringed with
+hairs, which we can shut up so as to cover the eyeball and keep out the
+light when we want to sleep or when we are in danger of getting dust or
+smoke into the eye. The hairs placed along the edge of the lids help to
+keep the dust out when the eyes are open.
+
+~17. The Eyebrows.~--The row of hairs placed above the eye is called the
+eyebrow. Like the eyelids, the eyebrows catch some substances which
+might fall into the eye, and they also serve to turn off the
+perspiration and keep it out of the eyes.
+
+~18. The Tear Gland.~--Do you know where the tears come from? There is a
+little gland snugly placed away in the socket of the eye just above the
+eyeball, which makes tears in the same way that the salivary glands make
+saliva. It is called the _tear gland_. The gland usually makes just
+enough tears to keep the eye moist. There are times when it makes more
+than enough, as when something gets into the eye, or when we suffer pain
+or feel unhappy. Then the tears are carried off by means of a little
+tube which runs down into the nose from the inner corner of the eye.
+When the tears are formed so fast that they cannot all get away through
+this tube, they pass over the edge of the lower eyelid and flow down the
+cheek.
+
+~19. Muscles of the Eyes.~--By means of little muscles which are
+fastened to the eyeball, we are able to turn the eye in almost every
+direction.
+
+~20. How we See.~--Now we want to know how we see with the eye. This is
+not very easy to understand, but we can learn something about it. Let us
+make a little experiment. Here is a glass lens. If we hold it before a
+window and place a piece of smooth white paper behind it, we can see a
+picture of the houses and trees and fences, and other things
+out-of-doors. The picture made by the lens looks exactly like the view
+out-of-doors, except that it is upside down. This is one of the curious
+things that a lens does. The lens of the eye acts just like a glass
+lens. It makes a picture of everything we see, upon the ends of the
+nerves of sight which are spread out at the back of the eyeball. The
+nerves of sight tell their nerves in the brain about the picture, just
+as the nerves of feeling tell their cells when they are touched with a
+pin; and this is how we see.
+
+~21.~ Did you ever look through a spyglass or an opera-glass? If so, you
+know you must make the tube longer or shorter according as you look at
+things near by or far away. The eye also has to be changed a little
+when we look from near to distant objects. Look out of the window at a
+tree a long way off. Now place a lead pencil between the eyes and the
+tree. You can scarcely see the pencil while you look sharply at the
+tree, and if you look at the pencil you cannot see the tree distinctly.
+
+~22.~ There is a little muscle in the eye which makes the change needed
+to enable us to see objects close by as well as those which are farther
+away. When people grow old the little muscles cannot do this so well,
+and hence old people have to put on glasses to see objects near by, as
+in reading. Children should not try to wear old persons' glasses, as
+this is likely to injure their eyes.
+
+~23. How to Keep the Eyes Healthy.~--(1.) Never continue the use of the
+eyes at fine work, such as reading or fancy-work, after they have become
+very tired.
+
+(2.) Do not try to read or to use the eyes with a poor light--in the
+twilight, for instance, before the gas or lamps are lighted.
+
+(3.) In reading or studying, do not sit with the light from either a
+lamp or a window shining directly upon the face. Have the light come
+from behind and shine over the left shoulder if possible.
+
+(4.) Never expose the eyes to a sudden, bright light by looking at the
+sun or at a lamp on first awaking in the morning, or by passing quickly
+from a dark room into a lighted one.
+
+(5.) Do not read when lying down, or when riding on a street car or
+railway train.
+
+(6.) If any object gets into the eye have it removed as soon as
+possible.
+
+(7.) A great many persons hurt their eyes by using various kinds of
+eye-washes. Never use anything of this kind unless told to do so by a
+good physician.
+
+~24. How we Smell.~--If we wish to smell anything very strongly, we
+sniff or suddenly draw the air up through the nose. We do this to bring
+more air to the nerves of smell, which are placed at the upper part of
+the inside of the nose.
+
+[Illustration: INSIDE OF THE NOSE.]
+
+~25.~ Smelling is a sort of feeling. The nerves of smell are so
+sensitive that they can discover things in the air which we cannot taste
+or see. An Indian uses his sense of smell to tell him whether things
+are good to eat or not. He knows that things which have a pleasant smell
+are likely to be good for him and not likely to make him sick.
+
+We do not make so much use of the sense of smell as do the savages and
+many lower animals, and hence we are not able to smell so acutely. Many
+persons lose the sense of smell altogether, from neglecting colds in the
+head.
+
+~26. How we Taste.~--The tongue and the palate have very delicate nerves
+by means of which we taste. We cannot taste with the whole of the
+tongue. The very tip of the tongue has only nerves of touch or feeling.
+
+~27.~ The use of the sense of taste is to give us pleasure and to tell
+us whether different substances are healthful or injurious. Things which
+are poisonous and likely to make us sick almost always have an
+unpleasant taste as well as an unpleasant odor. Things which have a
+pleasant taste are usually harmless.
+
+~28. Bad Tastes.~--People sometimes learn to like things which have a
+very unpleasant taste. Pepper, mustard, pepper-sauce, and other hot
+sauces, alcohol, and tobacco are harmful substances of this sort. When
+used freely they injure the sense of taste so that it cannot detect and
+enjoy fine and delicate flavors. These substances, as we have elsewhere
+learned, also do the stomach harm and injure the nerves and other parts
+of the body.
+
+~29. The Sense of Touch.~--If you put your hand upon an object you can
+tell whether it is hard or soft, smooth or rough, and can learn whether
+it is round or square, or of some other shape. You are able to do this
+by means of the nerves of touch, which are found in the skin in all
+parts of the body. If you wished to know how an object feels, would you
+touch it with the elbow, or the knee, or the cheek? You will say, No.
+You would feel of it with the hand, and would touch it with the ends of
+the fingers. You can feel objects better with the ends of the fingers
+because there are more nerves of touch in the part of the skin covering
+the ends of the fingers than in most other parts of the body.
+
+~30.~ The sense of touch is more delicate in the tip of the tongue than
+in any other part. This is because it is necessary to use the sense of
+touch in the tongue to assist the sense of taste in finding out whether
+things are good to eat or not. The sense of touch is also very useful to
+us in many other ways. We hardly know how useful it really is until we
+are deprived of some of our other senses, as sight or hearing. In a
+blind man the sense of touch often becomes surprisingly acute.
+
+~31. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Special Senses.~--All the
+special senses--hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling--depend upon
+the brain and nerves. Whatever does harm to the brain and nerves must
+injure the special senses also. We have learned how alcohol and tobacco,
+and all other narcotics and stimulants, injure and sometimes destroy the
+brain cells and their nerve branches, and so we can understand that a
+person who uses these poisonous substances will, by so doing, injure the
+delicate organs with which he hears, sees, smells, etc.
+
+~32.~ Persons who use tobacco and strong drink sometimes become blind,
+because these poisons injure the nerves of sight. The ears are
+frequently injured by the use of tobacco. Smoking cigarettes and
+snuff-taking destroy the sense of smell. The poison of the tobacco
+paralyzes the nerves of taste so that they cannot detect flavors.
+Tea-tasters and other persons who need to have a delicate sense of taste
+do not use either alcohol or tobacco.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. We have five special senses--hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and
+feeling.
+
+2. The ear is the organ of hearing, and has three parts, called the
+external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The inner ear contains
+the nerve of hearing.
+
+3. The middle ear is separated from the external ear by the drum-head.
+The drum-head is connected with the inner ear by a chain of bones.
+
+4. Sounds cause the drum-head to vibrate. The ear-bones convey the
+vibration from the drum-head to the nerve of hearing.
+
+5. To keep the ear healthy we must avoid meddling with it or putting
+things into it.
+
+6. The eye is the organ of sight. The chief parts of the eye are the
+eyeball, the socket, and the eyelids.
+
+7. In the eyeball are the pupil, the lens, and the nerve of sight.
+
+8. The eyeball is moved in various directions by six small muscles.
+
+9. The eye is moistened by tears from the tear-gland.
+
+10. When we look at an object the lens of the eye makes a picture on the
+nerve of sight, at the back part of the eyeball.
+
+11. To keep the eyes healthy we should be careful not to tax them long
+at a time with fine work, or to use them in a poor light.
+
+12. The nerves of smell are placed in the upper part of the inside of
+the nose.
+
+13. "Colds" often destroy the sense of smell.
+
+14. The nerves of taste are placed in the tongue and palate.
+
+15. Many things which we think we taste we really do not taste, but
+smell or feel.
+
+16. Objects which have a pleasant taste are usually healthful, while
+those which have a bad taste are usually harmful.
+
+17. Pepper, mustard, etc., as well as alcohol and tobacco, have an
+unpleasant taste, and are not healthful. If we use them we shall injure
+the nerves of taste as well as other parts of the body.
+
+18. We feel objects by means of the sense of touch.
+
+19. The sense of touch is most acute at the tip of the tongue and the
+ends of the fingers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+ALCOHOL.
+
+
+~1.~ As we learned in the early part of our study of this subject,
+alcohol is produced by _fermentation_. It is afterwards separated from
+water and other substances by _distillation_. We will now learn a few
+more things about alcohol.
+
+~2. Alcohol Burns.~--If alcohol is placed in a lamp, it will burn much
+like kerosene oil. Indeed, it does not need a lamp to help it burn as
+does oil. If a few drops of alcohol are placed upon a plate, it may be
+lighted with a match, and will burn with a pale blue flame. Thus you see
+that alcohol is a sort of burning fluid.
+
+~3.~ The vapor of alcohol will burn also, and under some circumstances
+it will explode. On this account it is better not to try any experiments
+with it unless some older person is close by to direct you, so that no
+harm may be done. Alcohol is really a dangerous substance even though we
+do not take it as a drink.
+
+~4. An Interesting Experiment.~--We have told you that all fermented
+drinks contain alcohol. You will remember that wine, beer, ale, and
+cider are fermented drinks. We know that these drinks contain alcohol
+because the chemist can separate the alcohol from the water and other
+substances, and thus learn just how much alcohol each contains.
+
+~5.~ If we should remove all the alcohol from wine, no one would care to
+drink it. The same is true of beer and cider. It is very easy to remove
+the alcohol by the simple process of heating. This is the way the
+chemist separates it. The heat drives the alcohol off with the steam. If
+the heating is continued long enough, all the alcohol will be driven
+off. The Chinaman boils his wine before drinking it. Perhaps this is one
+reason why Chinamen are so seldom found drunken.
+
+~6.~ By a simple experiment which your parents or your teacher can
+perform for you, it can be readily proven that different fermented
+drinks contain alcohol, and also that the alcohol may be driven off by
+heat. Place a basin half full of water upon the stove where it will soon
+boil. Put into a glass bottle enough beer or cider so that when the
+bottle stands up in the basin the liquid in the bottle will be at about
+the same height as the water in the basin. Now place in the neck of the
+bottle a closely fitting cork in which there has been inserted a piece
+of the stem of a clay pipe or a small glass tube. Place the bottle in
+the basin. Watch carefully until the liquid in the bottle begins to
+boil. Now apply a lighted match to the end of the pipe-stem or glass
+tube. Perhaps you will observe nothing at first, but continue placing
+the match to the pipe-stem, and pretty soon you will notice a little
+blue flame burning at the end of the stem. It will go out often, but you
+can light it again. This is proof that alcohol is escaping from the
+liquid in the bottle. After the liquid has been boiling for some time,
+the flame goes out, and cannot be re-lighted, because the alcohol has
+been all driven off.
+
+[Illustration: Alcohol experiment.]
+
+~7. The Alcohol Breath.~--You have doubtless heard that a person who is
+under the influence of liquor may be known by his breath. His breath
+smells of alcohol. This is because his lungs are trying to remove the
+alcohol from his blood as fast as possible, so as to prevent injury to
+the blood corpuscles and the tissues of the body. It is the vapor of
+alcohol mixed with his breath that causes the odor.
+
+~8.~ You may have heard that sometimes men take such quantities of
+liquor that the breath becomes strong with the vapor of alcohol and
+takes fire when a light is brought near the mouth. These stories are
+probably not true, although it sometimes happens that persons become
+diseased in such a way that the breath will take fire if it comes in
+contact with a light. Alcohol may be a cause of this kind of disease.
+
+~9. Making Alcohol.~--It may be that some of our young readers would
+like to find out for themselves that alcohol is really made by
+fermentation. This may be done by an easy experiment. You know that
+yeast will cause bread to "rise" or ferment. As we have elsewhere
+learned, a little alcohol is formed in the fermentation of bread, but is
+driven off by the heat of the oven in baking, so that we do not take any
+of it into our stomachs when we eat the bread. If we place a little
+baker's yeast in sweetened water, it will cause it to ferment and
+produce alcohol. To make alcohol, all we have to do is to place a little
+yeast and some sweetened water in a bottle and put it away in a warm
+place for a few hours until it has had time to ferment. You will know
+when fermentation has taken place by the great number of small bubbles
+which appear. When the liquid has fermented, you may prove that alcohol
+is present by means of the same experiment by which you found the
+alcohol in cider or wine. (See page 160.)
+
+~10.~ Alcohol is made from the sweet juices of fruits by simply allowing
+them to ferment. Wine, as you know, is fermented grape juice. Cider is
+fermented apple juice. The strong alcoholic liquor obtained by
+distilling wine, cider, or any kind of fermented fruit juice, is known
+as brandy.
+
+~11. How Beer is Made.~--Beer is made from grain of some sort. The grain
+is first moistened and kept in a warm place for a few days until it
+begins to sprout. The young plant needs sugar for its food; and so while
+the grain is sprouting, the starch in the grain is changed into sugar by
+a curious kind of digestion. This, as you will remember, is the way in
+which the saliva acts upon starch. So far no very great harm has been
+done, only sprouted grain, though very sweet, is not so good to eat as
+grain which has not sprouted. Nature intends the sugar to be used as
+food for the little sproutlet; but the brewer wants it for another
+purpose, and he stops the growth of the plant by drying the grain in a
+hot room.
+
+~12.~ The next thing the brewer does is to grind the sprouted grain and
+soak it in water. The water dissolves out the sugar. Next he adds yeast
+to the sweet liquor and allows it to ferment, thus converting the sugar
+into alcohol. Potatoes are sometimes treated in a similar way.
+
+~13.~ By distilling beer, a strong liquor known as whiskey is obtained.
+Sometimes juniper berries are distilled with the beer. The liquor
+obtained is then called gin. In the West Indies, on the great sugar
+plantations, large quantities of liquor are made from the skimmings and
+cleanings of the vessels in which the sweet juice of the sugar-cane is
+boiled down. These refuse matters are mixed with water and fermented,
+then distilled. This liquor is called rum.
+
+~14.~ Now you have learned enough about alcohol to know that it is not
+produced by plants in the same way that food is, but that it is the
+result of a sort of decay. In making alcohol, good food is destroyed and
+made into a substance which is not fit for food, and which produces a
+great amount of sickness and destroys many lives. Do you not think it a
+pity that such great quantities of good corn and other grains should be
+wasted in this way when they might be employed for a useful purpose?
+
+~15. The Alcohol Family.~--Scientists tell us that there are several
+different kinds of alcohol. Naphtha is a strong-smelling liquid
+sometimes used by painters to thin their paint and make it dry quickly.
+It does not have the same odor as alcohol, but it looks and acts very
+much like it. It will burn as alcohol does. It kills animals and plants.
+It will make a person drunk if he takes a sufficient quantity of it.
+Indeed, it is so like alcohol that it really is a kind of alcohol.
+
+~16.~ There are also other kinds of alcohol. Fusel-oil, a deadly poison,
+is an alcohol. A very small amount of this alcohol will make a person
+very drunk. Fusel-oil is found in bad whiskey. (All whiskey is bad, but
+some kinds are worse than others.) This is why such whiskey makes men so
+furiously drunk. It also causes speedy death in those who use it
+frequently. There are still other kinds of alcohol, some of which are
+even worse than fusel-oil. So you see this is a very bad family.
+
+~17.~ Like most other bad families, this alcohol family has many bad
+relations. You have heard of carbolic acid, a powerful poison. This is
+one of the relatives of the alcohol family. Creosote is another
+poisonous substance closely related to alcohol. Ether and chloroform, by
+which people are made insensible during surgical operations, are also
+relatives of alcohol. They are, in fact, made from alcohol. These
+substances, although really useful, are very poisonous and dangerous. Do
+you not think it will be very wise and prudent for you to have nothing
+to do with alcohol in any form, even wine, beer, or cider, since it
+belongs to such a bad family and has so many bad relations?
+
+~18.~ Some persons think that they will suffer no harm if they take only
+wine or beer, or perhaps hard cider. This is a great mistake. A person
+may get drunk on any of these drinks if a sufficient amount be taken.
+Besides, boys who use wine, beer, or cider, rarely fail to become fond
+of stronger liquors. A great many men who have died drunkards began with
+cider. Cider begins to ferment within a day or two after it is made, and
+becomes stronger in alcohol all the time for many months.
+
+~19. "Bitters."~--There are other liquids not called "drinks" which
+contain alcohol. "Bitters" usually contain more alcohol than is found in
+ale or wine, and sometimes more than in the strongest whiskey. "Jamaica
+ginger" is almost pure alcohol. Hence, it is often as harmful for a
+person to use these medicines freely as to use alcoholic liquors in any
+other form.
+
+~20.~ Alcoholic liquors of all kinds are often adulterated. That is,
+they contain other poisons besides alcohol. In consequence of this,
+they may become even more harmful than when pure; but this does not make
+it safe to use even pure liquor. Alcohol is itself more harmful than the
+other drugs usually added in adulteration. It is important that you
+should know this, for many people think they will not suffer much harm
+from the use of alcohol if they are careful to obtain pure liquors.
+
+~21. Some Experiments.~--How many of you remember what you have learned
+in previous lessons about the poisonous effects of alcohol? Do people
+ever die at once from its effects? Only a short time ago a man made a
+bet that he could take five drinks of whiskey in five seconds. He
+dropped dead when he had swallowed the fourth glass. No one ever
+suffered such an effect from taking water or milk or any other good food
+or drink.
+
+~22.~ A man once made an experiment by mistake. He was carrying some
+alcohol across a lawn. He accidentally spilled some upon the grass. The
+next day he found the grass as dead and brown as though it had been
+scorched by fire.
+
+~23.~ Mr. Darwin, the great naturalist, once made a curious experiment.
+He took a little plant with three healthy green leaves, and shut it up
+under a glass jar where there was a tea-spoonful of alcohol. The
+alcohol was in a dish by itself, so it did not touch the plant; but the
+vapor of the alcohol mixed with the air in the jar so that the plant had
+to breathe it. In less than half an hour he took the plant out. Its
+leaves were faded and somewhat shrivelled. The next morning it appeared
+to be dead. Do you suppose the odor of milk or meat, or of any good
+food, would affect a plant like that? Animals shut up with alcohol die
+in just the same way.
+
+~24. A Drunken Plant.~--How many of you remember about a curious plant
+that catches flies? Do you remember its name? What does the Venus's
+fly-trap do with the flies after it catches them? Do you say that it
+eats them? Really this is what it does, for it dissolves and absorbs
+them. In other words, it digests them. This is just what our stomachs do
+to the food we eat.
+
+~25.~ A few years ago Mr. Darwin thought that he would see what effect
+alcohol would have upon the digestion of a plant. So he put a
+fly-catching plant in a jar with some alcohol for just five minutes. The
+alcohol did not touch the plant, because the jar was only wet with the
+alcohol on the inside. When he took the plant out, he found that it
+could not catch flies, and that its digestion was spoiled so that it
+could not even digest very tender bits of meat which were placed on its
+leaves. The plant was drunk.
+
+~26.~ Mr. Darwin tried a great many experiments with various poisons,
+and found that the plants were affected in much the same way by ether
+and chloroform, and also by nicotine, the poisonous oil of tobacco.
+Sugar, milk, and other foods had no such effect. This does not look much
+as though alcohol would help digestion; does it?
+
+~27. Effects of Alcohol on Digestion.~--Dr. Roberts, a very eminent
+English scientist, made many experiments, a few years ago, to ascertain
+positively about the effect of alcohol upon digestion. He concluded that
+alcohol, even in small doses, delays digestion. This is quite contrary
+to the belief of very many people, who suppose that wine, cider, or
+stronger liquors aid digestion. The use of alcohol in the form of beer
+or other alcoholic drinks is often a cause of serious disease of the
+stomach and other digestive organs.
+
+~28. Effects of Alcohol on Animal Heat.~--A large part of the food we
+eat is used in keeping our bodies warm. Most of the starch, sugar, and
+fat in our food serves the body as a sort of fuel. It is by this means
+that the body is kept always at about the same temperature, which is
+just a little less than one hundred degrees. This is why we need more
+food in very cold weather than in very warm weather.
+
+~29.~ When a person takes alcohol, it is found that instead of being
+made warmer by it, he is not so warm as before. He feels warmer, but if
+his temperature be ascertained by means of a thermometer placed in his
+mouth, it is found that he is really colder. The more alcohol a person
+takes the colder he becomes. If alcohol were good food would we expect
+this to be the case? It is probably true that the alcohol does make a
+little heat, but at the same time it causes us to lose much more heat
+than it makes. The outside of the body is not so warm as the inside.
+This is because the warm blood in the blood-vessels of the skin is
+cooled more rapidly than the blood in the interior of the body. The
+effect of alcohol is to cause the blood-vessels of the outside of the
+body to become much enlarged. This is why the face becomes flushed. A
+larger amount of warm blood is brought from the inside of the body to
+the outside, where it is cooled very rapidly; and thus the body loses
+heat, instead of gaining it, under the influence of alcohol. This is not
+true of any proper food substance.
+
+~30. Alcohol in the Polar Regions.~--Experience teaches the same thing
+as science respecting the effect of alcohol. Captain Ross, Dr. Kane,
+Captain Parry, Captain Hall, Lieutenant Greely, and many other famous
+explorers who have spent long months amid the ice and snow and intense
+cold of the countries near the North Pole, all say that alcohol does not
+warm a man when he is cold, and does not keep him from getting cold.
+Indeed, alcohol is considered so dangerous in these cold regions that no
+Arctic explorer at the present time could be induced to use it. The
+Hudson Bay Company do not allow the men who work for them to use any
+kind of alcoholic liquors. Alcohol is a great deceiver, is it not? It
+makes a man think he is warmer, when he is really colder. Many men are
+frozen to death while drunk.
+
+~31. Alcohol in Hot Regions.~--Bruce, Livingstone, and Stanley, and all
+great African travellers, condemn the use of alcohol in that hot country
+as well as elsewhere. The Yuma Indians, who live in Arizona and New
+Mexico, where the weather is sometimes much hotter than we ever know it
+here, have made a law of their own against the use of liquor. If one of
+the tribe becomes drunk, he is severely punished. This law they have
+made because of the evil effects of liquor which they noticed among the
+members of their tribe who used to become intoxicated. Do you not think
+that a very wise thing for Indians to do?
+
+~32. Sunstroke.~--Do you know what sunstroke is? If you do not, your
+parents or teacher will tell yow that persons exposed to the heat of the
+sun on a hot summer day are sometimes overcome by it. They become weak,
+giddy, or insensible, and not infrequently die. Scores of people are
+sometimes stricken down in a single day in some of our large cities. It
+may occur to you that if alcohol cools the body, it would be a good
+thing for a person to take to prevent or relieve an attack of sunstroke.
+On the contrary, it is found that those who use alcoholic drinks are
+much more liable to sunstroke than others. This is on account of the
+poisonous effects of the alcohol upon the nerves. No doctor would think
+of giving alcohol in any form to a man suffering with sunstroke.
+
+~33. Effects of Alcohol upon the Tissues.~--Here are two interesting
+experiments which your teacher or parents can make for you.
+
+_Experiment 1._ Place a piece of tender beefsteak in a saucer and cover
+it with alcohol. Put it away over night. In the morning the beefsteak
+will be found to be shrunken, dried, and almost as tough as a piece of
+leather. This shows the effect of alcohol upon the tissues, which are
+essentially like those of lower animals.
+
+_Experiment 2._ Break an egg into a half glassful of alcohol. Stir the
+egg and alcohol together for a few minutes. Soon you will see that the
+egg begins to harden and look just as though it had been boiled.
+
+~34.~ This is the effect of strong alcohol. The alcohol of alcoholic
+drinks has water and other things mixed with it, so that it does not act
+so quickly nor so severely as pure alcohol; but the effect is
+essentially the same in character. It is partly in this way that the
+brain, nerves, muscles, and other tissues of drinking men and women
+become diseased.
+
+Eminent physicians tell us that a large share of the unfortunate persons
+who are shut up in insane asylums are brought there by alcohol. Is it
+not a dreadful thing that one's mind should be thus ruined by a useless
+and harmful practice?
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Alcohol is produced by fermentation, and obtained by distillation. It
+will burn like kerosene oil and other burning fluids.
+
+2. The vapor of alcohol will burn and will sometimes explode.
+
+3. Alcohol may be separated from beer and other fermented liquids by
+boiling.
+
+4. Brandy is distilled from fermented fruit juice, whiskey and gin from
+beer or fermented grains, rum from fermented molasses.
+
+5. Alcohol is the result of a sort of decay, and much good food is
+destroyed in producing it.
+
+6. Besides ordinary alcohol, there are several other kinds. Naphtha and
+fusel-oil are alcohols.
+
+7. All the members of the alcohol family are poisons; all will burn, and
+all will intoxicate. The alcohol family have several bad relations,
+among which are carbolic acid, ether, and chloroform.
+
+8. Cider, beer, and wine are harmful and dangerous as well as strong
+liquors. "Bitters" often contain as much alcohol as the strongest
+liquors, and sometimes more.
+
+9. Alcoholic liquors are sometimes adulterated, but they usually contain
+no poison worse than alcohol. Pure alcohol is scarcely less dangerous
+than that which is adulterated.
+
+10. Death sometimes occurs almost instantly from taking strong liquors.
+
+11. Alcohol will kill grass and other plants, if poured upon them or
+about their roots.
+
+12. Mr. Darwin proved that the vapor of alcohol will kill plants; also
+that plants become intoxicated by breathing the vapor of alcohol.
+
+13. Alcohol, even in small quantities, hinders digestion.
+
+14. Alcohol causes the body to lose heat so rapidly that it becomes
+cooler instead of warmer.
+
+15. The danger of freezing to death when exposed to extreme cold is
+greatly increased by taking alcohol.
+
+16. Stanley, and other African explorers, say that it is dangerous to
+use alcoholic drinks in hot climates.
+
+17. In very hot weather, persons who use alcoholic drinks are more
+subject to sunstroke than those who do not.
+
+18. Beefsteak soaked in alcohol becomes tough like leather. An egg
+placed in alcohol is hardened as though it had been boiled.
+
+19. The effect of alcohol upon the brain, nerves, and other tissues of
+the body is much the same as upon the beefsteak and the egg.
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+
+CHAPTER I. THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN.--What is the body like? Does
+the body resemble anything else besides a house? How is it like a
+machine? Name the different parts of the body. What is anatomy?
+physiology? hygiene?
+
+CHAPTER II. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY.--What are the main
+parts of the body? Name the different parts of the head; of the trunk;
+of each arm; of each leg. What covers the body?
+
+CHAPTER III. THE INSIDE OF THE BODY.--What is the name of the
+framework of the body? What is the skull? How is the back-bone formed?
+Name the two cavities of the trunk. What does the chest contain? the
+abdomen?
+
+CHAPTER IV. OUR FOODS.--Of what are our bodies made? What are
+foods? Where do we get our foods? Name some animal foods; some vegetable
+foods. What are poisons?
+
+CHAPTER V. UNHEALTHFUL FOODS.--Is the flesh of diseased animals
+good for food? What can you say about unripe, stale, or mouldy foods?
+What is adulteration of foods? What foods are most likely to be
+adulterated? Are pepper, mustard, and other condiments proper foods?
+What about tobacco? What is the effect of tobacco upon boys?
+
+CHAPTER VI. OUR DRINKS.--What is the only thing that will
+satisfy thirst? Why do we need water? How does water sometimes become
+impure? What is the effect of using impure water? What are the
+properties of good water? Are tea and coffee good drinks? How is alcohol
+made? Give familiar examples of fermentation. How are pure alcohol and
+strong liquors made? Is alcohol a food? Why do you think it is a poison?
+Do you think moderate drinking is healthful?
+
+CHAPTER VII. HOW WE DIGEST.--What is digestion? What is the
+digestive tube? Name the different digestive organs. How many sets of
+teeth has a person in his lifetime? How many teeth in each set? How many
+pairs of salivary glands? What do they form? What is the gullet?
+Describe the stomach. What is the gastric juice? How long is the
+intestinal canal? What fluid is formed in the intestines? Where is the
+liver found, and how large is it? What does the liver produce? What is
+the gall-bladder, and what is its use? What does the liver do besides
+producing bile? What and where is the pancreas? What does the pancreas
+do? Where is the spleen? How many important organs of digestion are
+there? How many digestive fluids?
+
+CHAPTER VIII. DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD.--Name the
+different processes of digestion [mastication, action of saliva,
+swallowing, action of stomach and gastric juice, action of bile, action
+of pancreatic juice, action of intestines and intestinal juice,
+absorption, liver digestion]. Describe the digestion of a mouthful of
+bread. Where is the food taken after it has been absorbed? What are the
+lacteals? What is the thoracic duct?
+
+CHAPTER IX. BAD HABITS IN EATING.--What is indigestion? Mention
+some of the causes of indigestion. How does eating too fast cause
+indigestion? Eating too much? too frequently? Irregularly? when tired?
+How do tea and coffee impair digestion? Why is it harmful to use iced
+foods and drinks? Why should we not eat pepper and other hot and
+irritating things? How should the teeth be cared for? How does
+tobacco-using affect the stomach? What dreadful disease is sometimes
+caused by tobacco? How does alcohol affect the gastric juice? the
+stomach? the liver?
+
+CHAPTER X. A DROP OF BLOOD.--What does the blood contain? How
+many kinds of blood corpuscles are there? What work is done for the body
+by each kind of corpuscles?
+
+CHAPTER XI. WHY THE HEART BEATS.--Where is the heart? Why does
+the heart beat? How many chambers has the heart? What are the
+blood-vessels? How many kinds of blood-vessels are there? Name them.
+What is the difference between venous blood and arterial blood? What
+change occurs in the blood in the lungs? What is the pulse? How much
+work does the heart do every twenty-four hours? What are the lymphatics?
+What do they contain, and what is their purpose? What are lymphatic
+glands?
+
+CHAPTER XII. HOW TO KEEP THE HEART AND BLOOD HEALTHY.--Name
+some things likely to injure the heart or the blood. What is the effect
+of violent exercise? of bad air? of bad food? of loss of sleep? of
+violent anger? What can you say about clothing? What is the effect of
+alcohol upon the blood? the heart? the bodily heat? What is the effect
+of tobacco upon the heart? the pulse? the blood? What is the effect of
+tea and coffee upon the heart? What is a cold? In a case of bleeding
+from a wound, how can you tell whether a vein or an artery is cut? How
+would you stop the bleeding from an artery? from a vein? How would you
+stop nose-bleed?
+
+CHAPTER XIII. WHY AND HOW WE BREATHE.--What happens to a
+lighted candle if shut up in a small, close place? to a mouse? Why is
+air so necessary for a burning candle and for animals? How is the heat
+of our bodies produced? Name the principal organs of breathing.
+Describe each. How do we use the lungs in breathing? How much air will a
+man's lungs hold? How much air do we use with each breath? What
+poisonous substance does the air which we breathe out contain? Will a
+candle burn in air which has been breathed? What happens to animals
+placed in such air? What change takes place in the blood as it passes
+through the lungs? How do plants purify the air?
+
+CHAPTER XIV. HOW TO KEEP THE LUNGS HEALTHY.--What is the thing
+most necessary to preserve life? Name some of the ways in which the
+blood becomes impure. Why is bad-smelling air dangerous to health? What
+are germs? Why are some diseases "catching"? Name some such diseases.
+What should be done with a person who has a "catching" disease? What is
+the effect of the breath upon the air? How much air is poisoned and made
+unfit to breathe by each breath? How much air do we spoil every minute?
+every hour? How much pure air does each person need every minute? every
+hour? How do we get fresh air into our houses? Why are windows and doors
+not good means of ventilating in cold weather? How should a room be
+ventilated? How should we use the lungs in breathing? What about the
+clothing in reference to the lungs? Why is it injurious to breathe
+habitually through the mouth? What is the effect of alcohol upon the
+lungs? What is the effect of tobacco-using upon the throat and nose?
+
+CHAPTER XV. THE SKIN AND WHAT IT DOES.--How many layers in the
+skin? What is each called? To what is the color of the skin due? What
+glands are found in the true skin? What are the nails and what is their
+purpose? How does the hair grow? Name the different uses of the skin?
+
+CHAPTER XVI. HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE SKIN.--What happened to
+the little boy who was covered with gold leaf? Why did he die? What is
+the effect of neglecting to keep the skin clean? What is the effect of
+wearing too much clothing and living in rooms which are too warm? How
+should the hair be cared for? the nails? What is the effect of alcohol,
+tobacco, and other narcotics upon the skin?
+
+CHAPTER XVII. THE KIDNEYS AND THEIR WORK.--What is the work of
+the kidneys? How may we keep these organs healthy? What is the effect of
+alcohol upon the kidneys?
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. OUR BONES AND THEIR USES.--How many bones in the
+body? What are the bones called when taken all together? Name the
+principal parts of the skeleton. Name the bones of the trunk, of the
+arms, of the legs. What are the uses of the bones? What is a joint? What
+is cartilage? By what are the bones held together? Of what are the bones
+largely composed?
+
+CHAPTER XIX. HOW TO KEEP THE BONES HEALTHY.--What sort of
+bread is best for the bones? Why? If a child tries to walk too early why
+are its legs likely to become crooked? What are the effects of sitting
+or lying in bad positions? Of wearing tight or poorly-fitting clothing?
+Of tight or high-heeled shoes? What injuries are likely to happen to the
+bones and joints by accident or rough play?
+
+CHAPTER XX. THE MUSCLES AND HOW WE USE THEM.--How many muscles
+in the body? Of what are the muscles composed? How are many of the
+muscles connected to the bones? To what are all bodily movements due?
+How do the muscles act? What causes the muscles to act? Do all muscles
+act only when we will to have them act?
+
+CHAPTER XXI. HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY.--What makes the
+right arm of the blacksmith stronger than the left one? How should
+exercise be taken? Mention some things in relation to the use of the
+muscles which we ought not to do, and state the reasons why. What is the
+effect of alcohol upon the muscles? of tobacco? of tea and coffee?
+
+CHAPTER XXII. HOW WE FEEL AND THINK.--With what part of the
+body do we think? How many brains does a man have? How is each brain
+divided? Of what is the brain largely composed? Where do the nerves
+begin? What is the spinal cord? Why does it cause pain to prick the
+finger? How many kinds of nerves are there? (_Ans._ Two; nerves of
+feeling and nerves of work.) Name some of the different kinds of nerves
+of feeling? Name some of the different kinds of work controlled by the
+nerves of work. Of what use to the body are the brain and nerves? How
+does the brain use the nerves? Of what use is the large brain? What does
+the little brain do? Of what use is the spinal cord?
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. HOW TO KEEP THE BRAIN AND NERVES
+HEALTHY.--Mention some things which we need to do to keep the brain
+and nerves healthy. Mention some things which we ought not to do.
+
+CHAPTER XXIV. BAD EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BRAIN AND
+NERVES.--What is the effect of alcohol upon the brain and nerves?
+Does alcohol produce real strength? Does it produce real warmth? Does
+alcohol make people better or worse? What is the effect of tobacco upon
+the brain and nerves? Does the use of tobacco lead to other evil habits?
+What about the effect of opium and other narcotics?
+
+CHAPTER XXV. HOW WE HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE, AND FEEL.--How
+many senses have we? What is the ear? Name the three parts of the ear.
+How do we hear? How should we treat the ear?
+
+Name the principal parts of the eye? What are found in the eyeball? How
+is the eyeball moved in the socket? How is the eye moistened? Of what
+use is the lens of the eye? Of what use is the pupil of the eye? How may
+we preserve the eyesight?
+
+Where are the nerves of smell located? Of what use is the sense of
+smell?
+
+Where are the nerves of taste found? How is the sense of taste sometimes
+injured or lost? What do we detect with the sense of taste? Of what use
+to us is the sense of taste?
+
+With what sense do we feel objects? In what parts of the body is this
+sense most delicate? Upon what do all the special senses depend? Does
+anything that injures the brain and nerves also injure the special
+senses? What is the effect of alcohol and tobacco upon the sense of
+sight? How is the hearing affected by tobacco-using? The sense of smell?
+The sense of taste?
+
+CHAPTER XXVI. ALCOHOL.--How is alcohol produced? In what
+respect is alcohol like kerosene oil? Is alcohol a dangerous thing even
+if we do not drink it? How can you prove that there is alcohol in wine,
+beer, cider, and other fermented drinks? Can you tell by the odor of his
+breath when a person has been drinking? Why? Does the breath ever take
+fire? May alcohol be a cause? From what is brandy made? How are whiskey,
+gin, and rum made? Is alcohol a result of growth, like fruits and
+grains, or of decay? Is there more than one kind of alcohol? Mention
+some of the members of the alcohol family. In what ways are the members
+of this family alike? Name some of the bad relations. Are cider and
+beer, as well as whiskey, dangerous? Why? Mention some other things,
+besides drinks, which contain alcohol. Are alcoholic drinks adulterated?
+Is pure alcohol safe? Is instant death ever produced by alcohol? Will
+alcohol kill plants? Describe Mr. Darwin's experiment which proved this.
+Can plants be made drunk by alcohol? Describe the experiment which
+proves this. What has Dr. Roberts proven concerning the influence of
+alcohol upon digestion? How are our bodies kept warm? Explain how
+alcohol makes the body cooler? Do Arctic explorers use alcohol? Why not?
+Does the use of alcohol prevent sunstroke? What do Stanley and
+Livingstone say about the use of alcohol in Africa? What is the effect
+of using alcohol upon meat and eggs? What is the effect of alcohol upon
+the brain and other tissues of the body? Does alcohol cause insanity and
+other diseases of the brain and nerves?
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] More properly _Carbonic dioxid_.
+
+[B] For the sake of brevity and clearness the author has included under
+the term "little brain" the _medulla oblongata_ as well as the
+_cerebellum_.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Aids to Field and Laboratory Work in Botany
+
+_Apgars' Plant Analysis._ By E.A. and A.C. APGAR.
+
+Cloth, small 4to, 124 pages                                   55 cents
+
+A book of blank schedules, adapted to Gray's Botanies, for pupils' use
+in writing and preserving brief systematic descriptions of the plants
+analyzed by them in field or class work. Space is allowed for
+descriptions of about one hundred and twenty-four plants with an
+alphabetical index.
+
+An analytical arrangement of botanical terms is provided, in which the
+words defined are illustrated by small wood cuts, which show at a glance
+the characteristics named in the definition.
+
+By using the Plant Analysis, pupils will become familiar with the
+meaning of botanical terms, and will learn how to apply these terms in
+botanical descriptions.
+
+_Apgar's Trees of the Northern United States_
+
+Their Study, Description, and Determination. For the use of Schools and
+Private Students. By AUSTIN C. APGAR.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 224 pages. Copiously Illustrated                 $1.00
+
+This work has been prepared as an accessory to the study of Botany, and
+to assist and encourage teachers in introducing into their classes
+instruction in Nature Study. The trees of our forests, lawns, yards,
+orchards, streets, borders and parks afford a most favorable and
+fruitful field for the purposes of such study. They are real objects of
+nature, easily accessible, and of such a character as to admit of being
+studied at all seasons and in all localities. Besides, the subject is
+one of general and increasing interest, and one that can be taught
+successfully by those who have had no regular scientific training.
+
+
+_Copies of either of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any
+address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+STORER AND LINDSAY'S
+
+~Elementary Manual of Chemistry~
+
+By F.H. STORER, S.B., A.M., and W.B. LINDSAY, A.B., B.S.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 453 pages. Illustrated.                   Price, $1.20
+
+This work is the lineal descendant of the "Manual of Inorganic
+Chemistry" of Eliot and Storer, and the "Elementary Manual of Chemistry"
+of Eliot, Storer and Nichols. It is in fact the last named book
+thoroughly revised, rewritten and enlarged to represent the present
+condition of chemical knowledge and to meet the demands of American
+teachers for a class book on Chemistry, at once scientific in statement
+and clear in method.
+
+The purpose of the book is to facilitate the study and teaching of
+Chemistry by the experimental and inductive method. It presents the
+leading facts and theories of the science in such simple and concise
+manner that they can be readily understood and applied by the student.
+The book is equally valuable in the class-room and the laboratory. The
+instructor will find in it the essentials of chemical science developed
+in easy and appropriate sequence, its facts and generalizations
+expressed accurately and scientifically as well as clearly, forcibly and
+elegantly.
+
+     "It is safe to say that no text-book has exerted so wide an
+     influence on the study of chemistry in this country as this work,
+     originally written by Eliot and Storer. Its distinguished authors
+     were leaders in teaching Chemistry as a means of mental training in
+     general education, and in organizing and perfecting a system of
+     instructing students in large classes by the experimental method.
+     As revised and improved by Professor Nichols, it continued to give
+     the highest satisfaction in our best schools and colleges. After
+     the death of Professor Nichols, when it became necessary to revise
+     the work again, Professor Lindsay, of Dickinson College, was
+     selected to assist Dr. Storer in the work. The present edition has
+     been entirely rewritten by them, following throughout the same plan
+     and arrangement of the previous editions, which have been so highly
+     approved by a generation of scholars and teachers.
+
+     "If a book, like an individual, has a history, certainly the record
+     of this one, covering a period of nearly thirty years, is of the
+     highest and most honorable character."--_From The American Journal
+     of Science._
+
+_Copies of this book will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+~Chemistry~
+
+TEXT-BOOKS AND LABORATORY METHODS
+
+  Storer and Lindsay's Elementary Manual of Chemistry
+  By F.H. STORER, A.M., S.B., and W.B. LINDSAY, Ph.D.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 453 pages                                      $1.20
+  A standard manual for secondary schools and colleges.
+
+  Clarke's Elements of Chemistry
+  By F.W. CLARKE. Cloth, 12mo, 379 pages                      $1.20
+  A scientific book for high schools and colleges.
+
+  Cooley's New Elementary Chemistry for Beginners
+  By LEROY C. COOLEY, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 300 pages            72 cents
+  A book of experimental chemistry for beginners.
+
+  Steele's Popular Chemistry
+  By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 343 pages           $1.00
+  A popular treatise for schools and private students.
+
+  Youmans's Class-Book of Chemistry
+  By E.L. YOUMANS, M.D. Revised by W.J. Youmans, M.D.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 404 pages                                      $1.22
+  For schools, colleges, and general reading.
+
+  Brewster's First Book of Chemistry
+  By MARY SHAW-BREWSTER. Boards, 12mo, 144 pages              66 cents
+  An elementary class-book for beginners in the study.
+
+  Armstrong and Norton's Laboratory Manual of Chemistry
+  By JAMES E. ARMSTRONG and JAMES H. NORTON.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 144 pages                                      50 cents
+  A brief course of experiments in chemistry,
+  covering about forty weeks' work in the laboratory.
+
+  Cooley's Laboratory Studies in Chemistry
+  By LEROY C. COOLEY, Ph.D. Cloth, 8vo, 144 pages             50 cents
+  A carefully selected series of 151 experiments,
+  designed to teach the fundamental facts and
+  principles of chemistry for secondary schools.
+
+  Keiser's Laboratory Work in Chemistry
+  By EDWARD H. KEISER, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 119 pages           50 cents
+  A series of experiments in general inorganic chemistry,
+  intended to illustrate and supplement the work of the
+  class-room.
+
+  Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic Substances
+  As practiced in Georgetown College, D.C.
+  Cloth, 4to, 61 pages                                        $1.50
+  Designed to serve as both text-book and laboratory
+  manual in Qualitative Analysis.
+
+
+_Copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+~Physics~
+
+  Cooley's Student's Manual of Physics
+  For the Study Room and Laboratory. By L.C. COOLEY,
+  Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Vassar College.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 448 pages. Illustrated                         $1.00
+  A new text-book in Physics for high schools, academies, and colleges. It
+  embodies a full and thorough treatment of the laws of physics, the best
+  methods in science teaching, the latest discoveries and applications in
+  physics, and a full course in laboratory practice. Special care has been
+  taken to select experiments which will not overtax the capacities of
+  beginners nor require expensive apparatus, but which at the same time
+  will call for systematic and original work and lead to accurate results.
+
+  Harrington's Physics for Grammar Schools
+  BY C.L. HARRINGTON, M.A. Cloth, 12mo, 123 pages.            50 cents
+  A practical text-book based on the natural or experimental method,
+  elementary enough for pupils in grammar schools, and affording a
+  thorough preparation for advanced study.
+
+  Appletons' School Physics
+  Cloth, 12mo, 552 pages                                      $1.20
+  A thoroughly modern text-book on Natural Philosophy, which
+  reflects the most advanced pedagogical methods and the latest laboratory
+  practice.
+
+  Steele's Popular Physics
+  By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 392 pages           $1.00
+  A popular text-book, in which the principles of the science are
+  presented in such an attractive manner as to awaken and fix the attention
+  of every pupil.
+
+  Trowbridge's New Physics
+  By JOHN TROWBRIDGE, S.D. Cloth, 12mo, 387 pages             $1.20
+  A thoroughly modern work, intended as a class manual of Physics
+  for colleges and advanced preparatory schools.
+
+  Hammel's Observation Blanks in Physics
+  By WILLIAM C.A. HAMMEL.
+  Flexible, quarto, 42 pages. Illustrated                     30 cents
+  A pupil's laboratory manual and notebook for the first term's work.
+  Blanks are left in which the pupil writes his observations and the
+  principles illustrated.
+
+
+_Copies of any of these books will be sent, prepaid, to any address on
+receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Laboratory Physics
+
+Hammel's Observation Blanks in Physics
+
+By WILLIAM C.A. HAMMEL, Professor of Physics in Maryland State
+School, Boards, Quarto, 42 pages. Illustrated                 30 cents
+
+These Observation Blanks are designed for use as a Pupil's Laboratory
+Manual and Note Book for the first term's work in the study of Physics.
+They combine in convenient form descriptions and illustrations of the
+apparatus required for making experiments in Physics, with special
+reference to the elements of Air, Liquids, and Heat; directions for
+making the required apparatus from simple inexpensive materials, and for
+performing the experiments, etc. The book is supplied with blanks for
+making drawings of the apparatus and for the pupil to record what he has
+observed and inferred concerning the experiment and the principle
+illustrated.
+
+The experiments are carefully selected in the light of experience and
+arranged in logical order. The treatment throughout is in accordance
+with the best laboratory practice of the day.
+
+Hon. W.T. Harris, U.S. Commissioner of Education, says of these Blanks:
+
+"I have seen several attempts to assist the work of pupils engaged in
+the study of Physics, but I have never seen anything which promises to
+be of such practical assistance as Hammel's Observation Blanks."
+
+
+_Specimen copies of the above book will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
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+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Burnet's Zoölogy
+
+FOR
+
+HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES
+
+BY
+
+  MARGARETTA BURNET
+  Teacher of Zoölogy, Woodward High School, Cincinnati, O.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages. Illustrated.                   Price, 75 cents
+
+This new text-book on Zoölogy is intended for classes in High Schools,
+Academies, and other Secondary Schools. While sufficiently elementary
+for beginners in the study it is full and comprehensive enough for
+students pursuing a regular course in the Natural Sciences. It has been
+prepared by a practical teacher, and is the direct result of school-room
+experience, field observation and laboratory practice.
+
+The design of the book is to give a good general knowledge of the
+subject of Zoölogy, to cultivate an interest in nature study, and to
+encourage the pupil to observe and to compare for himself and then to
+arrange and classify his knowledge. Only typical or principal forms are
+described, and in their description only such technical terms are used
+as are necessary, and these are carefully defined.
+
+Each subject is fully illustrated, the illustrations being selected and
+arranged to aid the pupil in understanding the structure of each form.
+
+
+_Copies of Burnet's School Zoölogy will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Zoölogy and Natural History
+
+Burnet's School Zoölogy
+
+By MARGARETTA BURNET. Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages                  75 cents
+
+A new text-book for high schools and academies, by a practical teacher;
+sufficiently elementary for beginners and full enough for the usual
+course in Natural History.
+
+Needham's Elementary Lessons in Zoölogy
+
+By JAMES G. NEEDHAM, M.S. Cloth, 12mo, 302 pages              90 cents
+
+An elementary text-book for high schools, academies, normal schools and
+preparatory college classes. Special attention is given to the study by
+scientific methods, laboratory practice, microscopic study and practical
+zoötomy.
+
+Cooper's Animal Life
+
+By SARAH COOPER. Cloth, 12mo, 427 pages                       $1.25
+
+An attractive book for young people. Admirably adapted for supplementary
+readings in Natural History.
+
+Holders' Elementary Zoölogy
+
+By C.F. HOLDER, and J.B. HOLDER, M.D.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 401 pages                                        $1.20
+
+A text-book for high school classes and other schools of secondary
+grade.
+
+Hooker's Natural History
+
+By WORTHINGTON HOOKER, M.D. Cloth, 12mo, 394 pages 90 cents
+
+Designed either for the use of schools or for the general reader.
+
+Morse's First Book in Zoölogy
+
+By EDWARD S. MORSE, Ph.D. Boards, 12mo, 204 pages             87 cents
+
+For the first study of animal life. The examples presented are such as
+are common and familiar.
+
+Nicholson's Text-Book of Zoölogy
+
+By H.A. NICHOLSON, M.D. Cloth, 12mo, 421 pages                $1.38
+
+Revised edition. Adapted for advanced grades of high schools or
+academies and for first work in college classes.
+
+Steele's Popular Zoölogy
+
+By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., and J.W.P. JENKS.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 369 pages                                        $1.20
+
+For academies, preparatory schools and general reading. This popular
+work is marked by the same clearness of method and simplicity of
+statement that characterize all Prof. Steele's text-books in the Natural
+Sciences.
+
+Tenneys' Natural History of Animals
+
+By SANBORN TENNEY and ABBEY A. TENNEY.
+
+Revised Edition. Cloth, 12mo, 281 pages                       $1.20
+
+This new edition has been entirely reset and thoroughly revised, the
+recent changes in classification introduced, and the book in all
+respects brought up to date.
+
+Treat's Home Studies in Nature
+
+By Mrs. MARY TREAT. Cloth, 12mo, 244 pages                    90 cents
+
+An interesting and instructive addition to the works on Natural History.
+
+
+_Copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Text-Books in Geology
+
+Dana's Geological Story Briefly Told
+
+By JAMES D. DANA. Cloth, 12mo, 302 pages                      $1.15
+
+A new edition of this popular work for beginners in the study and for
+the general reader. The book has been entirely rewritten, and improved
+by the addition of many new illustrations and interesting descriptions
+of the latest phases and discoveries of the science. In contents and
+dress it is an attractive volume either for the reader or student.
+
+Dana's Revised Text-Book of Geology
+
+Edited by WILLIAM NORTH RICE, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of
+Geology, Wesleyan University. Cloth, 12mo, 482 pages.         $1.40
+
+This is the standard text-book for high school and elementary college
+work. The book has been thoroughly revised, enlarged, and improved,
+while the general and distinctive features of the former work have been
+preserved. As now published, it combines the results of the life
+experience and observation of its distinguished author with the latest
+discoveries and researches in the science.
+
+Dana's Manual of Geology
+
+By JAMES D. DANA.
+
+Cloth, 8vo, 1087 pages. 1575 illustrations                    $5.00
+
+This great work was thoroughly revised and entirely rewritten under the
+direct supervision of its author, just before his death. It is
+recognized as a standard authority, and is used as a manual of
+instruction in all higher institutions of learning.
+
+Le Conte's Compend of Geology
+
+By JOSEPH LE CONTE, LL.D. Cloth, 12mo, 399 pages              $1.20
+
+Designed for high schools, academies, and all secondary schools.
+
+Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Geology
+
+By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 280 pages             $1.00
+
+A popular book for elementary classes and the general reader.
+
+Andrews's Elementary Geology
+
+By E.B. ANDREWS, LL.D. Cloth, 12mo, 283 pages                 $1.00
+
+Adapted for elementary classes. Contains a special treatment of the
+geology of the Mississippi Valley.
+
+
+_Copies of any of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any address
+on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A New Astronomy
+
+BY
+
+DAVID P. TODD, M.A., Ph.D.
+
+Professor of Astronomy and Director of the Observatory, Amherst College.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 480 pages. Illustrated                    Price, $1.30
+
+This book is designed for classes pursuing the study in High Schools,
+Academies, and Colleges. The author's long experience as a director in
+astronomical observatories and in teaching the subject has given him
+unusual qualifications and advantages for preparing an ideal text-book.
+
+The noteworthy feature which distinguishes this from other text-books on
+Astronomy is the practical way in which the subjects treated are
+enforced by laboratory experiments and methods. In this the author
+follows the principle that Astronomy is preëminently a science of
+observation and should be so taught.
+
+By placing more importance on the physical than on the mathematical
+facts of Astronomy the author has made every page of the book deeply
+interesting to the student and the general reader. The treatment of the
+planets and other heavenly bodies and of the law of universal
+gravitation is unusually full, clear, and illuminative. The marvelous
+discoveries of Astronomy in recent years, and the latest advances in
+methods of teaching the science, are all represented.
+
+The illustrations are an important feature of the book. Many of them are
+so ingeniously devised that they explain at a glance what pages of mere
+description could not make clear.
+
+
+_Copies of Todd's New Astronomy will be sent, prepaid, to any address on
+receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A Laboratory Manual in Practical Botany
+
+For use in Secondary Schools and for Elementary Work in Colleges
+
+By CHARLES H. CLARK, A.M., D.Sc.,
+
+Principal of Windsor Hall School, Waban, Mass.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 272 pages. Illustrated                           96 cents
+
+The course of botanical study outlined in this book is intended to give
+the student a general view of the subject, and at the same time to lay a
+foundation upon which more advanced studies may be built. The book is
+primarily a laboratory manual and follows the method recommended by the
+Committee of Ten and employed by the best teachers. So pursued, the
+study of botany provides the means of developing habits of close and
+accurate observation and of cultivating the reasoning powers that can
+scarcely be claimed for any other subject taught in the schools.
+
+It provides a systematic outline of classification to serve as a guide
+in laboratory work and in the practical study of the life histories of
+plants, their modes of reproduction, manner of life, etc. The treatment
+is suggestive and general to adapt it to the courses of study in
+different schools, and to allow the teacher to follow his own ideas in
+selecting the work of his class.
+
+
+Clark's Laboratory Manual in Practical Botany _will be sent, prepaid, to
+any address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Important New Books
+
+Crockett's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry
+
+By C.W. CROCKETT, C.E., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy
+in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. With Tables. Cloth,
+8vo. 310 pages                                                $1.25
+
+The Same. Without Tables                                       1.00
+
+Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables (separate)                1.00
+
+A clear analytic treatment of the elements of Plane and Spherical
+Trigonometry and their practical applications to Surveying, Geodesy, and
+Astronomy, with convenient and accurate "five place" tables for the use
+of the student, engineer, and surveyor. Designed for High Schools,
+Colleges, and Technical Institutions.
+
+Raymond's Plane Surveying
+
+By W.G. RAYMOND, C.E., Member American Society of Civil
+Engineers, Professor of Geodesy, Road Engineering, and Topographical
+Drawing in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
+
+Cloth, 8vo. 485 pages. With Tables and Illustrations          $3.00
+
+A modern text-book for the study and practice of Land, Topographical,
+Hydrographical, and Mine Surveying. Special attention is given to such
+practical subjects as system in office work, to labor-saving devices, to
+coördinate methods, and to the explanation of difficulties encountered
+by young surveyors. The appendix contains a large number of original
+problems, and a full set of tables for class and field work.
+
+Todd's New Astronomy
+
+By DAVID P. TODD, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Astronomy and
+Director of the Observatory, Amherst College.
+
+Cloth, 12mo. 500 pages. Illustrated                           $1.30
+
+A new Astronomy designed for classes pursuing the study in High Schools,
+Academies, and other Preparatory Schools. The treatment throughout is
+simple, clear, scientific, and deeply interesting. The illustrations
+include sketches from the author's laboratory and expeditions, and
+numerous reproductions from astronomical photographs.
+
+
+_Copies of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any address on
+receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Birds of the United States
+
+A Manual for the Identification of Species East of the Rocky Mountains
+
+By AUSTIN C. APGAR
+
+Author of "Trees of the Northern United States," etc.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 415 pages, with numerous
+illustrations.                                         Price, $2.00
+
+The object of this book is to encourage the study of Birds by making it
+a pleasant and easy task. The treatment, while thoroughly scientific and
+accurate, is interesting and popular in form and attractive to the
+reader or student. It covers the following divisions and subjects:
+
+PART I. A general description of Birds and an explanation of
+the technical terms used by ornithologists.
+
+PART II. Classification and description of each species with
+Key.
+
+PART III. The study of Birds in the field, with Key for their
+identification.
+
+PART IV. Preparation of Bird specimens.
+
+The descriptions of the several species have been prepared with great
+care and present several advantages over those in other books. They are
+short and so expressed that they may be recalled readily while looking
+at the bird. They are thus especially adapted for field use. The
+illustrations were drawn especially for this work. Their number,
+scientific accuracy, and careful execution add much to the value and
+interest of the book. The general Key to Land and Water Birds and a very
+full index make the book convenient and serviceable both for the study
+and for field work.
+
+
+_Apgar's Birds of the United States will be sent, prepaid, to any
+address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
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+
+  NEW YORK  ·   CINCINNATI   ·   CHICAGO
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+
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+
+
+
+
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of First Book in PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE, by J.H. Kellogg, M.D..
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's First Book in Physiology and Hygiene, by J.H. Kellogg
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: First Book in Physiology and Hygiene
+
+Author: J.H. Kellogg
+
+Release Date: December 21, 2005 [EBook #17367]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRST BOOK IN PHYSIOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Janet Blenkinship, Brian
+Janes and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<p><br /></p>
+<p><a name="img001" id="img001"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <a href="images/img001.jpg"><img
+             src="images/img001-tb.jpg"
+             alt="PLATE 1. THE CIRCULATION." /></a><br />
+         PLATE 1. THE CIRCULATION.
+    </div>
+
+<h1>FIRST BOOK</h1>
+
+<h3>IN</h3>
+
+<h1>PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE</h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h3>J.H. KELLOGG, M.D.</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>
+MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH<br />
+ASSOCIATION, SOCI&Eacute;T&Eacute; D'HYGI&Egrave;NE OF FRANCE, BRITISH AND AMERICAN<br />
+ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, MICHIGAN<br />
+STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, ETC.
+</p>
+
+<h4><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW AND REVISED EDITION</p>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO</p>
+
+<p class='center'>AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY</p>
+
+<p class='center'>Copyright, 1887, by <span class="smcap">Harper &amp; Brothers.</span></p>
+
+<p class='center'>Copyright, 1888, by <span class="smcap">Harper &amp; Brothers</span></p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>All rights reserved.</i></p>
+
+<p class='center'>W.P. 7</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>TO THE TEACHER.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii"></a>[Pg iii]</span></h3>
+
+
+<p>This book is intended for children. The special objects
+which the author has aimed to accomplish in the preparation
+of the work have been:</p>
+
+<p>1. To present as fully as possible and proper in a work
+of this character a statement of the laws of healthful living,
+giving such special prominence to the subject of stimulants
+and narcotics as its recognized importance and the
+recent laws relating to the study of this branch of hygiene
+demand.</p>
+
+<p>2. To present in a simple manner such anatomical and
+physiological facts as shall give the child a good fundamental
+knowledge of the structure and functions of the
+human body.</p>
+
+<p>3. To present each topic in such clear and simple language
+as to enable the pupil to comprehend the subject-matter
+with little aid from the teacher; and to observe
+in the manner of presentation the principle that the things
+to be studied should be placed before the mind of the
+child before they are named. A natural and logical order
+has been observed in the sequence of topics. Technical
+terms have been used very sparingly, and only in their
+natural order, and are then fully explained and their pronunciation
+indicated, so that it is not thought necessary to
+append a glossary.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv"></a>[Pg iii]</span>4. To present the subjects of Physiology and Hygiene in
+the light of the most recent authentic researches in these
+branches of science, and to avoid the numerous errors
+which have for many years been current in the school literature
+of these subjects.</p>
+
+<p>There is no subject in the presentation of which object-teaching
+may be employed with greater facility and profit
+than in teaching Physiology, and none which may be more
+advantageously impressed upon the student's mind by
+means of simple experimentation than the subject of Hygiene.
+Every teacher who uses this book is urgently requested
+to supplement each lesson by the use of object-teaching
+or experiments. A great number of simple experiments
+illustrative of both Physiology and Hygiene may be
+readily arranged. Many little experiments are suggested
+in the text, which should invariably be made before the
+class, each member of which should also be encouraged to
+repeat them at home.</p>
+
+<p>It is also most desirable that the teacher should have
+the aid of suitable charts and models.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the author would acknowledge his indebtedness
+for a large number of useful suggestions and criticisms
+to several medical friends and experienced teachers,
+and especially to Prof. Henry Sewall, of the University of
+Michigan, for criticisms of the portions of the work relating
+to Physiology.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>CONTENTS.</h3>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>CHAPTER</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">To the Teacher</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_iii'><b>iii</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>I.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The House we Live in</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_1'><b>1</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>II.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A General View of the Body</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_5'><b>5</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>III.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Inside of the Body</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_7'><b>7</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Our Foods</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_11'><b>11</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>V.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Unhealthful Foods</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_14'><b>14</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Our Drinks</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_19'><b>19</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How we Digest</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_27'><b>27</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>VIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Digestion of a Mouthful of Bread</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_35'><b>35</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>IX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Bad Habits in Eating</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_39'><b>39</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>X.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">A Drop of Blood</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_46'><b>46</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Why the Heart Beats</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_48'><b>48</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How to Keep the Heart and the Blood Healthy</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_56'><b>56</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Why and How we Breathe</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_63'><b>63</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How to Keep the Lungs Healthy</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_75'><b>75</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Skin and What it Does</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_81'><b>81</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How to Take Care of the Skin</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_88'><b>88</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Kidneys and their Work</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_91'><b>91</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XVIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Our Bones and their Uses</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_93'><b>93</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XIX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How to Keep the Bones Healthy</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_100'><b>100</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XX.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">The Muscles, and How we Use Them</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_105'><b>105</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How to Keep the Muscles Healthy</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_109'><b>109</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How we Feel and Think</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_115'><b>115</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIII.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How to Keep the Brain and Nerves Healthy</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_126'><b>126</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXIV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Bad Effects of Alcohol upon the Brain and Nerves</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_130'><b>130</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXV.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">How we Hear, See, Smell, Taste; and Feel</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_138'><b>138</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>XXVI.</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Alcohol</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_154'><b>154</b></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'><span class="smcap">Questions for Review</span></td><td align='right'><a href='#Page_170'><b>170</b></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1"></a>[Pg 1]</span><br /><br /><br /></p>
+
+
+
+<h3>
+FIRST BOOK<br />
+OF<br />
+PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE.<br />
+</h3>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3>CHAPTER I.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Object of this Book.</b>&mdash;The object of this book is to tell the little
+boys and girls who read it about a wonderful house. You have all seen
+some very beautiful houses. Perhaps they were made of brick or stone,
+with fine porches, having around them tall shade trees, smooth lawns,
+pretty flower-beds, walks, and sparkling fountains.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Perhaps some of you live in such a house, or have visited some
+friend who does. If so, you know that the inside of the house is even
+more beautiful than the outside. There are elegant chairs and sofas in
+the rooms, rich carpets and rugs on the floors, fine mirrors and
+beautiful <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2"></a>[Pg 2]</span>pictures upon the walls&mdash;everything one could wish to have in
+a house. Do you not think such a house a nice one to live in?</p>
+
+<p><b>3. The Body is Like a House.</b>&mdash;Each of us has a house of his own which
+is far more wonderful and more curious than the grandest palace ever
+built. It is not a very large house. It has just room enough in it for
+one person. This house, which belongs to each one of us, is called the
+body.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. What is a Machine?</b>&mdash;Do you know what a machine is? Men make
+machines to help them work and to do many useful things. A wheelbarrow
+or a wagon is a machine to carry loads. A sewing-machine helps to make
+garments for us to wear. Clocks and watches are machines for keeping
+time.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. A Machine has Different Parts.</b>&mdash;A wheelbarrow has a box in which to
+carry things, two handles to hold by, and a wheel for rolling it along.
+Some machines, like wheelbarrows and wagons, have but few parts, and it
+is very easy for us to learn how they work. But there are other
+machines, like watches and sewing-machines, which have many different
+parts, and it is more difficult to learn all about them and what they
+do.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. The Body is Like a Machine.</b>&mdash;In some ways the body is more like a
+machine than like <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3"></a>[Pg 3]</span>a house. It has many different parts which are made
+to do a great many different kinds of work. We see with our eyes, hear
+with our ears, walk with our legs and feet, and do a great many things
+with our hands. If you have ever seen the inside of a watch or a clock
+you know how many curious little wheels it has. And yet a watch or a
+clock can do but one thing, and that is to tell us the time of day. The
+body has a great many more parts than a watch has, and for this reason
+the body can do many more things than a watch can do. It is more
+difficult, too, to learn about the body than about a watch.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> If we want to know all about a machine and how it works, we must
+study all its different parts and learn how they are put together, and
+what each part does. Then, if we want the machine to work well and to
+last a long time, we must know how to use it and how to take proper care
+of it. Do you think your watch would keep the time well if you should
+neglect to wind it, or if you should break any of its wheels?</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> It is just the same with the human machine which we call the body.
+We must learn its parts, and what they are for, how they are made, how
+they are put together, and how they work. Then we must learn how to take
+proper care of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4"></a>[Pg 4]</span>body, so that its parts will be able to work well
+and last a long time.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Each part of the body which is made to do some special kind of work
+is called an <i>organ</i>. The eye, the ear, the nose, a hand, an arm, any
+part of the body that does something, is an organ.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> The study of the various parts of the body and how they are put
+together is <i>anatomy</i> (a-nat&acute;-o-my). The study of what each part of the
+body does is <i>physiology</i> (phys-i-ol&acute;-o-gy). The study of how to take
+care of the body is <i>hygiene</i> (hy&acute;-jeen).</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The body is something like a house. It has an outside and an inside;
+it has hollow places inside of it, and there are many wonderful things
+in them.</p>
+
+<p>2. The body is also like a wonderful machine.</p>
+
+<p>3. It is necessary to take good care of the body in order to keep it
+well and useful, just as we would take good care of a machine to keep it
+from wearing out too soon.</p>
+
+<p>4. The body has many different parts, called organs, each of which has
+some particular work to do.</p>
+
+<p>5. In learning about the body, we have to study anatomy, physiology, and
+hygiene.</p>
+
+<p>6. The study of the various parts of the body, how they are formed and
+joined together, is anatomy. Physiology tells us what the body does,
+hygiene tells us how to take care of it.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5"></a>[Pg 5]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h4>A GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Parts of the Body.</b>&mdash;What do we call the main part of a tree? The
+trunk, you say. The main part of the body is also called its <i>trunk</i>.
+There are two arms and two legs growing out of the human trunk. The
+branches of a tree we call limbs, and so we speak of the arms and legs
+as <i>limbs</i>. We sometimes call the arms the <i>upper extremities</i>, and the
+legs the <i>lower extremities</i>. At the top of the trunk is the head.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Names of the Parts.</b>&mdash;Now let us look more closely at these
+different parts. As we speak the name of each part, let each one touch
+that part of himself which is named. We will begin with the head. The
+chief parts of the head are the <i>skull</i> and the <i>face</i>. The <i>forehead</i>,
+the <i>temples</i>, the <i>cheeks</i>, the <i>eyes</i>, the <i>ears</i>, the <i>nose</i>, the
+<i>mouth</i>, and the <i>chin</i> are parts of the face.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The chief parts of the trunk are the <i>chest</i>, the <i>abdomen</i>
+(ab-do&acute;-men), and the <i>backbone</i>. The head is joined to the trunk by the
+<i>neck</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Each arm has a <i>shoulder</i>, <i>upper-arm</i>, <i>fore-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6"></a>[Pg 6]</span>arm</i>, <i>wrist</i>, and
+<i>hand</i>. The <i>fingers</i> are a part of the hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Each leg has a <i>hip</i>, <i>thigh</i>, <i>lower leg</i>, <i>ankle</i>, and <i>foot</i>.
+The <i>toes</i> are a part of the foot.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Our hands and face and the whole body are covered with something as
+soft and smooth as the finest silk. It is the <i>skin</i>. What is it that
+grows from the skin on the head? and what at the ends of the fingers and
+the toes? We shall learn more about the skin, the hair, and the nails in
+another lesson.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> The body has two sides, the right side and the left side, which are
+alike. We have two eyes, two ears, two arms, etc. We have but one nose,
+one mouth, and one chin, but each of these organs has two halves, which
+are just alike.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The body has a head and trunk, two arms, and two legs.</p>
+
+<p>2. The parts of the head are the skull and face. The forehead, temples,
+cheeks, eyes, ears, nose, mouth and chin are parts of the face.</p>
+
+<p>3. The parts of the trunk are, the chest, abdomen, and backbone. The
+neck joins the head and trunk.</p>
+
+<p>4. Each arm has a shoulder, upper-arm, fore-arm, wrist, and hand. The
+fingers belong to the hand.</p>
+
+<p>5. Each leg has a hip, thigh, lower leg, ankle, and foot. The toes
+belong to the foot.</p>
+
+<p>6. The whole body is covered by the skin.</p>
+
+<p>7. The two sides of the body are alike.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7"></a>[Pg 7]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE INSIDE OF THE BODY.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Thus far we have taken only a brief look at the outside of the
+body, just as if we had looked at the case of a watch, and of course we
+have found out very little about its many wonderful parts. Very likely
+you want to ask a great many questions, such as, How does the inside of
+the body look? What is in the skull? What is in the chest? What is in
+the abdomen? Why do we eat and drink? Why do we become hungry and
+thirsty? What makes us tired and sleepy? How do we keep warm? Why do we
+breathe? How do we grow? How do we move about? How do we talk, laugh,
+and sing? How do we see, hear, feel, taste, and smell? How do we
+remember, think, and reason? All these, and a great many more
+interesting questions, you will find answered in the following lessons,
+if you study each one well.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> When we study the inside of the body, we begin to understand how
+wonderfully we are made. We cannot all see the inside of the body, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8"></a>[Pg 8]</span>and
+it is not necessary that we should do so. Many learned men have spent
+their whole lives in seeking to find out all about our bodies and the
+bodies of various animals.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. The Bones.</b>&mdash;If you take hold of your arm, it seems soft on the
+outside; and if you press upon it, you will feel something hard inside.
+The soft part is called <i>flesh</i>. The hard part is called <i>bone</i>. If you
+wish, you can easily get one of the bones of an animal at the butcher's
+shop, or you may find one in the fields.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. The Skeleton.</b>&mdash;All the bones of an animal, when placed properly
+together, have nearly the shape of the body, and are called the
+<i>skeleton</i> (skel&acute;-e-ton). The skeleton forms the framework of the body,
+just as the heavy timbers of a house form its framework. It supports all
+the parts.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. The Skull.</b>&mdash;The bony part of the head is called the <i>skull</i>. In the
+skull is a hollow place or chamber. You know that a rich man often has a
+strong room or box in his fine house, in which to keep his gold and
+other valuable things. The chamber in the skull is the strong-room of
+the body. It has strong, tough walls of bone, and contains the <i>brain</i>.
+The brain is the most important, and also the most tender and delicate
+organ in the whole body. This is why it is so carefully guarded from
+injury.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9"></a>[Pg 9]</span><b>6. The Backbone.</b>&mdash;The framework of the back is called the <i>backbone</i>.
+This is not a single bone, but a row of bones arranged one above
+another. Each bone has a hole through it, about as large as one of your
+fingers. A large branch from the brain, called the <i>spinal cord</i>, runs
+down through the middle of the backbone, so that the separate bones look
+as if they were strung on the spinal cord, like beads on a string.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. The Trunk.</b>&mdash;The trunk of the body, like the skull, is hollow. Its
+walls are formed partly by the backbone and the ribs and partly by
+flesh. A fleshy wall divides the hollow of the trunk into two parts, an
+upper chamber called the <i>chest</i>, and a lower called the <i>abdomen</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. The Lungs and Heart.</b>&mdash;The chest contains a pair of organs called
+the <i>lungs</i>, with which we breathe. It also contains something which we
+can feel beating at the left side. This is the <i>heart</i>. The heart lies
+between the two lungs, and a little to the left side.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. The Stomach and Liver.</b>&mdash;In the abdomen are some very wonderful
+organs that do different kinds of work for the body. Among them are the
+<i>stomach</i>, the <i>bowels</i>, and the <i>liver</i>. There are, also, other organs
+whose names we shall learn when we come to study them.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Care of the Body.</b>&mdash;We have only begun <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10"></a>[Pg 10]</span>to study the beautiful
+house in which we live, and yet have we not learned enough to show us
+how great and wise is the Creator who made us and all the wonderful
+machinery within our bodies? If some one should give you a beautiful
+present, would you treat it carelessly and spoil it, or would you take
+good care of it and keep it nice as long as possible? Ought we not to
+take such care of our bodies as to keep them in that perfect and
+beautiful condition in which our kind and good Creator gave them to us?</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The body has a framework, called the skeleton.</p>
+
+<p>2. The skeleton is made up of many different parts, each of which is
+called a bone.</p>
+
+<p>3. The bones are covered by the flesh.</p>
+
+<p>4. The bones of the head form the skull, which is hollow and contains
+the brain.</p>
+
+<p>5. A row of bones arranged in the back, one above another, forms the
+backbone. The backbone has a canal running through it lengthwise, in
+which lies the spinal cord.</p>
+
+<p>6. The trunk is hollow, and has two chambers, one called the cavity of
+the chest, and the other the cavity of the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p>7. The chest contains the two lungs and the heart.</p>
+
+<p>8. The abdomen contains the stomach, liver, and many other very
+important organs.</p>
+
+<p>9. Is it not our duty to take good care of our bodies as we would of
+some nice present from a friend?</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11"></a>[Pg 11]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3>
+
+<h4>OUR FOODS.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> We all know very well that if we do not eat we shall rapidly lose
+in weight, and become very weak and feeble. Did you ever think how much
+one eats in the course of a lifetime? Let us see if we can figure it up.
+How much do you suppose a boy eats in a day? Let us say two pounds. How
+much does he eat in a year? There are three hundred and sixty-five days
+in a year; 365 multiplied by 2 equals 730. So a boy eats a good many
+times his own weight in a year. How much would a person eat in fifty
+years?</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> Our bodies are composed of what we eat. If we eat bad food, our
+bodies will be made out of poor material, and will not be able to do
+their work well. So you see how important it is to learn something about
+our foods. We ought to know what things are good for us to eat, and what
+will do us harm.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. Foods and Poisons.</b>&mdash;Foods are those substances which nourish the
+body and keep it in good working order.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12"></a>[Pg 12]</span><b>4.</b> Our foods are obtained from both animals and plants. All food
+really comes from plants, however, since those animals which we
+sometimes use as food themselves live upon the vegetables which they
+eat. For example, the ox and the cow eat grass and furnish us beef and
+milk. Chickens eat corn and other grains, and supply us with eggs.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> The principal animal foods are milk, cheese, eggs, and the
+different kinds of flesh&mdash;beef, mutton, pork, fish, fowl, and wild game.</p>
+
+<p>We obtain a great many more kinds of food from plants than from animals.
+Most plant foods are included in three classes&mdash;<i>fruits</i>, <i>grains</i>, and
+<i>vegetables</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> <i>Fruits</i> are the fleshy parts of plants which contain the seeds.
+Our most common fruits are apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, and
+various kinds of nuts. Perhaps you know of some other kinds of fruits
+besides those mentioned. Your teacher will tell you that tomatoes,
+watermelons, and pumpkins are really fruits, though they are not
+generally so called.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> The seeds of grass-like plants are known as <i>grains</i>, of which we
+have wheat, rye, barley, corn, and rice. There are a few seeds that grow
+in pods, such as pease and beans, which somewhat resemble grains.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13"></a>[Pg 13]</span><b>8.</b> We eat the leaves, stems, or roots of some plants, as cabbages,
+celery, turnips, and potatoes. Foods of this kind are called
+<i>vegetables</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> There are other things, which, if we eat or drink them, will make
+us sick or otherwise do us harm. These are called <i>poisons</i>. Only such
+food as is pure and free from poisons is good or safe for us to use.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Narcotics and Stimulants.</b>&mdash;There are a number of substances known
+as narcotics and stimulants, which, from their effects upon the body,
+may be classed as poisons. Tobacco, opium, alcohol, and chloral are
+included in this class. Death has often been caused by taking small
+quantities of any of these poisonous drugs. We shall learn more of the
+effects of tobacco and alcohol in future lessons.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. Our bodies are made of what we eat.</p>
+
+<p>2. Things which will help us to grow strong and well, if we eat them,
+are foods.</p>
+
+<p>3. We get foods from plants and animals.</p>
+
+<p>4. There are several kinds of animal foods, and three classes of plant
+foods&mdash;fruits, grains, and vegetables.</p>
+
+<p>5. Things which make us sick when we eat them, are poisons.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14"></a>[Pg 14]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3>
+
+<h4>UNHEALTHFUL FOODS.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Most persons eat many things which are not good for them. Some
+people do not stop to think whether what they eat is good for them or
+likely to do them harm. Sometimes, without knowing it, we eat things
+which are harmful to us. Do you not think that we should try to learn
+what is good to eat and what is not good, and then be very careful not
+to eat anything which is likely to do us harm?</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Diseased Foods.</b>&mdash;When a person is sick, he is said to be diseased.
+Animals are sometimes sick or diseased. Vegetables are also sometimes
+diseased. Animals and vegetables that are diseased are not good for
+food. Dishonest men, however, sometimes sell them to those who do not
+know that they are unfit to be eaten.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> Pork, the flesh of the hog, is more likely to be diseased than any
+other kind of animal food.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Beef and mutton may be diseased also. Sheep and cattle are
+sometimes sick of diseases <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15"></a>[Pg 15]</span>very much like those which human beings
+have. Meat which is pale, yellowish, or of a dark red color, is
+unhealthful, and should not be eaten. Meat should never be eaten raw. It
+should always be well cooked.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Unripe Foods.</b>&mdash;Most vegetable foods are unfit to be eaten when
+green or unripe, especially if uncooked. Sometimes persons are made very
+sick indeed by eating such articles as green apples or unripe peaches.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. Stale or Decayed Foods.</b>&mdash;Food which has been allowed to stand until
+it is spoiled, or has become <i>stale</i>, <i>musty</i>, or <i>mouldy</i>, such as
+mouldy bread or fruit, or tainted meat, is unfit to be eaten, and is
+often a cause of very severe sickness. Canned fish or other meats spoil
+very quickly after the cans are opened, and should be eaten the same
+day.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. Adulterated Foods.</b>&mdash;Many of our foods are sometimes spoiled or
+injured by persons who put into them cheap substances which are harmful
+to health. They do this so as to make more money in selling them. This
+is called <i>adulteration</i>. The foods which are most likely to be injured
+by adulteration are milk, sugar, and butter.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> Milk is most often adulterated by adding water, though sometimes
+other things are added.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16"></a>[Pg 16]</span> Sometimes the water is not pure, and people are
+made sick and die. The adulteration of milk or any other food is a very
+wicked practice.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> Butter is sometimes made almost wholly from lard or tallow. This is
+called <i>oleomargarine</i> or <i>butterine</i>. If the lard or tallow is from
+diseased animals, the false butter made from it may cause disease.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> A great deal of the sugar and syrups which we buy is made from
+corn by a curious process, which changes the starch of the corn into
+sugar. Sugar which has been made in this way is not so sweet as cane
+sugar, and is not healthful.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Condiments or Seasonings.</b>&mdash;These are substances which are added to
+our food for the purpose of giving to it special flavors. Condiments are
+not foods, because they do not nourish the body in any way, and are not
+necessary to preserve it in health.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> The most common condiments are, mustard, pepper, pepper-sauce,
+ginger, cayenne-pepper, and spices. All these substances are irritating.
+If we put mustard upon the skin, it will make the skin red, and in a
+little time will raise a blister. If we happen to get a little pepper in
+the eye, it makes it smart and become very red and inflamed. When we
+take these <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17"></a>[Pg 17]</span>things into the stomach, they cause the stomach to smart,
+and its lining membrane becomes red just as the skin or the eye does.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> Nature has put into our foods very nice flavors to make us enjoy
+eating them. Condiments are likely to do us great harm, and hence it is
+far better not to use them.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Tobacco.</b>&mdash;Most of you know that tobacco is obtained from a plant
+which has long, broad leaves. These leaves are dried and then rolled up
+into cigars, ground into snuff, or prepared for chewing.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img024.jpg"
+             alt="TOBACCO-PLANT." /><br />
+         TOBACCO-PLANT.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> Tobacco has a smarting, sickening taste. Do you think it would be
+good to eat? Why not?</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> You know that tobacco makes people sick when they <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18"></a>[Pg 18]</span>first begin to
+use it. This is because it contains a very deadly poison, called
+<i>nicotine</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> If you give tobacco to a cat or a dog, it will become very sick. A
+boy once gave a piece of tobacco to a monkey, which swallowed it not
+knowing what a bad thing it was. The monkey soon became sick and died.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> Many learned doctors have noticed the effects which come from
+using tobacco, and they all say it does great harm to boys, that it
+makes them puny and weak, and prevents their growing up into strong and
+useful men. If tobacco is not good for boys, do you think it can be good
+for men? Certainly you will say, No.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. Both animals and plants are sometimes diseased. Flesh obtained from
+sick or diseased animals is unfit for food.</p>
+
+<p>2. Unripe, stale, and mouldy foods are unfit to be eaten and likely to
+cause severe illness.</p>
+
+<p>3. Foods are sometimes spoiled by having things mixed with them which
+are not food, or which are poisonous.</p>
+
+<p>4. The foods most liable to be adulterated in this way are milk, sugar,
+and butter.</p>
+
+<p>5. Tobacco, while not actually eaten, is thought by some persons to be a
+food, but it is not. It is a poison, and injures all who use it.</p>
+
+<p>6. Boys who use tobacco do not grow strong in body and mind.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19"></a>[Pg 19]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3>
+
+<h4>OUR DRINKS.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Water is really the only drink. It is the only substance which will
+satisfy thirst. All other fluids which we drink consist mostly of water.
+Thus, lemonade is lemon-juice and water. Milk is chiefly water. Wine,
+beer, cider, and such liquids contain alcohol and many other things,
+mixed with water.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Why we Need Water.</b>&mdash;If we should wet a sponge and lay it away, it
+would become dry in a few hours, as the water would pass off into the
+air. Our bodies are losing water all the time, and we need to drink to
+keep ourselves from drying up.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> Water is also very necessary for other purposes. It softens our
+food so that we can chew and swallow it, and helps to carry it around in
+the body after it has been digested, in a way about which we shall learn
+in future lessons.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Still another use for water is to dissolve and wash out of our
+bodies, through the sweat of the skin, and in other ways, the waste and
+worn-out particles which are no longer of any use.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20"></a>[Pg 20]</span><b>5. Impure Water.</b>&mdash;Most waters have more or less substances dissolved
+in them. Water which has much lime in it is called hard water. Such
+water is not so good to drink, or for use in cooking, as soft water.
+That water is best which holds no substances in solution. Well-water
+sometimes contains substances which soak into wells from vaults or
+cesspools. Slops which are poured upon the ground soak down out of
+sight; but the foul substances which they contain are not destroyed.
+They remain in the soil, and when the rains come, they are washed down
+into the well if it is near by. You can see some of the things found in
+bad water in the illustration given on opposite page.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> It is best not to drink iced water when the body is heated, or
+during meals. If it is necessary to drink very cold water, the bad
+effects may be avoided by sipping it very slowly.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. Tea and Coffee.</b>&mdash;Many people drink tea or coffee at their meals,
+and some persons think that these drinks are useful foods; but they
+really have little or no value as foods. Both tea and coffee contain a
+poison which, when separated in a pure form, is so deadly that a very
+small quantity is enough to kill a cat or a dog. This poison often does
+much harm to those who drink tea or coffee very strong for any great
+length of time.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21"></a>[Pg 21]</span>
+</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img028.jpg"
+             alt="A DROP OF IMPURE WATER MAGNIFIED." /><br />
+         A DROP OF IMPURE WATER MAGNIFIED.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>8. Alcohol</b> (al&acute;-co-hol).&mdash;All of you know something about alcohol.
+Perhaps you have seen it burn in a lamp. It will burn without a lamp, if
+we light it. It is so clear and colorless that it looks like water. The
+Indians call it "fire-water." Alcohol differs very much from foods. It
+is not produced from plants, as fruits and grains are; neither is it
+supplied by Nature ready for our use, as are air and water.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Fermentation.</b>&mdash;When a baker makes bread he puts some yeast in the
+dough to make it "rise," so the bread will be light. The yeast <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22"></a>[Pg 22]</span>destroys
+some of the sugar and starch in the flour and changes it into alcohol
+and a gas. The gas bubbles up through the dough, and this is what makes
+the bread light. This is called <i>fermentation</i> (fer-men-ta&acute;-tion). The
+little alcohol which is formed in the bread does no harm, because it is
+all driven off by the heat when the bread is baked.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img029.jpg"
+             alt="FERMENTATION." /><br />
+         FERMENTATION.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> Any moist substance or liquid which contains sugar will ferment if
+yeast is added to it, or if it is kept in a warm place. You know that
+canned fruit sometimes spoils. This is because it ferments. Fermentation
+is a sort of decay. When the juice of grapes, apples, or other fruit is
+allowed to stand in a warm place it "works," or ferments, and thus
+produces alcohol. Wine is fermented grape-juice; hard cider is fermented
+apple-juice.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> Beer, ale, and similar drinks are made from grains. The grain is
+first moistened and allowed to sprout. In sprouting, the starch of the
+grain is changed to sugar. The grain is next dried and ground, and is
+then boiled with water. The water dissolves the sugar. The sweet liquid
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23"></a>[Pg 23]</span>thus obtained is separated from the grain, and yeast is added to it.
+This causes it to ferment, which changes the sugar to alcohol. Thus we
+see that the grain does not contain alcohol in the first place, but that
+it is produced by fermentation.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> All fermented liquids contain more or less alcohol, mixed with
+water and a good many other things. Rum, brandy, gin, whiskey, and pure
+alcohol are made by separating the alcohol from the other substances.
+This is done by means of a still, and is called <i>distillation</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img030.jpg"
+             alt="DISTILLATION." /><br />
+         DISTILLATION.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> You can learn how a still separates the alcohol by a little
+experiment. When a tea-pot is boiling on the stove and the steam is
+coming out at the nozzle, hold up to the nozzle a common drinking-glass
+filled with iced water, first taking care to wipe the outside of the
+glass perfectly dry. Little drops of water will soon gather upon the
+side of the glass. If you touch these to the tongue you will ob<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24"></a>[Pg 24]</span>serve
+that they taste of the tea. It is because a little of the tea has
+escaped with the steam and condensed upon the glass. This is
+distillation.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> If the tea-pot had contained wine, or beer, or hard cider, the
+distilled water would have contained alcohol instead of tea. By
+distilling the liquid several times the alcohol may be obtained almost
+pure.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. Alcohol kills Animals and Plants.</b>&mdash;Strong alcohol has a deadly
+effect upon all living things. Once a man gave a dog a few
+tablespoonfuls of alcohol, and in a little while the dog was dead. If
+you should pour alcohol upon a plant it would die very soon.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> A man once made a cruel experiment. He put some minnows into a jar
+of water and then poured in a few teaspoonfuls of alcohol. The minnows
+tried very hard to get out, but they could not, and in a little while
+they were all dead, poisoned by the alcohol. A Frenchman once gave
+alcohol to some pigs with their food. They soon became sick and died.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. Alcohol not a Food.</b>&mdash;There are some people who imagine that
+alcohol is good for food because it is made from fruits and grains which
+are good for food. This is a serious mistake. A person can live on the
+fruits or grains from <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25"></a>[Pg 25]</span>which alcohol is made, but no one would attempt
+to live upon alcohol. If he did, he would soon starve to death. In fact,
+men have often died in consequence of trying to use whiskey in place of
+food.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> We should remember, also, that people do not take alcohol as a
+food, but for certain effects which it produces, which are not those of
+a food, but of a poison.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Many people who would not drink strong or distilled liquors, think
+that they will suffer no harm if they use only wine, beer, or cider.
+This is a great mistake. These liquids contain alcohol, as do all
+fermented drinks. A person will become drunk or intoxicated by drinking
+wine, beer, or cider&mdash;only a larger quantity is required to produce the
+same effect as rum or whiskey.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> Another very serious thing to be thought of is that if a person
+forms the habit of drinking wine, cider, or other fermented drinks, he
+becomes so fond of the <i>effect they produce</i> that he soon wants some
+stronger drink, and thus he is led to use whiskey or other strong
+liquors. On this account it is not safe to use any kind of alcoholic
+drinks, either fermented or distilled. The only safe plan is to avoid
+the use of every sort of stimulating or intoxicating drinks.</p>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> It has been found by observation that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26"></a>[Pg 26]</span>those persons who use
+intoxicating drinks are not so healthy as those who do not use them,
+and, as a rule, they do not live so long.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> This is found to be true not only of those who use whiskey and
+other strong liquors, but also of those who use fermented drinks, as
+wine and beer. Beer drinkers are much more likely to suffer from disease
+than those who are strictly temperate. It is often noticed by physicians
+that when a beer-drinker becomes sick or meets with an accident, he does
+not recover so readily as one who uses no kind of alcoholic drinks.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> Alcoholic drinks not only make people unhealthy and shorten their
+lives, but they are also the cause of much poverty and crime and an
+untold amount of misery.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. Water is the only thing that will satisfy thirst.</p>
+
+<p>2. In going through our bodies, water washes out many impurities. We
+also need water to soften our food.</p>
+
+<p>3. The purest water is the best. Impure water causes sickness.</p>
+
+<p>4. Good water has no color, taste, or odor.</p>
+
+<p>5. Tea and coffee are not good drinks. They are very injurious to
+children, and often do older persons much harm.</p>
+
+<p>6. Alcohol is made by fermentation.</p>
+
+<p>7. Pure alcohol and strong liquors are made by distillation.</p>
+
+<p>8. Alcohol is not a food, it is a poison. It kills plants and animals,
+and is very injurious to human beings.</p>
+
+<p>9. Even the moderate use of alcoholic drinks produces disease and
+shortens life.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27"></a>[Pg 27]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW WE DIGEST.</h4>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img034.jpg"
+             alt="VENUS'S FLY-TRAP." /><br />
+         VENUS'S FLY-TRAP.
+    </div>
+<p><b>1.</b> Did you ever see a Venus's fly-trap? This curious plant grows in
+North Carolina. It is called a fly-trap because it has on each of its
+leaves something like a steel-trap, by means of which it catches flies.
+You can see one of these traps in the picture. When a fly touches the
+leaf, the trap shuts up at once, and the poor fly is caught and cannot
+get away. The harder it tries to escape, the more tightly the trap
+closes upon it, until after a time it is crushed to death.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> But we have yet to learn the most curious thing about this strange
+plant, which seems to act so much like an animal. If we open the leaf
+after a few days, it will be found that the fly has almost entirely
+disappeared. The fly has <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28"></a>[Pg 28]</span>not escaped, but it has been dissolved by a
+fluid formed inside of the trap, and the plant has absorbed a portion of
+the fly. In fact, it has really eaten it. The process by which food is
+dissolved and changed so that it can be absorbed and may nourish the
+body, is called <i>digestion</i> (di-ges&acute;-tion).</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img035.jpg"
+             alt="THE DIGESTIVE TUBE." /><br />
+         THE DIGESTIVE TUBE.
+    </div>
+<p><b>3.</b> The Venus's fly-trap has a very simple way of digesting its food.
+Its remarkable little trap serves it as a mouth to catch and hold its
+food, and as a stomach to digest it. The arrangement by which our food
+is digested is much less simple than this. Let us study the different
+parts by which this wonderful work is done.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. The Digestive Tube.</b>&mdash;The most important part of the work of
+digesting our food is done in a long tube within the body, called the
+<i>digestive tube</i> or <i>canal</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> This tube is twenty-five or thirty feet long in a full-grown man;
+but it is so coiled up and folded away <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29"></a>[Pg 29]</span>that it occupies but little
+space. It begins at the mouth, and ends at the lower part of the trunk.
+The greater part of it is coiled up in the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. The Mouth.</b>&mdash;The space between the upper and the lower jaw is called
+the <i>mouth</i>. The lips form the front part and the cheeks the sides. At
+the back part are three openings. One, the upper, leads into the nose.
+There are two lower openings. One of these leads into the stomach, and
+the other leads to the lungs. The back part of the mouth joins the two
+tubes which lead from the mouth to the lungs and the stomach, and is
+called the <i>throat</i>. The mouth contains the <i>tongue</i> and the <i>teeth</i>.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img036.jpg"
+             alt="THE TEETH." /><br />
+         THE TEETH.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>7. The Teeth.</b>&mdash;The first teeth, those which come when we are small
+children, are called<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30"></a>[Pg 30]</span> <i>temporary</i> or <i>milk teeth</i>. We lose these teeth
+as the jaws get larger and the second or <i>permanent</i> teeth take their
+place. There are twenty teeth in the first set, and thirty-two in the
+second. Very old persons sometimes have a third set of teeth.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img037.jpg"
+             alt="SALIVARY GLANDS." /><br />
+         SALIVARY GLANDS.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>8. The Salivary</b> (sal&acute;-i-vary)<b> Glands.</b>&mdash;There are three pairs of
+<i>salivary glands</i>. They form a fluid called the <i>saliva</i> (sa-li&acute;-va). It
+is this fluid which moistens the mouth at all times. When we eat or
+taste something which we like, the salivary glands make so much saliva
+that we some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31"></a>[Pg 31]</span>times say the mouth waters. One pair of the salivary glands
+is at the back part of the lower jaw, in front of the ears. The other
+two pairs of glands are placed at the under side of the mouth. The
+saliva produced by the salivary glands is sent into the mouth through
+little tubes called <i>ducts</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. The Gullet.</b>&mdash;At the back part of the throat begins a narrow tube,
+which passes down to the stomach. This tube is about nine inches long.
+It is called the <i>gullet</i>, <i>food-pipe</i>, or <i>&oelig;sophagus</i>
+(e-soph&acute;-a-gus).</p>
+
+<p><b>10. The Stomach.</b>&mdash;At the lower end of the &oelig;sophagus the digestive
+tube becomes enlarged, and has a shape somewhat like a pear. This is the
+<i>stomach</i>. In a full-grown person the stomach is sufficiently large to
+hold about three pints. At each end of the stomach is a narrow opening
+so arranged that it can be opened or tightly closed, as may be
+necessary. The upper opening allows the food to pass into the stomach,
+the lower one allows it to pass out into the intestines. This opening is
+called the <i>pylorus</i> (py-lo&acute;-rus), or gate-keeper, because it closes so
+as to keep the food in the stomach until it is ready to pass out.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> In the membrane which lines the stomach there are many little
+pocket-like glands, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32"></a>[Pg 32]</span>in which a fluid called the <i>gastric juice</i> is
+formed. This fluid is one of the most important of all the fluids formed
+in the digestive canal.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img039.jpg"
+             alt="GASTRIC GLAND." /><br />
+         GASTRIC GLAND.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>12. The Intestine</b>(in-tes&acute;-tine)<b>.</b>&mdash;At the lower end of the stomach
+the digestive canal becomes narrow again. This narrow portion, called
+the <i>intestine</i>, is about twenty-five feet long in a grown person. The
+last few feet of the intestine is larger than the rest, and is called
+the <i>colon</i>. This long tube is coiled up and snugly packed away in the
+cavity of the abdomen. In the membrane lining the intestines are to be
+found little glands, which make a fluid called <i>intestinal juice</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. The Liver.</b>&mdash;Close up under the ribs, on the right side of the
+body, is a large chocolate-colored organ, called the <i>liver</i>. The liver
+is about half as large as the head, and is shaped so as to fit snugly
+into its corner of the abdomen. The chief business of the liver is to
+make a fluid called <i>bile</i>, which is very necessary for the digestion of
+our food.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> The bile is a bitter fluid of a golden-brown color. It is carried
+to the intestine by means of a little tube or duct, which enters the
+small in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33"></a>[Pg 33]</span>testine a few inches below the stomach. When the bile is made
+faster than it is needed for immediate use, it is stored up in a little
+pear-shaped sac called the <i>gall-bladder</i>, which hangs from the under
+side of the liver.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> The liver is a very wonderful organ, and does many useful things
+besides making bile. It aids in various ways in digesting the food, and
+helps to keep the blood pure by removing from it harmful substances
+which are formed within the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. The Pancreas</b>(pan&acute;-cre-as)<b>.</b>&mdash;The <i>pancreas</i> is another large and
+very important gland which is found close to the stomach, lying just
+behind it in the abdominal cavity. The pancreas forms a fluid called the
+<i>pancreatic juice</i>, which enters the small intestine at nearly the same
+place as the bile.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. The Spleen.</b>&mdash;Close to the pancreas, at the left side of the body,
+is a dark, roundish organ about the size of the fist, called the
+<i>spleen</i>. It is not known that the spleen has much to do in the work of
+digestion, but it is so closely connected with the digestive organs that
+we need to know about it.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> Please note that there are five important organs of digestion. The
+mouth, the stomach, the intestines, the pancreas, and the liver.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34"></a>[Pg 34]</span><b>19.</b> Also observe that there are five digestive fluids, saliva,
+gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The process of dissolving and changing the food so that it may be
+absorbed and may nourish the body is digestion.</p>
+
+<p>2. The work of digestion is chiefly done in the digestive tube or canal,
+which is about thirty feet in length.</p>
+
+<p>3. The mouth contains the teeth, and has three pairs of salivary glands
+connected with it, which make saliva.</p>
+
+<p>4. The gullet leads from the mouth to the stomach.</p>
+
+<p>5. The stomach is pear-shaped, and holds about three pints.</p>
+
+<p>6. It has an upper and a lower opening, each of which is guarded by a
+muscle, which keeps its contents from escaping.</p>
+
+<p>7. The lower opening of the stomach is called the pylorus.</p>
+
+<p>8. The stomach forms the gastric juice.</p>
+
+<p>9. The intestines are about twenty-five feet long. They form the
+intestinal juice.</p>
+
+<p>10. The liver lies under the ribs of the right side. It is about half as
+large as the head. It makes bile.</p>
+
+<p>11. When not needed for immediate use, the bile is stored up in a sac
+called the gall-bladder.</p>
+
+<p>12. The pancreas is a gland which lies just back of the stomach. It
+makes pancreatic juice.</p>
+
+<p>13. The spleen is found near the pancreas.</p>
+
+<p>14. There are five important digestive organs&mdash;the mouth, the stomach,
+the intestines, the liver, and the pancreas.</p>
+
+<p>15. There are five digestive fluids&mdash;saliva, gastric juice, intestinal
+juice, bile, and pancreatic juice.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35"></a>[Pg 35]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> Let us suppose that we have eaten a mouthful of bread, and can
+watch it as it goes through all the different processes of digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Mastication.</b>&mdash;First, we chew or masticate the food with the teeth.
+We use the tongue to move the food from one side of the mouth to the
+other, and to keep the food between the teeth.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. Mouth Digestion.</b>&mdash;While the bread is being chewed, the saliva is
+mixed with it and acts upon it. The saliva moistens and softens the food
+so that it can be easily swallowed and readily acted upon by the other
+digestive juices. You have noticed that if you chew a bit of hard bread
+a few minutes it becomes sweet. This is because the saliva changes some
+of the starch of the food into sugar.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> After we have chewed the food, we swallow it, and it passes down
+through the &oelig;sophagus into the stomach.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Stomach Digestion.</b>&mdash;As soon as the morsel of food enters the
+stomach, the gastric juice <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36"></a>[Pg 36]</span>begins to flow out of the little glands in
+which it is formed. This mingles with the food and digests another
+portion which the saliva has not acted upon. While this is being done,
+the stomach keeps working the food much as a baker kneads dough. This is
+done to mix the gastric juice with the food.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> After an hour or two the stomach squeezes the food so hard that a
+little of it, which has been digested by the gastric juice and the
+saliva, escapes through the lower opening, the pylorus, of which we have
+already learned. As the action of the stomach continues, more of the
+digested food escapes, until all that has been properly acted upon has
+passed out.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. Intestinal Digestion.</b>&mdash;We sometimes eat butter with bread, or take
+some other form of fat in our food. This is not acted upon by the saliva
+or the gastric juice. When food passes out of the stomach into the small
+intestine, a large quantity of bile is at once poured upon it. This bile
+has been made beforehand by the liver and stored up in the gall-bladder.
+The bile helps to digest fats, which the saliva and the gastric juice
+cannot digest.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> The pancreatic juice does the same kind of work that is done by the
+saliva, the gastric juice, and the bile. It also finishes up the work
+done <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37"></a>[Pg 37]</span>by these fluids. It is one of the most important of all the
+digestive juices.</p>
+
+<p><b>9.</b> The intestinal juice digests nearly all the different elements of
+the food, so that it is well fitted to complete the wonderful process by
+which the food is made ready to enter the blood and to nourish the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> While the food is being acted upon by the bile, the pancreatic
+juice, and intestinal juice, it is gradually moved along the intestines.
+After all those portions of food which can be digested have been
+softened and dissolved, they are ready to be taken into the blood and
+distributed through the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Absorption.</b>&mdash;If you put a dry sponge into water, it very soon
+becomes wet by soaking up the water. Indeed, if you only touch a corner
+of the sponge to the water, the whole sponge will soon become wet. We
+say that the sponge absorbs the water. It is in a somewhat similar way
+that the food is taken up or absorbed by the walls of the stomach and
+intestines. When the food is absorbed, the greater part of it is taken
+into the blood-vessels, of which we shall learn in a future lesson.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. Liver Digestion.</b>&mdash;After the food has been absorbed, the most of it
+is carried to the liver, where the process of digestion is completed.
+The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38"></a>[Pg 38]</span>liver also acts like an inspector to examine the digested food and
+remove hurtful substances which may be taken with it, such as alcohol,
+mustard, pepper, and other irritating things.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. The Thoracic Duct.</b>&mdash;A portion of the food, especially the digested
+fats, is absorbed by a portion of the lymphatic vessels called
+<i>lacteals</i>, which empty into a small vessel called the <i>thoracic duct</i>.
+This duct passes upward in front of the spine and empties into a vein
+near the heart.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>How a mouthful of food is digested:</p>
+
+<p>1. It is first masticated&mdash;that is, it is chewed and moistened with
+saliva.</p>
+
+<p>2. Then it is swallowed, passing through the &oelig;sophagus to the
+stomach.</p>
+
+<p>3. There it is acted upon, and a part of it digested by the gastric
+juice.</p>
+
+<p>4. It is then passed into the small intestine, where it is acted upon by
+the bile, the pancreatic fluid, and the intestinal juice.</p>
+
+<p>5. The digested food is then absorbed by the walls of the stomach and
+intestines.</p>
+
+<p>6. The greater portion of the food is next passed through the liver,
+where hurtful substances are removed.</p>
+
+<p>7. A smaller portion is carried through the thoracic duct and emptied
+into a vein near the heart.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39"></a>[Pg 39]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3>
+
+<h4>BAD HABITS IN EATING.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Eating too Fast.</b>&mdash;A most common fault is eating too fast. When the
+food is chewed too rapidly, and swallowed too quickly, it is not
+properly divided and softened. Such food cannot be easily acted upon by
+the various digestive juices.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Eating too Much.</b>&mdash;A person who eats food too rapidly is also very
+likely to injure himself by eating too much. The digestive organs are
+able to do well only a certain amount of work. When too much food is
+eaten, none of it is digested as well as it should be. Food which is not
+well digested will not nourish the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. Eating too Often</b>&mdash;Many children make themselves sick by eating too
+often. It is very harmful to take lunches or to eat at other than the
+proper meal-times. The stomach needs time to rest, just as our legs and
+arms and the other parts of the body do. For the same reason, it is well
+for us to avoid eating late at <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40"></a>[Pg 40]</span>night. The stomach needs to sleep with
+the rest of the body. If one goes to bed with the stomach full of food,
+the stomach cannot rest, and the work of digestion will go on so slowly
+that the sleep will likely be disturbed. Such sleep is not refreshing.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> If we wish to keep our digestive organs in good order, we must take
+care to eat at regular hours. We ought not to eat when we are very
+tired. The stomach cannot digest well when we are very much fatigued.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Sweet Foods.</b>&mdash;We ought not to eat too much sugar or sweet foods, as
+they are likely to sour or ferment in the stomach, and so make us sick.
+Candies often contain a great many things which are not good for us, and
+which may make us sick. The colors used in candies are sometimes
+poisonous. The flavors used in them are also sometimes very harmful.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. Fatty Foods Hurtful.</b>&mdash;Too much butter, fat meats, and other greasy
+foods are hurtful. Cream is the most digestible form of fat, because it
+readily dissolves in the fluids of the stomach, and mixes with the other
+foods without preventing their digestion. Melted fats are especially
+harmful. Cheese, fried foods, and rich pastry are very poor foods, and
+likely to cause sickness.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41"></a>[Pg 41]</span><b>7. Eating too many Kinds of Foods.</b>&mdash;Children should avoid eating
+freely of flesh meats. They ought also to avoid eating all
+highly-seasoned dishes, and taking too many kinds of food at a meal. A
+simple diet is much the more healthful. Milk and grain foods, as
+oatmeal, cracked wheat, graham bread, with such delicious fruits as
+apples, pears, and grapes, are much the best food for children.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. Avoid Use of Cold Foods.</b>&mdash;We ought not to take very cold foods or
+liquids with our meals. Cold foods, ice-water, and other iced drinks
+make the stomach so cold that it cannot digest the food. For this reason
+it is very harmful to drink iced water or iced tea, or to eat ice-cream
+at meals. These things are injurious to us at any time, but they do the
+greatest amount of harm when taken with the food.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Things sometimes Eaten which are not Foods.</b>&mdash;Things which are not
+foods are often used as foods, such as mustard, pepper, and the various
+kinds of seasonings. Soda, saleratus, and baking-powders also belong to
+this class. All of these substances are more or less harmful,
+particularly mustard, pepper, and hot sauces.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Common Salt.</b>&mdash;The only apparent exception to the general rule that
+all condiments and other substances which are not foods are harm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42"></a>[Pg 42]</span>ful is
+in the case of common salt. This is very commonly used among civilized
+nations, although there are many barbarous tribes that never taste it.
+It is quite certain that much more salt is used than is needed. When
+much salt is added to the food, the action of the digestive fluids is
+greatly hindered. Salt meats, and other foods which have much salt added
+to them, are hard to digest because the salt hardens the fibres of the
+meat, so that they are not easily dissolved by the digestive fluids.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Care of the Teeth.</b>&mdash;The teeth are the first organs employed in the
+work of digestion. It is of great importance that they should be kept in
+health. Many persons neglect their teeth, and treat them so badly that
+they begin to decay at a very early age.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> The mouth and teeth should be carefully cleansed immediately on
+rising in the morning, and after each meal. All particles of food should
+be removed from between the teeth by carefully rubbing both the inner
+and the outer surfaces of the teeth with a soft brush, and rinsing very
+thoroughly with water. A little soap may be used in cleansing the teeth,
+but clear water is sufficient, if used frequently and thoroughly. The
+teeth should not be used in breaking nuts or other hard substances. The
+teeth are brittle, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43"></a>[Pg 43]</span>and are often broken in this way. The use of candy
+and too much sweet food is also likely to injure the teeth.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> Some people think that it is not necessary to take care of the
+first set of teeth. This is a great mistake. If the first set are lost
+or are unhealthy, the second set will not be as perfect as they should
+be. It is plain that we should not neglect our teeth at any time of
+life.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Tobacco.</b>&mdash;When a person first uses tobacco, it is apt to make him
+very sick at the stomach. After he has used tobacco a few times it does
+not make him sick, but it continues to do his stomach and other organs
+harm, and after a time may injure him very seriously. Smokers sometimes
+suffer from a horrible disease of the mouth or throat known as cancer.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. Effects of Alcohol upon the Stomach.</b>&mdash;If you should put a little
+alcohol into your eye, the eye would become very red. When men take
+strong liquors into their stomachs, the delicate membrane lining the
+stomach becomes red in the same way. Perhaps you will ask how do we know
+that alcohol has such an effect upon the stomach. More than sixty years
+ago there lived in Michigan a man named Alexis St. Martin. One day he
+was, by accident, shot in such a way that a large opening was made right
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44"></a>[Pg 44]</span>through the skin and flesh and into the stomach. The good doctor who
+attended him took such excellent care of him that he got well. But when
+he recovered, the hole in his stomach remained, so that the doctor could
+look in and see just what was going on. St. Martin sometimes drank
+whiskey, and when he did, the doctor often looked into his stomach to
+see what the effect was, and he noticed that the inside of the stomach
+looked very red and inflamed.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> If St. Martin continued to drink whiskey for several days, the
+lining of the stomach looked very red and raw like a sore eye. A sore
+stomach cannot digest food well, and so the whole body becomes sick and
+weak. What would you think of a man who should keep his eyes always sore
+and inflamed and finally destroy his eyesight by putting pepper or
+alcohol or some other irritating substance into them every day? Is it
+not equally foolish and wicked to injure the stomach and destroy one's
+digestion by the use of alcoholic drinks? Alcohol, even when it is not
+very strong, not only hurts the lining of the stomach, but injures the
+gastric juice, so that it cannot digest the food well.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. Effects of Alcohol upon the Liver.</b>&mdash;The liver, as well as the
+stomach, is greatly damaged by the use of alcohol. You will recollect
+that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45"></a>[Pg 45]</span>nearly all the food digested and absorbed is filtered through the
+liver before it goes to the heart to be distributed to the rest of the
+body. In trying to save the rest of the body from the bad effects of
+alcohol, the liver is badly burned by the fiery liquid, and sometimes
+becomes so shrivelled up that it can no longer produce bile and perform
+its other duties. Even beer, ale, and wine, which do not contain so much
+alcohol as do rum, gin, and whiskey, have enough of the poison in them
+to do the liver a great deal of harm, and to injure many other organs of
+the body as well.</p>
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1"  width="90%" cellspacing="0" summary="Causes of Indigestion">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+
+<td align="center" rowspan="11" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+   <td valign="middle" class="tdright" rowspan="11" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 130pt">
+     {</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eating too fast.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eating too much.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eating too frequently.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eating irregularly.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>1.</td><td>Causes of Indigestion.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eating when tired.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eating too much of sweet foods.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eating too many kinds of food at a meal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Using iced foods or drinks.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>2. Irritating substances and things which are not foods should not be
+eaten.</p>
+
+<p>3. The teeth must be carefully used and kept clean.</p>
+
+<p>4. Tobacco-using does the stomach harm, and sometimes causes cancer of
+the mouth.</p>
+
+<p>5. Alcohol injures the gastric juice, and causes disease of the stomach
+and the liver.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46"></a>[Pg 46]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3>
+
+<h4>A DROP OF BLOOD.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. The Blood.</b>&mdash;Did you ever cut or prick your finger so as to make it
+bleed? Probably you have more than once met with an accident of this
+sort. All parts of the body contain blood. If the skin is broken in any
+place the blood flows out.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> How many of you know what a microscope is? It is an instrument
+which magnifies objects, or makes them look a great deal larger than
+they really are. Some microscopes are so powerful that they will make a
+little speck of dust look as large as a great rock.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. The Blood Corpuscles.</b>&mdash;If you should look at a tiny drop of blood
+through such a microscope, you would find it to be full of very small,
+round objects called <i>blood corpuscles</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> You would notice also that these corpuscles are of two kinds. Most
+of them are slightly reddish, and give to the blood its red color. A
+very few are white.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Use of the Corpuscles.</b>&mdash;Do you wonder what these peculiar little
+corpuscles do in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47"></a>[Pg 47]</span>body? They are very necessary. We could not live a
+moment without them. We need to take into our bodies oxygen from the
+air. It is the business of the red corpuscles to take up the oxygen in
+the lungs and carry it round through the body in a wonderful way, of
+which we shall learn more in a future lesson.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> The white corpuscles have something to do with keeping the body in
+good repair. They are carried by the blood into all parts of the body
+and stop where they are needed to do any kind of work. They may be
+compared to the men who go around to mend old umbrellas, and to do other
+kinds of tinkering. It is thought that the white corpuscles turn into
+red ones when they become old.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> The corpuscles float in a clear, almost colorless fluid which
+contains the digested food and other elements by which the body is
+nourished.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The blood contains very small objects called blood corpuscles.</p>
+
+<p>2. There are two kinds of corpuscles, red and white.</p>
+
+<p>3. The red corpuscles carry oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>4. The white corpuscles repair parts that are worn.</p>
+
+<p>5. The corpuscles float in a clear, almost colorless fluid, which
+nourishes the body.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48"></a>[Pg 48]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XI.</h3>
+
+<h4>WHY THE HEART BEATS.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> If you place your hand on the left side of your chest, you will
+feel something beating. If you cannot feel the beats easily, you may run
+up and down stairs two or three times, and then you can feel them very
+distinctly. How many of you know the name of this curious machine inside
+the chest, that beats so steadily? You say at once that it is the heart.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img055.jpg"
+             alt="THE HEART." /><br />
+         THE HEART.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> The Heart.&mdash;The heart may be called a live pump, which keeps
+pumping away during our whole lives. If it should stop, even <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49"></a>[Pg 49]</span>for a
+minute or two, we would die. If you will place your hand over your heart
+and count the beats for exactly one minute, you will find that it beats
+about seventy-five or eighty times. When you are older, your heart will
+beat a little more slowly. If you count the beats while you are lying
+down, you will find that the heart beats more slowly than when you are
+sitting or standing. When we run or jump, the heart beats much harder
+and faster.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. Why the Heart Beats.</b>&mdash;We have learned in preceding lessons that the
+digested food is taken into the blood. We have also learned that both
+water and oxygen are taken into the blood. Thus the blood contains all
+the materials that are needed by the various parts of the body to make
+good the wastes that are constantly taking place. But if the blood were
+all in one place it could do little good, as the new materials are
+needed in every part of the body. There has been provided a wonderful
+system of tubes running through every part of the body. By means of
+these tubes the blood is carried into every part where it is required.
+These tubes are connected with the heart. When the heart beats, it
+forces the blood through the tubes just as water is forced through a
+pipe by a pump or by a fire-engine.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50"></a>[Pg 50]</span><b>4. The Heart Chambers.</b>&mdash;The heart has four chambers, two upper and
+two lower chambers. The blood is received into the upper chambers, and
+is then passed down into the lower chambers. From the lower chambers it
+is sent out to various parts of the body.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img057.jpg"
+             alt="THE INSIDE OF THE HEART." /><br />
+         THE INSIDE OF THE HEART.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>5. The Blood-Vessels.</b>&mdash;The tubes through which the blood is carried
+are called <i>blood-vessels</i>. There are three kinds of blood-vessels. One
+set carry the blood away from the heart, and are called <i>arteries</i>
+(ar'-te-ries). Another set return the blood to the heart, and are called
+<i>veins</i>. The arteries and veins are connected at the ends farthest from
+the heart by many very small vessels. These minute, hairlike vessels are
+called <i>capillaries</i> (cap'-il-la-ries).</p>
+
+<p><b>6. The Arteries.</b>&mdash;An artery leads out from the lower chamber of each
+side of the heart. The one from the right side of the heart carries the
+blood only to the lungs. The one from the left side of the heart carries
+blood to every part of the body. It is the largest <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51"></a>[Pg 51]</span>artery in the body,
+and is called the <i>aorta</i>. Soon after it leaves the heart the aorta
+begins to send out branches to various organs. These divide in the
+tissues again and again until they become so small that only one
+corpuscle can pass through at a time, as shown in the colored plate.
+(<a href='#img001'>Frontispiece</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>7. The Veins.</b>&mdash;These very small vessels now begin to unite and form
+larger ones, the veins. The small veins join to form larger ones, until
+finally all are gathered into two large veins which empty into the upper
+chamber of the right side of the heart. The veins which carry blood from
+the lungs to the heart empty into the upper chamber of the left side of
+the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. What is Done in the Blood-Vessels.</b>&mdash;While the blood is passing
+through the small blood-vessels in the various parts of the body, each
+part takes out just what it needs to build up its own tissues. At the
+same time, the tissues give in exchange their worn-out or waste matters.
+The red blood corpuscles in the capillaries give up their oxygen, and
+the blood receives in its stead a poisonous substance called
+carbonic-acid gas.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Red and Blue Blood.</b>&mdash;While in the arteries the blood is of a bright
+red color; but while it is passing through the capillaries the color
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52"></a>[Pg 52]</span>changes to a bluish red or purple color. The red blood is called
+<i>arterial blood</i>, because it is found in the arteries. The purple blood
+is called <i>venous blood</i>, because it is found in the veins. The loss of
+oxygen in the corpuscles causes the change of color.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Change of Blood in the Lungs.</b>&mdash;Exactly the opposite change occurs
+in the blood when it passes through the lungs. The blood which has been
+gathered up from the various parts of the body is dark, impure blood. In
+the lungs this dark blood is spread out in very minute capillaries and
+exposed to the air. While passing through the capillaries of the lungs,
+the blood gives up some of its impurities in exchange for oxygen from
+the air. The red corpuscles absorb the oxygen and the color of the blood
+changes from dark purple to bright red again. The purified blood is then
+carried back to the upper chamber of the left side of the heart through
+four large veins. The blood is now ready to begin another journey around
+the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. The Pulse.</b>&mdash;If you place your finger on your wrist at just the
+right spot, you can feel a slight beating. This beating is called the
+<i>pulse</i>. It is caused by the movement of the blood in the artery of the
+wrist at each beat of the heart. The pulse can be felt at the neck and
+in other <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53"></a>[Pg 53]</span>parts of the body where an artery comes near to the surface.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. How much Work the Heart Does.</b>&mdash;The heart is a small organ, only
+about as large as your fist, and yet it does an amount of work which is
+almost beyond belief. Each time it beats, it does as much work as your
+arm would do in lifting a large apple from the ground to your mouth. It
+beats when we are asleep as well as when we are awake. When we run we
+know by the way in which it beats that it is working very fast. Do you
+know how much a ton is? Well, in twenty-four hours the heart does as
+much work as a man would do in lifting stones enough to weigh more than
+one hundred and twenty tons.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. The Lymphatics.</b>&mdash;While the blood is passing through the
+capillaries, some of the white corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels.
+What do you suppose becomes of these runaway corpuscles? Nature has
+provided a way by which they can get back to the heart. In the little
+spaces among the tissues outside of the blood-vessels very minute
+channels called <i>lymph channels</i> or <i>lymphatics</i> (lym&mdash;phat'-ics) begin.
+The whole body is filled with these small channels, which run together
+much like the meshes of a net. In the centre of the body the small
+lymphatics run into large ones, which empty into <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54"></a>[Pg 54]</span>the veins near the
+heart. This is the way the stray white blood corpuscles get back into
+the blood.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img061.jpg"
+             alt="LYMPH GLAND AND VESSELS." /><br />
+         LYMPH GLAND AND VESSELS.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>14. The Lymph.</b>&mdash;In the lymph channels the white corpuscles float in a
+colorless fluid called <i>lymph</i>. The lymph is composed of the fluid
+portion of the blood which has soaked through the walls of the small
+vessels. The chief purpose of the lymphatics is to carry the lymph from
+the tissues back to the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. Lymphatic Glands.</b>&mdash;Here and there, scattered through the body, are
+oval structures into each of which many lymphatic vessels are found to
+run, as shown in the illustration. These are called <i>lymphatic glands</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> The heart and blood-vessels are among the most wonderful
+structures in the body. It is no wonder, then, that alcohol, tobacco,
+and other narcotics and stimulants produce their most deadly effects
+upon these delicate organs. What these effects are we shall learn more
+fully in the next chapter.<br /><br /></p>
+
+
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55"></a>[Pg 55]</span>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The heart beats to circulate the blood.</p>
+
+<p>2. The heart has four chambers, two upper and two lower.</p>
+
+<p>3. There are tubes called blood-vessels which carry the blood to all
+parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>4. These tubes are connected with the heart.</p>
+
+<p>5. The vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called
+arteries, and those which carry blood back to the heart are called
+veins.</p>
+
+<p>6. The arteries and veins are connected by small tubes called
+capillaries.</p>
+
+<p>7. The blood found in the arteries is red; that in the veins is dark
+blue or purple.</p>
+
+<p>8. The color of the blood changes from red to blue in going through the
+capillaries. The change is due to the loss of oxygen.</p>
+
+<p>9. In the circulation of the lungs, the blood in the arteries is blue,
+that in the veins, red.</p>
+
+<p>10. The change from blue to red takes place while the blood is passing
+through the capillaries of the lungs. The change is due to the oxygen
+which the corpuscles of the blood take up in the lungs.</p>
+
+<p>11. The pulse is caused by the beating of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>12. The heart does a great deal of work every day in forcing the blood
+into different parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>13. Some of the white blood corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels
+through the thin walls of the capillaries.</p>
+
+<p>14. These corpuscles return to the heart through small vessels called
+lymph channels or lymphatics.</p>
+
+<p>15. The lymphatics in many parts of the body run into small roundish
+bodies called lymphatic glands.</p>
+
+<p>16. The object of the lymphatics is to remove from the tissues and
+return to the general circulation the lymph and white blood corpuscles
+which escape through the walls of the capillaries.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56"></a>[Pg 56]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XII.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW TO KEEP THE HEART AND THE BLOOD HEALTHY.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> The heart is one of the most important of all the organs of the
+body. If we take good care of it, it will do good service for us during
+a long life. Let us notice some ways in which the heart is likely to be
+injured.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Violent Exercise.</b>&mdash;Did you ever run so hard that you were out of
+breath? Do you know why you had to breathe so fast? It was because the
+violent exercise made your heart beat so rapidly that the blood could
+not get out of the lungs as fast as the heart forced it in. The lungs
+became so filled with blood that they could not do their work well.
+Sometimes, when a person runs very fast or takes any kind of violent
+exercise, the lungs become so filled with blood that a blood-vessel is
+broken. The person may then bleed to death. It is very unwise to overtax
+the heart in any way, for it may be strained or otherwise injured, so
+that it can never again do its work properly.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57"></a>[Pg 57]</span><b>3. Effects of Bad Air.</b>&mdash;Bad air is very harmful to the heart and to
+the blood also. We should always remember that the blood of the body
+while passing through the lungs is exposed to the air which we breathe.
+If the air is impure, the blood will be poisoned. In churches and in
+other places where the air becomes foul, people often faint from the
+effects of the impure air upon the heart. It is important that the air
+of the rooms in which we live and sleep should be kept very pure by good
+ventilation.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. Effects of Bad Food.</b>&mdash;The blood is made from what we eat, and if we
+eat impure and unwholesome food, the blood becomes impure. We ought to
+avoid the use of rich or highly-seasoned foods, candies, and all foods
+which are not nutritious. They not only injure the blood by making it
+impure, but they cause poor digestion.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Plenty of Sleep Necessary.</b>&mdash;If we should take a drop of blood from
+the finger of a person who had not had as much sleep as he needed, and
+examine it with a microscope, we should find that there were too few of
+the little red-blood corpuscles. This is one reason why a person who has
+not had sufficient sleep looks pale.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. Proper Clothing.</b>&mdash;We should be properly clothed, according to the
+weather. In cold <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58"></a>[Pg 58]</span>weather we need very warm clothing. In warm weather we
+should wear lighter clothing. Our clothing should be so arranged that it
+will keep all parts of the body equally warm, and thus allow the blood
+to circulate properly. The feet are apt to be cold, being so far away
+from the heart, and we should take extra pains to keep them warm and
+dry.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. Effects of Excessive Heat.</b>&mdash;In very hot weather, many persons are
+injured by exposing themselves to the sun too long at a time. Persons
+who drink intoxicating liquors are very often injured in this way, and
+sometimes die of sunstroke.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. Effects of Anger.</b>&mdash;When a person gets very angry, the heart
+sometimes almost stops beating. Indeed, persons have died instantly in a
+fit of passion. So you see it is dangerous for a person to allow himself
+to become very angry.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Effects of Alcohol upon the Blood.</b>&mdash;If you should take a drop of
+blood upon your finger, and put it under the microscope, and then add a
+little alcohol to it, you would see that the corpuscles would be quickly
+destroyed. In a few seconds they would be so shrivelled up that no one
+could tell that they had ever been the beautiful little corpuscles which
+are so necessary to health. When alcohol is taken as a drink, it does
+not de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59"></a>[Pg 59]</span>stroy the corpuscles so quickly, but it injures them so that they
+are not able to do their work of absorbing and carrying oxygen well.
+This is one reason why the faces of men who use alcoholic drinks often
+look so blue.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Alcohol Overworks the Heart.</b>&mdash;Dr. Parkes, a very learned English
+physician, took the pains to observe carefully the effects of alcohol
+upon the heart of a soldier who was addicted to the use of liquor. He
+counted the beats of the soldier's pulse when he was sober; and then
+counted them again when he was using alcohol, and found that when the
+soldier took a pint of gin a day his heart was obliged to do one fourth
+more work than it ought to do.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Effects of Alcohol upon the Blood-Vessels.</b>&mdash;If you put your hands
+into warm water, they soon become red. This is because the blood-vessels
+of the skin become enlarged by the heat, so that they hold more blood.
+Alcohol causes the blood to come to the surface in the same way. It is
+this that causes the flushed cheeks and the red eyes of the drunkard.
+Sometimes, after a man has been using alcohol a long time, the
+blood-vessels of his face remain enlarged all the time. This makes his
+nose grow too fast, and so in time it gets too large, and then he has a
+rum-blossom.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60"></a>[Pg 60]</span><b>12. Effects of Tobacco on the Heart and the Blood.</b>&mdash;When a boy first
+tries to use tobacco, it makes him feel very sick. If you should feel
+his pulse just then, you would find it very weak. This means that the
+heart is almost paralyzed by the powerful poison of the tobacco. Tobacco
+also injures the blood corpuscles.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> <i>Tea</i> and <i>coffee</i> also do their share of mischief to the heart.
+Those who use them very strong often complain of palpitation, or heavy
+and irregular beating of the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Taking Cold.</b>&mdash;People usually "catch cold" by allowing the
+circulation to become disturbed in some way, as by getting the feet wet,
+being chilled from not wearing sufficient clothing, sitting in a
+draught, and in other similar ways. It is very important for you to know
+that a cold is a serious thing, and should be carefully avoided.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. Hemorrhage</b> (hem'-or-rhage) <b>or Loss of Blood.</b>&mdash;A severe loss of
+blood is likely to occur as the result of accidents or injuries of
+various sorts, and it is important to know what to do at once, as there
+may not be time to send for a doctor before it will be too late to save
+the injured person's life. Here are a few things to be remembered in all
+such cases:</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> If the blood from a cut or other wound <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61"></a>[Pg 61]</span>flows in spurts, and is of
+a bright red color, it is from an artery. If it is dark-colored, and
+flows in a steady stream, it is from a vein.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. How to Stop the Bleeding of Wounds.</b>&mdash;If the bleeding vessel is an
+artery, apply pressure on the side of the wound next to the heart. If
+the bleeding is from a vein, apply it on the opposite side. It is
+generally best to apply pressure directly over the wound or on both
+sides. The pressure can be made with the thumbs or with the whole hand.
+Grasp the part firmly and press very hard, or tie a handkerchief or
+towel around the wounded part and twist it very tight. If an arm or limb
+is the part injured, the person should be made to lie down, and the
+injured part should be held up. This is of itself an excellent means of
+stopping hemorrhage.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. Nose-Bleed.</b>&mdash;For nose-bleed a very good remedy is holding one or
+both hands above the head. The head should be held up instead of being
+bent forward, and the corner of a dry handkerchief should be pressed
+into the bleeding nostril. It is well to bathe the face with very hot
+water, and to snuff hot water into the nostril if the bleeding is very
+severe. If the bleeding is very bad or is not readily stopped, a
+physician should be called.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62"></a>[Pg 62]</span>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. Violent exercise is likely to injure the heart.</p>
+
+<p>2. Bad air makes the blood impure and disturbs the action of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>3. Unwholesome food produces bad blood.</p>
+
+<p>4. Too little sleep makes the blood poor.</p>
+
+<p>5. Proper clothing is necessary to make the blood circulate equally in
+different parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>6. Violent anger may cause death by stopping the beating of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>7. Alcohol injures the blood.</p>
+
+<p>8. Alcohol overworks the heart.</p>
+
+<p>9. Alcohol enlarges the blood-vessels.</p>
+
+<p>10. Tobacco injures the blood.</p>
+
+<p>11. Tobacco weakens the heart and makes the pulse irregular.</p>
+
+<p>12. The use of strong tea and coffee causes palpitation of the heart.</p>
+
+<p>13. A cold is caused by a disturbance of the circulation. A cold should
+never be neglected.</p>
+
+<p>14. When an artery is wounded, the blood is bright red and flows in
+spurts.</p>
+
+<p>15. When a vein is wounded, the blood is purple and flows in a steady
+stream.</p>
+
+<p>16. To stop bleeding from an artery, press on the side of the wound
+towards the heart, or on both sides of the wound.</p>
+
+<p>17. When a vein is wounded, press on the side away from the heart.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63"></a>[Pg 63]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>WHY AND HOW WE BREATHE.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. An Experiment.</b>&mdash;Let us perform a little experiment. We must have a
+small bit of candle, a fruit jar, or a bottle with a large mouth, and a
+piece of wire about a foot long. Let us notice carefully what we are
+about to do and what happens.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> We will fasten the candle to the end of the wire. Now we will light
+it, and next we will let it down to the bottom of the jar. Now place the
+cover on the top of the jar and wait the results. Soon the candle burns
+dimly and in a little time the light goes out altogether.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> What do you think is the reason that the candle will not burn when
+shut up in a bottle? A candle uses air when it burns. If shut up in a
+small, tight place, it soon uses up so much air that it can burn no
+longer. Try the experiment again, and when the candle begins to burn
+dimly, take it out quickly. We see that at once the light burns bright
+again.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> Suppose we shut the stove draught tight, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64"></a>[Pg 64]</span>what is the result? The
+fire will burn low, and after a time it will probably go out. Why is
+this? Evidently the stove needs air to make the wood or coal burn, just
+as the candle needs air to make it burn.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Animals Die without Air.</b>&mdash;If you should shut up a mouse or any
+other small animal in a fruit-jar, its life would go out just as the
+light of the candle went out. The little animal would die in a short
+time. A child shut up in a close place would die from the same cause in
+a very little time. In fact, many children are dying every day for want
+of a sufficient supply of pure air.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. Oxygen.</b>&mdash;The reason why animals need air, and why the fire will not
+burn without it, is that the air contains <i>oxygen</i>, and it is the oxygen
+of the air which burns the wood or coal and produces heat. So it is the
+oxygen that burns in our bodies and keeps us warm.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> When wood and coal are burned, heat is produced; but some parts of
+the fuel are not made into heat. While the fire burns, smoke escapes
+through the pipe or chimney; but a part of the fuel remains in the stove
+in the form of ashes. Smoke and ashes are the waste parts of the fuel.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. Poison in the Breath.</b>&mdash;The burning which takes place in our bodies
+produces something <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65"></a>[Pg 65]</span>similar to the smoke and ashes produced by the fire
+in a stove. The smoke is called <i>carbonic-acid gas</i>,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> an invisible
+vapor, and escapes through the lungs. The ashes are various waste and
+poisonous matters which are formed in all parts of the body. These waste
+matters are carried out of the body through the skin, the kidneys, the
+liver, and other organs.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Another Experiment.</b>&mdash;We cannot see the gas escape from our lungs,
+but we can make an experiment which will show us that it really does
+pass out. Get two drinking-glasses and a tube. A glass tube is best, but
+a straw will do very well. Put a little pure water into one glass and
+the same quantity of lime-water into the other glass. Now put one end of
+the tube into the mouth and place the other end in the pure water.
+Breathe through the tube a few times. Look at the water in the glass and
+see that no change has taken place. Now breathe through the lime-water
+in the same way. After breathing two or three times, you will notice
+that the lime-water begins to look milky. In a short time it becomes
+almost as white as milk. This is because the lime-water catches the
+carbonic-acid gas which escapes from our lungs with each breath, while
+the pure water does not.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66"></a>[Pg 66]</span><b>10. Why we Breathe.</b>&mdash;By this experiment we learn another reason why
+we breathe. We must breathe to get rid of the carbonic-acid gas, which
+is brought to the lungs by the blood to be exchanged for oxygen. There
+are two reasons then why we breathe: (<i>a</i>) to obtain oxygen; (<i>b</i>) to
+get rid of carbonic-acid gas.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. How a Frog Breathes.</b>&mdash;Did you ever see a frog breathe? If not,
+improve the first opportunity to do so. You will see that the frog has a
+very curious way of breathing. He comes to the top of the water, puts
+his nose out a little, and then drinks the air. You can watch his throat
+and see him swallowing the air, a mouthful at a time, just as you would
+drink water.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> If you had a chance to see the inside of a frog you would find
+there a queer-shaped bag. This is his air-bag. This bag has a tube
+running up to the throat. When the frog comes to the surface of the
+water he fills this bag with air. Then he can dive down into the mud out
+of sight until he has used up the supply of air. When the air has been
+changed to carbonic-acid gas, he must come to the surface to empty his
+air-bag and drink it full again.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. The Lungs.</b>&mdash;We do not drink air as the frog does, but like the
+frog we have an air-bag in our bodies. Our air-bag has to be emptied
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67"></a>[Pg 67]</span>and filled so often that we cannot live under water long at a time, as
+a frog does. We call this air-bag the lungs. We have learned before that
+the lungs are in the chest. We need so much air and have to change the
+air in our lungs so often that we would not have time to swallow it as a
+frog does. So nature has made for us a breathing apparatus of such a
+kind that we can work it like a pair of bellows. Let us now study our
+breathing-bellows and learn how they do their work.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. The Windpipe and Air-tubes.</b>&mdash;A large tube called the <i>windpipe</i>
+extends from the root of the tongue down the middle of the chest. The
+windpipe divides into two main branches, which subdivide again and
+again, until the finest branches are not larger than a sewing-needle.
+The branches are called <i>bronchial tubes</i>. At the end of each tube is a
+cluster of small cavities called <i>air-cells</i>. The air-tubes and
+air-cells are well shown on the following page.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. The Voice-box.</b>&mdash;If you will place the ends of your fingers upon
+your throat just above the breast-bone, you will feel the windpipe, and
+may notice the ridges upon it. These are rings of cartilage, a hard
+substance commonly called gristle. The purpose of these rings is to keep
+the windpipe open. Close under the chin you <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68"></a>[Pg 68]</span>can find something which
+feels like a lump, and which moves up and down when you swallow.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img075.jpg"
+             alt="AIR-TUBES AND AIR-CELLS." /><br />
+         AIR-TUBES AND AIR-CELLS.
+    </div>
+
+<p>This is a little box made of cartilage, called the voice-box, because by
+means of this curious little apparatus we are able to talk and sing. Two
+little white bands are stretched across the inside of the voice-box.
+When we speak, these bands vibrate just as do the strings of the piano.
+These bands are called the <i>vocal cords</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69"></a>[Pg 69]</span><b>16. The Epiglottis.</b>&mdash;At the top of the voice-box is placed a curious
+trap-door which can be shut down so as to close the entrance to the
+air-passages of the lungs. This little door has a name rather hard to
+remember. It is called the <i>epiglottis</i> (ep-i-glot'-tis). The cover of
+the voice-box closes whenever we swallow anything. This keeps food or
+liquids from entering the air passages. If we eat or drink too fast the
+voice-box will not have time to close its little door and prevent our
+being choked. Persons have been choked to death by trying to swallow
+their food too fast. Do you not think this is a very wonderful door that
+can open and shut just when it should do so without our thinking
+anything about it?</p>
+
+<p><b>17. The Nostrils and the Soft Palate.</b>&mdash;The air finds its way to the
+lungs through the mouth or through the two openings in the nose called
+the <i>nostrils</i>. From each nostril, three small passages lead backward
+through the nose. At the back part of the nasal cavity the passages of
+the two sides of the nose come together in an open space, just behind
+the soft curtain which hangs down at the back part of the mouth. This
+curtain is called the <i>soft palate</i>. Through the opening behind this
+curtain the air passes down into the voice-box and then into the lungs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70"></a>[Pg 70]</span><b>18. The Pleura.</b>&mdash;In the chest the air tubes and lung of each side are
+enclosed in a very thin covering, called the <i>pleura</i>. The cavity of the
+chest in which the lungs are suspended is also lined by the pleura. A
+limpid fluid exudes from the pleura which keeps it moist, so that when
+the two surfaces rub together, as the lungs move, they do not become
+chafed and irritated.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. Walls of the Chest.</b>&mdash;The ribs form a part of the framework of the
+chest. The ribs are elastic. The spaces between them are filled up with
+muscles, some of which draw the ribs together, while others draw them
+apart. Can you tell any reason why the walls of the chest are elastic?
+The lower wall or floor of the chest cavity is formed by a muscle called
+the <i>diaphragm</i>, which divides the trunk into two cavities, the chest
+and the abdomen.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. How we Use the Lungs.</b>&mdash;Now let us notice how we use the lungs and
+what takes place in them. When we use a pair of bellows, we take hold of
+the handles and draw them apart. The sides of the bellows are drawn
+apart so that there is more room between the sides. The air then rushes
+in to fill the space. When the bellows are full, we press the handles
+together and the air is forced out.</p>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> It is in just this way that we breathe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71"></a>[Pg 71]</span> When we are about to take
+a long breath, the muscles pull upon the sides of the chest in such a
+way as to draw them apart. At the same time the diaphragm draws itself
+downward. By these means, the cavity of the chest is made larger and air
+rushes in through the nose or mouth to fill the space. When the muscles
+stop pulling, the walls of the chest fall back again to their usual
+position and the diaphragm rises. The cavity of the chest then becomes
+smaller and the air is forced out through the nose or mouth. This
+process is repeated every time we breathe.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> We breathe once for each four heart-beats. Small children breathe
+more rapidly than grown persons. We usually breathe about eighteen or
+twenty times in a minute.</p>
+
+<p><b>23. How Much the Lungs Hold.</b>&mdash;Every time we breathe, we take into our
+lungs about two thirds of a pint of air and breathe out the same
+quantity. Our lungs hold, however, very much more than this amount. A
+man, after he has taken a full breath, can breathe out a gallon of air,
+or more than ten times the usual amount. After he has breathed out all
+he can, there is still almost half a gallon of air in his lungs which he
+cannot breathe out. So you see the lungs hold almost a gallon and a half
+of air.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72"></a>[Pg 72]</span><b>24.</b> Do you think you can tell why Nature has given us so much more
+room in the lungs than we ordinarily use in breathing? If you will run
+up and down stairs three or four times you will see why we need this
+extra lung-room. It is because when we exercise vigorously the heart
+works very much faster and beats harder, and we must breathe much faster
+and fuller to enable the lungs to purify the blood as fast as the heart
+pumps it into them.</p>
+
+<p><b>25. The Two Breaths.</b>&mdash;We have learned that the air which we breathe
+out contains something which is not found in the air which we breathe
+in. This is carbonic-acid gas. How many of you remember how we found
+this out? We can also tell this in another way. If we put a candle down
+in a wide jar it will burn for some time. If we breathe into the jar
+first, however, the candle will go out as soon as we put it into the
+jar. This shows that the air which we breathe out contains something
+which will put a candle out. This is carbonic-acid gas, which is a
+poison and will destroy life.</p>
+
+<p><b>26. Other Poisons.</b>&mdash;The air which we breathe out also contains other
+invisible poisons which are very much worse than the carbonic-acid gas.
+These poisons make the air of a crowded or unventilated room smell very
+unpleasant to one <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73"></a>[Pg 73]</span>who has just come in from the fresh air. Such air is
+unfit to breathe.</p>
+
+<p><b>27. The Lungs Purify the Blood.</b>&mdash;We have learned that the blood
+becomes dark in its journey through the body. This is because it loses
+its oxygen and receives carbonic-acid gas. While passing through the
+capillaries of the lungs, the blood gives out the carbonic-acid gas
+which it has gathered up in the tissues, and takes up a new supply of
+oxygen, which restores its scarlet hue.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. How the Air is Purified.</b>&mdash;Perhaps it occurs to you that with so
+many people and animals breathing all the while, the air would after a
+time become so filled with carbonic-acid gas that it would be unfit to
+breathe. This is prevented by a wonderful arrangement of Nature. The
+carbonic-acid gas which is so poisonous to us is one of the most
+necessary foods for plants. Plants take in carbonic-acid gas through
+their leaves, and send the oxygen back into the air ready for us to use
+again.</p>
+
+<p><b>29.</b> We have already learned that the oxygen taken in by the lungs is
+carried to the various parts of the body by the little blood corpuscles.
+The effect of strong liquors is to injure these corpuscles so that they
+cannot carry so much oxygen as they ought to do. For this reason, the
+blood of a drunkard is darker in color than <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74"></a>[Pg 74]</span>that of a temperate person,
+and contains more carbonic-acid gas. The drunkard's lungs may supply all
+the air he needs, but his blood has been so damaged that he cannot use
+it. Excessive smoking has a similar effect.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. Our bodies need air, just as a candle or a fire does.</p>
+
+<p>2. A small animal shut up in a close jar soon dies for want of air. We
+need the oxygen which the air contains.</p>
+
+<p>3. Oxygen causes a sort of burning in our bodies.</p>
+
+<p>4. The burning in our bodies keeps us warm, and destroys some of the
+waste matters.</p>
+
+<p>5. The breathing organs are the windpipe and bronchial tubes, the
+voice-box, the epiglottis, the nostrils, the soft palate, the lungs, the
+air-cells, the pleura, the diaphragm, and the chest walls.</p>
+
+<p>6. When we breathe we use our lungs like a pair of bellows.</p>
+
+<p>7. A man's lungs hold nearly one and a half gallons of air.</p>
+
+<p>8. In ordinary breathing we use less than a pint of air, but when
+necessary we can use much more.</p>
+
+<p>9. The air we breathe out contains carbonic-acid gas and another
+invisible poison.</p>
+
+<p>10. A candle will not burn in air which has been breathed, and animals
+die when confined in such air.</p>
+
+<p>11. The lungs purify the blood. While passing through the lungs, the
+color of the blood changes from purple to bright red.</p>
+
+<p>12. Plants purify the air by removing the carbonic-acid gas.</p>
+
+<p>13. Alcohol and tobacco injure the blood corpuscles so that they cannot
+take up the oxygen from the air which the lungs receive.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75"></a>[Pg 75]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIV.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW TO KEEP THE LUNGS HEALTHY.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Pure Air Necessary.</b>&mdash;A person may go without eating for a month, or
+without drinking for several days, and still live; but a strong man will
+die in a few moments if deprived of air. It is very important that we
+breathe plenty of pure air. There are many ways in which the air becomes
+impure.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Bad Odors.</b>&mdash;Anything which rots or decays will in so doing produce
+an unpleasant odor. Bad odors produced in this way are very harmful and
+likely to make us sick. Many people have rotting potatoes and other
+vegetables in their cellars, and swill barrels, and heaps of refuse in
+their back yards. These are all dangerous to health, and often give rise
+to very serious disease. We should always remember that bad odors caused
+by decaying substances are signs of danger to health and life, and that
+these substances should be removed from us, or we should get away from
+them, as soon as possible.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. Germs.</b>&mdash;The chief reason why bad odors <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76"></a>[Pg 76]</span>are dangerous is that they
+almost always have with them little living things called <i>germs</i>. Germs
+are so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye: it takes a
+strong microscope to enable us to see them, but they are so powerful to
+do harm that if we receive them into our bodies they are likely to make
+us very sick, and they often cause death.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. Contagious Diseases.</b>&mdash;You have heard about diphtheria and scarlet
+fever and measles, and other "catching diseases." When a person is sick
+with one of these diseases, the air about him is poisoned with germs or
+something similar, which may give the same disease to other persons who
+inhale it. So when a person is sick from one of these diseases, it is
+very important that he should be put in a room by himself and shut away
+from every one but the doctor and the nurse. It is also necessary that
+all the clothing and bedding used by the sick person, and everything in
+the room, as well as the room itself, should be carefully cleansed and
+disinfected when the person has recovered, so as to wipe out every trace
+of the disease. The writer has known many cases in which persons who
+have been sick with some of these diseases were careless and gave the
+disease to others who died of it, although they themselves recovered. Do
+you <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77"></a>[Pg 77]</span>not think it very wrong for a person to give to another through
+carelessness a disease which may cause his death?</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Unhealthful vapors and odors of various sorts arise from cisterns
+and damp, close places under a house. Rooms which are shaded and shut up
+so closely that fresh air and sunshine seldom get into them should be
+avoided as dangerous to health.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. Breath-Poisoned Air.</b>&mdash;The most dangerous of all the poisons to
+which we are exposed through the air are those of the breath, of which
+we learned in a preceding lesson. We need plenty of fresh air to take
+the place of the air which we poison by our breath. Every time we
+breathe, we spoil at least <i>half a barrelful of air</i>. We breathe twenty
+times a minute, and hence spoil ten barrels of air in one minute. How
+many barrels would this make in one hour? We need an equal quantity of
+pure air to take the place of the spoiled air, or not less than ten
+barrels every minute, or <i>six hundred barrels every hour</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. Ventilation.</b>&mdash;The only way to obtain the amount of fresh air
+needed, when we are shut up in-doors, is to have some means provided by
+which the fresh air shall be brought in and the old and impure air
+carried out. Changing the air by such means is called <i>ventilation</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78"></a>[Pg 78]</span>
+Every house, and especially every sleeping-room, should be well
+ventilated. School-houses, churches, and other places where many people
+gather, need perfect ventilation. Ask your teacher to show you how the
+school-room is ventilated; and when you go home, talk to your parents
+about the ventilation of the house in which you live.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> Many people ventilate their houses by opening the doors and
+windows. This is a very good way of ventilating a house in warm weather,
+but is a very poor way in cold weather, as it causes cold draughts, and
+makes the floor cold, so that it is difficult to keep the feet warm. It
+is much better to have the air warmed by a furnace or some similar
+means, before it enters the rooms. There ought also to be in each room a
+register to take the foul air out, so that it will not be necessary to
+open the windows. This register should be placed at the floor, because
+when the pure air enters the room warm, it first rises to the upper part
+of the room, and then as it cools and at the same time becomes impure,
+it settles to the floor, where it should be taken out by the register.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. How to Breathe.</b>&mdash;We should always take pains to expand the lungs
+well in breathing, and to use the entire chest, both the upper and the
+lower part. Clothing should be worn in such <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79"></a>[Pg 79]</span>a way that every portion of
+the chest can be expanded. For this reason it is very wrong to wear the
+clothing tight about the waist. Clothing so worn is likely to cause the
+lungs to become diseased.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Bad Habits.</b>&mdash;Students are very apt to make themselves flat-chested
+and round-shouldered by leaning over their desks while writing or
+studying. This is very harmful. We should always use great care to sit
+erect and to draw the shoulders well back. Then, if we take pains to
+fill the lungs well a great many times every day, we shall form the
+habit of expanding the lungs, and shall breathe deeper, even when we are
+not thinking about doing so.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Breathing through the Nose.</b>&mdash;In breathing, we should always take
+care to draw the air in through the nose, and not through the mouth. The
+nose acts as a strainer, to remove particles of dust which might do harm
+if allowed to enter the lungs. It also warms and moistens the air in
+cold weather. The habit of breathing through the mouth often gives rise
+to serious disease of the throat and lungs.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Lungs.</b>&mdash;Both alcohol and
+tobacco produce disease of the breathing organs. Smoking injures the
+throat and sometimes causes loss of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80"></a>[Pg 80]</span>smell. Serious and even fatal
+diseases of the lungs are often caused by alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> Many people suppose that the use of alcohol will save a man from
+consumption. This is not true. A man may become a drunkard by the use of
+alcohol, and yet he is more likely to have consumption than he would
+have been if he had been a total abstainer. "Drunkard's consumption" is
+one of the most dreadful forms of this disease.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. Pure air is as necessary as food and drink.</p>
+
+<p>2. Anything which is rotting or undergoing decay causes a bad odor, and
+thus makes the air impure.</p>
+
+<p>3. Foul air contains germs which cause disease and often death.</p>
+
+<p>4. Persons sick with "catching" diseases should be carefully avoided.
+Such persons should be shut away from those who are well, and their
+rooms and clothing should be carefully cleansed and disinfected.</p>
+
+<p>5. The breath poisons the air about us. Each breath spoils half a
+barrelful of air.</p>
+
+<p>6. We should change the air in our houses, or ventilate them, so that we
+may always have pure air.</p>
+
+<p>7. We should always keep the body erect, and expand the lungs well in
+breathing.</p>
+
+<p>8. The clothing about the chest and waist should be loose, so that the
+lungs may have room to expand.</p>
+
+<p>9. Always breathe through the nose.</p>
+
+<p>10. Tobacco causes disease of the throat and nose.</p>
+
+<p>11. Alcohol causes consumption and other diseases of the lungs.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81"></a>[Pg 81]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XV.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE SKIN AND WHAT IT DOES.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. The Skin.</b>&mdash;The skin is the covering of the body. It fits so exactly
+that it has the precise shape of the body, like a closely fitting
+garment. If you will take up a little fold of the skin you will see that
+it can be stretched like a piece of india-rubber. Like rubber, when it
+is released it quickly contracts and appears as before.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. The Bark of Trees.</b>&mdash;Did you ever peel the bark off of a young tree?
+If so, you have noticed that there were really two barks, an outer bark,
+as thin as paper, through which you could almost see, and an inner and
+much thicker bark, which lay next to the wood of the tree. You can peel
+the outer bark off without doing the tree much harm. Indeed, if you will
+notice some of the fruit or shade trees in the yard, at home, you will
+see that the outer bark of the tree peels itself off, a little at a
+time, and that new bark grows in its place. If you tear off the inner
+bark, however, it will injure the tree. It will make it bleed, or cause
+the sap to run.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82"></a>[Pg 82]</span> The sap is the blood of the tree. The bark is the skin
+of the tree. When the bare place heals over, an ugly scar will be left.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. The Cuticle.</b>&mdash;Our bodies, like trees, have two skins, or really one
+skin with an outer and an inner layer. When a person burns himself so as
+to make a blister, the outer skin, called the <i>cuticle</i>, is separated
+from the inner by a quantity of water or serum poured out from the
+blood. This causes the blister to rise above the surrounding skin. If
+you puncture the blister the water runs out. Now we may easily remove
+the cuticle and examine it. The cuticle, we shall find, looks very much
+like the skin which lines the inside of an egg-shell, and it is almost
+as thin.</p>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> The cuticle is very thin in most parts of the body, but in some
+places, as the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, it is quite
+thick. This is because these parts of the skin come in contact with
+objects in such a way as to be liable to injury if not thus protected.
+The cuticle has no blood-vessels and very few nerves. With a fine needle
+and thread you can easily take a stitch in it without making it bleed or
+causing any pain.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. The Pigment.</b>&mdash;The under side of the cuticle is colored by little
+particles of pigment or coloring matter. The color of this pigment
+differs in different races. In the negro, the col<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83"></a>[Pg 83]</span>or of the pigment is
+black. In some races the pigment is brown. In white persons there is
+very little pigment, and in some persons, called albinos, there is none
+at all.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. The Inner or True Skin.</b>&mdash;The inner skin, like the inner bark of a
+tree, is much thicker than the outer skin. It is much more important,
+and for this reason is sometimes called the <i>true skin</i>. It contains
+nerves and blood-vessels.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img090.jpg"
+             alt="SKIN OF PALM OF HAND MAGNIFIED." /><br />
+         SKIN OF PALM OF<br />HAND MAGNIFIED.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>7. The Sweat Glands.</b>&mdash;If you look at the palm of the hand you will see
+many coarse lines, and by looking much closer you will see that the palm
+is completely covered with very fine ridges and furrows. Now, if you
+examine these ridges with a magnifying-glass, you will find arranged
+along each ridge a number of little dark spots. Each of these points is
+the mouth of a very small tube. This is called a <i>sweat duct</i>. These
+ducts run down through both the outer and inner layers of the skin. At
+the under side of the true skin the end of the tube is rolled up in a
+coil, as you can see by looking at the illustration on the following
+page. The coiled parts of the tubes are called <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84"></a>[Pg 84]</span><i>sweat glands</i>, because
+they separate from the blood the fluid which we call sweat or
+perspiration.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. The Oil Glands.</b>&mdash;There are other little glands in the skin which
+make fat or oil. The oil is poured out upon the skin to keep it soft and
+smooth.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img091.jpg"
+             alt="THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN." /><br />
+         THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>9. The Hair.</b>&mdash;There are some curious little pockets in the skin. Out
+of each of these pock<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85"></a>[Pg 85]</span>ets grows a hair. On some parts of the body the
+hairs are coarse and long; on other parts they are fine and short.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> Many of the ducts leading from the oil glands open into the
+pockets or pouches from which the hairs grow. The oil makes the hair
+soft and glossy. Nature has thus provided an excellent means for oiling
+the hair.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> The hair is chiefly useful as a protection. It is also an
+ornament.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. The Nails.</b>&mdash;The nails of the fingers and the toes grow out of
+little pockets in the skin just as the hairs do. Both the hair and the
+nails are really parts of the outer skin, which is curiously changed and
+hardened. The nails lie upon the surface of the true skin and grow from
+the under side as well as from the little fold of skin at the root of
+the nail. They are made to give firmness and protection to the ends of
+the fingers and toes. The nails of the fingers are also useful in
+picking up small objects and in many other ways.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. Uses of the Skin.</b>&mdash;The skin is useful in several ways:</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>It Removes Waste.</i>&mdash;The sweat glands and ducts are constantly at
+work removing from the blood particles which have been worn out and can
+be of no further use. If we get very <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86"></a>[Pg 86]</span>warm, or if we run or work very
+hard, the skin becomes wet with sweat. In a little while, if we stop to
+rest, the sweat is all gone. What becomes of it? You say it dries up,
+which means that it has passed off into the air. Sweating is going on
+all the time, but we do not sweat so much when we are quiet and are not
+too warm, and so the sweat dries up as fast as it is produced, and we do
+not see it. Nearly a quart of sweat escapes from the skin daily.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Breathing through the Skin.</i>&mdash;We breathe to a slight extent through
+the skin. There are some lower animals which breathe with their skins
+altogether. A frog can breathe with its skin so well that it can live
+for some time after its lungs have been removed. Breathing is an
+important part of the work of the skin, and we should be careful, by
+keeping it clean and healthy, to give it a good chance to breathe all
+that it can.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>The Skin Absorbs.</i>&mdash;The skin absorbs many substances which come in
+contact with it, and hence should be kept clean. If the foul substances
+which are removed in the sweat are allowed to remain upon the skin, they
+may be taken back into the system and thus do much harm.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>The Skin has Feeling.</i>&mdash;When anything <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87"></a>[Pg 87]</span>touches the skin we know it
+by the feeling. We can tell a great many things about objects by feeling
+of them. If we happen to stick a pin into the skin we feel pain. We are
+also able to tell the difference between things which are hot and those
+which are cold. Thus the sense of feeling which the skin has is very
+useful to us.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>The Skin Protects the Body.</i>&mdash;The skin is a natural clothing which
+protects us much better than any other kind of clothing could. It is so
+soft and pliable that it cannot hurt the most delicate part which it
+covers, yet it is very strong and tough.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The skin is the covering of the body. It has two layers, the outer,
+called the cuticle, and the inner, called the true skin.</p>
+
+<p>2. A substance called pigment is found between the two skins. This gives
+the skin its color.</p>
+
+<p>3. The true skin has blood-vessels and nerves, but the cuticle has no
+blood-vessels and very few nerves.</p>
+
+<p>4. In the true skin are glands which produce sweat, and others which
+make fat, or oil.</p>
+
+<p>5. The nails are really a part of the skin. They are firm and hard, and
+protect the ends of the fingers and the toes.</p>
+
+<p>6. The hair grows from the true skin. The hair is made soft and glossy
+by oil from the oil glands of the skin.</p>
+
+<p>7. The skin is a very useful organ. It removes waste matters, it
+breathes, it absorbs, it has feeling, and it protects the body.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88"></a>[Pg 88]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVI.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE SKIN.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Uses of the Pores of the Skin.</b>&mdash;Many years ago, at a great
+celebration, a little boy was covered all over with varnish and gold
+leaf, so as to make him represent an angel. The little gilded boy looked
+very pretty for a short time, but soon he became very sick, and in a few
+hours he was dead. Can you guess what made him die? He died because the
+pores of his skin were stopped up, and the sweat glands could not carry
+off the poisonous matter from his body.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Cleanliness.</b>&mdash;Did you ever know of a boy who had his skin
+varnished? Not exactly, perhaps; but there are many boys who do not have
+their skins washed as often as they ought to be, and the sweat and oil
+and dead scales form a sort of varnish which stops up the little ducts
+and prevents the air from getting to the skin, almost as much as a coat
+of varnish would do.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. The Sweat Glands.</b>&mdash;The sweat glands and ducts are like little
+sewers, made to carry away some of the impurities of the body. There are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89"></a>[Pg 89]</span>so many of them that, if they were all put together, they would make a
+tube two or three miles long. These little sewers drain off almost a
+quart of impurities in the form of sweat every day. So you see that it
+is very important for the skin to be kept clean and healthy.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. Bathing.</b>&mdash;A bird takes a bath every day. Dogs and many other
+animals like to go into the water to bathe. Some of you have seen a
+great elephant take a bath by showering the water over himself with his
+trunk. To keep the skin healthy we should bathe frequently.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> When we take a bath for cleanliness it is necessary to use a little
+soap, so as to remove the oil which is mixed up with the dry sweat, dead
+scales, and dirt which may have become attached to the skin.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> It is not well to take hot baths very often, as they have a
+tendency to make the skin too sensitive. Bathing in cool water hardens
+the skin, and renders one less likely to take cold.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. The Clothing.</b>&mdash;The skin should be protected by proper clothing, but
+it is not well to wear more than is necessary, as it makes the skin so
+sensitive that one is liable to take cold.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. The Proper Temperature of Rooms.</b>&mdash;It is also very unwise for a
+person to keep the rooms in which he lives too warm, and to stay <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90"></a>[Pg 90]</span>too
+much in-doors, as it makes him very liable to take cold when he goes
+out-of-doors. One who is out of doors in all kinds of weather seldom
+takes cold.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Care of the Hair and the Nails.</b>&mdash;The scalp should be kept clean by
+thorough and frequent washing and daily brushing. Hair oils are seldom
+needed. If the skin of the head is kept in a healthy condition, the hair
+requires no oil.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> The habit of biting and picking the fingernails is a very
+unpleasant one, and keeps the nails in a broken and unhealthy condition.
+The nails should be carefully trimmed with a sharp knife or a pair of
+scissors.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Effects of Narcotics and Stimulants upon the Skin.</b>&mdash;Alcohol,
+tobacco, opium, and all other narcotics and stimulants have a bad effect
+upon the skin. Alcohol often causes the skin to become red and blotched,
+and tobacco gives it a dingy and unhealthy appearance.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. If the pores of the skin are closed, a person will die.</p>
+
+<p>2. We should bathe often enough to keep the skin clean.</p>
+
+<p>3. We should not keep our rooms too warm, and should avoid wearing too
+much clothing.</p>
+
+<p>4. Alcohol, tobacco, and other stimulants and narcotics injure the skin.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91"></a>[Pg 91]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVII.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE KIDNEYS AND THEIR WORK.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. The Kidneys.</b>&mdash;The kidneys are among the most important organs of
+the body. They are in the cavity of the abdomen, near the back-bone, up
+under the lower border of the ribs. Perhaps you have seen the kidneys of
+a sheep or a hog. If you have, you know very nearly how the kidneys of
+our own bodies appear.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img098.jpg"
+             alt="KIDNEY." /><br />
+         KIDNEY.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>2. The Work of the Kidneys.</b>&mdash;The work of the kidneys is to separate
+from the blood certain very poisonous substances, which would soon cause
+our death if they were not removed. It is very important to keep these
+useful organs in good health, because a person is certain to die very
+soon when the kidneys are in any way seriously injured.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. How to Keep the Kidneys Healthy.</b>&mdash;One way of keeping the kidneys in
+good health is to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92"></a>[Pg 92]</span>drink plenty of pure water, and to avoid eating too
+much meat and rich food. Pepper, mustard, and other hot sauces are very
+harmful to the kidneys.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. Importance of Keeping the Skin Clean.</b>&mdash;The work of the kidneys is
+very similar to that of the skin; and when the skin does not do its full
+duty, the kidneys have to do more than they should, and hence are likely
+to become diseased. For this reason, persons who allow their skins to
+become inactive by neglecting to bathe frequently are apt to have
+disease of the kidneys.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Kidneys.</b>&mdash;A piece of beef
+placed in alcohol soon becomes dry and hard, and shrivels up as though
+it had been burned. The effect upon the kidneys of drinking strong
+liquor is almost the same. Beer and hard cider also do the kidneys harm,
+sometimes producing incurable disease of these important organs.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The kidneys somewhat resemble the skin in their structure and in
+their work.</p>
+
+<p>2. The kidneys remove from the blood some poisonous substances.</p>
+
+<p>3. To keep the kidneys healthy we should drink plenty of water, avoid
+irritating foods and drinks, and keep the skin in health by proper
+bathing.</p>
+
+<p>4. The drinking of strong liquors often causes incurable disease of the
+kidneys.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93"></a>[Pg 93]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XVIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>OUR BONES AND THEIR USES.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. The Bones.</b>&mdash;In an earlier chapter we learned something about the
+bones. This we must try to recall. You will remember that we called the
+bones the framework of the body, just as the timbers which are first put
+up in building a house are called its frame.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. The Skeleton.</b>&mdash;All the bones together make up the <i>skeleton</i>. (See
+page 95.) There are about two hundred bones in all. They are of many
+different shapes. They vary in size from the little bones of the ear,
+which are the smallest, to the upper bone of the leg, which is the
+largest in the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The skeleton is divided into four parts: the <i>skull</i>, the <i>trunk</i>,
+the <i>arms</i>, and the <i>legs</i>. We must learn something more about the bones
+of each part.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. The Skull.</b>&mdash;The <i>skull</i> is somewhat like a shell. It is made of a
+number of bones joined together in such a way as to leave a hollow place
+inside to hold the brain. The front part <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94"></a>[Pg 94]</span>of the skull forms the
+framework of the face and the jaws. In each ear there are three curious
+little bones, which aid us in hearing.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. The Trunk.</b>&mdash;The bones of the trunk are, the <i>ribs</i>, the
+<i>breast-bone</i>, the <i>pelvis</i>, and the <i>back-bone</i>. The bones of the trunk
+form a framework to support and protect the various organs within its
+cavities.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. The Ribs.</b>&mdash;There are twelve <i>ribs</i> on each side. The ribs join the
+back-bone at the back. They are connected by cartilage to the
+breast-bone in front. They look somewhat like the hoops of a barrel.
+With the breast-bone and the back-bone they form a bony cage to contain
+and protect the heart and the lungs.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. The Pelvis.</b>&mdash;The pelvis is at the lower part of the trunk. It is
+formed by three bones, closely joined together. The large bones at
+either side are called the hip-bones. Each hip-bone contains a deep
+round cavity in which the upper end of the thigh-bone rests.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. The Back-bone.</b>&mdash;The <i>back-bone</i>, or spinal column, is made up of
+twenty-four small bones, joined together in such a way that the whole
+can be bent in various directions. The skull rests upon the upper end of
+the spinal column. The lower end of the back-bone forms a part of the
+pelvis.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95"></a>[Pg 95]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img102.jpg"
+             alt="SKELETON OF A MAN." /><br />
+         SKELETON OF A MAN.
+    </div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96"></a>[Pg 96]</span><b>9. The Spinal Canal.</b>&mdash;Each of the separate bones that make up the
+back-bone has an opening through it, and the bones are so arranged, one
+above another, that the openings make a sort of canal in the back-bone.
+By the connection of the spinal column to the head, this canal opens
+into the cavity of the skull. Through this canal there passes a peculiar
+substance called the <i>spinal cord</i>, of which we shall learn more at
+another time.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. The Arms.</b>&mdash;Each of the arms has five bones, besides the small
+bones of the hand. They are the <i>collar-bone</i>, which connects the
+shoulder to the breast-bone, the <i>shoulder-blade</i>, at the back of the
+shoulders, the <i>upper arm-bone</i>, between the shoulder and the elbow, and
+the two <i>lower arm-bones</i>, between the elbow and the wrist. There are
+eight little bones in the wrist, five in that part of the hand next to
+the wrist, and fourteen in the fingers and thumb.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. The Legs.</b>&mdash;The bones of the leg are the <i>thigh</i> or <i>upper
+leg-bone</i>, the <i>knee-pan</i> or <i>knee-cap</i>, which covers the front of the
+knee, the two bones of the <i>lower leg</i>, the <i>heel-bone</i> and six other
+bones in the <i>ankle</i>, five bones in that part of the foot next to the
+ankle, and fourteen bones in the <i>toes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. Use of the Bones.</b>&mdash;The skeleton is not only necessary as a
+framework for the body, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97"></a>[Pg 97]</span>but it is useful in other ways. Some of the
+bones, as the skull, protect delicate parts. The brain is so soft and
+delicate that it would be very unsafe without its solid bony covering.
+The spinal cord also needs the protection which it finds in the strong
+but flexible back-bone. The bones help to move our hands and arms, and
+assist us in walking.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. The Joints.</b>&mdash;The places where two or more bones are fastened
+together are called <i>joints</i>. Some joints we can move very freely, as
+those of the shoulder and the hip. Others have no motion at all, as
+those of the bones of the skull.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Cartilage.</b>&mdash;The ends of bones which come together to form a joint
+are covered with a smooth, tough substance, which protects the bone from
+wear. This is called <i>gristle</i> or <i>cartilage</i>. You have, no doubt, seen
+the gristle on the end of a "soup-bone" or on one of the bones of a
+"joint of beef."</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> The joint contains a fluid to oil it, so that the ends of the
+bones move upon each other very easily. If the joints were dry, every
+movement of the body would be very difficult and painful.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> The bones are held together at the joints by means of strong bands
+called <i>ligaments</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. How the Bones are Made.</b>&mdash;The bones <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98"></a>[Pg 98]</span>are not so solid as they seem
+to be. The outside of most bones is much harder and firmer than the
+inside. Long bones, like those of the arms and the legs, are hollow. The
+hollow space is filled with <i>marrow</i>, in which are the blood-vessels
+which nourish the bone.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. An Experiment.</b>&mdash;If you will weigh a piece of bone, then burn it in
+the fire for several hours, and then weigh it again, you will find that
+it has lost about one third of its weight. You will also notice that it
+has become brittle, and that it seems like chalk.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. Why the Bones are Brittle.</b>&mdash;The hard, brittle portion of a bone
+which is left after it has been burned contains a good deal of chalk and
+other earthy substances, sometimes called bone-earth. It is this which
+makes the bones so hard and firm that they do not bend by the weight of
+the body. When we are young, the bones have less of this bone-earth, and
+so they bend easily, and readily get out of shape. When we get old, they
+contain so much bone-earth that they become more brittle, and often
+break very easily.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> A person's height depends upon the length of his bones. The use of
+alcohol and tobacco by a growing boy has a tendency to stunt the growth
+of his bones, so that they do not develop as they should.</p>
+
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99"></a>[Pg 99]</span>SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1"  width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="Bones in the body.">
+<tr><td>1.</td><td colspan="3">There are about two hundred bones in the body.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"></td></tr>
+<tr><td>2.</td><td colspan="3">All together they are called the skeleton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"></td></tr>
+<tr><td>3.</td><td colspan="3">The skeleton is divided as follows:</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"></td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>a</i>.</td><td>The skull.</td><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+
+<td align="center" rowspan="7" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+   <td valign="middle" class="tdright" rowspan="7" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 100pt">
+     {</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ribs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Breast Bone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>b</i>.</td><td>The Trunk.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pelvis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Back Bone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Collar Bone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Shoulder Blade.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+
+<td  align="center" rowspan="6" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+   <td valign="middle" class="tdright" rowspan="6" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 80pt">
+     {</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Upper arm-bones.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>c</i>.</td><td>The Arms.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Lower arm-bones.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Wrist.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hand and fingers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+
+<td align="center" rowspan="7" valign="top" style="white-space: nowrap">
+     </td>
+   <td valign="middle" class="tdright" rowspan="7" style="white-space: nowrap; font-size: 100pt">
+     {</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Thigh.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Knee-pan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>d</i>.</td><td>The legs.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Lower leg-bones.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ankle, including heel-bone.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Foot and toes.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<p>4. The bones are useful for support, protection, and motion.</p>
+
+<p>5. The place where two bones join is called a joint.</p>
+
+<p>6. The tough substance which covers the ends of many bones is called
+cartilage or gristle.</p>
+
+<p>7. The joints are enabled to work easily by the aid of a fluid secreted
+for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>8. The ends of the bones are held together in a joint by means of
+ligaments.</p>
+
+<p>9. Bones are about two thirds earthy matter and one third animal matter.</p>
+
+<p>10. The use of alcohol and tobacco may prevent proper development of the
+bones.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100"></a>[Pg 100]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XIX.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW TO KEEP THE BONES HEALTHY.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Composition of the Bones.</b>&mdash;Our bones, like the rest of our bodies,
+are made of what we eat. If our food does not contain enough of the
+substances which are needed to make healthy bone, the bones will become
+unhealthy. They may be too soft and become bent or otherwise misshapen.
+This is one of the reasons why bread made from the whole grain is so
+much more healthful than that made from very fine white flour. In making
+fine white flour the miller takes out the very best part of the grain,
+just what is needed to make strong and healthy bones. Oatmeal is a very
+good food for making healthy bones.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Bones of Children.</b>&mdash;Sometimes little children try to walk before
+the bones have become hard enough to support the weight of the body.
+This causes the legs to become crooked. In some countries young children
+work in factories and at various trades. This is wrong, because it
+dwarfs their growth, and makes them puny and sickly.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101"></a>[Pg 101]</span><b>3. Improper Positions.</b>&mdash;The bones are so soft and flexible when we
+are young that they are very easily bent out of shape if we allow
+ourselves to take improper positions in sitting, lying, or standing.
+This is the way in which flat and hollow chests, uneven shoulders,
+curved spines, and many other deformities are caused.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img108a.jpg"
+             alt="IMPROPER POSITION." /><br />
+         IMPROPER POSITION.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>4.</b> In sitting, standing, and walking, we should always take care to
+keep the shoulders well back and the chest well expanded, so that we may
+not grow misshapen and deformed. Many boys and girls have ugly curves in
+their backbones which have been caused by sitting at high desks with one
+elbow on the desk, thus raising the shoulder of that side so high that
+the spine becomes crooked. The illustrations on this and the following
+page show <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102"></a>[Pg 102]</span>good and bad positions and also the effects of bad positions.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img108b.jpg"
+             alt="PROPER POSITION." /><br />
+         PROPER POSITION.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>5. Seats and Desks.</b>&mdash;The seats and desks of school-children should be
+of proper height. The seats should be low enough to allow the feet to
+rest easily upon the floor, but not too low. The desk should be of such
+a height that, in writing, one shoulder will not be raised above the
+other. If a young person bends the body forward, he will, after a time,
+become round-shouldered and his chest will become so flattened that the
+lungs cannot be well expanded.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img109a.jpg"
+             alt="DESK TOO HIGH." /><br />
+         DESK TOO HIGH.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> Standing on one foot, sitting bent forward when reading or at work,
+sleeping with the head raised high upon a thick pillow or bolster, are
+ways in which young persons often grow out of shape.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img109b.jpg"
+             alt="SEAT TOO HIGH." /><br />
+         SEAT TOO HIGH.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>7. The Clothing.</b>&mdash;Wearing the clothing tight about <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103"></a>[Pg 103]</span>the waist often
+produces serious deformities of the bones of the trunk, and makes the
+chest so small that the lungs have not room to act properly. Tight or
+high-heeled shoes also often deform and injure the feet and make the
+gait stiff and awkward.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. Broken Bones.</b>&mdash;By rough play or by accident the bones may be broken
+in two just as you might break a stick. If the broken parts are placed
+right, Nature will cement them together and make the bone strong again;
+but sometimes the bones do not unite, and sometimes they grow together
+out of proper shape, so that permanent injury is done.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Sprains.</b>&mdash;In a similar manner the ligaments which hold the bones
+together, in a joint, are sometimes torn or over-stretched. Such an
+accident is called a sprain. A sprain is a very painful accident, and a
+joint injured in this way needs to rest quite a long time so that the
+torn ligaments may grow together.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Bones out of Joint.</b>&mdash;Sometimes the ligaments are torn so badly
+that the ends of the bones are displaced, and then we say they are put
+out of joint. This is a very bad accident indeed, but it often happens
+to boys while wrestling or playing at other rough games.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> Children sometimes have a trick of pulling <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104"></a>[Pg 104]</span>the fingers to cause
+the knuckles to "crack." This is a very foolish and harmful practice. It
+weakens the joints and causes them to grow large and unsightly.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> When a man uses alcohol and tobacco, their effects upon the bones
+are not so apparent as are the effects upon the blood, the nerves, and
+other organs; but when the poisonous drugs are used by a growing boy,
+their damaging influence is very plainly seen. A boy who smokes cigars
+or cigarettes, or who uses strong alcoholic liquors, is likely to be so
+stunted that even his bones will not grow of a proper length and he will
+become dwarfed or deformed.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. To keep the bones healthy they must have plenty of healthful food.</p>
+
+<p>2. The whole-grain preparations furnish the best food for the bones.</p>
+
+<p>3. Walking at too early an age often makes the legs crooked.</p>
+
+<p>4. Hard work at too early an age stunts the growth.</p>
+
+<p>5. Bad positions and tight or poorly-fitting clothing are common causes
+of flat chests, round shoulders, and other deformities.</p>
+
+<p>6. Tight or high-heeled shoes deform the feet and make the gait awkward.</p>
+
+<p>7. The bones may be easily broken or put out of joint, or the ligaments
+may be torn by rough play.</p>
+
+<p>8. Alcohol prevents healthy growth.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105"></a>[Pg 105]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XX.</h3>
+
+<h4>THE MUSCLES AND HOW WE USE THEM.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. The Muscles.</b>&mdash;Where do people obtain the beefsteak and the
+mutton-chops which they eat for breakfast? From the butcher, you will
+say; and the butcher gets them from the sheep and cattle which he kills.
+If you will clasp your arm you will notice that the bones are covered by
+a soft substance, the flesh. When the skin of an animal has been taken
+off, we can see that some of the flesh is white or yellow and some of it
+is red. The white or yellow flesh is fat. The red flesh is lean meat,
+and it is composed of muscles.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. The Number of Muscles.</b>&mdash;We have about five hundred different
+muscles in the body. They are arranged in such a way as to cover the
+bones and make the body round and beautiful. They are of different forms
+and sizes.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> With a very few exceptions the muscles are arranged in pairs; that
+is, we have two alike of each form and size, one for each side of the
+body.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106"></a>[Pg 106]</span><b>4. How a Muscle is Formed.</b>&mdash;If you will examine a piece of corned or
+salted beef which has been well boiled, you will notice that it seems to
+be made up of bundles of small fibres or threads of flesh. With a little
+care you can pick one of the small fibres into fine threads. Now, if you
+look at one of these under a microscope you find that it is made of
+still finer fibres, which are much smaller than the threads of a
+spider's web. One of these smallest threads is called a <i>muscular
+fibre</i>. Many thousands of muscular fibres are required to make a muscle.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img113.jpg"
+             alt="MUSCULAR FIBRES." /><br />
+         MUSCULAR<br />FIBRES.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> Most of the muscles are made fast to the bones. Generally, one end
+is attached to one bone, and the other to another bone. Sometimes one
+end is made fast to a bone and the other to the skin or to other
+muscles.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. The Tendons.</b>&mdash;Many of the muscles are not joined to the bones
+directly, but are made fast to them by means of firm cords called
+<i>tendons</i>. If you will place the thumb of your left hand upon the wrist
+of the right hand, and then work the fingers of the right hand, you may
+feel these cords moving underneath the skin.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107"></a>[Pg 107]</span><b>7. What the Muscles Do.</b>&mdash;With the left hand grasp the right arm just
+in front of the elbow. Now shut the right hand tightly. Now open it.
+Repeat several times. The left hand feels something moving in the flesh.
+The motion is caused by the working of the muscles, which shorten and
+harden when they act.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> All the movements of the body are made by means of muscles. When we
+move our hands, even when we close the mouth or the eyes, or make a wry
+face, we use the muscles. We could not speak, laugh, sing, or breathe
+without muscles.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Self-acting Muscles.</b>&mdash;Did you ever have a fit of sneezing or
+hiccoughing? If you ever did, very likely you tried hard to stop but
+could not. Do you know why one cannot always stop sneezing or
+hiccoughing when he desires to do so? It is because there are certain
+muscles in the body which do not act simply when we wish them to act,
+but when it is necessary that they should. The muscles which act when we
+sneeze or hiccough are of this kind. The arm and the hand do not act
+unless we wish them to do so. Suppose it were the same with the heart.
+We should have to stay awake all the while to keep it going, because it
+would not act when we were asleep. The same is true of our breathing. We
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108"></a>[Pg 108]</span>breathe when we are asleep as well as when we are awake, because the
+breathing muscles work even when we do not think about them.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> The stomach, the intestines, the blood-vessels, and many other
+organs within the body have this kind of muscles. The work of these
+self-acting muscles is very wonderful indeed. Without it we could not
+live a moment. This knowledge should lead us to consider how dependent
+we are, each moment of our lives, upon the delicate machinery by which
+the most important work of our bodies is performed, and how particular
+we should be to keep it in good order by taking proper care of
+ourselves.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The flesh, or lean meat, is composed of muscles.</p>
+
+<p>2. There are five hundred muscles in the body.</p>
+
+<p>3. Muscles are composed of many small threads called muscular fibres.</p>
+
+<p>4. Many of the muscles are joined to the bones by strong white cords
+called tendons.</p>
+
+<p>5. Muscular fibres can contract so as to lessen their length. It is in
+this way that the muscles perform their work.</p>
+
+<p>6. All bodily motions are due to the action of the muscles.</p>
+
+<p>7. Most of the muscles act only when we wish them to do so. Some
+muscles, however, act when it is necessary for them to do so, whether we
+will that they should act or not, and when we are asleep as well as when
+we are awake.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109"></a>[Pg 109]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXI.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. How to Make the Muscles Strong.</b>&mdash;With which hand can you lift the
+more? with the right hand or with the left? Why do you think you can
+lift more with the right hand than with the left? A blacksmith swings a
+heavy hammer with his right arm, and that arm becomes very large and
+strong. If we wish our muscles to grow large and strong, so that our
+bodies will be healthy and vigorous, we must take plenty of exercise.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Effects of Idleness.</b>&mdash;If a boy should carry one hand in his pocket
+all the time, and use only the other hand and arm, the idle arm would
+become small and weak, while the other would grow large and strong. Any
+part of the body which is not used will after a time become weak. Little
+boys and girls who do not take plenty of exercise are likely to be pale
+and puny. It is important that we should take the proper amount of
+exercise every day, just as we take our food and drink every day.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110"></a>[Pg 110]</span><b>3. Healthful Exercise.</b>&mdash;Some kinds of play, and almost all kinds of
+work which children have to do, are good ways of taking exercise. A very
+good kind of exercise for little boys and girls is that found in running
+errands or doing chores about the house.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. Food and Strength.</b>&mdash;A great part of our food goes to nourish the
+muscles. Some foods make us strong, while others do not. Plain foods,
+such as bread, meat, potatoes, and milk, are good for the muscles; but
+cakes and pies, and things which are not food, such as mustard, pepper,
+and spices, do not give us strength, and are likely to do us harm.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Over-Exertion.</b>&mdash;We ought not to exert ourselves too much in lifting
+heavy weights, or trying to do things which are too hard for us.
+Sometimes the muscles are permanently injured in this way.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. The Clothing.</b>&mdash;We ought not to wear our clothing so tight as to
+press hard upon any part of the body. If we do, it will cause the
+muscles of that part to become weak. If the clothing is worn tight about
+the waist, great mischief is often done. The lungs cannot expand
+properly, the stomach and liver are pressed out of shape, and the
+internal organs are crowded out of their proper places.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111"></a>[Pg 111]</span><b>7. Tight Shoes.</b>&mdash;People are often made very lame from wearing tight
+shoes. Their muscles cannot act properly, and their feet grow out of
+shape.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img118.jpg"
+             alt="FOOT OF CHINESE WOMAN." /><br />
+         FOOT OF CHINESE WOMAN.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> In China, it is fashionable for rich ladies to have small feet, and
+they tie them up in cloths so that they cannot grow. The foot is
+squeezed out of shape. Here is a picture of a foot which has been
+treated in this way. It does not look much like a human foot, does it? A
+woman who has such feet finds it so difficult to walk that she has to be
+carried about much of the time. Do you not think it is very wrong and
+foolish to treat the feet so badly? You will say, "Yes;" but the Chinese
+woman thinks it is a great deal worse to lace the clothing tight about
+the body so as to make the waist small.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Effects of Alcohol upon the Muscles.</b>&mdash;When an intemperate man takes
+a glass of strong drink, it makes him feel strong; but when he tries to
+lift, or to do any kind of hard work, he cannot lift so much nor work so
+hard as he could have done without the liquor. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112"></a>[Pg 112]</span>is because alcohol
+poisons the muscles and makes them weak.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. Effects of Drunkenness.</b>&mdash;When a man has become addicted to strong
+drink, his muscles become partly paralyzed, so that he cannot walk as
+steadily or speak as readily or as clearly as before. His fingers are
+clumsy, and his movements uncertain. If he is an artist or a jeweller,
+he cannot do as fine work as when he is sober. When a man gets very
+drunk, he is for a time completely paralyzed, so that he cannot walk or
+move, and seems almost like a dead man.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> If you had a good horse that had carried you a long way in a
+carriage, and you wanted to travel farther, what would you do if the
+horse were so tired that he kept stopping in the road? Would you let him
+rest and give him some water to drink and some nice hay and oats to eat,
+or would you strike him hard with a whip to make him go faster? If you
+should whip him he would act as though he were not tired at all, but do
+you think the whip would make him strong, as rest and hay and oats
+would?</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> When a tired man takes alcohol, it acts like a whip; it makes
+every part of the body work faster and harder than it ought to work, and
+thus wastes the man's strength and makes him weaker, although for a
+little while his nerves <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113"></a>[Pg 113]</span>are made stupid, so that he does not know that
+he is tired and ought to rest.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> When you grow up to be men and women you will want to have strong
+muscles. So you must be careful not to give alcohol a chance to injure
+them. If you never taste it in any form you will be sure to suffer no
+harm from it.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Effects of Tobacco on the Muscles.</b>&mdash;Boys who smoke cigars or
+cigarettes, or who chew tobacco, are not likely to grow up to be strong
+and healthy men. They do not have plump and rosy cheeks and strong
+muscles like other boys.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> The evil effect of tobacco upon boys is now so well known that in
+many countries and in some states of this country laws have been made
+which do not allow alcohol or tobacco to be sold or given to boys. In
+Switzerland, if a boy is found smoking upon the streets, he is arrested
+just as though he had been caught stealing. And is not this really what
+a boy does when he smokes? He robs his constitution of its vigor, and
+allows tobacco to steal away from him the strength he will need when he
+becomes a man.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. Tea and Coffee.</b>&mdash;Strong tea and coffee, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114"></a>[Pg 114]</span>while by no means so bad
+as alcohol and tobacco, may make us weak and sick. A person who drinks
+strong tea or coffee feels less tired while at work than if he had not
+taken it, but he is more tired afterwards. So you see that tea and
+coffee are also whips, small whips we might call them, and yet they
+really act in the same way as do other narcotics and stimulants. They
+make a person feel stronger than he really is, and thus he is led to use
+more strength than he can afford to do.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. We must use the muscles to make them grow large and strong.</p>
+
+<p>2. Exercise should be taken regularly.</p>
+
+<p>3. Exercise makes the muscles strong, the body beautiful, the lungs
+active, the heart vigorous, and the whole body healthy.</p>
+
+<p>4. Things we ought not to do: To run or play hard just before or after
+eating; to strain our muscles by lifting too heavy weights; to exercise
+so violently as to get out of breath; to lie, sit, stand, or walk in a
+cramped position, or awkward manner; to wear the clothing so tight as to
+press hard upon the muscles.</p>
+
+<p>5. Good food is necessary to make the muscles strong and healthy.</p>
+
+<p>6. Alcohol makes the muscles weak, although at first it makes us feel
+stronger.</p>
+
+<p>7. A boy who uses tobacco will not grow as strong and well as one who
+does not.</p>
+
+<p>8. The use of strong tea and coffee may injure the muscles.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115"></a>[Pg 115]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXII.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW WE FEEL AND THINK.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. How we Think.</b>&mdash;With what part of the body do we think? You will at
+once say that we think with the head; but we do not think with the whole
+head. Some parts of the head we use for other purposes, as the mouth to
+eat and speak with, and the nose to smell and breathe with. The part we
+think with is inside of the skull, safely placed in a little room at the
+top and back part of the head. Do you remember the name of this organ
+which fills the hollow place inside of the skull? We learned some time
+ago that it is called the <i>brain</i>. It is with the brain that we study
+and remember and reason. So the brain is one of the most important
+organs in our body, and we must try to learn all we can about it.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. The Brain.</b>&mdash;You cannot see and examine your own brain because it is
+shut up in the skull; but perhaps you can find the brain of a sheep or a
+calf at the meat market. The brain of one of these animals looks very
+nearly like your own.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img123.jpg"
+             alt="THE BRAIN." /><br />
+         THE BRAIN.
+    </div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116"></a>[Pg 116]</span><b>3. The Large Brain and the Small Brain.</b>&mdash;In examining a brain we
+should notice first of all that there are really two brains, a <i>large
+brain</i> and a <i>small brain</i>. The large brain is in the top and front of
+the skull, and the small one lies beneath the back part of the larger
+one, If we look again we shall see that each brain is divided in the
+middle into a right and a left half. Each half is, in fact, a complete
+brain, so that we really have two pairs of brains.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. Brain Cells.</b>&mdash;The brain is a curious organ of a grayish color
+outside and white inside. It is soft, almost like jelly, and this is why
+it is placed so carefully in a strong, bony box. If we should put a
+little piece of the brain under a microscope, we should find that it is
+made up of a great num<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117"></a>[Pg 117]</span>ber of very small objects called <i>nerve</i> or
+<i>brain cells</i>. In the illustration you can see some of these brain
+cells.</p>
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img123b.jpg"
+             alt="BRAIN CELLS." /><br />
+         BRAIN CELLS.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>5. The Nerves.</b>&mdash;Each cell has one or more branches. Some of the
+branches are joined to the branches of other cells so as to unite the
+cells together, just as children take hold of one another's hands. Other
+branches are drawn out very long.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> The long branches are such slender threads that a great number of
+them together would not be as large as a fine silk thread. A great many
+of these fine nerve threads are bound up in little bundles which look
+like white cords. These are called <i>nerves</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> The nerves branch out from the brain through openings in the skull,
+and go to every part of the body. Every little muscle fibre, the heart,
+the stomach, the lungs, the liver, even the bones&mdash;all have nerves
+coming to them from the brain. So you see that the brain is not wholly
+shut up in the skull, because its cells have slender branches running
+into all parts of the body; and thus the brain itself is really in every
+part of the body, though we usually speak of it as being entirely in the
+skull.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. The Spinal Cord.</b>&mdash;There are a number of small holes in the skull
+through which the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118"></a>[Pg 118]</span>nerves pass out, but most of the nerves are bound up
+in one large bundle and pass out through an opening at the back part of
+the skull and runs downward through a long canal in the backbone. This
+bundle of nerves forms the <i>spinal cord</i>. The spinal cord contains cells
+also, like those of the brain. It is really a continuation of the brain
+down through the backbone.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img125.jpg"
+             alt="BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD." /><br />
+         BRAIN AND<br />SPINAL CORD.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>9. Nerves from the Spinal Cord.</b>&mdash;The spinal cord gives off branches of
+nerves which go to the arms, the chest, the legs, and other parts. One
+of the branches which goes to the hand runs along the back side of the
+arm, passing over the elbow. If we happen to strike the elbow against
+some sharp object, we sometimes hit this nerve. When we do so, the under
+side of the arm and the little finger feel very numb and strange. This
+is why you call this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119"></a>[Pg 119]</span>part of the elbow the "funny" or "crazy bone." The
+cells of the spinal cord also send out branches to the body and to other
+cells in the brain.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. How we Feel.</b>&mdash;If we cut or burn ourselves we suffer pain. Can you
+tell why it hurts us to prick the flesh with a pin, or to pinch or burn
+or bruise it? It is because the flesh contains a great many
+nerve-branches from the brain. When we hurt the skin or the flesh, in
+any way, these nerves are injured. There are so many of these little
+nerves in the flesh and skin that we cannot put the finest needle into
+the flesh without hurting some of them.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. The Use of Pain.</b>&mdash;It is not pleasant for us to have pain, but if
+the nerves gave us no pain when we are hurt we might get our limbs
+burned or frozen and know nothing about it until too late to save them.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. Nerves of Feeling.</b>&mdash;We have different kinds of nerves of feeling.
+Those we have learned about feel pain. Others feel objects. If you take
+a marble or a pencil in the hand you know what it is by the feeling of
+the object. This kind of feeling is called the sense of touch.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> There are other nerves of feeling by means of which we are able to
+hear, see, taste, and smell, of which we shall learn in another lesson.
+Besides these we have nerves which tell us <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120"></a>[Pg 120]</span>whether objects are cold or
+hot, and heavy or light. Nerves of feeling also tell us when we are
+hungry, or thirsty, or tired, and when we need more air to breathe.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. Nerves of Work.</b>&mdash;There are other nerves which are made just like
+the nerves of feeling, but which do not feel. These nerves have a very
+different use. They come from cells in the brain which have charge of
+the different kinds of work done in the body, and they send their
+branches to the parts which do the work; hence we call them <i>nerves of
+work</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>15.</b> One set of cells sends nerves to the heart, and these make it go
+fast or slow as is necessary. Another sends nerves to the liver,
+stomach, and other digestive organs, and causes them to do their part in
+the digestion of the food. Other cells send branches to the muscles and
+make them act when we wish them to do so. Thus you see how very useful
+the brain and nerves are. They keep all the different parts of the body
+working together in harmony, just like a well-trained army, or a great
+number of workmen building a block of houses. Without the brain and
+nerves the body would be just like an army without a commander, or a lot
+of workmen without an overseer.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. How we Use the Nerves.</b>&mdash;If you happen <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121"></a>[Pg 121]</span>to touch your hand to a hot
+stove, what takes place? You will say that your arm pulls the hand away.
+Do you know why? Let us see. The nerves of feeling in the hand tell the
+nerve cells in the brain from which they come that the hand is being
+burned. The cells which feel cannot do anything for the hand, but some
+of their branches run over to another part of the brain, which sends
+nerves down to the muscles of the arm. These cells, through their nerve
+branches, cause the muscles to contract. The cells of feeling ask the
+cells which have charge of the muscles to make the muscles of the arm
+pull the hand away, which they do very quickly.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> So you see the nerves are very much like telegraph or telephone
+wires. By means of them the brain finds out all about what is happening
+in the body, and sends out its orders to the various organs, which may
+be called its servants.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. An Experiment.</b>&mdash;A man once tried an experiment which seemed very
+cruel. He took a dove and cut open its skull and took out its large
+brain. What do you think the effect was? The dove did not die at once,
+as you would expect. It lived for some time, but it did not know
+anything. It did not know when it was hungry, and would not eat or drink
+unless the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122"></a>[Pg 122]</span>food or water was placed in its mouth. If a man gets a blow
+on his head, so hard as to break his skull, the large brain is often
+hurt so badly that its cells cannot work, and so the man is in the same
+condition as the poor dove. He does not know anything. He cannot think
+or talk, and lies as though he were asleep.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> By these and many other facts we know that the large brain is the
+part with which we remember, think, and reason. It is the seat of the
+mind. We go to sleep because the large brain is tired and cannot work
+any longer. We stop thinking when we are sound asleep, but sometimes we
+do not sleep soundly, and then the large brain works a little and we
+dream.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. What the Little Brain Does.</b>&mdash;The little brain<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> thinks too, but
+it does not do the same kind of thinking as the large brain. We may use
+our arms and legs and many other parts when we wish to do so; and if we
+do not care to use them we may allow them to remain quiet. This is not
+the case with some other organs. It is necessary, for example, that the
+heart, the lungs, and many other organs of the body should keep at work
+all the time. If the large <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123"></a>[Pg 123]</span>brain had to attend to all of these
+different kinds of work besides thinking about what we see, hear, and
+read, and other things which we do, it would have too much work to do,
+and would not be able to do it all well. Besides, the large brain
+sometimes falls asleep. So the large brain lets the little brain do the
+kinds of work which have to be attended to all the time, and the little
+brain keeps steadily at work when we are asleep as well as when we are
+awake.</p>
+
+<p><b>21. What the Spinal Cord Does.</b>&mdash;If you tickle a person's foot when he
+is asleep, he will pull it up just as he would if he were awake, only
+not quite so quickly. What do you suppose makes the muscles of the leg
+contract when the brain is asleep and does not know that the foot is
+being tickled? And here is another curious fact. When you were coming to
+school this morning you did not have to think about every step you took.
+Perhaps you were talking or looking over your lessons; but your legs
+walked right along all the time, and without your thinking about them.
+Can you tell how?</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> It would be too much trouble for the large brain to stop to think
+every time we step, and the little brain has work enough to do in taking
+care of the heart and lungs and other organs, without keeping watch of
+the feet when <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124"></a>[Pg 124]</span>we are asleep, so as to pull them up if some mischievous
+person tickles them. So Nature puts a few nerve cells in the spinal cord
+which can do a certain easy kind of thinking. When we do things over and
+over a great many times, these cells, after a time, learn to do them
+without the help of the large brain. This is the way a piano-player
+becomes so expert. He does not have to think all the time where each
+finger is to go. After the tunes have been played a great many times,
+the spinal cord knows them so well that it makes the hands play them
+almost without any effort of the large brain.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. The part of the body with which we think is the brain.</p>
+
+<p>2. The brain is found filling the hollow place in the skull.</p>
+
+<p>3. There are two brains, the large brain and the small brain.</p>
+
+<p>4. Each brain is divided into two equal and complete halves, thus making
+two pairs of brains.</p>
+
+<p>5. The brain is largely made up of very small objects called nerve or
+brain cells.</p>
+
+<p>6. The nerve cells send out very fine branches which form the nerves.</p>
+
+<p>7. The nerve branches or fibres run to every part of the body. They pass
+out from the brain to the rest of the body through a number of openings
+in the skull.</p>
+
+<p>8. Most of the nerve branches pass out through a large opening at the
+back of the skull, in one large bundle called the spinal cord.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125"></a>[Pg 125]</span>9. The spinal cord runs down through a canal in the backbone, and all
+along gives off branches to the various parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>10. It gives us pain to prick or hurt the flesh in any way, because when
+we do so we injure some of the little nerve branches of the brain cells.</p>
+
+<p>11. When we suffer, we really feel a pain in the brain. We know this
+because if a nerve is cut in two, we may hurt the part to which it goes
+without giving any pain.</p>
+
+<p>12. We have different kinds of nerves of feeling.</p>
+
+<p>13. There are other nerves besides those of feeling. These are nerves of
+work.</p>
+
+<p>14. The nerves of work have charge of the heart, the lungs, the muscles,
+the liver, the stomach, and every part of the body which can work or
+act.</p>
+
+<p>15. The brain and nerves control the body and make all the different
+parts work together in harmony, just as a general controls an army.</p>
+
+<p>16. The brain uses the nerves very much as a man uses the telephone or
+telegraph wires.</p>
+
+<p>17. With the large brain we remember, think, and reason.</p>
+
+<p>18. The little brain does the simple kind of thinking, by means of which
+the heart, lungs, and other vital organs are kept at work even when we
+are asleep.</p>
+
+<p>19. The spinal cord does a still more simple kind of work. It enables us
+to walk and to do other familiar acts without using the large brain to
+think every moment just what we are doing.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126"></a>[Pg 126]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIII.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW TO KEEP THE BRAIN AND NERVES HEALTHY.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Uses of the Brain.</b>&mdash;What do you think a boy or girl would be good
+for without any brain or nerves? Such a boy or girl could not see, hear,
+feel, talk, run about, or play, and would not know any more than a
+cabbage or a potato knows. If the brain or nerves are sick, they cannot
+work well, and so are not worth as much as when they are healthy.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. The Brain Sympathizes with Other Organs.</b>&mdash;Did you ever have a
+headache? Did you feel happy and good-natured when your head ached hard,
+and could you study and play as well as when you are well? It is very
+important that we should keep our brain and nerves healthy, and to do
+this we must take good care of the stomach and all other organs, because
+the brain sympathizes with them when they are sick.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. We must have Pure Air.</b>&mdash;How do you feel when the school-room is too
+warm and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127"></a>[Pg 127]</span>close? Do you not feel dull and sleepy and so stupid that you
+can hardly study? This is because the brain needs good, pure blood to
+enable it to work well. So we must always be careful to have plenty of
+pure air to breathe.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. We should Exercise the Brain.</b>&mdash;What do we do when we want to
+strengthen our muscles? We make them work hard every day, do we not? The
+exercise makes them grow large and strong. It is just the same with our
+brains. If we study hard and learn our lessons well, then our brains
+grow strong, and study becomes easy. But if we only half study, and do
+not learn our lessons perfectly, then the study does not do our brains
+very much good.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. We should Take Muscular Exercise.</b>&mdash;When you get tired of study, an
+hour's play, or exercise of some sort, rests you and makes you feel
+brighter, so that you can learn more easily. This is because exercise is
+necessary to make the blood circulate well. It will then carry out the
+worn-out particles and supply the brain and nerves with fresh, pure
+blood. So the same exercise which makes our muscles strong makes our
+brains healthier also.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. We should be Careful of our Diet.</b>&mdash;We ought to eat plenty of good,
+simple food, such as milk, fruits, grains, and vegetables. It is not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128"></a>[Pg 128]</span>well for children to eat freely of meat, as it is very stimulating and
+likely to excite the brain and make the nerves irritable. Mustard,
+pepper, and all hot sauces and spices have a tendency to injure the
+brain and nerves.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. We should Allow the Brain to Rest at the Proper Time.</b>&mdash;When we are
+tired and sleepy we cannot think well, and cannot remember what we learn
+if we try to study. If we have plenty of sleep, free from bad or
+exciting dreams, we awake in the morning rested and refreshed, because
+while we have been asleep Nature has put the brain and nerves in good
+repair for us. We ought not to stay up late at night. We should not eat
+late or hearty suppers, as this will prevent our sleeping well.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. We Ought Not to Allow Ourselves to Become Angry.</b>&mdash;When a person
+flies into a passion he does his brain and nerves great harm. It is
+really dangerous to get angry. Persons have dropped dead instantly in a
+fit of anger.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. We should Shun Bad Habits.</b>&mdash;Bad habits are very hard to give up,
+and hence we should be careful to avoid them. When a child learns to
+swear, or to use slang phrases, the brain after a while will make him
+swear or use bad words before he thinks. In a similar manner other bad
+habits are acquired.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129"></a>[Pg 129]</span>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. A person without a brain or nerves would be of no more account than a
+vegetable.</p>
+
+<p>2. When the brain or nerves are sick they cannot perform their duties
+properly.</p>
+
+<p>3. To keep the brain and nerves in good health, we must take good care
+of the stomach and all other important organs of the body.</p>
+
+<p>4. There are many things which we may do to keep the brain and nerves
+strong and well.</p>
+
+<p>5. The brain needs pure blood, and so we must be careful to breathe pure
+air.</p>
+
+<p>6. The brain gets strength by exercise, just as the muscles do. Hence,
+study is healthful, and makes the brain strong.</p>
+
+<p>7. A good memory is very necessary, but we should not try to remember
+everything.</p>
+
+<p>8. It is very important that we learn how to observe things closely.</p>
+
+<p>9. Exercise in the open air rests and clears the brain by helping the
+blood to circulate.</p>
+
+<p>10. Plenty of wholesome and simple food is necessary to keep the brain
+and nerves in good health. Spices, condiments, and rich foods in general
+are stimulating and harmful.</p>
+
+<p>11. Plenty of sleep is needed to rest the brain and nerves.</p>
+
+<p>12. It is dangerous as well as wicked to become very angry.</p>
+
+<p>13. We should be careful to avoid forming bad habits of any sort, as
+they are hard to break, and often adhere to one through life.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130"></a>[Pg 130]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXIV.</h3>
+
+<h4>BAD EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BRAIN AND NERVES.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. Drunkenness.</b>&mdash;Did you ever see a man who was drunk? If you live in
+a city it is very likely that you have. How did the drunken man behave?
+Perhaps he was noisy and silly. Perhaps he was angry and tried to pick a
+quarrel with some one.</p>
+
+<p><b>2.</b> What made the man drunk? You say whiskey, but it may have been
+wine, or beer, or hard cider that he drank. Anything that contains
+alcohol will make a man drunk, for it is the alcohol which does all the
+mischief.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. The Whiskey Flush.</b>&mdash;You can almost always tell when a man has been
+drinking, even when he has not taken enough to make him drunk. You know
+by his flushed face and red eyes. When a man's face blushes from the use
+of alcohol, his whole body blushes at the same time. His muscles, his
+lungs, and his liver blush; his brain and spinal cord blush also.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131"></a>[Pg 131]</span><b>4.</b> When a man has taken just enough alcohol to make his face blush a
+little, the extra amount of blood in the brain makes him think and talk
+more lively, and he is very jolly and gay. This makes many people think
+that alcohol does them good. But if we notice what a man says when he is
+excited by alcohol, we shall find that his remarks are often silly and
+reckless. He says very unwise and foolish things, for which he feels
+sorry when he becomes sober.</p>
+
+<p><b>5. Alcohol Paralyzes.</b>&mdash;How does a drunken man walk? Let us see why he
+staggers. When a man takes a certain amount of alcohol his small brain
+and spinal cord become partly paralyzed, so that they cannot do their
+duty well; and so, when he tries to walk he reels and stumbles along,
+often falling down, and sometimes hurting himself very much. The fact is
+that the alcohol has put his spinal cord and small brain to sleep so
+that he cannot make his legs do what he wants them to do. Now, if still
+more alcohol is taken the whole brain becomes paralyzed, and then the
+man is so nearly dead that we say he is "dead drunk." It is exceedingly
+dangerous to become dead drunk, as the brain may be so completely
+paralyzed that it will not recover.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> A small amount of alcohol does not make <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132"></a>[Pg 132]</span>a man dead drunk, but it
+poisons and paralyzes his brain and nerves just according to the
+quantity he takes.</p>
+
+<p><b>7.</b> If a person holds a little alcohol in his mouth for a few moments,
+the tongue and cheeks feel numb. This is because the alcohol paralyzes
+them so that they cannot feel or taste. When taken into the stomach it
+has much the same kind of effect upon the nerves of the whole body.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. Alcohol a Deceiver.</b>&mdash;A hungry man takes a drink of whiskey and
+benumbs the nerves of his stomach so that he does not feel hungry.
+Alcohol puts to sleep the sentinels which Nature has set in the body to
+warn us of danger. A man who is cold takes alcohol and feels warm,
+though he is really colder. He lies down in his false comfort and
+freezes to death. A tired man takes his glass of grog and feels rested
+and strong, though he is really weaker than before. A poor man gets
+drunk and feels so rich that he spends what little money he has. The
+alcohol paralyzes his judgment and steals away his good sense. Thus
+alcohol is always a deceiver.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Delirium Tremens.</b> (De-lir'-i-um Tre'-mens.)&mdash;When a man takes
+strong liquors regularly he very soon injures his brain and nerves so
+that they do not get quiet, as they should, at night, and he does not
+sleep well. He has fright<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133"></a>[Pg 133]</span>ful dreams. He sees all sorts of wild animals
+and horrid shapes in his dreams. Perhaps you have sometimes had such
+dreams from eating late suppers or indigestible food.</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> Did you ever have a dream when you were awake? If a man drinks a
+great deal he is likely to have a terrible disease known as <i>delirium
+tremens</i>, in which he sees the same frightful things when he is wide
+awake that he dreams about when he is asleep. This is one of the
+terrible effects of alcohol upon the brain and nerves.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. Alcohol Paralysis.</b>&mdash;You have seen how a drunken man staggers when
+he walks. Did you ever see a man who walked just as though he were drunk
+when he was really sober? This is because a part of the brain or spinal
+cord has been permanently injured or paralyzed. Alcohol is not the only
+cause of this disease, and so you must not think every person who
+staggers is or has been a drunkard; but alcohol is a very frequent cause
+of paralysis.</p>
+
+<p><b>12. Effects of Alcohol upon the Mind and Character.</b>&mdash;When a man is
+under the influence of alcohol is his character good or bad? Is a man
+likely to be good, or to be bad, when he is drunk or excited by drink?
+Most men behave badly when they are drunk, and after they have been
+drunk a great many times they often be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134"></a>[Pg 134]</span>have badly all the time. A great
+many of the men who are shut up in prisons would not have been sent
+there if they had never learned to drink.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. A Legacy.</b>&mdash;Do you know what a legacy is? If your father should die
+and leave to you a fine house or farm, or money in the bank, or books,
+or horses, or any other kind of property to have for your own, it would
+be a legacy. When a person gets anything in this way from a parent we
+say that he inherits it.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> We inherit a great many things besides houses and lands and other
+kinds of property. For instance, perhaps you remember hearing some one
+say that you have eyes and hair the same color as your mother's, and
+that your nose and chin are like your father's. So you have inherited
+the color of your hair and eyes from your mother and the shape of your
+chin and nose from your father.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. The Alcohol Legacy.</b>&mdash;The inside of a boy's head is just as much
+like his parents' as the outside of it. In other words, we inherit our
+brains just as we do our faces. So, if a man spoils his brain with
+alcohol and gets an alcohol appetite, his children will be likely to
+have unhealthy brains and an appetite for alcohol also, and may become
+drunkards. Is not that a dreadful kind of legacy to inherit?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135"></a>[Pg 135]</span><b>16.</b> A child that has no mind is called an idiot. Such a child cannot
+talk, or read, or sing, and does not know enough to take proper care of
+itself. This is one of the bad legacies which drunken parents sometimes
+leave to their children.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. Effects of Tobacco on the Brain and Nerves.</b>&mdash;The effects of
+tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as those of alcohol.
+Tobacco, like alcohol, is a narcotic. It benumbs and paralyzes the
+nerves, and it is by this means that it obtains such an influence over
+those who use it.</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> The hand of a man or boy who uses tobacco often becomes so
+unsteady that he can scarcely write. Do you know what makes it so
+unsteady? It is because the cells which send nerves to the muscles of
+the hand are diseased. When a person has a trembling hand you say he is
+nervous. If you feel his pulse you will find that it does not beat
+steadily and regularly as it ought to do. The heart is nervous and
+trembles just the same as the muscles do. This shows that the tobacco
+has poisoned the cells in the brain which regulate the heart.</p>
+
+<p><b>19.</b> Wise physicians will tell you that one reason why tobacco is bad
+for boys is that it hurts their brains so that they cannot learn well,
+and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136"></a>[Pg 136]</span>do not become as useful and successful men as they might be.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> Students in the naval and military schools of this country are not
+allowed to use tobacco on account of its bad effects upon the mind. In
+France the use of tobacco is forbidden to all students in the public
+schools.</p>
+
+<p><b>21. Tobacco Leads to Vice.</b>&mdash;Boys who use tobacco are more liable to
+get into company with boys who have other bad habits, and so are apt to
+become bad in many other ways. The use of tobacco often makes men want
+strong drink, and thus leads to drunkenness. If you wish to grow up with
+a steady hand, a strong heart, and a good character you will never touch
+tobacco.</p>
+
+<p><b>22. Effects of Tea and Coffee on the Nerves.</b>&mdash;People who use strong
+tea and coffee are often inclined to be nervous. This shows that strong
+tea and coffee, like alcohol and tobacco, are very injurious to the
+nerves.</p>
+
+<p><b>23. Opium, Chloral, etc.</b>&mdash;There are several drugs which are given by
+physicians to relieve pain or to produce sleep. They are sometimes
+helpful, but their use is very dangerous. Opium and chloral belong to
+this class of medicines. The danger is that, after a person has used the
+medicine a little while, he will continue to use it. If a person takes a
+poisonous drug every time <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137"></a>[Pg 137]</span>he has a little pain, he will soon form the
+habit of using it, and may never break it off. There are many thousands
+of people who use opium all the time, and they are very much injured by
+it in mind and body. The mind becomes dull and stupid and the body weak
+and feeble. No medicine of this sort should ever be taken unless
+prescribed by a physician.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. In order to be well and useful we must keep the brain and nerves
+healthy.</p>
+
+<p>2. To keep the brain healthy we need plenty of pure air to breathe;
+proper exercise of the brain by study; sufficient exercise of the
+muscles in play and work; plenty of good food to make pure blood; a
+proper amount of rest and sleep.</p>
+
+<p>3. There are several things we ought not to do. We should not read or
+study too much. We should not allow ourselves to become excited or
+angry. We should avoid learning bad habits.</p>
+
+<p>4. Alcohol paralyzes the brain and nerves.</p>
+
+<p>5. Alcohol deceives a person who takes it by making him feel strong when
+he is weak; warm when he is cold; rich when he is poor; well when he is
+sick.</p>
+
+<p>6. Alcohol makes men wicked. Most men who commit crimes are men who use
+liquor.</p>
+
+<p>7. The effects of tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as
+those of alcohol. Tobacco is very injurious to the mind.</p>
+
+<p>8. Tobacco-using often leads boys to drunkenness and other vices.</p>
+
+<p>9. The use of opium and chloral produces even worse effects than the use
+of alcohol or tobacco.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138"></a>[Pg 138]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXV.</h3>
+
+<h4>HOW WE HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE, AND FEEL.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1. The Senses.</b>&mdash;We have five senses&mdash;<i>hearing</i>, <i>seeing</i>, <i>smelling</i>,
+<i>tasting</i>, and <i>feeling</i>. These are called special senses because they
+are very different from each other. They also differ from the general
+sense of feeling by means of which we feel pain when any part is hurt.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Organs of the Special Senses.</b>&mdash;Each of the special senses has a
+special set of nerves and also special cells in the brain which have
+charge of them. We say that we see with our eyes, hear with our ears,
+feel with our fingers, etc.; but, really, we see, hear, taste, and smell
+in the brain just as we feel in the brain. The eyes, ears, nose, and
+other organs of the special senses are the instruments by means of which
+the brain sees, hears, smells, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>3. Sound and the Vibrations which it Causes.</b>&mdash;All sounds are made by
+jars or vibrations of objects. Sounds cause objects to vibrate or
+tremble. A loud sound sometimes jars a whole house, while other sounds
+are so gentle <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139"></a>[Pg 139]</span>and soft that we cannot feel them in the same way that we
+feel loud sounds. But Nature has made for us an ingenious organ by means
+of which we can feel these very fine vibrations as well as loud ones. We
+call this organ the <i>ear</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. The Ear.</b>&mdash;The part of the ear which we can see is shaped somewhat
+like a trumpet. The small opening near the middle of the ear leads into
+a <i>canal</i> or tube which extends into the head about an inch. At the
+inner end there is a curious little chamber. This is called the <i>drum</i>
+of the ear, because between it and the canal of the ear there is
+stretched a thin membrane like the head of a drum. The ear-drum is also
+called the <i>middle ear</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figright">
+             <img   src="images/img146.jpg"
+             alt="THE EAR." /><br />
+         THE EAR.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>5. Bones of the Ear.</b>&mdash;Within the drum of the ear there are three
+curious little bones which are joined together so as to make a complete
+chain, reaching from the drum-head to the other side of the drum. The
+last bone fits into a little hole which leads into another curious
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140"></a>[Pg 140]</span>chamber. This chamber, which is called the <i>inner ear</i>, is filled with
+fluid, and in this fluid the nerve of hearing is spread out. A part of
+the inner ear looks very much like a snail shell.</p>
+
+<p><b>6. How we Hear.</b>&mdash;Scratch with a pin upon one end of a long wooden
+pole. Have some one listen with the ear placed close against the other
+end of the pole. He will tell you that he hears the scratching of the
+pin very plainly. This is because the scratching jars the ear and
+especially the drum-head, which vibrates just as the head of a drum does
+when it is beaten with a drum-stick. When the drum-head vibrates it
+moves the bones of the ear, and these carry the vibration to the nerves
+of hearing in the inner cham<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141"></a>[Pg 141]</span>ber. We hear all sounds in the same way,
+only most sounds come to the ear through the air.</p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+             <img   src="images/img147.jpg"
+             alt="THE INSIDE OF THE EAR." /><br />
+         THE INSIDE OF THE EAR.
+    </div>
+
+<p>The snail-shell of the inner part of the ear hears musical sounds. The
+rest of the inner ear hears ordinary sounds or noises.</p>
+
+<p><b>7. How to Keep the Ears Healthy.</b>&mdash;The ears are very delicate organs
+and must be carefully treated. The following things about the care of
+the ears should never be forgotten:</p>
+
+<p>(1.) Never use a pin, toothpick, or any other sharp instrument to clean
+out the ear. There is great danger that the drum-head will be torn, and
+thus the hearing will be injured. Neither is it ever necessary to use an
+ear-spoon to remove the wax. Working at the ear causes more wax to form.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) Do not allow cold water to enter the ear or a cold wind to blow
+directly into it.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) If anything accidentally gets into the ear, do not work at it, but
+hold the head over to one side while water is made to run in from a
+syringe. If an insect has gone into the ear, pour in a little oil. This
+will kill the insect or make it come out.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) Never shout into another person's ear. The ear may be greatly
+injured in this way.</p>
+
+<p>(5.) Boxing or pulling the ears is likely to produce deafness, and ought
+never to be done.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142"></a>[Pg 142]</span><b>8. The Eye.</b>&mdash;The eye is one of the most wonderful organs in the whole
+body. It enables us to know what is going on at some distance from us,
+and to enjoy many beautiful things which our sense of hearing and other
+senses can tell us nothing about. It also enables us to read. Let us
+learn how this wonderful organ is made.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. The Eyeball.</b>&mdash;Looking at the eye, we see first a round part which
+rolls in different directions. This is the <i>eyeball</i>. We see only the
+front side of the eyeball as it fits into a hollow in the skull. Being
+thus in a safe place, it is not likely to get hurt.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img149.jpg"
+             alt="THE EYE." /><br />
+         THE EYE.
+    </div>
+
+<p>The eyeball is mostly filled with a clear substance very much like
+jelly. It is so clear that the light can shine through it just as easily
+as it can shine through water.</p>
+
+<p><b>10. The Pupil.</b>&mdash;If you look sharply at the eyeball you will see a
+small black hole just in the centre. This is a little window which lets
+the light into the inside of the eyeball. We call this the <i>pupil</i>. Just
+around the pupil is a colored ring which gives the eye its color. We say
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143"></a>[Pg 143]</span>a person has blue or brown or gray eyes according as this ring is blue
+or brown or gray. This colored ring is a kind of curtain for the window
+of the eye.</p>
+
+<p><b>11.</b> If you observe the pupil closely, you will see that it is
+sometimes larger and sometimes smaller. If you look at the light the
+pupil is small; if you turn away from the light the pupil grows larger
+at once. This is because the curtain closes when in a bright light and
+opens in the darkness. It does this of itself without our thinking about
+it. In this way the eye is protected from too strong a light, which
+would do it great harm.</p>
+
+<p><b>12.</b> If you look a little sidewise at the eyeball, you will see that
+the curtain has something in front of it which is clear as glass. It is
+about the shape of a watch crystal, only very much smaller. This is to
+the eye what the glass is to the windows of a house. It closes the
+opening in the front of the eyeball and yet lets the light shine in.</p>
+
+<p><b>13. The White of the Eye.</b>&mdash;The white of the eye is a tough, firm
+membrane which encloses the eyeball and keeps it in a round shape.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. The Lens.</b>&mdash;Do you know what a lens is? Perhaps you do not know it
+by this name, but you are familiar with the spectacles which people
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144"></a>[Pg 144]</span>sometimes wear to help their eyes. The glasses in the spectacle frames
+are called lenses. Well, there is something in the eye almost exactly
+like one of these lenses, only smaller. It is also called a <i>lens</i>. If
+some one will get the eye of an ox for you, you can cut it open and find
+this part. The lens is placed in the eyeball just behind the pupil. (See
+picture.)</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img151.jpg"
+             alt="THE INSIDE OF THE EYE." /><br />
+         THE INSIDE OF THE EYE.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>15. The Nerves of Sight.</b>&mdash;But a person might have an eyeball with all
+the parts we have learned about and yet not be able to see. Can you tell
+what more is needed? There must be a nerve. This nerve comes from some
+little nerve cells in the brain and enters the eyeball at the back of
+the eye; there it is spread out on the inside of the black lining of the
+white of the eye.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. The Eyelids.</b>&mdash;Now we know all that it is necessary for us to learn
+about the eyeball, so let us notice some other parts about the eye.
+First there are the eyelids. They are little folds <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145"></a>[Pg 145]</span>of skin fringed with
+hairs, which we can shut up so as to cover the eyeball and keep out the
+light when we want to sleep or when we are in danger of getting dust or
+smoke into the eye. The hairs placed along the edge of the lids help to
+keep the dust out when the eyes are open.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. The Eyebrows.</b>&mdash;The row of hairs placed above the eye is called the
+eyebrow. Like the eyelids, the eyebrows catch some substances which
+might fall into the eye, and they also serve to turn off the
+perspiration and keep it out of the eyes.</p>
+
+<p><b>18. The Tear Gland.</b>&mdash;Do you know where the tears come from? There is a
+little gland snugly placed away in the socket of the eye just above the
+eyeball, which makes tears in the same way that the salivary glands make
+saliva. It is called the <i>tear gland</i>. The gland usually makes just
+enough tears to keep the eye moist. There are times when it makes more
+than enough, as when something gets into the eye, or when we suffer pain
+or feel unhappy. Then the tears are carried off by means of a little
+tube which runs down into the nose from the inner corner of the eye.
+When the tears are formed so fast that they cannot all get away through
+this tube, they pass over the edge of the lower eyelid and flow down the
+cheek.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146"></a>[Pg 146]</span><b>19. Muscles of the Eyes.</b>&mdash;By means of little muscles which are
+fastened to the eyeball, we are able to turn the eye in almost every
+direction.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. How we See.</b>&mdash;Now we want to know how we see with the eye. This is
+not very easy to understand, but we can learn something about it. Let us
+make a little experiment. Here is a glass lens. If we hold it before a
+window and place a piece of smooth white paper behind it, we can see a
+picture of the houses and trees and fences, and other things
+out-of-doors. The picture made by the lens looks exactly like the view
+out-of-doors, except that it is upside down. This is one of the curious
+things that a lens does. The lens of the eye acts just like a glass
+lens. It makes a picture of everything we see, upon the ends of the
+nerves of sight which are spread out at the back of the eyeball. The
+nerves of sight tell their nerves in the brain about the picture, just
+as the nerves of feeling tell their cells when they are touched with a
+pin; and this is how we see.</p>
+
+<p><b>21.</b> Did you ever look through a spyglass or an opera-glass? If so, you
+know you must make the tube longer or shorter according as you look at
+things near by or far away. The <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147"></a>[Pg 147]</span>eye also has to be changed a little
+when we look from near to distant objects. Look out of the window at a
+tree a long way off. Now place a lead pencil between the eyes and the
+tree. You can scarcely see the pencil while you look sharply at the
+tree, and if you look at the pencil you cannot see the tree distinctly.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> There is a little muscle in the eye which makes the change needed
+to enable us to see objects close by as well as those which are farther
+away. When people grow old the little muscles cannot do this so well,
+and hence old people have to put on glasses to see objects near by, as
+in reading. Children should not try to wear old persons' glasses, as
+this is likely to injure their eyes.</p>
+
+<p><b>23. How to Keep the Eyes Healthy.</b>&mdash;(1.) Never continue the use of the
+eyes at fine work, such as reading or fancy-work, after they have become
+very tired.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) Do not try to read or to use the eyes with a poor light&mdash;in the
+twilight, for instance, before the gas or lamps are lighted.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) In reading or studying, do not sit with the light from either a
+lamp or a window shining directly upon the face. Have the light come
+from behind and shine over the left shoulder if possible.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148"></a>[Pg 148]</span>(4.) Never expose the eyes to a sudden, bright light by looking at the
+sun or at a lamp on first awaking in the morning, or by passing quickly
+from a dark room into a lighted one.</p>
+
+<p>(5.) Do not read when lying down, or when riding on a street car or
+railway train.</p>
+
+<p>(6.) If any object gets into the eye have it removed as soon as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>(7.) A great many persons hurt their eyes by using various kinds of
+eye-washes. Never use anything of this kind unless told to do so by a
+good physician.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. How we Smell.</b>&mdash;If we wish to smell anything very strongly, we
+sniff or suddenly draw the air up through the nose. We do this to bring
+more air to the nerves of smell, which are placed at the upper part of
+the inside of the nose.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft">
+             <img   src="images/img155.jpg"
+             alt="INSIDE OF THE NOSE." /><br />
+         INSIDE OF THE NOSE.
+    </div>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> Smelling is a sort of feeling. The nerves of smell are so
+sensitive that they can discover things in the air which we cannot taste
+or see. An Indian uses his sense <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149"></a>[Pg 149]</span>of smell to tell him whether things
+are good to eat or not. He knows that things which have a pleasant smell
+are likely to be good for him and not likely to make him sick.</p>
+
+<p>We do not make so much use of the sense of smell as do the savages and
+many lower animals, and hence we are not able to smell so acutely. Many
+persons lose the sense of smell altogether, from neglecting colds in the
+head.</p>
+
+<p><b>26. How we Taste.</b>&mdash;The tongue and the palate have very delicate nerves
+by means of which we taste. We cannot taste with the whole of the
+tongue. The very tip of the tongue has only nerves of touch or feeling.</p>
+
+<p><b>27.</b> The use of the sense of taste is to give us pleasure and to tell
+us whether different substances are healthful or injurious. Things which
+are poisonous and likely to make us sick almost always have an
+unpleasant taste as well as an unpleasant odor. Things which have a
+pleasant taste are usually harmless.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. Bad Tastes.</b>&mdash;People sometimes learn to like things which have a
+very unpleasant taste. Pepper, mustard, pepper-sauce, and other hot
+sauces, alcohol, and tobacco are harmful substances of this sort. When
+used freely they injure the sense of taste so that it cannot detect and
+enjoy fine and delicate flavors. These sub<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150"></a>[Pg 150]</span>stances, as we have elsewhere
+learned, also do the stomach harm and injure the nerves and other parts
+of the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>29. The Sense of Touch.</b>&mdash;If you put your hand upon an object you can
+tell whether it is hard or soft, smooth or rough, and can learn whether
+it is round or square, or of some other shape. You are able to do this
+by means of the nerves of touch, which are found in the skin in all
+parts of the body. If you wished to know how an object feels, would you
+touch it with the elbow, or the knee, or the cheek? You will say, No.
+You would feel of it with the hand, and would touch it with the ends of
+the fingers. You can feel objects better with the ends of the fingers
+because there are more nerves of touch in the part of the skin covering
+the ends of the fingers than in most other parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p><b>30.</b> The sense of touch is more delicate in the tip of the tongue than
+in any other part. This is because it is necessary to use the sense of
+touch in the tongue to assist the sense of taste in finding out whether
+things are good to eat or not. The sense of touch is also very useful to
+us in many other ways. We hardly know how useful it really is until we
+are deprived of some of our other senses, as sight or hearing. In a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151"></a>[Pg 151]</span>blind man the sense of touch often becomes surprisingly acute.</p>
+
+<p><b>31. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Special Senses.</b>&mdash;All the
+special senses&mdash;hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling&mdash;depend upon
+the brain and nerves. Whatever does harm to the brain and nerves must
+injure the special senses also. We have learned how alcohol and tobacco,
+and all other narcotics and stimulants, injure and sometimes destroy the
+brain cells and their nerve branches, and so we can understand that a
+person who uses these poisonous substances will, by so doing, injure the
+delicate organs with which he hears, sees, smells, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>32.</b> Persons who use tobacco and strong drink sometimes become blind,
+because these poisons injure the nerves of sight. The ears are
+frequently injured by the use of tobacco. Smoking cigarettes and
+snuff-taking destroy the sense of smell. The poison of the tobacco
+paralyzes the nerves of taste so that they cannot detect flavors.
+Tea-tasters and other persons who need to have a delicate sense of taste
+do not use either alcohol or tobacco.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152"></a>[Pg 152]</span>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. We have five special senses&mdash;hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and
+feeling.</p>
+
+<p>2. The ear is the organ of hearing, and has three parts, called the
+external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The inner ear contains
+the nerve of hearing.</p>
+
+<p>3. The middle ear is separated from the external ear by the drum-head.
+The drum-head is connected with the inner ear by a chain of bones.</p>
+
+<p>4. Sounds cause the drum-head to vibrate. The ear-bones convey the
+vibration from the drum-head to the nerve of hearing.</p>
+
+<p>5. To keep the ear healthy we must avoid meddling with it or putting
+things into it.</p>
+
+<p>6. The eye is the organ of sight. The chief parts of the eye are the
+eyeball, the socket, and the eyelids.</p>
+
+<p>7. In the eyeball are the pupil, the lens, and the nerve of sight.</p>
+
+<p>8. The eyeball is moved in various directions by six small muscles.</p>
+
+<p>9. The eye is moistened by tears from the tear-gland.</p>
+
+<p>10. When we look at an object the lens of the eye makes a picture on the
+nerve of sight, at the back part of the eyeball.</p>
+
+<p>11. To keep the eyes healthy we should be careful not to tax them long
+at a time with fine work, or to use them in a poor light.</p>
+
+<p>12. The nerves of smell are placed in the upper part of the inside of
+the nose.</p>
+
+<p>13. "Colds" often destroy the sense of smell.</p>
+
+<p>14. The nerves of taste are placed in the tongue and palate.</p>
+
+<p>15. Many things which we think we taste we really do not taste, but
+smell or feel.</p>
+
+<p>16. Objects which have a pleasant taste are usually healthful, while
+those which have a bad taste are usually harmful.</p>
+
+<p>17. Pepper, mustard, etc., as well as alcohol and tobacco, have <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153"></a>[Pg 153]</span>an
+unpleasant taste, and are not healthful. If we use them we shall injure
+the nerves of taste as well as other parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>18. We feel objects by means of the sense of touch.</p>
+
+<p>19. The sense of touch is most acute at the tip of the tongue and the
+ends of the fingers.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154"></a>[Pg 154]</span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER XXVI.</h3>
+
+<h4>ALCOHOL.</h4>
+
+
+<p><b>1.</b> As we learned in the early part of our study of this subject,
+alcohol is produced by <i>fermentation</i>. It is afterwards separated from
+water and other substances by <i>distillation</i>. We will now learn a few
+more things about alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><b>2. Alcohol Burns.</b>&mdash;If alcohol is placed in a lamp, it will burn much
+like kerosene oil. Indeed, it does not need a lamp to help it burn as
+does oil. If a few drops of alcohol are placed upon a plate, it may be
+lighted with a match, and will burn with a pale blue flame. Thus you see
+that alcohol is a sort of burning fluid.</p>
+
+<p><b>3.</b> The vapor of alcohol will burn also, and under some circumstances
+it will explode. On this account it is better not to try any experiments
+with it unless some older person is close by to direct you, so that no
+harm may be done. Alcohol is really a dangerous substance even though we
+do not take it as a drink.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. An Interesting Experiment.</b>&mdash;We have told you that all fermented
+drinks contain alco<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155"></a>[Pg 155]</span>hol. You will remember that wine, beer, ale, and
+cider are fermented drinks. We know that these drinks contain alcohol
+because the chemist can separate the alcohol from the water and other
+substances, and thus learn just how much alcohol each contains.</p>
+
+<p><b>5.</b> If we should remove all the alcohol from wine, no one would care to
+drink it. The same is true of beer and cider. It is very easy to remove
+the alcohol by the simple process of heating. This is the way the
+chemist separates it. The heat drives the alcohol off with the steam. If
+the heating is continued long enough, all the alcohol will be driven
+off. The Chinaman boils his wine before drinking it. Perhaps this is one
+reason why Chinamen are so seldom found drunken.</p>
+
+<p><b>6.</b> By a simple experiment which your parents or your teacher can
+perform for you, it can be readily proven that different fermented
+drinks contain alcohol, and also that the alcohol may be driven off by
+heat. Place a basin half full of water upon the stove where it will soon
+boil. Put into a glass bottle enough beer or cider so that when the
+bottle stands up in the basin the liquid in the bottle will be at about
+the same height as the water in the basin. Now place in the neck of the
+bottle a closely <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156"></a>[Pg 156]</span>fitting cork in which there has been inserted a piece
+of the stem of a clay pipe or a small glass tube. Place the bottle in
+the basin. Watch carefully until the liquid in the bottle begins to
+boil. Now apply a lighted match to the end of the pipe-stem or glass
+tube. Perhaps you will observe nothing at first, but continue placing
+the match to the pipe-stem, and pretty soon you will notice a little
+blue flame burning at the end of the stem. It will go out often, but you
+can light it again. This is proof that alcohol is escaping from the
+liquid in the bottle. After the liquid has been boiling for some time,
+the flame goes out, and cannot be re-lighted, because the alcohol has
+been all driven off.</p>
+
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/img163.jpg" alt="EXPERIMENT." title="EXPERIMENT." /></div>
+
+
+
+<p><b>7. The Alcohol Breath.</b>&mdash;You have doubtless heard that a person who is
+under the influence of liquor may be known by his breath. His breath
+smells of alcohol. This is because his lungs are trying to remove the
+alcohol from his blood as fast as possible, so as to prevent injury to
+the blood corpuscles and the tissues of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157"></a>[Pg 157]</span>body. It is the vapor of
+alcohol mixed with his breath that causes the odor.</p>
+
+<p><b>8.</b> You may have heard that sometimes men take such quantities of
+liquor that the breath becomes strong with the vapor of alcohol and
+takes fire when a light is brought near the mouth. These stories are
+probably not true, although it sometimes happens that persons become
+diseased in such a way that the breath will take fire if it comes in
+contact with a light. Alcohol may be a cause of this kind of disease.</p>
+
+<p><b>9. Making Alcohol.</b>&mdash;It may be that some of our young readers would
+like to find out for themselves that alcohol is really made by
+fermentation. This may be done by an easy experiment. You know that
+yeast will cause bread to "rise" or ferment. As we have elsewhere
+learned, a little alcohol is formed in the fermentation of bread, but is
+driven off by the heat of the oven in baking, so that we do not take any
+of it into our stomachs when we eat the bread. If we place a little
+baker's yeast in sweetened water, it will cause it to ferment and
+produce alcohol. To make alcohol, all we have to do is to place a little
+yeast and some sweetened water in a bottle and put it away in a warm
+place for a few hours until it has had time to ferment. You will know
+when fermentation <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158"></a>[Pg 158]</span>has taken place by the great number of small bubbles
+which appear. When the liquid has fermented, you may prove that alcohol
+is present by means of the same experiment by which you found the
+alcohol in cider or wine. (See page 160.)</p>
+
+<p><b>10.</b> Alcohol is made from the sweet juices of fruits by simply allowing
+them to ferment. Wine, as you know, is fermented grape juice. Cider is
+fermented apple juice. The strong alcoholic liquor obtained by
+distilling wine, cider, or any kind of fermented fruit juice, is known
+as brandy.</p>
+
+<p><b>11. How Beer is Made.</b>&mdash;Beer is made from grain of some sort. The grain
+is first moistened and kept in a warm place for a few days until it
+begins to sprout. The young plant needs sugar for its food; and so while
+the grain is sprouting, the starch in the grain is changed into sugar by
+a curious kind of digestion. This, as you will remember, is the way in
+which the saliva acts upon starch. So far no very great harm has been
+done, only sprouted grain, though very sweet, is not so good to eat as
+grain which has not sprouted. Nature intends the sugar to be used as
+food for the little sproutlet; but the brewer wants it for another
+purpose, and he stops the growth of the plant by drying the grain in a
+hot room.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159"></a>[Pg 159]</span><b>12.</b> The next thing the brewer does is to grind the sprouted grain and
+soak it in water. The water dissolves out the sugar. Next he adds yeast
+to the sweet liquor and allows it to ferment, thus converting the sugar
+into alcohol. Potatoes are sometimes treated in a similar way.</p>
+
+<p><b>13.</b> By distilling beer, a strong liquor known as whiskey is obtained.
+Sometimes juniper berries are distilled with the beer. The liquor
+obtained is then called gin. In the West Indies, on the great sugar
+plantations, large quantities of liquor are made from the skimmings and
+cleanings of the vessels in which the sweet juice of the sugar-cane is
+boiled down. These refuse matters are mixed with water and fermented,
+then distilled. This liquor is called rum.</p>
+
+<p><b>14.</b> Now you have learned enough about alcohol to know that it is not
+produced by plants in the same way that food is, but that it is the
+result of a sort of decay. In making alcohol, good food is destroyed and
+made into a substance which is not fit for food, and which produces a
+great amount of sickness and destroys many lives. Do you not think it a
+pity that such great quantities of good corn and other grains should be
+wasted in this way when they might be employed for a useful purpose?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160"></a>[Pg 160]</span><b>15. The Alcohol Family.</b>&mdash;Scientists tell us that there are several
+different kinds of alcohol. Naphtha is a strong-smelling liquid
+sometimes used by painters to thin their paint and make it dry quickly.
+It does not have the same odor as alcohol, but it looks and acts very
+much like it. It will burn as alcohol does. It kills animals and plants.
+It will make a person drunk if he takes a sufficient quantity of it.
+Indeed, it is so like alcohol that it really is a kind of alcohol.</p>
+
+<p><b>16.</b> There are also other kinds of alcohol. Fusel-oil, a deadly poison,
+is an alcohol. A very small amount of this alcohol will make a person
+very drunk. Fusel-oil is found in bad whiskey. (All whiskey is bad, but
+some kinds are worse than others.) This is why such whiskey makes men so
+furiously drunk. It also causes speedy death in those who use it
+frequently. There are still other kinds of alcohol, some of which are
+even worse than fusel-oil. So you see this is a very bad family.</p>
+
+<p><b>17.</b> Like most other bad families, this alcohol family has many bad
+relations. You have heard of carbolic acid, a powerful poison. This is
+one of the relatives of the alcohol family. Creosote is another
+poisonous substance closely related to alcohol. Ether and chloroform, by
+which people are made insensible during surgical operations, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161"></a>[Pg 161]</span>are also
+relatives of alcohol. They are, in fact, made from alcohol. These
+substances, although really useful, are very poisonous and dangerous. Do
+you not think it will be very wise and prudent for you to have nothing
+to do with alcohol in any form, even wine, beer, or cider, since it
+belongs to such a bad family and has so many bad relations?</p>
+
+<p><b>18.</b> Some persons think that they will suffer no harm if they take only
+wine or beer, or perhaps hard cider. This is a great mistake. A person
+may get drunk on any of these drinks if a sufficient amount be taken.
+Besides, boys who use wine, beer, or cider, rarely fail to become fond
+of stronger liquors. A great many men who have died drunkards began with
+cider. Cider begins to ferment within a day or two after it is made, and
+becomes stronger in alcohol all the time for many months.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. "Bitters."</b>&mdash;There are other liquids not called "drinks" which
+contain alcohol. "Bitters" usually contain more alcohol than is found in
+ale or wine, and sometimes more than in the strongest whiskey. "Jamaica
+ginger" is almost pure alcohol. Hence, it is often as harmful for a
+person to use these medicines freely as to use alcoholic liquors in any
+other form.</p>
+
+<p><b>20.</b> Alcoholic liquors of all kinds are often adulterated. That is,
+they contain other poisons <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162"></a>[Pg 162]</span>besides alcohol. In consequence of this,
+they may become even more harmful than when pure; but this does not make
+it safe to use even pure liquor. Alcohol is itself more harmful than the
+other drugs usually added in adulteration. It is important that you
+should know this, for many people think they will not suffer much harm
+from the use of alcohol if they are careful to obtain pure liquors.</p>
+
+<p><b>21. Some Experiments.</b>&mdash;How many of you remember what you have learned
+in previous lessons about the poisonous effects of alcohol? Do people
+ever die at once from its effects? Only a short time ago a man made a
+bet that he could take five drinks of whiskey in five seconds. He
+dropped dead when he had swallowed the fourth glass. No one ever
+suffered such an effect from taking water or milk or any other good food
+or drink.</p>
+
+<p><b>22.</b> A man once made an experiment by mistake. He was carrying some
+alcohol across a lawn. He accidentally spilled some upon the grass. The
+next day he found the grass as dead and brown as though it had been
+scorched by fire.</p>
+
+<p><b>23.</b> Mr. Darwin, the great naturalist, once made a curious experiment.
+He took a little plant with three healthy green leaves, and shut it up
+under a glass jar where there was a tea-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163"></a>[Pg 163]</span>spoonful of alcohol. The
+alcohol was in a dish by itself, so it did not touch the plant; but the
+vapor of the alcohol mixed with the air in the jar so that the plant had
+to breathe it. In less than half an hour he took the plant out. Its
+leaves were faded and somewhat shrivelled. The next morning it appeared
+to be dead. Do you suppose the odor of milk or meat, or of any good
+food, would affect a plant like that? Animals shut up with alcohol die
+in just the same way.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. A Drunken Plant.</b>&mdash;How many of you remember about a curious plant
+that catches flies? Do you remember its name? What does the Venus's
+fly-trap do with the flies after it catches them? Do you say that it
+eats them? Really this is what it does, for it dissolves and absorbs
+them. In other words, it digests them. This is just what our stomachs do
+to the food we eat.</p>
+
+<p><b>25.</b> A few years ago Mr. Darwin thought that he would see what effect
+alcohol would have upon the digestion of a plant. So he put a
+fly-catching plant in a jar with some alcohol for just five minutes. The
+alcohol did not touch the plant, because the jar was only wet with the
+alcohol on the inside. When he took the plant out, he found that it
+could not catch flies, and that <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164"></a>[Pg 164]</span>its digestion was spoiled so that it
+could not even digest very tender bits of meat which were placed on its
+leaves. The plant was drunk.</p>
+
+<p><b>26.</b> Mr. Darwin tried a great many experiments with various poisons,
+and found that the plants were affected in much the same way by ether
+and chloroform, and also by nicotine, the poisonous oil of tobacco.
+Sugar, milk, and other foods had no such effect. This does not look much
+as though alcohol would help digestion; does it?</p>
+
+<p><b>27. Effects of Alcohol on Digestion.</b>&mdash;Dr. Roberts, a very eminent
+English scientist, made many experiments, a few years ago, to ascertain
+positively about the effect of alcohol upon digestion. He concluded that
+alcohol, even in small doses, delays digestion. This is quite contrary
+to the belief of very many people, who suppose that wine, cider, or
+stronger liquors aid digestion. The use of alcohol in the form of beer
+or other alcoholic drinks is often a cause of serious disease of the
+stomach and other digestive organs.</p>
+
+<p><b>28. Effects of Alcohol on Animal Heat.</b>&mdash;A large part of the food we
+eat is used in keeping our bodies warm. Most of the starch, sugar, and
+fat in our food serves the body as a sort of fuel. It is by this means
+that the body is kept always at about the same temperature, which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165"></a>[Pg 165]</span>is
+just a little less than one hundred degrees. This is why we need more
+food in very cold weather than in very warm weather.</p>
+
+<p><b>29.</b> When a person takes alcohol, it is found that instead of being
+made warmer by it, he is not so warm as before. He feels warmer, but if
+his temperature be ascertained by means of a thermometer placed in his
+mouth, it is found that he is really colder. The more alcohol a person
+takes the colder he becomes. If alcohol were good food would we expect
+this to be the case? It is probably true that the alcohol does make a
+little heat, but at the same time it causes us to lose much more heat
+than it makes. The outside of the body is not so warm as the inside.
+This is because the warm blood in the blood-vessels of the skin is
+cooled more rapidly than the blood in the interior of the body. The
+effect of alcohol is to cause the blood-vessels of the outside of the
+body to become much enlarged. This is why the face becomes flushed. A
+larger amount of warm blood is brought from the inside of the body to
+the outside, where it is cooled very rapidly; and thus the body loses
+heat, instead of gaining it, under the influence of alcohol. This is not
+true of any proper food substance.</p>
+
+<p><b>30. Alcohol in the Polar Regions.</b>&mdash;Experi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166"></a>[Pg 166]</span>ence teaches the same thing
+as science respecting the effect of alcohol. Captain Ross, Dr. Kane,
+Captain Parry, Captain Hall, Lieutenant Greely, and many other famous
+explorers who have spent long months amid the ice and snow and intense
+cold of the countries near the North Pole, all say that alcohol does not
+warm a man when he is cold, and does not keep him from getting cold.
+Indeed, alcohol is considered so dangerous in these cold regions that no
+Arctic explorer at the present time could be induced to use it. The
+Hudson Bay Company do not allow the men who work for them to use any
+kind of alcoholic liquors. Alcohol is a great deceiver, is it not? It
+makes a man think he is warmer, when he is really colder. Many men are
+frozen to death while drunk.</p>
+
+<p><b>31. Alcohol in Hot Regions.</b>&mdash;Bruce, Livingstone, and Stanley, and all
+great African travellers, condemn the use of alcohol in that hot country
+as well as elsewhere. The Yuma Indians, who live in Arizona and New
+Mexico, where the weather is sometimes much hotter than we ever know it
+here, have made a law of their own against the use of liquor. If one of
+the tribe becomes drunk, he is severely punished. This law they have
+made because of the evil effects of liquor which they noticed among <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167"></a>[Pg 167]</span>the
+members of their tribe who used to become intoxicated. Do you not think
+that a very wise thing for Indians to do?</p>
+
+<p><b>32. Sunstroke.</b>&mdash;Do you know what sunstroke is? If you do not, your
+parents or teacher will tell yow that persons exposed to the heat of the
+sun on a hot summer day are sometimes overcome by it. They become weak,
+giddy, or insensible, and not infrequently die. Scores of people are
+sometimes stricken down in a single day in some of our large cities. It
+may occur to you that if alcohol cools the body, it would be a good
+thing for a person to take to prevent or relieve an attack of sunstroke.
+On the contrary, it is found that those who use alcoholic drinks are
+much more liable to sunstroke than others. This is on account of the
+poisonous effects of the alcohol upon the nerves. No doctor would think
+of giving alcohol in any form to a man suffering with sunstroke.</p>
+
+<p><b>33. Effects of Alcohol upon the Tissues.</b>&mdash;Here are two interesting
+experiments which your teacher or parents can make for you.</p>
+
+<p><i>Experiment 1.</i> Place a piece of tender beefsteak in a saucer and cover
+it with alcohol. Put it away over night. In the morning the beefsteak
+will be found to be shrunken, dried, and almost as tough as a piece of
+leather. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168"></a>[Pg 168]</span>shows the effect of alcohol upon the tissues, which are
+essentially like those of lower animals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Experiment 2.</i> Break an egg into a half glassful of alcohol. Stir the
+egg and alcohol together for a few minutes. Soon you will see that the
+egg begins to harden and look just as though it had been boiled.</p>
+
+<p><b>34.</b> This is the effect of strong alcohol. The alcohol of alcoholic
+drinks has water and other things mixed with it, so that it does not act
+so quickly nor so severely as pure alcohol; but the effect is
+essentially the same in character. It is partly in this way that the
+brain, nerves, muscles, and other tissues of drinking men and women
+become diseased.</p>
+
+<p>Eminent physicians tell us that a large share of the unfortunate persons
+who are shut up in insane asylums are brought there by alcohol. Is it
+not a dreadful thing that one's mind should be thus ruined by a useless
+and harmful practice?</p>
+
+
+<h4>SUMMARY.</h4>
+
+<p>1. Alcohol is produced by fermentation, and obtained by distillation. It
+will burn like kerosene oil and other burning fluids.</p>
+
+<p>2. The vapor of alcohol will burn and will sometimes explode.</p>
+
+<p>3. Alcohol may be separated from beer and other fermented liquids by
+boiling.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169"></a>[Pg 169]</span>4. Brandy is distilled from fermented fruit juice, whiskey and gin from
+beer or fermented grains, rum from fermented molasses.</p>
+
+<p>5. Alcohol is the result of a sort of decay, and much good food is
+destroyed in producing it.</p>
+
+<p>6. Besides ordinary alcohol, there are several other kinds. Naphtha and
+fusel-oil are alcohols.</p>
+
+<p>7. All the members of the alcohol family are poisons; all will burn, and
+all will intoxicate. The alcohol family have several bad relations,
+among which are carbolic acid, ether, and chloroform.</p>
+
+<p>8. Cider, beer, and wine are harmful and dangerous as well as strong
+liquors. "Bitters" often contain as much alcohol as the strongest
+liquors, and sometimes more.</p>
+
+<p>9. Alcoholic liquors are sometimes adulterated, but they usually contain
+no poison worse than alcohol. Pure alcohol is scarcely less dangerous
+than that which is adulterated.</p>
+
+<p>10. Death sometimes occurs almost instantly from taking strong liquors.</p>
+
+<p>11. Alcohol will kill grass and other plants, if poured upon them or
+about their roots.</p>
+
+<p>12. Mr. Darwin proved that the vapor of alcohol will kill plants; also
+that plants become intoxicated by breathing the vapor of alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>13. Alcohol, even in small quantities, hinders digestion.</p>
+
+<p>14. Alcohol causes the body to lose heat so rapidly that it becomes
+cooler instead of warmer.</p>
+
+<p>15. The danger of freezing to death when exposed to extreme cold is
+greatly increased by taking alcohol.</p>
+
+<p>16. Stanley, and other African explorers, say that it is dangerous to
+use alcoholic drinks in hot climates.</p>
+
+<p>17. In very hot weather, persons who use alcoholic drinks are more
+subject to sunstroke than those who do not.</p>
+
+<p>18. Beefsteak soaked in alcohol becomes tough like leather. An egg
+placed in alcohol is hardened as though it had been boiled.</p>
+
+<p>19. The effect of alcohol upon the brain, nerves, and other tissues of
+the body is much the same as upon the beefsteak and the egg.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170"></a>[Pg 170]</span></p>
+<h3>QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.</h3>
+
+
+<p>CHAPTER I. <span class="smcap">The House we Live in.</span>&mdash;What is the body like? Does
+the body resemble anything else besides a house? How is it like a
+machine? Name the different parts of the body. What is anatomy?
+physiology? hygiene?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER II. <span class="smcap">A General View of the Body.</span>&mdash;What are the main
+parts of the body? Name the different parts of the head; of the trunk;
+of each arm; of each leg. What covers the body?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER III. <span class="smcap">The Inside of the Body.</span>&mdash;What is the name of the
+framework of the body? What is the skull? How is the back-bone formed?
+Name the two cavities of the trunk. What does the chest contain? the
+abdomen?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER IV. <span class="smcap">Our Foods.</span>&mdash;Of what are our bodies made? What are
+foods? Where do we get our foods? Name some animal foods; some vegetable
+foods. What are poisons?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER V. <span class="smcap">Unhealthful Foods.</span>&mdash;Is the flesh of diseased animals
+good for food? What can you say about unripe, stale, or mouldy foods?
+What is adulteration of foods? What foods are most likely to be
+adulterated? Are pepper, mustard, and other condiments proper foods?
+What about tobacco? What is the effect of tobacco upon boys?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER VI. <span class="smcap">Our Drinks.</span>&mdash;What is the only thing that will
+satisfy thirst? Why do we need water? How does water sometimes become
+impure? What is the effect of using impure water? What are the
+properties of good water? Are tea and coffee good drinks? How is alcohol
+made? Give familiar examples of fermentation. How are pure alcohol and
+strong liquors made? Is alcohol a food? Why do you think it is a poison?
+Do you think moderate drinking is healthful?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER VII. <span class="smcap">How we Digest.</span>&mdash;What is digestion? What is the
+digestive tube? Name the different digestive organs. How many sets of
+teeth has a person in his lifetime? How many teeth in each set? How many
+pairs of salivary glands? What do they form? What is the gullet?
+Describe the stomach. What is the gastric juice? How long is the
+intestinal canal? What fluid is formed in the intestines? Where is the
+liver found, and how large is it? What does the liver produce? What is
+the gall-bladder, and what is its use? What does the liver do besides
+pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171"></a>[Pg 171]</span>ducing bile? What and where is the pancreas? What does the pancreas
+do? Where is the spleen? How many important organs of digestion are
+there? How many digestive fluids?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER VIII. <span class="smcap">Digestion of a Mouthful of Bread.</span>&mdash;Name the
+different processes of digestion [mastication, action of saliva,
+swallowing, action of stomach and gastric juice, action of bile, action
+of pancreatic juice, action of intestines and intestinal juice,
+absorption, liver digestion]. Describe the digestion of a mouthful of
+bread. Where is the food taken after it has been absorbed? What are the
+lacteals? What is the thoracic duct?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER IX. <span class="smcap">Bad Habits in Eating.</span>&mdash;What is indigestion? Mention
+some of the causes of indigestion. How does eating too fast cause
+indigestion? Eating too much? too frequently? Irregularly? when tired?
+How do tea and coffee impair digestion? Why is it harmful to use iced
+foods and drinks? Why should we not eat pepper and other hot and
+irritating things? How should the teeth be cared for? How does
+tobacco-using affect the stomach? What dreadful disease is sometimes
+caused by tobacco? How does alcohol affect the gastric juice? the
+stomach? the liver?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER X. <span class="smcap">A Drop of Blood.</span>&mdash;What does the blood contain? How
+many kinds of blood corpuscles are there? What work is done for the body
+by each kind of corpuscles?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XI. <span class="smcap">Why the Heart Beats.</span>&mdash;Where is the heart? Why does
+the heart beat? How many chambers has the heart? What are the
+blood-vessels? How many kinds of blood-vessels are there? Name them.
+What is the difference between venous blood and arterial blood? What
+change occurs in the blood in the lungs? What is the pulse? How much
+work does the heart do every twenty-four hours? What are the lymphatics?
+What do they contain, and what is their purpose? What are lymphatic
+glands?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XII. <span class="smcap">How to Keep the Heart and Blood Healthy.</span>&mdash;Name
+some things likely to injure the heart or the blood. What is the effect
+of violent exercise? of bad air? of bad food? of loss of sleep? of
+violent anger? What can you say about clothing? What is the effect of
+alcohol upon the blood? the heart? the bodily heat? What is the effect
+of tobacco upon the heart? the pulse? the blood? What is the effect of
+tea and coffee upon the heart? What is a cold? In a case of bleeding
+from a wound, how can you tell whether a vein or an artery is cut? How
+would you stop the bleeding from an artery? from a vein? How would you
+stop nose-bleed?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XIII. <span class="smcap">Why and How we Breathe.</span>&mdash;What happens to a
+lighted candle if shut up in a small, close place? to a mouse? Why is
+air so necessary for a burning candle and for animals? How is the heat
+of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172"></a>[Pg 172]</span>our bodies produced? Name the principal organs of breathing.
+Describe each. How do we use the lungs in breathing? How much air will a
+man's lungs hold? How much air do we use with each breath? What
+poisonous substance does the air which we breathe out contain? Will a
+candle burn in air which has been breathed? What happens to animals
+placed in such air? What change takes place in the blood as it passes
+through the lungs? How do plants purify the air?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XIV. <span class="smcap">How to Keep the Lungs Healthy.</span>&mdash;What is the thing
+most necessary to preserve life? Name some of the ways in which the
+blood becomes impure. Why is bad-smelling air dangerous to health? What
+are germs? Why are some diseases "catching"? Name some such diseases.
+What should be done with a person who has a "catching" disease? What is
+the effect of the breath upon the air? How much air is poisoned and made
+unfit to breathe by each breath? How much air do we spoil every minute?
+every hour? How much pure air does each person need every minute? every
+hour? How do we get fresh air into our houses? Why are windows and doors
+not good means of ventilating in cold weather? How should a room be
+ventilated? How should we use the lungs in breathing? What about the
+clothing in reference to the lungs? Why is it injurious to breathe
+habitually through the mouth? What is the effect of alcohol upon the
+lungs? What is the effect of tobacco-using upon the throat and nose?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XV. <span class="smcap">The Skin and What it Does.</span>&mdash;How many layers in the
+skin? What is each called? To what is the color of the skin due? What
+glands are found in the true skin? What are the nails and what is their
+purpose? How does the hair grow? Name the different uses of the skin?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XVI. <span class="smcap">How to Take Care of the Skin.</span>&mdash;What happened to
+the little boy who was covered with gold leaf? Why did he die? What is
+the effect of neglecting to keep the skin clean? What is the effect of
+wearing too much clothing and living in rooms which are too warm? How
+should the hair be cared for? the nails? What is the effect of alcohol,
+tobacco, and other narcotics upon the skin?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XVII. <span class="smcap">The Kidneys and their Work.</span>&mdash;What is the work of
+the kidneys? How may we keep these organs healthy? What is the effect of
+alcohol upon the kidneys?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XVIII. <span class="smcap">Our Bones and their Uses.</span>&mdash;How many bones in the
+body? What are the bones called when taken all together? Name the
+principal parts of the skeleton. Name the bones of the trunk, of the
+arms, of the legs. What are the uses of the bones? What is a joint? What
+is cartilage? By what are the bones held together? Of what are the bones
+largely composed?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173"></a>[Pg 173]</span>CHAPTER XIX. <span class="smcap">How to Keep the Bones Healthy.</span>&mdash;What sort of
+bread is best for the bones? Why? If a child tries to walk too early why
+are its legs likely to become crooked? What are the effects of sitting
+or lying in bad positions? Of wearing tight or poorly-fitting clothing?
+Of tight or high-heeled shoes? What injuries are likely to happen to the
+bones and joints by accident or rough play?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XX. <span class="smcap">The Muscles and How we Use Them.</span>&mdash;How many muscles
+in the body? Of what are the muscles composed? How are many of the
+muscles connected to the bones? To what are all bodily movements due?
+How do the muscles act? What causes the muscles to act? Do all muscles
+act only when we will to have them act?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XXI. <span class="smcap">How to Keep the Muscles Healthy.</span>&mdash;What makes the
+right arm of the blacksmith stronger than the left one? How should
+exercise be taken? Mention some things in relation to the use of the
+muscles which we ought not to do, and state the reasons why. What is the
+effect of alcohol upon the muscles? of tobacco? of tea and coffee?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XXII. <span class="smcap">How we Feel and Think.</span>&mdash;With what part of the
+body do we think? How many brains does a man have? How is each brain
+divided? Of what is the brain largely composed? Where do the nerves
+begin? What is the spinal cord? Why does it cause pain to prick the
+finger? How many kinds of nerves are there? (<i>Ans.</i> Two; nerves of
+feeling and nerves of work.) Name some of the different kinds of nerves
+of feeling? Name some of the different kinds of work controlled by the
+nerves of work. Of what use to the body are the brain and nerves? How
+does the brain use the nerves? Of what use is the large brain? What does
+the little brain do? Of what use is the spinal cord?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XXIII. <span class="smcap">How to Keep the Brain and Nerves
+Healthy.</span>&mdash;Mention some things which we need to do to keep the brain
+and nerves healthy. Mention some things which we ought not to do.</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XXIV. <span class="smcap">Bad Effects of Alcohol upon the Brain and
+Nerves.</span>&mdash;What is the effect of alcohol upon the brain and nerves?
+Does alcohol produce real strength? Does it produce real warmth? Does
+alcohol make people better or worse? What is the effect of tobacco upon
+the brain and nerves? Does the use of tobacco lead to other evil habits?
+What about the effect of opium and other narcotics?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XXV. <span class="smcap">How we Hear, See, Smell, Taste, and Feel.</span>&mdash;How
+many senses have we? What is the ear? Name the three parts of the ear.
+How do we hear? How should we treat the ear?</p>
+
+<p>Name the principal parts of the eye? What are found in the eyeball? How
+is the eyeball moved in the socket? How is the eye moistened? Of what
+use is the lens of the eye? Of what use is the pupil of the eye? How may
+we preserve the eyesight?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174"></a>[Pg 174]</span>Where are the nerves of smell located? Of what use is the sense of
+smell?</p>
+
+<p>Where are the nerves of taste found? How is the sense of taste sometimes
+injured or lost? What do we detect with the sense of taste? Of what use
+to us is the sense of taste?</p>
+
+<p>With what sense do we feel objects? In what parts of the body is this
+sense most delicate? Upon what do all the special senses depend? Does
+anything that injures the brain and nerves also injure the special
+senses? What is the effect of alcohol and tobacco upon the sense of
+sight? How is the hearing affected by tobacco-using? The sense of smell?
+The sense of taste?</p>
+
+<p>CHAPTER XXVI. <span class="smcap">Alcohol.</span>&mdash;How is alcohol produced? In what
+respect is alcohol like kerosene oil? Is alcohol a dangerous thing even
+if we do not drink it? How can you prove that there is alcohol in wine,
+beer, cider, and other fermented drinks? Can you tell by the odor of his
+breath when a person has been drinking? Why? Does the breath ever take
+fire? May alcohol be a cause? From what is brandy made? How are whiskey,
+gin, and rum made? Is alcohol a result of growth, like fruits and
+grains, or of decay? Is there more than one kind of alcohol? Mention
+some of the members of the alcohol family. In what ways are the members
+of this family alike? Name some of the bad relations. Are cider and
+beer, as well as whiskey, dangerous? Why? Mention some other things,
+besides drinks, which contain alcohol. Are alcoholic drinks adulterated?
+Is pure alcohol safe? Is instant death ever produced by alcohol? Will
+alcohol kill plants? Describe Mr. Darwin's experiment which proved this.
+Can plants be made drunk by alcohol? Describe the experiment which
+proves this. What has Dr. Roberts proven concerning the influence of
+alcohol upon digestion? How are our bodies kept warm? Explain how
+alcohol makes the body cooler? Do Arctic explorers use alcohol? Why not?
+Does the use of alcohol prevent sunstroke? What do Stanley and
+Livingstone say about the use of alcohol in Africa? What is the effect
+of using alcohol upon meat and eggs? What is the effect of alcohol upon
+the brain and other tissues of the body? Does alcohol cause insanity and
+other diseases of the brain and nerves?</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> More properly <i>Carbonic dioxid</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> For the sake of brevity and clearness the author has
+included under the term "little brain" the <i>medulla oblongata</i> as well
+as the <i>cerebellum</i>.</p></div></div>
+
+
+
+<h4>THE END.</h4>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175"></a>[Pg 175]</span></p>
+<h3>Aids to Field and Laboratory Work in Botany</h3>
+
+
+<p><b>Apgars' Plant Analysis.</b> By E.A. and A.C. <span class="smcap">Apgar</span>.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Cloth, small 4to, 124 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;55 cents</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A book of blank schedules, adapted to Gray's Botanies, for pupils' use
+in writing and preserving brief systematic descriptions of the plants
+analyzed by them in field or class work. Space is allowed for
+descriptions of about one hundred and twenty-four plants with an
+alphabetical index.</p>
+
+<p>An analytical arrangement of botanical terms is provided, in which the
+words defined are illustrated by small wood cuts, which show at a glance
+the characteristics named in the definition.</p>
+
+<p>By using the Plant Analysis, pupils will become familiar with the
+meaning of botanical terms, and will learn how to apply these terms in
+botanical descriptions.</p>
+
+
+<p><b>Apgar's Trees of the Northern United States</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Their Study, Description, and Determination. For the use of Schools and
+Private Students. By <span class="smcap">Austin C. Apgar</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Cloth, 12mo, 224 pages. Copiously Illustrated&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.00</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This work has been prepared as an accessory to the study of Botany, and
+to assist and encourage teachers in introducing into their classes
+instruction in Nature Study. The trees of our forests, lawns, yards,
+orchards, streets, borders and parks afford a most favorable and
+fruitful field for the purposes of such study. They are real objects of
+nature, easily accessible, and of such a character as to admit of being
+studied at all seasons and in all localities. Besides, the subject is
+one of general and increasing interest, and one that can be taught
+successfully by those who have had no regular scientific training.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of either of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any
+address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class='center'><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176"></a>[Pg 176]</span>STORER AND LINDSAY'S</p>
+
+<h3>Elementary Manual of Chemistry</h3>
+
+<h4>By F.H. STORER, S.B., A.M., and W.B. LINDSAY, A.B., B.S.</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>Cloth, 12mo, 453 pages. Illustrated.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Price, $1.20</p>
+
+<p>This work is the lineal descendant of the "Manual of Inorganic
+Chemistry" of Eliot and Storer, and the "Elementary Manual of Chemistry"
+of Eliot, Storer and Nichols. It is in fact the last named book
+thoroughly revised, rewritten and enlarged to represent the present
+condition of chemical knowledge and to meet the demands of American
+teachers for a class book on Chemistry, at once scientific in statement
+and clear in method.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of the book is to facilitate the study and teaching of
+Chemistry by the experimental and inductive method. It presents the
+leading facts and theories of the science in such simple and concise
+manner that they can be readily understood and applied by the student.
+The book is equally valuable in the class-room and the laboratory. The
+instructor will find in it the essentials of chemical science developed
+in easy and appropriate sequence, its facts and generalizations
+expressed accurately and scientifically as well as clearly, forcibly and
+elegantly.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is safe to say that no text-book has exerted so wide an
+influence on the study of chemistry in this country as this work,
+originally written by Eliot and Storer. Its distinguished authors
+were leaders in teaching Chemistry as a means of mental training in
+general education, and in organizing and perfecting a system of
+instructing students in large classes by the experimental method.
+As revised and improved by Professor Nichols, it continued to give
+the highest satisfaction in our best schools and colleges. After
+the death of Professor Nichols, when it became necessary to revise
+the work again, Professor Lindsay, of Dickinson College, was
+selected to assist Dr. Storer in the work. The present edition has
+been entirely rewritten by them, following throughout the same plan
+and arrangement of the previous editions, which have been so highly
+approved by a generation of scholars and teachers.</p>
+
+<p>"If a book, like an individual, has a history, certainly the record
+of this one, covering a period of nearly thirty years, is of the
+highest and most honorable character."&mdash;<i>From The American Journal
+of Science.</i> </p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of this book will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p></div>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177"></a>[Pg 177]</span>Chemistry</h3>
+
+<h4>TEXT-BOOKS AND LABORATORY METHODS</h4>
+
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Chemistry Books">
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Storer and Lindsay's Elementary Manual of Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">F.H. Storer</span>, A.M., S.B., and <span class="smcap">W.B. Lindsay</span>, Ph.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cloth, 12mo, 453 pages&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>$1.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A standard manual for secondary schools and colleges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Clarke's Elements of Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">F.W. Clarke</span>. Cloth, 12mo, 379 pages&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>$1.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A scientific book for high schools and colleges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Cooley's New Elementary Chemistry for Beginners</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">LeRoy C. Cooley</span>, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 300 pages&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;72 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A book of experimental chemistry for beginners.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Steele's Popular Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">J. Dorman Steele</span>, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 343 pages&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>$1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A popular treatise for schools and private students.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Youmans's Class-Book of Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">E.L. Youmans</span>, M.D. Revised by W.J. Youmans, M.D.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cloth, 12mo, 404 pages</td><td align='right'>$1.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>For schools, colleges, and general reading.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Brewster's First Book of Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">Mary Shaw-Brewster</span>. Boards, 12mo, 144 pages&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;66 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>An elementary class-book for beginners in the study.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="80%" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Chemistry books">
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Armstrong and Norton's Laboratory Manual of Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">James E. Armstrong</span> and <span class="smcap">James H. Norton</span>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cloth, 12mo, 144 pages</td><td align='right'>50 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A brief course of experiments in chemistry, covering<br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>about forty weeks' work in the laboratory.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Cooley's Laboratory Studies in Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">LeRoy C. Cooley</span>, Ph.D. Cloth, 8vo, 144 pages</td><td align='right'>50 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A carefully selected series of 151 experiments, designed to teach<br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>the fundamental facts and principles of chemistry for secondary schools.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Keiser's Laboratory Work in Chemistry</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By <span class="smcap">Edward H. Keiser</span>, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 119 pages&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>50 cents</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>A series of experiments in general inorganic chemistry, intended to illustrate and</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>supplement the work of the class-room.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><b>Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic Substances</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>As practiced in Georgetown College, D.C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Cloth, 4to, 61 pages</td><td align='right'>$1.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Designed to serve as both text-book and laboratory manual in Qualitative</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Analysis.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<blockquote><p><i>Copies of either of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any
+address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:</i></p></blockquote>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178"></a>[Pg 178]</span>Physics</h3>
+
+<p>
+<b>Cooley's Student's Manual of Physics</b></p>
+<blockquote><p>For the Study Room and Laboratory. By <span class="smcap">L.C. Cooley</span>,<br />
+Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Vassar College.<br />
+Cloth, 12mo, 448 pages. Illustrated&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.00</p></blockquote>
+<p>A new text-book in Physics for high schools, academies, and colleges.
+It embodies a full and thorough treatment of the laws of physics, the
+best methods in science teaching, the latest discoveries and
+applications in physics, and a full course in laboratory practice.
+Special care has been taken to select experiments which will not overtax
+the capacities of will call for systematic and original work and lead to
+accurate results.</p>
+
+<p><b>Harrington's Physics for Grammar Schools</b></p>
+<blockquote><p><span class="smcap">By C.L. Harrington</span>, M.A. Cloth, 12mo, 123 pages.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;50 cents</p></blockquote>
+<p>A practical text-book based on the natural or experimental method,
+elementary enough for pupils in grammar schools, and affording a
+thorough preparation for advanced study.</p>
+
+<p><b>Appletons' School Physics</b></p>
+<blockquote><p>Cloth, 12mo, 552 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.20</p></blockquote>
+<p>A thoroughly modern text-book on Natural Philosophy, which reflects
+the most advanced pedagogical methods and the latest laboratory
+practice.</p>
+
+<p><b>Steele's Popular Physics</b></p>
+<blockquote><p>By J. Dorman Steele, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 392 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.00</p></blockquote>
+<p>A popular text-book, in which the principles of the science are
+presented in such an attractive manner as to awaken and fix the
+attention of every pupil.</p>
+
+<p><b>Trowbridge's New Physics</b></p>
+<blockquote><p>By John Trowbridge, S.D. Cloth, 12mo, 387 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.20</p></blockquote>
+<p>A thoroughly modern work, intended as a class manual of Physics for
+colleges and advanced preparatory schools.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hammel's Observation Blanks in Physics</b></p>
+<blockquote><p>By William C.A. Hammel.<br />
+Flexible, quarto, 42 pages. Illustrated&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;30 cents</p></blockquote>
+<p>A pupil's laboratory manual and notebook for the first term's work.
+Blanks are left in which the pupil writes his observations and the
+principles illustrated.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of this book will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179"></a>[Pg 179]</span>Laboratory Physics</h3>
+
+<p><b>Hammel's Observation Blanks in Physics</b></p>
+
+<p>By <span class="smcap">William C.A. Hammel</span>, Professor of Physics in
+Maryland State School,<br />Boards, Quarto, 42 pages. Illustrated&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;30 cents</p>
+
+<p>These Observation Blanks are designed for use as a Pupil's Laboratory
+Manual and Note Book for the first term's work in the study of Physics.
+They combine in convenient form descriptions and illustrations of the
+apparatus required for making experiments in Physics, with special
+reference to the elements of Air, Liquids, and Heat; directions for
+making the required apparatus from simple inexpensive materials, and for
+performing the experiments, etc. The book is supplied with blanks for
+making drawings of the apparatus and for the pupil to record what he has
+observed and inferred concerning the experiment and the principle
+illustrated.</p>
+
+<p>The experiments are carefully selected in the light of experience and
+arranged in logical order. The treatment throughout is in accordance
+with the best laboratory practice of the day.</p>
+
+<p>Hon. W.T. Harris, U.S. Commissioner of Education, says of these Blanks:</p>
+
+<p>"I have seen several attempts to assist the work of pupils engaged in
+the study of Physics, but I have never seen anything which promises to
+be of such practical assistance as Hammel's Observation Blanks."</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>Specimen copies of this book will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180"></a>[Pg 180]</span>Burnet's Zo&ouml;logy</h3>
+
+<h4>FOR</h4>
+
+<h3>HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES</h3>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+
+<h3>MARGARETTA BURNET</h3>
+<p class='center'>Teacher of Zo&ouml;logy, Woodward High School, Cincinnati, O.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'>Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Illustrated.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Price. 75cents</p>
+
+<p>This new text-book on Zo&ouml;logy is intended for classes in High Schools,
+Academies, and other Secondary Schools. While sufficiently elementary
+for beginners in the study it is full and comprehensive enough for
+students pursuing a regular course in the Natural Sciences. It has been
+prepared by a practical teacher, and is the direct result of school-room
+experience, field observation and laboratory practice.</p>
+
+<p>The design of the book is to give a good general knowledge of the
+subject of Zo&ouml;logy, to cultivate an interest in nature study, and to
+encourage the pupil to observe and to compare for himself and then to
+arrange and classify his knowledge. Only typical or principal forms are
+described, and in their description only such technical terms are used
+as are necessary, and these are carefully defined.</p>
+
+<p>Each subject is fully illustrated, the illustrations being selected and
+arranged to aid the pupil in understanding the structure of each form.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of Burnet's School Zo&ouml;logy will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181"></a>[Pg 181]</span>Zo&ouml;logy and Natural History</h3>
+
+<p><b>Burnet's School Zo&ouml;logy</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">Margaretta Burnet</span>. Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;75 cents</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A new text-book for high schools and academies, by a practical teacher;
+sufficiently elementary for beginners and full enough for the usual
+course in Natural History.</p>
+
+<p><b>Needham's Elementary Lessons in Zo&ouml;logy</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">James G. Needham</span>, M.S. Cloth, 12mo, 302 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;90 cents</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>An elementary text-book for high schools, academies, normal schools and
+preparatory college classes. Special attention is given to the study by
+scientific methods, laboratory practice, microscopic study and practical
+zo&ouml;tomy.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cooper's Animal Life</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">Sarah Cooper</span>. Cloth, 12mo, 427 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.25</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>An attractive book for young people. Admirably adapted for supplementary
+readings in Natural History.</p>
+
+<p><b>Holders' Elementary Zo&ouml;logy</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By C.F. <span class="smcap">Holder</span>,<br />
+and J.B. <span class="smcap">Holder</span>, M.D.<br />
+Cloth, 12mo, 401 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.20</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A text-book for high school classes and other schools of secondary
+grade.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hooker's Natural History</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">Worthington Hooker</span>, M.D. Cloth, 12mo, 394 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;90 cents</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Designed either for the use of schools or for the general reader.</p>
+
+<p><b>Morse's First Book in Zo&ouml;logy</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">Edward S. Morse</span>, Ph.D. Boards, 12mo, 204 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;87 cents</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>For the first study of animal life. The examples presented are such as
+are common and familiar.</p>
+
+<p><b>Nicholson's Text-Book of Zo&ouml;logy</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By H.A. <span class="smcap">Nicholson</span>, M.D. Cloth, 12mo, 421 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.38</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Revised edition. Adapted for advanced grades of high schools or
+academies and for first work in college classes.</p>
+
+<p><b>Steele's Popular Zo&ouml;logy</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">J. Dorman Steele</span>, Ph.D., and J.W.P. <span class="smcap">Jenks</span>.<br />
+Cloth, 12mo, 369 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.20</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>For academies, preparatory schools and general reading. This popular
+work is marked by the same clearness of method and simplicity of
+statement that characterize all Prof. Steele's text-books in the Natural
+Sciences.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tenneys' Natural History of Animals</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">Sanborn Tenney</span> and <span class="smcap">Abbey A. Tenney</span>.<br />
+Revised Edition. Cloth, 12mo, 281 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.20</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This new edition has been entirely reset and thoroughly revised, the
+recent changes in classification introduced, and the book in all
+respects brought up to date.</p>
+
+<p><b>Treat's Home Studies in Nature</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By Mrs. <span class="smcap">Mary Treat</span>. Cloth, 12mo, 244 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;90 cents</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>An interesting and instructive addition to the works on Natural History.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182"></a>[Pg 182]</span>Text-Books in Geology</h3>
+
+<p><b>Dana's Geological Story Briefly Told</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">James D. Dana</span>. Cloth, 12mo, 302 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.15</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A new edition of this popular work for beginners in the study and for
+the general reader. The book has been entirely rewritten, and improved
+by the addition of many new illustrations and interesting descriptions
+of the latest phases and discoveries of the science. In contents and
+dress it is an attractive volume either for the reader or student.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dana's Revised Text-Book of Geology</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Edited by <span class="smcap">William North Rice</span>, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of
+Geology, Wesleyan University. Cloth, 12mo, 482 pages.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.40</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This is the standard text-book for high school and elementary college
+work. The book has been thoroughly revised, enlarged, and improved,
+while the general and distinctive features of the former work have been
+preserved. As now published, it combines the results of the life
+experience and observation of its distinguished author with the latest
+discoveries and researches in the science.</p>
+
+<p><b>Dana's Manual of Geology</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">James D. Dana</span>.<br />
+Cloth, 8vo, 1087 pages. 1575 illustrations&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$5.00</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This great work was thoroughly revised and entirely rewritten under
+the direct supervision of its author, just before his death. It is
+recognized as a standard authority, and is used as a manual of
+instruction in all higher institutions of learning.</p>
+
+<p><b>Le Conte's Compend of Geology</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">Joseph Le Conte</span>, LL.D. Cloth, 12mo, 399 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.20</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Designed for high schools, academies, and all secondary schools.</p>
+
+<p><b>Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Geology</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">J. Dorman Steele</span>, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 280 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.00</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>A popular book for elementary classes and the general reader.</p>
+
+<p><b>Andrews's Elementary Geology</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">E.B. Andrews</span>, LL.D. Cloth, 12mo, 283 pages&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.00</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>Adapted for elementary classes. Contains a special treatment of the
+geology of the Mississippi Valley.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183"></a>[Pg 183]</span>A New Astronomy</h3>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h3>DAVID P. TODD, M.A., Ph.D.</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>Professor of Astronomy and Director of the Observatory, Amherst College.</p>
+
+<blockquote><p>Cloth, 12mo, 480 pages. Illustrated Price,&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;$1.30</p></blockquote>
+
+<p>This book is designed for classes pursuing the study in High Schools,
+Academies, and Colleges. The author's long experience as a director in
+astronomical observatories and in teaching the subject has given him
+unusual qualifications and advantages for preparing an ideal text-book.</p>
+
+<p>The noteworthy feature which distinguishes this from other text-books on
+Astronomy is the practical way in which the subjects treated are
+enforced by laboratory experiments and methods. In this the author
+follows the principle that Astronomy is pre&euml;minently a science of
+observation and should be so taught.</p>
+
+<p>By placing more importance on the physical than on the mathematical
+facts of Astronomy the author has made every page of the book deeply
+interesting to the student and the general reader. The treatment of the
+planets and other heavenly bodies and of the law of universal
+gravitation is unusually full, clear, and illuminative. The marvelous
+discoveries of Astronomy in recent years, and the latest advances in
+methods of teaching the science, are all represented.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations are an important feature of the book. Many of them are
+so ingeniously devised that they explain at a glance what pages of mere
+description could not make clear.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of Todd's New Astronomy will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184"></a>[Pg 184]</span>A Laboratory Manual in Practical Botany</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>For use in Secondary Schools and for Elementary Work in Colleges</p>
+
+<h4>By <span class="smcap">Charles H. Clark</span>, A.M., D.Sc.,</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>Principal of Windsor Hall School, Waban, Mass.</p>
+
+<p class='center'>Cloth, 12mo, 272 pages. Illustrated&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;96 cents</p>
+
+<p>The course of botanical study outlined in this book is intended to give
+the student a general view of the subject, and at the same time to lay a
+foundation upon which more advanced studies may be built. The book is
+primarily a laboratory manual and follows the method recommended by the
+Committee of Ten and employed by the best teachers. So pursued, the
+study of botany provides the means of developing habits of close and
+accurate observation and of cultivating the reasoning powers that can
+scarcely be claimed for any other subject taught in the schools.</p>
+
+<p>It provides a systematic outline of classification to serve as a guide
+in laboratory work and in the practical study of the life histories of
+plants, their modes of reproduction, manner of life, etc. The treatment
+is suggestive and general to adapt it to the courses of study in
+different schools, and to allow the teacher to follow his own ideas in
+selecting the work of his class.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of Todd's New Astronomy will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185"></a>[Pg 185]</span>Important New Books</h3>
+
+<p><b>Crockett's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry</b></p>
+
+<p>By <span class="smcap">C.W. Crockett</span>, C.E., Professor of Mathematics and<br />
+Astronomy in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Plane and Spherical Trigonometry book prices.">
+<tr><td align='left'>With Tables. Cloth, 8vo. 310 pages</td><td align='right'>$1.25</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The Same. Without Tables</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables (separate)</td><td align='right'>1.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>A clear analytic treatment of the elements of Plane and Spherical
+Trigonometry and their practical applications to Surveying, Geodesy, and
+Astronomy, with convenient and accurate "five place" tables for the use
+of the student, engineer, and surveyor. Designed for High Schools,
+Colleges, and Technical Institutions.</p>
+
+<p><b>Raymond's Plane Surveying</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">W.G. Raymond</span>, C.E., Member American Society of<br />
+Civil Engineers, Professor of Geodesy, Road Engineering,<br />
+and Topographical Drawing in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Raymond's Plane Surveying book price">
+<tr><td align='left'>Cloth, 8vo. 485 pages. With Tables and Illustrations</td><td align='right'>$3.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A modern text-book for the study and practice of Land, Topographical,
+Hydrographical, and Mine Surveying. Special attention is given to such
+practical subjects as system in office work, to labor-saving devices, to
+co&ouml;rdinate methods, and to the explanation of difficulties encountered
+by young surveyors. The appendix contains a large number of original
+problems, and a full set of tables for class and field work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Todd's New Astronomy</b></p>
+
+<blockquote><p>By <span class="smcap">David P. Todd</span>, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Astronomy<br />
+and Director of the Observatory, Amherst College.</p></blockquote>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" width="65%" cellspacing="0" summary="Todd's New Astronomy book price">
+<tr><td align='left'>Cloth, 12mo. 500 pages. Illustrated</td><td align='right'>$1.30</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A new Astronomy designed for classes pursuing the study in High Schools,
+Academies, and other Preparatory Schools. The treatment throughout is
+simple, clear, scientific, and deeply interesting. The illustrations
+include sketches from the author's laboratory and expeditions, and
+numerous reproductions from astronomical photographs.</p>
+
+
+<p class='center'><i>Copies of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186"></a>[Pg 186]</span>Birds of the United States</h3>
+
+<p class='center'>A Manual for the Identification of Species East of the Rocky Mountains</p>
+
+<h4>By <span class="smcap">Austin C. Apgar</span></h4>
+
+<p class='center'>Author of "Trees of the Northern United States," etc.</p>
+
+<p class='center'>Cloth, 12mo, 415 pages, with numerous illustrations.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Price, $2.00</p>
+
+<p>The object of this book is to encourage the study of Birds by making it
+a pleasant and easy task. The treatment, while thoroughly scientific and
+accurate, is interesting and popular in form and attractive to the
+reader or student. It covers the following divisions and subjects:</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Part</span> I. A general description of Birds and an explanation of
+the technical terms used by ornithologists.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Part</span> II. Classification and description of each species with
+Key.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Part</span> III. The study of Birds in the field, with Key for their
+identification.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Part</span> IV. Preparation of Bird specimens.</p>
+
+<p>The descriptions of the several species have been prepared with great
+care and present several advantages over those in other books. They are
+short and so expressed that they may be recalled readily while looking
+at the bird. They are thus especially adapted for field use. The
+illustrations were drawn especially for this work. Their number,
+scientific accuracy, and careful execution add much to the value and
+interest of the book. The general Key to Land and Water Birds and a very
+full index make the book convenient and serviceable both for the study
+and for field work.</p>
+
+<p class='center'><i>Apgar's Birds of the United States will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:</i></p>
+
+<h4>American Book Company</h4>
+
+<p class='center'>NEW YORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CINCINNATI&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&middot;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;CHICAGO</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of 
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRST BOOK IN PHYSIOLOGY ***
+
+***** This file should be named 17367-h.htm or 17367-h.zip *****
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,5532 @@
+Project Gutenberg's First Book in Physiology and Hygiene, by J.H. Kellogg
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: First Book in Physiology and Hygiene
+
+Author: J.H. Kellogg
+
+Release Date: December 21, 2005 [EBook #17367]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRST BOOK IN PHYSIOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Suzanne Lybarger, Janet Blenkinship, Brian
+Janes and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I THE CIRCULATION]
+
+
+
+
+  FIRST BOOK
+
+  IN
+
+  PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE
+
+  BY
+
+  J.H. KELLOGG, M.D.
+
+  MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, THE AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH
+  ASSOCIATION, SOCIETE D'HYGIENE OF FRANCE, BRITISH AND AMERICAN
+  ASSOCIATIONS FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, MICHIGAN
+  STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, ETC.
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+  NEW AND REVISED EDITION
+
+  NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO
+
+  AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+  Copyright, 1887, by HARPER & BROTHERS.
+
+  Copyright, 1888, by HARPER & BROTHERS
+
+  _All rights reserved._
+
+  W.P. 7
+
+
+
+
+TO THE TEACHER.
+
+
+This book is intended for children. The special objects which the author
+has aimed to accomplish in the preparation of the work have been:
+
+1. To present as fully as possible and proper in a work of this
+character a statement of the laws of healthful living, giving such
+special prominence to the subject of stimulants and narcotics as its
+recognized importance and the recent laws relating to the study of this
+branch of hygiene demand.
+
+2. To present in a simple manner such anatomical and physiological facts
+as shall give the child a good fundamental knowledge of the structure
+and functions of the human body.
+
+3. To present each topic in such clear and simple language as to enable
+the pupil to comprehend the subject-matter with little aid from the
+teacher; and to observe in the manner of presentation the principle that
+the things to be studied should be placed before the mind of the child
+before they are named. A natural and logical order has been observed in
+the sequence of topics. Technical terms have been used very sparingly,
+and only in their natural order, and are then fully explained and their
+pronunciation indicated, so that it is not thought necessary to append a
+glossary.
+
+4. To present the subjects of Physiology and Hygiene in the light of
+the most recent authentic researches in these branches of science, and
+to avoid the numerous errors which have for many years been current in
+the school literature of these subjects.
+
+There is no subject in the presentation of which object-teaching may be
+employed with greater facility and profit than in teaching Physiology,
+and none which may be more advantageously impressed upon the student's
+mind by means of simple experimentation than the subject of Hygiene.
+Every teacher who uses this book is urgently requested to supplement
+each lesson by the use of object-teaching or experiments. A great number
+of simple experiments illustrative of both Physiology and Hygiene may be
+readily arranged. Many little experiments are suggested in the text,
+which should invariably be made before the class, each member of which
+should also be encouraged to repeat them at home.
+
+It is also most desirable that the teacher should have the aid of
+suitable charts and models.
+
+In conclusion, the author would acknowledge his indebtedness for a large
+number of useful suggestions and criticisms to several medical friends
+and experienced teachers, and especially to Prof. Henry Sewall, of the
+University of Michigan, for criticisms of the portions of the work
+relating to Physiology.
+
+
+
+
+         CONTENTS.
+
+         CHAPTER                                    PAGE
+
+         TO THE TEACHER                              iii
+
+  I.     THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN                         1
+
+  II.    A GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY                   5
+
+  III.   THE INSIDE OF THE BODY                       7
+
+  IV.    OUR FOODS                                   11
+
+  V.     UNHEALTHFUL FOODS                           14
+
+  VI.    OUR DRINKS                                  19
+
+  VII.   HOW WE DIGEST                               27
+
+  VIII.  DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD            35
+
+  IX.    BAD HABITS IN EATING                        39
+
+  X.     A DROP OF BLOOD                             46
+
+  XI.    WHY THE HEART BEATS                         48
+
+  XII.   HOW TO KEEP THE HEART AND THE BLOOD HEALTHY 56
+
+  XIII.  WHY AND HOW WE BREATHE                      63
+
+  XIV.   HOW TO KEEP THE LUNGS HEALTHY               75
+
+  XV.    THE SKIN AND WHAT IT DOES                   81
+
+  XVI.   HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE SKIN                88
+
+  XVII.  THE KIDNEYS AND THEIR WORK                  91
+
+  XVIII. OUR BONES AND THEIR USES                    93
+
+  XIX.   HOW TO KEEP THE BONES HEALTHY              100
+
+  XX.    THE MUSCLES, AND HOW WE USE THEM           105
+
+  XXI.   HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY            109
+
+  XXII.  HOW WE FEEL AND THINK                      115
+
+  XXIII. HOW TO KEEP THE BRAIN AND NERVES HEALTHY   126
+
+  XXIV.  BAD EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BRAIN AND
+           NERVES                                   130
+
+  XXV.   HOW WE HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE; AND FEEL   138
+
+  XXVI.  ALCOHOL                                    154
+
+         QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW                       170
+
+
+
+
+FIRST BOOK
+OF
+PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN.
+
+
+~1. Object of this Book.~--The object of this book is to tell the little
+boys and girls who read it about a wonderful house. You have all seen
+some very beautiful houses. Perhaps they were made of brick or stone,
+with fine porches, having around them tall shade trees, smooth lawns,
+pretty flower-beds, walks, and sparkling fountains.
+
+~2.~ Perhaps some of you live in such a house, or have visited some
+friend who does. If so, you know that the inside of the house is even
+more beautiful than the outside. There are elegant chairs and sofas in
+the rooms, rich carpets and rugs on the floors, fine mirrors and
+beautiful pictures upon the walls--everything one could wish to have in
+a house. Do you not think such a house a nice one to live in?
+
+~3. The Body is Like a House.~--Each of us has a house of his own which
+is far more wonderful and more curious than the grandest palace ever
+built. It is not a very large house. It has just room enough in it for
+one person. This house, which belongs to each one of us, is called the
+body.
+
+~4. What is a Machine?~--Do you know what a machine is? Men make
+machines to help them work and to do many useful things. A wheelbarrow
+or a wagon is a machine to carry loads. A sewing-machine helps to make
+garments for us to wear. Clocks and watches are machines for keeping
+time.
+
+~5. A Machine has Different Parts.~--A wheelbarrow has a box in which to
+carry things, two handles to hold by, and a wheel for rolling it along.
+Some machines, like wheelbarrows and wagons, have but few parts, and it
+is very easy for us to learn how they work. But there are other
+machines, like watches and sewing-machines, which have many different
+parts, and it is more difficult to learn all about them and what they
+do.
+
+~6. The Body is Like a Machine.~--In some ways the body is more like a
+machine than like a house. It has many different parts which are made
+to do a great many different kinds of work. We see with our eyes, hear
+with our ears, walk with our legs and feet, and do a great many things
+with our hands. If you have ever seen the inside of a watch or a clock
+you know how many curious little wheels it has. And yet a watch or a
+clock can do but one thing, and that is to tell us the time of day. The
+body has a great many more parts than a watch has, and for this reason
+the body can do many more things than a watch can do. It is more
+difficult, too, to learn about the body than about a watch.
+
+~7.~ If we want to know all about a machine and how it works, we must
+study all its different parts and learn how they are put together, and
+what each part does. Then, if we want the machine to work well and to
+last a long time, we must know how to use it and how to take proper care
+of it. Do you think your watch would keep the time well if you should
+neglect to wind it, or if you should break any of its wheels?
+
+~8.~ It is just the same with the human machine which we call the body.
+We must learn its parts, and what they are for, how they are made, how
+they are put together, and how they work. Then we must learn how to take
+proper care of the body, so that its parts will be able to work well
+and last a long time.
+
+~9.~ Each part of the body which is made to do some special kind of work
+is called an _organ_. The eye, the ear, the nose, a hand, an arm, any
+part of the body that does something, is an organ.
+
+~10.~ The study of the various parts of the body and how they are put
+together is _anatomy_ (a-nat'-o-my). The study of what each part of the
+body does is _physiology_ (phys-i-ol'-o-gy). The study of how to take
+care of the body is _hygiene_ (hy'-jeen).
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The body is something like a house. It has an outside and an inside;
+it has hollow places inside of it, and there are many wonderful things
+in them.
+
+2. The body is also like a wonderful machine.
+
+3. It is necessary to take good care of the body in order to keep it
+well and useful, just as we would take good care of a machine to keep it
+from wearing out too soon.
+
+4. The body has many different parts, called organs, each of which has
+some particular work to do.
+
+5. In learning about the body, we have to study anatomy, physiology, and
+hygiene.
+
+6. The study of the various parts of the body, how they are formed and
+joined together, is anatomy. Physiology tells us what the body does,
+hygiene tells us how to take care of it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+A GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY.
+
+
+~1. Parts of the Body.~--What do we call the main part of a tree? The
+trunk, you say. The main part of the body is also called its _trunk_.
+There are two arms and two legs growing out of the human trunk. The
+branches of a tree we call limbs, and so we speak of the arms and legs
+as _limbs_. We sometimes call the arms the _upper extremities_, and the
+legs the _lower extremities_. At the top of the trunk is the head.
+
+~2. Names of the Parts.~--Now let us look more closely at these
+different parts. As we speak the name of each part, let each one touch
+that part of himself which is named. We will begin with the head. The
+chief parts of the head are the _skull_ and the _face_. The _forehead_,
+the _temples_, the _cheeks_, the _eyes_, the _ears_, the _nose_, the
+_mouth_, and the _chin_ are parts of the face.
+
+~3.~ The chief parts of the trunk are the _chest_, the _abdomen_
+(ab-do'-men), and the _backbone_. The head is joined to the trunk by the
+_neck_.
+
+~4.~ Each arm has a _shoulder_, _upper-arm_, _fore-arm_, _wrist_, and
+_hand_. The _fingers_ are a part of the hand.
+
+~5.~ Each leg has a _hip_, _thigh_, _lower leg_, _ankle_, and _foot_.
+The _toes_ are a part of the foot.
+
+~6.~ Our hands and face and the whole body are covered with something as
+soft and smooth as the finest silk. It is the _skin_. What is it that
+grows from the skin on the head? and what at the ends of the fingers and
+the toes? We shall learn more about the skin, the hair, and the nails in
+another lesson.
+
+~7.~ The body has two sides, the right side and the left side, which are
+alike. We have two eyes, two ears, two arms, etc. We have but one nose,
+one mouth, and one chin, but each of these organs has two halves, which
+are just alike.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The body has a head and trunk, two arms, and two legs.
+
+2. The parts of the head are the skull and face. The forehead, temples,
+cheeks, eyes, ears, nose, mouth and chin are parts of the face.
+
+3. The parts of the trunk are, the chest, abdomen, and backbone. The
+neck joins the head and trunk.
+
+4. Each arm has a shoulder, upper-arm, fore-arm, wrist, and hand. The
+fingers belong to the hand.
+
+5. Each leg has a hip, thigh, lower leg, ankle, and foot. The toes
+belong to the foot.
+
+6. The whole body is covered by the skin.
+
+7. The two sides of the body are alike.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE INSIDE OF THE BODY.
+
+
+~1.~ Thus far we have taken only a brief look at the outside of the
+body, just as if we had looked at the case of a watch, and of course we
+have found out very little about its many wonderful parts. Very likely
+you want to ask a great many questions, such as, How does the inside of
+the body look? What is in the skull? What is in the chest? What is in
+the abdomen? Why do we eat and drink? Why do we become hungry and
+thirsty? What makes us tired and sleepy? How do we keep warm? Why do we
+breathe? How do we grow? How do we move about? How do we talk, laugh,
+and sing? How do we see, hear, feel, taste, and smell? How do we
+remember, think, and reason? All these, and a great many more
+interesting questions, you will find answered in the following lessons,
+if you study each one well.
+
+~2.~ When we study the inside of the body, we begin to understand how
+wonderfully we are made. We cannot all see the inside of the body, and
+it is not necessary that we should do so. Many learned men have spent
+their whole lives in seeking to find out all about our bodies and the
+bodies of various animals.
+
+~3. The Bones.~--If you take hold of your arm, it seems soft on the
+outside; and if you press upon it, you will feel something hard inside.
+The soft part is called _flesh_. The hard part is called _bone_. If you
+wish, you can easily get one of the bones of an animal at the butcher's
+shop, or you may find one in the fields.
+
+~4. The Skeleton.~--All the bones of an animal, when placed properly
+together, have nearly the shape of the body, and are called the
+_skeleton_ (skel'-e-ton). The skeleton forms the framework of the body,
+just as the heavy timbers of a house form its framework. It supports all
+the parts.
+
+~5. The Skull.~--The bony part of the head is called the _skull_. In the
+skull is a hollow place or chamber. You know that a rich man often has a
+strong room or box in his fine house, in which to keep his gold and
+other valuable things. The chamber in the skull is the strong-room of
+the body. It has strong, tough walls of bone, and contains the _brain_.
+The brain is the most important, and also the most tender and delicate
+organ in the whole body. This is why it is so carefully guarded from
+injury.
+
+~6. The Backbone.~--The framework of the back is called the _backbone_.
+This is not a single bone, but a row of bones arranged one above
+another. Each bone has a hole through it, about as large as one of your
+fingers. A large branch from the brain, called the _spinal cord_, runs
+down through the middle of the backbone, so that the separate bones look
+as if they were strung on the spinal cord, like beads on a string.
+
+~7. The Trunk.~--The trunk of the body, like the skull, is hollow. Its
+walls are formed partly by the backbone and the ribs and partly by
+flesh. A fleshy wall divides the hollow of the trunk into two parts, an
+upper chamber called the _chest_, and a lower called the _abdomen_.
+
+~8. The Lungs and Heart.~--The chest contains a pair of organs called
+the _lungs_, with which we breathe. It also contains something which we
+can feel beating at the left side. This is the _heart_. The heart lies
+between the two lungs, and a little to the left side.
+
+~9. The Stomach and Liver.~--In the abdomen are some very wonderful
+organs that do different kinds of work for the body. Among them are the
+_stomach_, the _bowels_, and the _liver_. There are, also, other organs
+whose names we shall learn when we come to study them.
+
+~10. Care of the Body.~--We have only begun to study the beautiful
+house in which we live, and yet have we not learned enough to show us
+how great and wise is the Creator who made us and all the wonderful
+machinery within our bodies? If some one should give you a beautiful
+present, would you treat it carelessly and spoil it, or would you take
+good care of it and keep it nice as long as possible? Ought we not to
+take such care of our bodies as to keep them in that perfect and
+beautiful condition in which our kind and good Creator gave them to us?
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The body has a framework, called the skeleton.
+
+2. The skeleton is made up of many different parts, each of which is
+called a bone.
+
+3. The bones are covered by the flesh.
+
+4. The bones of the head form the skull, which is hollow and contains
+the brain.
+
+5. A row of bones arranged in the back, one above another, forms the
+backbone. The backbone has a canal running through it lengthwise, in
+which lies the spinal cord.
+
+6. The trunk is hollow, and has two chambers, one called the cavity of
+the chest, and the other the cavity of the abdomen.
+
+7. The chest contains the two lungs and the heart.
+
+8. The abdomen contains the stomach, liver, and many other very
+important organs.
+
+9. Is it not our duty to take good care of our bodies as we would of
+some nice present from a friend?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+OUR FOODS.
+
+
+~1.~ We all know very well that if we do not eat we shall rapidly lose
+in weight, and become very weak and feeble. Did you ever think how much
+one eats in the course of a lifetime? Let us see if we can figure it up.
+How much do you suppose a boy eats in a day? Let us say two pounds. How
+much does he eat in a year? There are three hundred and sixty-five days
+in a year; 365 multiplied by 2 equals 730. So a boy eats a good many
+times his own weight in a year. How much would a person eat in fifty
+years?
+
+~2.~ Our bodies are composed of what we eat. If we eat bad food, our
+bodies will be made out of poor material, and will not be able to do
+their work well. So you see how important it is to learn something about
+our foods. We ought to know what things are good for us to eat, and what
+will do us harm.
+
+~3. Foods and Poisons.~--Foods are those substances which nourish the
+body and keep it in good working order.
+
+~4.~ Our foods are obtained from both animals and plants. All food
+really comes from plants, however, since those animals which we
+sometimes use as food themselves live upon the vegetables which they
+eat. For example, the ox and the cow eat grass and furnish us beef and
+milk. Chickens eat corn and other grains, and supply us with eggs.
+
+~5.~ The principal animal foods are milk, cheese, eggs, and the
+different kinds of flesh--beef, mutton, pork, fish, fowl, and wild game.
+
+We obtain a great many more kinds of food from plants than from animals.
+Most plant foods are included in three classes--_fruits_, _grains_, and
+_vegetables_.
+
+~6.~ _Fruits_ are the fleshy parts of plants which contain the seeds.
+Our most common fruits are apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, and
+various kinds of nuts. Perhaps you know of some other kinds of fruits
+besides those mentioned. Your teacher will tell you that tomatoes,
+watermelons, and pumpkins are really fruits, though they are not
+generally so called.
+
+~7.~ The seeds of grass-like plants are known as _grains_, of which we
+have wheat, rye, barley, corn, and rice. There are a few seeds that grow
+in pods, such as pease and beans, which somewhat resemble grains.
+
+~8.~ We eat the leaves, stems, or roots of some plants, as cabbages,
+celery, turnips, and potatoes. Foods of this kind are called
+_vegetables_.
+
+~9.~ There are other things, which, if we eat or drink them, will make
+us sick or otherwise do us harm. These are called _poisons_. Only such
+food as is pure and free from poisons is good or safe for us to use.
+
+~10. Narcotics and Stimulants.~--There are a number of substances known
+as narcotics and stimulants, which, from their effects upon the body,
+may be classed as poisons. Tobacco, opium, alcohol, and chloral are
+included in this class. Death has often been caused by taking small
+quantities of any of these poisonous drugs. We shall learn more of the
+effects of tobacco and alcohol in future lessons.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Our bodies are made of what we eat.
+
+2. Things which will help us to grow strong and well, if we eat them,
+are foods.
+
+3. We get foods from plants and animals.
+
+4. There are several kinds of animal foods, and three classes of plant
+foods--fruits, grains, and vegetables.
+
+5. Things which make us sick when we eat them, are poisons.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+UNHEALTHFUL FOODS.
+
+
+~1.~ Most persons eat many things which are not good for them. Some
+people do not stop to think whether what they eat is good for them or
+likely to do them harm. Sometimes, without knowing it, we eat things
+which are harmful to us. Do you not think that we should try to learn
+what is good to eat and what is not good, and then be very careful not
+to eat anything which is likely to do us harm?
+
+~2. Diseased Foods.~--When a person is sick, he is said to be diseased.
+Animals are sometimes sick or diseased. Vegetables are also sometimes
+diseased. Animals and vegetables that are diseased are not good for
+food. Dishonest men, however, sometimes sell them to those who do not
+know that they are unfit to be eaten.
+
+~3.~ Pork, the flesh of the hog, is more likely to be diseased than any
+other kind of animal food.
+
+~4.~ Beef and mutton may be diseased also. Sheep and cattle are
+sometimes sick of diseases very much like those which human beings
+have. Meat which is pale, yellowish, or of a dark red color, is
+unhealthful, and should not be eaten. Meat should never be eaten raw. It
+should always be well cooked.
+
+~5. Unripe Foods.~--Most vegetable foods are unfit to be eaten when
+green or unripe, especially if uncooked. Sometimes persons are made very
+sick indeed by eating such articles as green apples or unripe peaches.
+
+~6. Stale or Decayed Foods.~--Food which has been allowed to stand until
+it is spoiled, or has become _stale_, _musty_, or _mouldy_, such as
+mouldy bread or fruit, or tainted meat, is unfit to be eaten, and is
+often a cause of very severe sickness. Canned fish or other meats spoil
+very quickly after the cans are opened, and should be eaten the same
+day.
+
+~7. Adulterated Foods.~--Many of our foods are sometimes spoiled or
+injured by persons who put into them cheap substances which are harmful
+to health. They do this so as to make more money in selling them. This
+is called _adulteration_. The foods which are most likely to be injured
+by adulteration are milk, sugar, and butter.
+
+~8.~ Milk is most often adulterated by adding water, though sometimes
+other things are added. Sometimes the water is not pure, and people are
+made sick and die. The adulteration of milk or any other food is a very
+wicked practice.
+
+~9.~ Butter is sometimes made almost wholly from lard or tallow. This is
+called _oleomargarine_ or _butterine_. If the lard or tallow is from
+diseased animals, the false butter made from it may cause disease.
+
+~10.~ A great deal of the sugar and syrups which we buy is made from
+corn by a curious process, which changes the starch of the corn into
+sugar. Sugar which has been made in this way is not so sweet as cane
+sugar, and is not healthful.
+
+~11. Condiments or Seasonings.~--These are substances which are added to
+our food for the purpose of giving to it special flavors. Condiments are
+not foods, because they do not nourish the body in any way, and are not
+necessary to preserve it in health.
+
+~12.~ The most common condiments are, mustard, pepper, pepper-sauce,
+ginger, cayenne-pepper, and spices. All these substances are irritating.
+If we put mustard upon the skin, it will make the skin red, and in a
+little time will raise a blister. If we happen to get a little pepper in
+the eye, it makes it smart and become very red and inflamed. When we
+take these things into the stomach, they cause the stomach to smart,
+and its lining membrane becomes red just as the skin or the eye does.
+
+~13.~ Nature has put into our foods very nice flavors to make us enjoy
+eating them. Condiments are likely to do us great harm, and hence it is
+far better not to use them.
+
+~14. Tobacco.~--Most of you know that tobacco is obtained from a plant
+which has long, broad leaves. These leaves are dried and then rolled up
+into cigars, ground into snuff, or prepared for chewing.
+
+[Illustration: Tobacco-Plant.]
+
+~15.~ Tobacco has a smarting, sickening taste. Do you think it would be
+good to eat? Why not?
+
+~16.~ You know that tobacco makes people sick when they first begin to
+use it. This is because it contains a very deadly poison, called
+_nicotine_.
+
+~17.~ If you give tobacco to a cat or a dog, it will become very sick. A
+boy once gave a piece of tobacco to a monkey, which swallowed it not
+knowing what a bad thing it was. The monkey soon became sick and died.
+
+~18.~ Many learned doctors have noticed the effects which come from
+using tobacco, and they all say it does great harm to boys, that it
+makes them puny and weak, and prevents their growing up into strong and
+useful men. If tobacco is not good for boys, do you think it can be good
+for men? Certainly you will say, No.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Both animals and plants are sometimes diseased. Flesh obtained from
+sick or diseased animals is unfit for food.
+
+2. Unripe, stale, and mouldy foods are unfit to be eaten and likely to
+cause severe illness.
+
+3. Foods are sometimes spoiled by having things mixed with them which
+are not food, or which are poisonous.
+
+4. The foods most liable to be adulterated in this way are milk, sugar,
+and butter.
+
+5. Tobacco, while not actually eaten, is thought by some persons to be a
+food, but it is not. It is a poison, and injures all who use it.
+
+6. Boys who use tobacco do not grow strong in body and mind.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+OUR DRINKS.
+
+
+~1.~ Water is really the only drink. It is the only substance which will
+satisfy thirst. All other fluids which we drink consist mostly of water.
+Thus, lemonade is lemon-juice and water. Milk is chiefly water. Wine,
+beer, cider, and such liquids contain alcohol and many other things,
+mixed with water.
+
+~2. Why we Need Water.~--If we should wet a sponge and lay it away, it
+would become dry in a few hours, as the water would pass off into the
+air. Our bodies are losing water all the time, and we need to drink to
+keep ourselves from drying up.
+
+~3.~ Water is also very necessary for other purposes. It softens our
+food so that we can chew and swallow it, and helps to carry it around in
+the body after it has been digested, in a way about which we shall learn
+in future lessons.
+
+~4.~ Still another use for water is to dissolve and wash out of our
+bodies, through the sweat of the skin, and in other ways, the waste and
+worn-out particles which are no longer of any use.
+
+~5. Impure Water.~--Most waters have more or less substances dissolved
+in them. Water which has much lime in it is called hard water. Such
+water is not so good to drink, or for use in cooking, as soft water.
+That water is best which holds no substances in solution. Well-water
+sometimes contains substances which soak into wells from vaults or
+cesspools. Slops which are poured upon the ground soak down out of
+sight; but the foul substances which they contain are not destroyed.
+They remain in the soil, and when the rains come, they are washed down
+into the well if it is near by. You can see some of the things found in
+bad water in the illustration given on opposite page.
+
+~6.~ It is best not to drink iced water when the body is heated, or
+during meals. If it is necessary to drink very cold water, the bad
+effects may be avoided by sipping it very slowly.
+
+~7. Tea and Coffee.~--Many people drink tea or coffee at their meals,
+and some persons think that these drinks are useful foods; but they
+really have little or no value as foods. Both tea and coffee contain a
+poison which, when separated in a pure form, is so deadly that a very
+small quantity is enough to kill a cat or a dog. This poison often does
+much harm to those who drink tea or coffee very strong for any great
+length of time.
+
+[Illustration: A DROP OF IMPURE WATER MAGNIFIED.]
+
+~8. Alcohol~ (al'-co-hol).--All of you know something about alcohol.
+Perhaps you have seen it burn in a lamp. It will burn without a lamp, if
+we light it. It is so clear and colorless that it looks like water. The
+Indians call it "fire-water." Alcohol differs very much from foods. It
+is not produced from plants, as fruits and grains are; neither is it
+supplied by Nature ready for our use, as are air and water.
+
+~9. Fermentation.~--When a baker makes bread he puts some yeast in the
+dough to make it "rise," so the bread will be light. The yeast destroys
+some of the sugar and starch in the flour and changes it into alcohol
+and a gas. The gas bubbles up through the dough, and this is what makes
+the bread light. This is called _fermentation_ (fer-men-ta'-tion). The
+little alcohol which is formed in the bread does no harm, because it is
+all driven off by the heat when the bread is baked.
+
+[Illustration: FERMENTATION.]
+
+~10.~ Any moist substance or liquid which contains sugar will ferment if
+yeast is added to it, or if it is kept in a warm place. You know that
+canned fruit sometimes spoils. This is because it ferments. Fermentation
+is a sort of decay. When the juice of grapes, apples, or other fruit is
+allowed to stand in a warm place it "works," or ferments, and thus
+produces alcohol. Wine is fermented grape-juice; hard cider is fermented
+apple-juice.
+
+~11.~ Beer, ale, and similar drinks are made from grains. The grain is
+first moistened and allowed to sprout. In sprouting, the starch of the
+grain is changed to sugar. The grain is next dried and ground, and is
+then boiled with water. The water dissolves the sugar. The sweet liquid
+thus obtained is separated from the grain, and yeast is added to it.
+This causes it to ferment, which changes the sugar to alcohol. Thus we
+see that the grain does not contain alcohol in the first place, but that
+it is produced by fermentation.
+
+~12.~ All fermented liquids contain more or less alcohol, mixed with
+water and a good many other things. Rum, brandy, gin, whiskey, and pure
+alcohol are made by separating the alcohol from the other substances.
+This is done by means of a still, and is called _distillation_.
+
+[Illustration: DISTILLATION.]
+
+~13.~ You can learn how a still separates the alcohol by a little
+experiment. When a tea-pot is boiling on the stove and the steam is
+coming out at the nozzle, hold up to the nozzle a common drinking-glass
+filled with iced water, first taking care to wipe the outside of the
+glass perfectly dry. Little drops of water will soon gather upon the
+side of the glass. If you touch these to the tongue you will observe
+that they taste of the tea. It is because a little of the tea has
+escaped with the steam and condensed upon the glass. This is
+distillation.
+
+~14.~ If the tea-pot had contained wine, or beer, or hard cider, the
+distilled water would have contained alcohol instead of tea. By
+distilling the liquid several times the alcohol may be obtained almost
+pure.
+
+~15. Alcohol kills Animals and Plants.~--Strong alcohol has a deadly
+effect upon all living things. Once a man gave a dog a few
+tablespoonfuls of alcohol, and in a little while the dog was dead. If
+you should pour alcohol upon a plant it would die very soon.
+
+~16.~ A man once made a cruel experiment. He put some minnows into a jar
+of water and then poured in a few teaspoonfuls of alcohol. The minnows
+tried very hard to get out, but they could not, and in a little while
+they were all dead, poisoned by the alcohol. A Frenchman once gave
+alcohol to some pigs with their food. They soon became sick and died.
+
+~17. Alcohol not a Food.~--There are some people who imagine that
+alcohol is good for food because it is made from fruits and grains which
+are good for food. This is a serious mistake. A person can live on the
+fruits or grains from which alcohol is made, but no one would attempt
+to live upon alcohol. If he did, he would soon starve to death. In fact,
+men have often died in consequence of trying to use whiskey in place of
+food.
+
+~18.~ We should remember, also, that people do not take alcohol as a
+food, but for certain effects which it produces, which are not those of
+a food, but of a poison.
+
+~19.~ Many people who would not drink strong or distilled liquors, think
+that they will suffer no harm if they use only wine, beer, or cider.
+This is a great mistake. These liquids contain alcohol, as do all
+fermented drinks. A person will become drunk or intoxicated by drinking
+wine, beer, or cider--only a larger quantity is required to produce the
+same effect as rum or whiskey.
+
+~20.~ Another very serious thing to be thought of is that if a person
+forms the habit of drinking wine, cider, or other fermented drinks, he
+becomes so fond of the _effect they produce_ that he soon wants some
+stronger drink, and thus he is led to use whiskey or other strong
+liquors. On this account it is not safe to use any kind of alcoholic
+drinks, either fermented or distilled. The only safe plan is to avoid
+the use of every sort of stimulating or intoxicating drinks.
+
+~21.~ It has been found by observation that those persons who use
+intoxicating drinks are not so healthy as those who do not use them,
+and, as a rule, they do not live so long.
+
+~22.~ This is found to be true not only of those who use whiskey and
+other strong liquors, but also of those who use fermented drinks, as
+wine and beer. Beer drinkers are much more likely to suffer from disease
+than those who are strictly temperate. It is often noticed by physicians
+that when a beer-drinker becomes sick or meets with an accident, he does
+not recover so readily as one who uses no kind of alcoholic drinks.
+
+~23.~ Alcoholic drinks not only make people unhealthy and shorten their
+lives, but they are also the cause of much poverty and crime and an
+untold amount of misery.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Water is the only thing that will satisfy thirst.
+
+2. In going through our bodies, water washes out many impurities. We
+also need water to soften our food.
+
+3. The purest water is the best. Impure water causes sickness.
+
+4. Good water has no color, taste, or odor.
+
+5. Tea and coffee are not good drinks. They are very injurious to
+children, and often do older persons much harm.
+
+6. Alcohol is made by fermentation.
+
+7. Pure alcohol and strong liquors are made by distillation.
+
+8. Alcohol is not a food, it is a poison. It kills plants and animals,
+and is very injurious to human beings.
+
+9. Even the moderate use of alcoholic drinks produces disease and
+shortens life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HOW WE DIGEST.
+
+
+~1.~ Did you ever see a Venus's fly-trap? This curious plant grows in
+North Carolina. It is called a fly-trap because it has on each of its
+leaves something like a steel-trap, by means of which it catches flies.
+You can see one of these traps in the picture. When a fly touches the
+leaf, the trap shuts up at once, and the poor fly is caught and cannot
+get away. The harder it tries to escape, the more tightly the trap
+closes upon it, until after a time it is crushed to death.
+
+[Illustration: VENUS'S FLY-TRAP.]
+
+~2.~ But we have yet to learn the most curious thing about this strange
+plant, which seems to act so much like an animal. If we open the leaf
+after a few days, it will be found that the fly has almost entirely
+disappeared. The fly has not escaped, but it has been dissolved by a
+fluid formed inside of the trap, and the plant has absorbed a portion of
+the fly. In fact, it has really eaten it. The process by which food is
+dissolved and changed so that it can be absorbed and may nourish the
+body, is called _digestion_ (di-ges'-tion).
+
+~3.~ The Venus's fly-trap has a very simple way of digesting its food.
+Its remarkable little trap serves it as a mouth to catch and hold its
+food, and as a stomach to digest it. The arrangement by which our food
+is digested is much less simple than this. Let us study the different
+parts by which this wonderful work is done.
+
+[Illustration: THE DIGESTIVE TUBE.]
+
+~4. The Digestive Tube.~--The most important part of the work of
+digesting our food is done in a long tube within the body, called the
+_digestive tube_ or _canal_.
+
+~5.~ This tube is twenty-five or thirty feet long in a full-grown man;
+but it is so coiled up and folded away that it occupies but little
+space. It begins at the mouth, and ends at the lower part of the trunk.
+The greater part of it is coiled up in the abdomen.
+
+~6. The Mouth.~--The space between the upper and the lower jaw is called
+the _mouth_. The lips form the front part and the cheeks the sides. At
+the back part are three openings. One, the upper, leads into the nose.
+There are two lower openings. One of these leads into the stomach, and
+the other leads to the lungs. The back part of the mouth joins the two
+tubes which lead from the mouth to the lungs and the stomach, and is
+called the _throat_. The mouth contains the _tongue_ and the _teeth_.
+
+[Illustration: THE TEETH.]
+
+~7. The Teeth.~--The first teeth, those which come when we are small
+children, are called _temporary_ or _milk teeth_. We lose these teeth
+as the jaws get larger and the second or _permanent_ teeth take their
+place. There are twenty teeth in the first set, and thirty-two in the
+second. Very old persons sometimes have a third set of teeth.
+
+[Illustration: SALIVARY GLANDS.]
+
+~8. The Salivary~ (sal'-i-vary)~ Glands.~--There are three pairs of
+_salivary glands_. They form a fluid called the _saliva_ (sa-li'-va). It
+is this fluid which moistens the mouth at all times. When we eat or
+taste something which we like, the salivary glands make so much saliva
+that we sometimes say the mouth waters. One pair of the salivary glands
+is at the back part of the lower jaw, in front of the ears. The other
+two pairs of glands are placed at the under side of the mouth. The
+saliva produced by the salivary glands is sent into the mouth through
+little tubes called _ducts_.
+
+~9. The Gullet.~--At the back part of the throat begins a narrow tube,
+which passes down to the stomach. This tube is about nine inches long.
+It is called the _gullet_, _food-pipe_, or _oesophagus_
+(e-soph'-a-gus).
+
+~10. The Stomach.~--At the lower end of the oesophagus the digestive
+tube becomes enlarged, and has a shape somewhat like a pear. This is the
+_stomach_. In a full-grown person the stomach is sufficiently large to
+hold about three pints. At each end of the stomach is a narrow opening
+so arranged that it can be opened or tightly closed, as may be
+necessary. The upper opening allows the food to pass into the stomach,
+the lower one allows it to pass out into the intestines. This opening is
+called the _pylorus_ (py-lo'-rus), or gate-keeper, because it closes so
+as to keep the food in the stomach until it is ready to pass out.
+
+~11.~ In the membrane which lines the stomach there are many little
+pocket-like glands, in which a fluid called the _gastric juice_ is
+formed. This fluid is one of the most important of all the fluids formed
+in the digestive canal.
+
+[Illustration: GASTRIC GLAND.]
+
+~12. The Intestine~(in-tes'-tine).--At the lower end of the stomach
+the digestive canal becomes narrow again. This narrow portion, called
+the _intestine_, is about twenty-five feet long in a grown person. The
+last few feet of the intestine is larger than the rest, and is called
+the _colon_. This long tube is coiled up and snugly packed away in the
+cavity of the abdomen. In the membrane lining the intestines are to be
+found little glands, which make a fluid called _intestinal juice_.
+
+~13. The Liver.~--Close up under the ribs, on the right side of the
+body, is a large chocolate-colored organ, called the _liver_. The liver
+is about half as large as the head, and is shaped so as to fit snugly
+into its corner of the abdomen. The chief business of the liver is to
+make a fluid called _bile_, which is very necessary for the digestion of
+our food.
+
+~14.~ The bile is a bitter fluid of a golden-brown color. It is carried
+to the intestine by means of a little tube or duct, which enters the
+small intestine a few inches below the stomach. When the bile is made
+faster than it is needed for immediate use, it is stored up in a little
+pear-shaped sac called the _gall-bladder_, which hangs from the under
+side of the liver.
+
+~15.~ The liver is a very wonderful organ, and does many useful things
+besides making bile. It aids in various ways in digesting the food, and
+helps to keep the blood pure by removing from it harmful substances
+which are formed within the body.
+
+~16. The Pancreas~(pan'-cre-as).--The _pancreas_ is another large and
+very important gland which is found close to the stomach, lying just
+behind it in the abdominal cavity. The pancreas forms a fluid called the
+_pancreatic juice_, which enters the small intestine at nearly the same
+place as the bile.
+
+~17. The Spleen.~--Close to the pancreas, at the left side of the body,
+is a dark, roundish organ about the size of the fist, called the
+_spleen_. It is not known that the spleen has much to do in the work of
+digestion, but it is so closely connected with the digestive organs that
+we need to know about it.
+
+~18.~ Please note that there are five important organs of digestion. The
+mouth, the stomach, the intestines, the pancreas, and the liver.
+
+~19.~ Also observe that there are five digestive fluids, saliva,
+gastric juice, bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal juice.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The process of dissolving and changing the food so that it may be
+absorbed and may nourish the body is digestion.
+
+2. The work of digestion is chiefly done in the digestive tube or canal,
+which is about thirty feet in length.
+
+3. The mouth contains the teeth, and has three pairs of salivary glands
+connected with it, which make saliva.
+
+4. The gullet leads from the mouth to the stomach.
+
+5. The stomach is pear-shaped, and holds about three pints.
+
+6. It has an upper and a lower opening, each of which is guarded by a
+muscle, which keeps its contents from escaping.
+
+7. The lower opening of the stomach is called the pylorus.
+
+8. The stomach forms the gastric juice.
+
+9. The intestines are about twenty-five feet long. They form the
+intestinal juice.
+
+10. The liver lies under the ribs of the right side. It is about half as
+large as the head. It makes bile.
+
+11. When not needed for immediate use, the bile is stored up in a sac
+called the gall-bladder.
+
+12. The pancreas is a gland which lies just back of the stomach. It
+makes pancreatic juice.
+
+13. The spleen is found near the pancreas.
+
+14. There are five important digestive organs--the mouth, the stomach,
+the intestines, the liver, and the pancreas.
+
+15. There are five digestive fluids--saliva, gastric juice, intestinal
+juice, bile, and pancreatic juice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD.
+
+
+~1.~ Let us suppose that we have eaten a mouthful of bread, and can
+watch it as it goes through all the different processes of digestion.
+
+~2. Mastication.~--First, we chew or masticate the food with the teeth.
+We use the tongue to move the food from one side of the mouth to the
+other, and to keep the food between the teeth.
+
+~3. Mouth Digestion.~--While the bread is being chewed, the saliva is
+mixed with it and acts upon it. The saliva moistens and softens the food
+so that it can be easily swallowed and readily acted upon by the other
+digestive juices. You have noticed that if you chew a bit of hard bread
+a few minutes it becomes sweet. This is because the saliva changes some
+of the starch of the food into sugar.
+
+~4.~ After we have chewed the food, we swallow it, and it passes down
+through the oesophagus into the stomach.
+
+~5. Stomach Digestion.~--As soon as the morsel of food enters the
+stomach, the gastric juice begins to flow out of the little glands in
+which it is formed. This mingles with the food and digests another
+portion which the saliva has not acted upon. While this is being done,
+the stomach keeps working the food much as a baker kneads dough. This is
+done to mix the gastric juice with the food.
+
+~6.~ After an hour or two the stomach squeezes the food so hard that a
+little of it, which has been digested by the gastric juice and the
+saliva, escapes through the lower opening, the pylorus, of which we have
+already learned. As the action of the stomach continues, more of the
+digested food escapes, until all that has been properly acted upon has
+passed out.
+
+~7. Intestinal Digestion.~--We sometimes eat butter with bread, or take
+some other form of fat in our food. This is not acted upon by the saliva
+or the gastric juice. When food passes out of the stomach into the small
+intestine, a large quantity of bile is at once poured upon it. This bile
+has been made beforehand by the liver and stored up in the gall-bladder.
+The bile helps to digest fats, which the saliva and the gastric juice
+cannot digest.
+
+~8.~ The pancreatic juice does the same kind of work that is done by the
+saliva, the gastric juice, and the bile. It also finishes up the work
+done by these fluids. It is one of the most important of all the
+digestive juices.
+
+~9.~ The intestinal juice digests nearly all the different elements of
+the food, so that it is well fitted to complete the wonderful process by
+which the food is made ready to enter the blood and to nourish the body.
+
+~10.~ While the food is being acted upon by the bile, the pancreatic
+juice, and intestinal juice, it is gradually moved along the intestines.
+After all those portions of food which can be digested have been
+softened and dissolved, they are ready to be taken into the blood and
+distributed through the body.
+
+~11. Absorption.~--If you put a dry sponge into water, it very soon
+becomes wet by soaking up the water. Indeed, if you only touch a corner
+of the sponge to the water, the whole sponge will soon become wet. We
+say that the sponge absorbs the water. It is in a somewhat similar way
+that the food is taken up or absorbed by the walls of the stomach and
+intestines. When the food is absorbed, the greater part of it is taken
+into the blood-vessels, of which we shall learn in a future lesson.
+
+~12. Liver Digestion.~--After the food has been absorbed, the most of it
+is carried to the liver, where the process of digestion is completed.
+The liver also acts like an inspector to examine the digested food and
+remove hurtful substances which may be taken with it, such as alcohol,
+mustard, pepper, and other irritating things.
+
+~13. The Thoracic Duct.~--A portion of the food, especially the digested
+fats, is absorbed by a portion of the lymphatic vessels called
+_lacteals_, which empty into a small vessel called the _thoracic duct_.
+This duct passes upward in front of the spine and empties into a vein
+near the heart.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+How a mouthful of food is digested:
+
+1. It is first masticated--that is, it is chewed and moistened with
+saliva.
+
+2. Then it is swallowed, passing through the oesophagus to the
+stomach.
+
+3. There it is acted upon, and a part of it digested by the gastric
+juice.
+
+4. It is then passed into the small intestine, where it is acted upon by
+the bile, the pancreatic fluid, and the intestinal juice.
+
+5. The digested food is then absorbed by the walls of the stomach and
+intestines.
+
+6. The greater portion of the food is next passed through the liver,
+where hurtful substances are removed.
+
+7. A smaller portion is carried through the thoracic duct and emptied
+into a vein near the heart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+BAD HABITS IN EATING.
+
+
+~1. Eating too Fast.~--A most common fault is eating too fast. When the
+food is chewed too rapidly, and swallowed too quickly, it is not
+properly divided and softened. Such food cannot be easily acted upon by
+the various digestive juices.
+
+~2. Eating too Much.~--A person who eats food too rapidly is also very
+likely to injure himself by eating too much. The digestive organs are
+able to do well only a certain amount of work. When too much food is
+eaten, none of it is digested as well as it should be. Food which is not
+well digested will not nourish the body.
+
+~3. Eating too Often~--Many children make themselves sick by eating too
+often. It is very harmful to take lunches or to eat at other than the
+proper meal-times. The stomach needs time to rest, just as our legs and
+arms and the other parts of the body do. For the same reason, it is well
+for us to avoid eating late at night. The stomach needs to sleep with
+the rest of the body. If one goes to bed with the stomach full of food,
+the stomach cannot rest, and the work of digestion will go on so slowly
+that the sleep will likely be disturbed. Such sleep is not refreshing.
+
+~4.~ If we wish to keep our digestive organs in good order, we must take
+care to eat at regular hours. We ought not to eat when we are very
+tired. The stomach cannot digest well when we are very much fatigued.
+
+~5. Sweet Foods.~--We ought not to eat too much sugar or sweet foods, as
+they are likely to sour or ferment in the stomach, and so make us sick.
+Candies often contain a great many things which are not good for us, and
+which may make us sick. The colors used in candies are sometimes
+poisonous. The flavors used in them are also sometimes very harmful.
+
+~6. Fatty Foods Hurtful.~--Too much butter, fat meats, and other greasy
+foods are hurtful. Cream is the most digestible form of fat, because it
+readily dissolves in the fluids of the stomach, and mixes with the other
+foods without preventing their digestion. Melted fats are especially
+harmful. Cheese, fried foods, and rich pastry are very poor foods, and
+likely to cause sickness.
+
+~7. Eating too many Kinds of Foods.~--Children should avoid eating
+freely of flesh meats. They ought also to avoid eating all
+highly-seasoned dishes, and taking too many kinds of food at a meal. A
+simple diet is much the more healthful. Milk and grain foods, as
+oatmeal, cracked wheat, graham bread, with such delicious fruits as
+apples, pears, and grapes, are much the best food for children.
+
+~8. Avoid Use of Cold Foods.~--We ought not to take very cold foods or
+liquids with our meals. Cold foods, ice-water, and other iced drinks
+make the stomach so cold that it cannot digest the food. For this reason
+it is very harmful to drink iced water or iced tea, or to eat ice-cream
+at meals. These things are injurious to us at any time, but they do the
+greatest amount of harm when taken with the food.
+
+~9. Things sometimes Eaten which are not Foods.~--Things which are not
+foods are often used as foods, such as mustard, pepper, and the various
+kinds of seasonings. Soda, saleratus, and baking-powders also belong to
+this class. All of these substances are more or less harmful,
+particularly mustard, pepper, and hot sauces.
+
+~10. Common Salt.~--The only apparent exception to the general rule that
+all condiments and other substances which are not foods are harmful is
+in the case of common salt. This is very commonly used among civilized
+nations, although there are many barbarous tribes that never taste it.
+It is quite certain that much more salt is used than is needed. When
+much salt is added to the food, the action of the digestive fluids is
+greatly hindered. Salt meats, and other foods which have much salt added
+to them, are hard to digest because the salt hardens the fibres of the
+meat, so that they are not easily dissolved by the digestive fluids.
+
+~11. Care of the Teeth.~--The teeth are the first organs employed in the
+work of digestion. It is of great importance that they should be kept in
+health. Many persons neglect their teeth, and treat them so badly that
+they begin to decay at a very early age.
+
+~12.~ The mouth and teeth should be carefully cleansed immediately on
+rising in the morning, and after each meal. All particles of food should
+be removed from between the teeth by carefully rubbing both the inner
+and the outer surfaces of the teeth with a soft brush, and rinsing very
+thoroughly with water. A little soap may be used in cleansing the teeth,
+but clear water is sufficient, if used frequently and thoroughly. The
+teeth should not be used in breaking nuts or other hard substances. The
+teeth are brittle, and are often broken in this way. The use of candy
+and too much sweet food is also likely to injure the teeth.
+
+~13.~ Some people think that it is not necessary to take care of the
+first set of teeth. This is a great mistake. If the first set are lost
+or are unhealthy, the second set will not be as perfect as they should
+be. It is plain that we should not neglect our teeth at any time of
+life.
+
+~14. Tobacco.~--When a person first uses tobacco, it is apt to make him
+very sick at the stomach. After he has used tobacco a few times it does
+not make him sick, but it continues to do his stomach and other organs
+harm, and after a time may injure him very seriously. Smokers sometimes
+suffer from a horrible disease of the mouth or throat known as cancer.
+
+~15. Effects of Alcohol upon the Stomach.~--If you should put a little
+alcohol into your eye, the eye would become very red. When men take
+strong liquors into their stomachs, the delicate membrane lining the
+stomach becomes red in the same way. Perhaps you will ask how do we know
+that alcohol has such an effect upon the stomach. More than sixty years
+ago there lived in Michigan a man named Alexis St. Martin. One day he
+was, by accident, shot in such a way that a large opening was made right
+through the skin and flesh and into the stomach. The good doctor who
+attended him took such excellent care of him that he got well. But when
+he recovered, the hole in his stomach remained, so that the doctor could
+look in and see just what was going on. St. Martin sometimes drank
+whiskey, and when he did, the doctor often looked into his stomach to
+see what the effect was, and he noticed that the inside of the stomach
+looked very red and inflamed.
+
+~16.~ If St. Martin continued to drink whiskey for several days, the
+lining of the stomach looked very red and raw like a sore eye. A sore
+stomach cannot digest food well, and so the whole body becomes sick and
+weak. What would you think of a man who should keep his eyes always sore
+and inflamed and finally destroy his eyesight by putting pepper or
+alcohol or some other irritating substance into them every day? Is it
+not equally foolish and wicked to injure the stomach and destroy one's
+digestion by the use of alcoholic drinks? Alcohol, even when it is not
+very strong, not only hurts the lining of the stomach, but injures the
+gastric juice, so that it cannot digest the food well.
+
+~17. Effects of Alcohol upon the Liver.~--The liver, as well as the
+stomach, is greatly damaged by the use of alcohol. You will recollect
+that nearly all the food digested and absorbed is filtered through the
+liver before it goes to the heart to be distributed to the rest of the
+body. In trying to save the rest of the body from the bad effects of
+alcohol, the liver is badly burned by the fiery liquid, and sometimes
+becomes so shrivelled up that it can no longer produce bile and perform
+its other duties. Even beer, ale, and wine, which do not contain so much
+alcohol as do rum, gin, and whiskey, have enough of the poison in them
+to do the liver a great deal of harm, and to injure many other organs of
+the body as well.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+                                     {Eating too fast.
+                                     {Eating too much.
+                                     {Eating too frequently.
+                                     {Eating irregularly.
+  1. CAUSES OF INDIGESTION.          {Eating when tired.
+                                     {Eating too much of sweet foods.
+                                     {Eating too many kinds of food
+                                       at a meal.
+                                     {Using iced foods or drinks.
+
+2. Irritating substances and things which are not foods should not be
+eaten.
+
+3. The teeth must be carefully used and kept clean.
+
+4. Tobacco-using does the stomach harm, and sometimes causes cancer of
+the mouth.
+
+5. Alcohol injures the gastric juice, and causes disease of the stomach
+and the liver.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+A DROP OF BLOOD.
+
+
+~1. The Blood.~--Did you ever cut or prick your finger so as to make it
+bleed? Probably you have more than once met with an accident of this
+sort. All parts of the body contain blood. If the skin is broken in any
+place the blood flows out.
+
+~2.~ How many of you know what a microscope is? It is an instrument
+which magnifies objects, or makes them look a great deal larger than
+they really are. Some microscopes are so powerful that they will make a
+little speck of dust look as large as a great rock.
+
+~3. The Blood Corpuscles.~--If you should look at a tiny drop of blood
+through such a microscope, you would find it to be full of very small,
+round objects called _blood corpuscles_.
+
+~4.~ You would notice also that these corpuscles are of two kinds. Most
+of them are slightly reddish, and give to the blood its red color. A
+very few are white.
+
+~5. Use of the Corpuscles.~--Do you wonder what these peculiar little
+corpuscles do in the body? They are very necessary. We could not live a
+moment without them. We need to take into our bodies oxygen from the
+air. It is the business of the red corpuscles to take up the oxygen in
+the lungs and carry it round through the body in a wonderful way, of
+which we shall learn more in a future lesson.
+
+~6.~ The white corpuscles have something to do with keeping the body in
+good repair. They are carried by the blood into all parts of the body
+and stop where they are needed to do any kind of work. They may be
+compared to the men who go around to mend old umbrellas, and to do other
+kinds of tinkering. It is thought that the white corpuscles turn into
+red ones when they become old.
+
+~7.~ The corpuscles float in a clear, almost colorless fluid which
+contains the digested food and other elements by which the body is
+nourished.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The blood contains very small objects called blood corpuscles.
+
+2. There are two kinds of corpuscles, red and white.
+
+3. The red corpuscles carry oxygen.
+
+4. The white corpuscles repair parts that are worn.
+
+5. The corpuscles float in a clear, almost colorless fluid, which
+nourishes the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+WHY THE HEART BEATS.
+
+
+~1.~ If you place your hand on the left side of your chest, you will
+feel something beating. If you cannot feel the beats easily, you may run
+up and down stairs two or three times, and then you can feel them very
+distinctly. How many of you know the name of this curious machine inside
+the chest, that beats so steadily? You say at once that it is the heart.
+
+[Illustration: THE HEART.]
+
+~2.~ The Heart.--The heart may be called a live pump, which keeps
+pumping away during our whole lives. If it should stop, even for a
+minute or two, we would die. If you will place your hand over your heart
+and count the beats for exactly one minute, you will find that it beats
+about seventy-five or eighty times. When you are older, your heart will
+beat a little more slowly. If you count the beats while you are lying
+down, you will find that the heart beats more slowly than when you are
+sitting or standing. When we run or jump, the heart beats much harder
+and faster.
+
+~3. Why the Heart Beats.~--We have learned in preceding lessons that the
+digested food is taken into the blood. We have also learned that both
+water and oxygen are taken into the blood. Thus the blood contains all
+the materials that are needed by the various parts of the body to make
+good the wastes that are constantly taking place. But if the blood were
+all in one place it could do little good, as the new materials are
+needed in every part of the body. There has been provided a wonderful
+system of tubes running through every part of the body. By means of
+these tubes the blood is carried into every part where it is required.
+These tubes are connected with the heart. When the heart beats, it
+forces the blood through the tubes just as water is forced through a
+pipe by a pump or by a fire-engine.
+
+~4. The Heart Chambers.~--The heart has four chambers, two upper and
+two lower chambers. The blood is received into the upper chambers, and
+is then passed down into the lower chambers. From the lower chambers it
+is sent out to various parts of the body.
+
+[Illustration: THE INSIDE OF THE HEART.]
+
+~5. The Blood-Vessels.~--The tubes through which the blood is carried
+are called _blood-vessels_. There are three kinds of blood-vessels. One
+set carry the blood away from the heart, and are called _arteries_
+(ar'-te-ries). Another set return the blood to the heart, and are called
+_veins_. The arteries and veins are connected at the ends farthest from
+the heart by many very small vessels. These minute, hairlike vessels are
+called _capillaries_ (cap'-il-la-ries).
+
+~6. The Arteries.~--An artery leads out from the lower chamber of each
+side of the heart. The one from the right side of the heart carries the
+blood only to the lungs. The one from the left side of the heart carries
+blood to every part of the body. It is the largest artery in the body,
+and is called the _aorta_. Soon after it leaves the heart the aorta
+begins to send out branches to various organs. These divide in the
+tissues again and again until they become so small that only one
+corpuscle can pass through at a time, as shown in the colored plate.
+(Frontispiece.)
+
+~7. The Veins.~--These very small vessels now begin to unite and form
+larger ones, the veins. The small veins join to form larger ones, until
+finally all are gathered into two large veins which empty into the upper
+chamber of the right side of the heart. The veins which carry blood from
+the lungs to the heart empty into the upper chamber of the left side of
+the heart.
+
+~8. What is Done in the Blood-Vessels.~--While the blood is passing
+through the small blood-vessels in the various parts of the body, each
+part takes out just what it needs to build up its own tissues. At the
+same time, the tissues give in exchange their worn-out or waste matters.
+The red blood corpuscles in the capillaries give up their oxygen, and
+the blood receives in its stead a poisonous substance called
+carbonic-acid gas.
+
+~9. Red and Blue Blood.~--While in the arteries the blood is of a bright
+red color; but while it is passing through the capillaries the color
+changes to a bluish red or purple color. The red blood is called
+_arterial blood_, because it is found in the arteries. The purple blood
+is called _venous blood_, because it is found in the veins. The loss of
+oxygen in the corpuscles causes the change of color.
+
+~10. Change of Blood in the Lungs.~--Exactly the opposite change occurs
+in the blood when it passes through the lungs. The blood which has been
+gathered up from the various parts of the body is dark, impure blood. In
+the lungs this dark blood is spread out in very minute capillaries and
+exposed to the air. While passing through the capillaries of the lungs,
+the blood gives up some of its impurities in exchange for oxygen from
+the air. The red corpuscles absorb the oxygen and the color of the blood
+changes from dark purple to bright red again. The purified blood is then
+carried back to the upper chamber of the left side of the heart through
+four large veins. The blood is now ready to begin another journey around
+the body.
+
+~11. The Pulse.~--If you place your finger on your wrist at just the
+right spot, you can feel a slight beating. This beating is called the
+_pulse_. It is caused by the movement of the blood in the artery of the
+wrist at each beat of the heart. The pulse can be felt at the neck and
+in other parts of the body where an artery comes near to the surface.
+
+~12. How much Work the Heart Does.~--The heart is a small organ, only
+about as large as your fist, and yet it does an amount of work which is
+almost beyond belief. Each time it beats, it does as much work as your
+arm would do in lifting a large apple from the ground to your mouth. It
+beats when we are asleep as well as when we are awake. When we run we
+know by the way in which it beats that it is working very fast. Do you
+know how much a ton is? Well, in twenty-four hours the heart does as
+much work as a man would do in lifting stones enough to weigh more than
+one hundred and twenty tons.
+
+~13. The Lymphatics.~--While the blood is passing through the
+capillaries, some of the white corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels.
+What do you suppose becomes of these runaway corpuscles? Nature has
+provided a way by which they can get back to the heart. In the little
+spaces among the tissues outside of the blood-vessels very minute
+channels called _lymph channels_ or _lymphatics_ (lym--phat'-ics) begin.
+The whole body is filled with these small channels, which run together
+much like the meshes of a net. In the centre of the body the small
+lymphatics run into large ones, which empty into the veins near the
+heart. This is the way the stray white blood corpuscles get back into
+the blood.
+
+~14. The Lymph.~--In the lymph channels the white corpuscles float in a
+colorless fluid called _lymph_. The lymph is composed of the fluid
+portion of the blood which has soaked through the walls of the small
+vessels. The chief purpose of the lymphatics is to carry the lymph from
+the tissues back to the heart.
+
+~15. Lymphatic Glands.~--Here and there, scattered through the body, are
+oval structures into each of which many lymphatic vessels are found to
+run, as shown in the illustration. These are called _lymphatic glands_.
+
+[Illustration: LYMPH GLAND AND VESSELS.]
+
+~16.~ The heart and blood-vessels are among the most wonderful
+structures in the body. It is no wonder, then, that alcohol, tobacco,
+and other narcotics and stimulants produce their most deadly effects
+upon these delicate organs. What these effects are we shall learn more
+fully in the next chapter.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The heart beats to circulate the blood.
+
+2. The heart has four chambers, two upper and two lower.
+
+3. There are tubes called blood-vessels which carry the blood to all
+parts of the body.
+
+4. These tubes are connected with the heart.
+
+5. The vessels which carry blood away from the heart are called
+arteries, and those which carry blood back to the heart are called
+veins.
+
+6. The arteries and veins are connected by small tubes called
+capillaries.
+
+7. The blood found in the arteries is red; that in the veins is dark
+blue or purple.
+
+8. The color of the blood changes from red to blue in going through the
+capillaries. The change is due to the loss of oxygen.
+
+9. In the circulation of the lungs, the blood in the arteries is blue,
+that in the veins, red.
+
+10. The change from blue to red takes place while the blood is passing
+through the capillaries of the lungs. The change is due to the oxygen
+which the corpuscles of the blood take up in the lungs.
+
+11. The pulse is caused by the beating of the heart.
+
+12. The heart does a great deal of work every day in forcing the blood
+into different parts of the body.
+
+13. Some of the white blood corpuscles escape from the blood-vessels
+through the thin walls of the capillaries.
+
+14. These corpuscles return to the heart through small vessels called
+lymph channels or lymphatics.
+
+15. The lymphatics in many parts of the body run into small roundish
+bodies called lymphatic glands.
+
+16. The object of the lymphatics is to remove from the tissues and
+return to the general circulation the lymph and white blood corpuscles
+which escape through the walls of the capillaries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE HEART AND THE BLOOD HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1.~ The heart is one of the most important of all the organs of the
+body. If we take good care of it, it will do good service for us during
+a long life. Let us notice some ways in which the heart is likely to be
+injured.
+
+~2. Violent Exercise.~--Did you ever run so hard that you were out of
+breath? Do you know why you had to breathe so fast? It was because the
+violent exercise made your heart beat so rapidly that the blood could
+not get out of the lungs as fast as the heart forced it in. The lungs
+became so filled with blood that they could not do their work well.
+Sometimes, when a person runs very fast or takes any kind of violent
+exercise, the lungs become so filled with blood that a blood-vessel is
+broken. The person may then bleed to death. It is very unwise to overtax
+the heart in any way, for it may be strained or otherwise injured, so
+that it can never again do its work properly.
+
+~3. Effects of Bad Air.~--Bad air is very harmful to the heart and to
+the blood also. We should always remember that the blood of the body
+while passing through the lungs is exposed to the air which we breathe.
+If the air is impure, the blood will be poisoned. In churches and in
+other places where the air becomes foul, people often faint from the
+effects of the impure air upon the heart. It is important that the air
+of the rooms in which we live and sleep should be kept very pure by good
+ventilation.
+
+~4. Effects of Bad Food.~--The blood is made from what we eat, and if we
+eat impure and unwholesome food, the blood becomes impure. We ought to
+avoid the use of rich or highly-seasoned foods, candies, and all foods
+which are not nutritious. They not only injure the blood by making it
+impure, but they cause poor digestion.
+
+~5. Plenty of Sleep Necessary.~--If we should take a drop of blood from
+the finger of a person who had not had as much sleep as he needed, and
+examine it with a microscope, we should find that there were too few of
+the little red-blood corpuscles. This is one reason why a person who has
+not had sufficient sleep looks pale.
+
+~6. Proper Clothing.~--We should be properly clothed, according to the
+weather. In cold weather we need very warm clothing. In warm weather we
+should wear lighter clothing. Our clothing should be so arranged that it
+will keep all parts of the body equally warm, and thus allow the blood
+to circulate properly. The feet are apt to be cold, being so far away
+from the heart, and we should take extra pains to keep them warm and
+dry.
+
+~7. Effects of Excessive Heat.~--In very hot weather, many persons are
+injured by exposing themselves to the sun too long at a time. Persons
+who drink intoxicating liquors are very often injured in this way, and
+sometimes die of sunstroke.
+
+~8. Effects of Anger.~--When a person gets very angry, the heart
+sometimes almost stops beating. Indeed, persons have died instantly in a
+fit of passion. So you see it is dangerous for a person to allow himself
+to become very angry.
+
+~9. Effects of Alcohol upon the Blood.~--If you should take a drop of
+blood upon your finger, and put it under the microscope, and then add a
+little alcohol to it, you would see that the corpuscles would be quickly
+destroyed. In a few seconds they would be so shrivelled up that no one
+could tell that they had ever been the beautiful little corpuscles which
+are so necessary to health. When alcohol is taken as a drink, it does
+not destroy the corpuscles so quickly, but it injures them so that they
+are not able to do their work of absorbing and carrying oxygen well.
+This is one reason why the faces of men who use alcoholic drinks often
+look so blue.
+
+~10. Alcohol Overworks the Heart.~--Dr. Parkes, a very learned English
+physician, took the pains to observe carefully the effects of alcohol
+upon the heart of a soldier who was addicted to the use of liquor. He
+counted the beats of the soldier's pulse when he was sober; and then
+counted them again when he was using alcohol, and found that when the
+soldier took a pint of gin a day his heart was obliged to do one fourth
+more work than it ought to do.
+
+~11. Effects of Alcohol upon the Blood-Vessels.~--If you put your hands
+into warm water, they soon become red. This is because the blood-vessels
+of the skin become enlarged by the heat, so that they hold more blood.
+Alcohol causes the blood to come to the surface in the same way. It is
+this that causes the flushed cheeks and the red eyes of the drunkard.
+Sometimes, after a man has been using alcohol a long time, the
+blood-vessels of his face remain enlarged all the time. This makes his
+nose grow too fast, and so in time it gets too large, and then he has a
+rum-blossom.
+
+~12. Effects of Tobacco on the Heart and the Blood.~--When a boy first
+tries to use tobacco, it makes him feel very sick. If you should feel
+his pulse just then, you would find it very weak. This means that the
+heart is almost paralyzed by the powerful poison of the tobacco. Tobacco
+also injures the blood corpuscles.
+
+~13.~ _Tea_ and _coffee_ also do their share of mischief to the heart.
+Those who use them very strong often complain of palpitation, or heavy
+and irregular beating of the heart.
+
+~14. Taking Cold.~--People usually "catch cold" by allowing the
+circulation to become disturbed in some way, as by getting the feet wet,
+being chilled from not wearing sufficient clothing, sitting in a
+draught, and in other similar ways. It is very important for you to know
+that a cold is a serious thing, and should be carefully avoided.
+
+~15. Hemorrhage~ (hem'-or-rhage) ~or Loss of Blood.~--A severe loss of
+blood is likely to occur as the result of accidents or injuries of
+various sorts, and it is important to know what to do at once, as there
+may not be time to send for a doctor before it will be too late to save
+the injured person's life. Here are a few things to be remembered in all
+such cases:
+
+~16.~ If the blood from a cut or other wound flows in spurts, and is of
+a bright red color, it is from an artery. If it is dark-colored, and
+flows in a steady stream, it is from a vein.
+
+~17. How to Stop the Bleeding of Wounds.~--If the bleeding vessel is an
+artery, apply pressure on the side of the wound next to the heart. If
+the bleeding is from a vein, apply it on the opposite side. It is
+generally best to apply pressure directly over the wound or on both
+sides. The pressure can be made with the thumbs or with the whole hand.
+Grasp the part firmly and press very hard, or tie a handkerchief or
+towel around the wounded part and twist it very tight. If an arm or limb
+is the part injured, the person should be made to lie down, and the
+injured part should be held up. This is of itself an excellent means of
+stopping hemorrhage.
+
+~18. Nose-Bleed.~--For nose-bleed a very good remedy is holding one or
+both hands above the head. The head should be held up instead of being
+bent forward, and the corner of a dry handkerchief should be pressed
+into the bleeding nostril. It is well to bathe the face with very hot
+water, and to snuff hot water into the nostril if the bleeding is very
+severe. If the bleeding is very bad or is not readily stopped, a
+physician should be called.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Violent exercise is likely to injure the heart.
+
+2. Bad air makes the blood impure and disturbs the action of the heart.
+
+3. Unwholesome food produces bad blood.
+
+4. Too little sleep makes the blood poor.
+
+5. Proper clothing is necessary to make the blood circulate equally in
+different parts of the body.
+
+6. Violent anger may cause death by stopping the beating of the heart.
+
+7. Alcohol injures the blood.
+
+8. Alcohol overworks the heart.
+
+9. Alcohol enlarges the blood-vessels.
+
+10. Tobacco injures the blood.
+
+11. Tobacco weakens the heart and makes the pulse irregular.
+
+12. The use of strong tea and coffee causes palpitation of the heart.
+
+13. A cold is caused by a disturbance of the circulation. A cold should
+never be neglected.
+
+14. When an artery is wounded, the blood is bright red and flows in
+spurts.
+
+15. When a vein is wounded, the blood is purple and flows in a steady
+    stream.
+
+16. To stop bleeding from an artery, press on the side of the wound
+towards the heart, or on both sides of the wound.
+
+17. When a vein is wounded, press on the side away from the heart.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+WHY AND HOW WE BREATHE.
+
+
+~1. An Experiment.~--Let us perform a little experiment. We must have a
+small bit of candle, a fruit jar, or a bottle with a large mouth, and a
+piece of wire about a foot long. Let us notice carefully what we are
+about to do and what happens.
+
+~2.~ We will fasten the candle to the end of the wire. Now we will light
+it, and next we will let it down to the bottom of the jar. Now place the
+cover on the top of the jar and wait the results. Soon the candle burns
+dimly and in a little time the light goes out altogether.
+
+~3.~ What do you think is the reason that the candle will not burn when
+shut up in a bottle? A candle uses air when it burns. If shut up in a
+small, tight place, it soon uses up so much air that it can burn no
+longer. Try the experiment again, and when the candle begins to burn
+dimly, take it out quickly. We see that at once the light burns bright
+again.
+
+~4.~ Suppose we shut the stove draught tight, what is the result? The
+fire will burn low, and after a time it will probably go out. Why is
+this? Evidently the stove needs air to make the wood or coal burn, just
+as the candle needs air to make it burn.
+
+~5. Animals Die without Air.~--If you should shut up a mouse or any
+other small animal in a fruit-jar, its life would go out just as the
+light of the candle went out. The little animal would die in a short
+time. A child shut up in a close place would die from the same cause in
+a very little time. In fact, many children are dying every day for want
+of a sufficient supply of pure air.
+
+~6. Oxygen.~--The reason why animals need air, and why the fire will not
+burn without it, is that the air contains _oxygen_, and it is the oxygen
+of the air which burns the wood or coal and produces heat. So it is the
+oxygen that burns in our bodies and keeps us warm.
+
+~7.~ When wood and coal are burned, heat is produced; but some parts of
+the fuel are not made into heat. While the fire burns, smoke escapes
+through the pipe or chimney; but a part of the fuel remains in the stove
+in the form of ashes. Smoke and ashes are the waste parts of the fuel.
+
+~8. Poison in the Breath.~--The burning which takes place in our bodies
+produces something similar to the smoke and ashes produced by the fire
+in a stove. The smoke is called _carbonic-acid gas_,[A] an invisible
+vapor, and escapes through the lungs. The ashes are various waste and
+poisonous matters which are formed in all parts of the body. These waste
+matters are carried out of the body through the skin, the kidneys, the
+liver, and other organs.
+
+~9. Another Experiment.~--We cannot see the gas escape from our lungs,
+but we can make an experiment which will show us that it really does
+pass out. Get two drinking-glasses and a tube. A glass tube is best, but
+a straw will do very well. Put a little pure water into one glass and
+the same quantity of lime-water into the other glass. Now put one end of
+the tube into the mouth and place the other end in the pure water.
+Breathe through the tube a few times. Look at the water in the glass and
+see that no change has taken place. Now breathe through the lime-water
+in the same way. After breathing two or three times, you will notice
+that the lime-water begins to look milky. In a short time it becomes
+almost as white as milk. This is because the lime-water catches the
+carbonic-acid gas which escapes from our lungs with each breath, while
+the pure water does not.
+
+~10. Why we Breathe.~--By this experiment we learn another reason why
+we breathe. We must breathe to get rid of the carbonic-acid gas, which
+is brought to the lungs by the blood to be exchanged for oxygen. There
+are two reasons then why we breathe: (_a_) to obtain oxygen; (_b_) to
+get rid of carbonic-acid gas.
+
+~11. How a Frog Breathes.~--Did you ever see a frog breathe? If not,
+improve the first opportunity to do so. You will see that the frog has a
+very curious way of breathing. He comes to the top of the water, puts
+his nose out a little, and then drinks the air. You can watch his throat
+and see him swallowing the air, a mouthful at a time, just as you would
+drink water.
+
+~12.~ If you had a chance to see the inside of a frog you would find
+there a queer-shaped bag. This is his air-bag. This bag has a tube
+running up to the throat. When the frog comes to the surface of the
+water he fills this bag with air. Then he can dive down into the mud out
+of sight until he has used up the supply of air. When the air has been
+changed to carbonic-acid gas, he must come to the surface to empty his
+air-bag and drink it full again.
+
+~13. The Lungs.~--We do not drink air as the frog does, but like the
+frog we have an air-bag in our bodies. Our air-bag has to be emptied
+and filled so often that we cannot live under water long at a time, as
+a frog does. We call this air-bag the lungs. We have learned before that
+the lungs are in the chest. We need so much air and have to change the
+air in our lungs so often that we would not have time to swallow it as a
+frog does. So nature has made for us a breathing apparatus of such a
+kind that we can work it like a pair of bellows. Let us now study our
+breathing-bellows and learn how they do their work.
+
+~14. The Windpipe and Air-tubes.~--A large tube called the _windpipe_
+extends from the root of the tongue down the middle of the chest. The
+windpipe divides into two main branches, which subdivide again and
+again, until the finest branches are not larger than a sewing-needle.
+The branches are called _bronchial tubes_. At the end of each tube is a
+cluster of small cavities called _air-cells_. The air-tubes and
+air-cells are well shown on the following page.
+
+~15. The Voice-box.~--If you will place the ends of your fingers upon
+your throat just above the breast-bone, you will feel the windpipe, and
+may notice the ridges upon it. These are rings of cartilage, a hard
+substance commonly called gristle. The purpose of these rings is to keep
+the windpipe open. Close under the chin you can find something which
+feels like a lump, and which moves up and down when you swallow.
+
+[Illustration: AIR-TUBES AND AIR-CELLS.]
+
+This is a little box made of cartilage, called the voice-box, because by
+means of this curious little apparatus we are able to talk and sing. Two
+little white bands are stretched across the inside of the voice-box.
+When we speak, these bands vibrate just as do the strings of the piano.
+These bands are called the _vocal cords_.
+
+~16. The Epiglottis.~--At the top of the voice-box is placed a curious
+trap-door which can be shut down so as to close the entrance to the
+air-passages of the lungs. This little door has a name rather hard to
+remember. It is called the _epiglottis_ (ep-i-glot'-tis). The cover of
+the voice-box closes whenever we swallow anything. This keeps food or
+liquids from entering the air passages. If we eat or drink too fast the
+voice-box will not have time to close its little door and prevent our
+being choked. Persons have been choked to death by trying to swallow
+their food too fast. Do you not think this is a very wonderful door that
+can open and shut just when it should do so without our thinking
+anything about it?
+
+~17. The Nostrils and the Soft Palate.~--The air finds its way to the
+lungs through the mouth or through the two openings in the nose called
+the _nostrils_. From each nostril, three small passages lead backward
+through the nose. At the back part of the nasal cavity the passages of
+the two sides of the nose come together in an open space, just behind
+the soft curtain which hangs down at the back part of the mouth. This
+curtain is called the _soft palate_. Through the opening behind this
+curtain the air passes down into the voice-box and then into the lungs.
+
+~18. The Pleura.~--In the chest the air tubes and lung of each side are
+enclosed in a very thin covering, called the _pleura_. The cavity of the
+chest in which the lungs are suspended is also lined by the pleura. A
+limpid fluid exudes from the pleura which keeps it moist, so that when
+the two surfaces rub together, as the lungs move, they do not become
+chafed and irritated.
+
+~19. Walls of the Chest.~--The ribs form a part of the framework of the
+chest. The ribs are elastic. The spaces between them are filled up with
+muscles, some of which draw the ribs together, while others draw them
+apart. Can you tell any reason why the walls of the chest are elastic?
+The lower wall or floor of the chest cavity is formed by a muscle called
+the _diaphragm_, which divides the trunk into two cavities, the chest
+and the abdomen.
+
+~20. How we Use the Lungs.~--Now let us notice how we use the lungs and
+what takes place in them. When we use a pair of bellows, we take hold of
+the handles and draw them apart. The sides of the bellows are drawn
+apart so that there is more room between the sides. The air then rushes
+in to fill the space. When the bellows are full, we press the handles
+together and the air is forced out.
+
+~21.~ It is in just this way that we breathe. When we are about to take
+a long breath, the muscles pull upon the sides of the chest in such a
+way as to draw them apart. At the same time the diaphragm draws itself
+downward. By these means, the cavity of the chest is made larger and air
+rushes in through the nose or mouth to fill the space. When the muscles
+stop pulling, the walls of the chest fall back again to their usual
+position and the diaphragm rises. The cavity of the chest then becomes
+smaller and the air is forced out through the nose or mouth. This
+process is repeated every time we breathe.
+
+~22.~ We breathe once for each four heart-beats. Small children breathe
+more rapidly than grown persons. We usually breathe about eighteen or
+twenty times in a minute.
+
+~23. How Much the Lungs Hold.~--Every time we breathe, we take into our
+lungs about two thirds of a pint of air and breathe out the same
+quantity. Our lungs hold, however, very much more than this amount. A
+man, after he has taken a full breath, can breathe out a gallon of air,
+or more than ten times the usual amount. After he has breathed out all
+he can, there is still almost half a gallon of air in his lungs which he
+cannot breathe out. So you see the lungs hold almost a gallon and a half
+of air.
+
+~24.~ Do you think you can tell why Nature has given us so much more
+room in the lungs than we ordinarily use in breathing? If you will run
+up and down stairs three or four times you will see why we need this
+extra lung-room. It is because when we exercise vigorously the heart
+works very much faster and beats harder, and we must breathe much faster
+and fuller to enable the lungs to purify the blood as fast as the heart
+pumps it into them.
+
+~25. The Two Breaths.~--We have learned that the air which we breathe
+out contains something which is not found in the air which we breathe
+in. This is carbonic-acid gas. How many of you remember how we found
+this out? We can also tell this in another way. If we put a candle down
+in a wide jar it will burn for some time. If we breathe into the jar
+first, however, the candle will go out as soon as we put it into the
+jar. This shows that the air which we breathe out contains something
+which will put a candle out. This is carbonic-acid gas, which is a
+poison and will destroy life.
+
+~26. Other Poisons.~--The air which we breathe out also contains other
+invisible poisons which are very much worse than the carbonic-acid gas.
+These poisons make the air of a crowded or unventilated room smell very
+unpleasant to one who has just come in from the fresh air. Such air is
+unfit to breathe.
+
+~27. The Lungs Purify the Blood.~--We have learned that the blood
+becomes dark in its journey through the body. This is because it loses
+its oxygen and receives carbonic-acid gas. While passing through the
+capillaries of the lungs, the blood gives out the carbonic-acid gas
+which it has gathered up in the tissues, and takes up a new supply of
+oxygen, which restores its scarlet hue.
+
+~28. How the Air is Purified.~--Perhaps it occurs to you that with so
+many people and animals breathing all the while, the air would after a
+time become so filled with carbonic-acid gas that it would be unfit to
+breathe. This is prevented by a wonderful arrangement of Nature. The
+carbonic-acid gas which is so poisonous to us is one of the most
+necessary foods for plants. Plants take in carbonic-acid gas through
+their leaves, and send the oxygen back into the air ready for us to use
+again.
+
+~29.~ We have already learned that the oxygen taken in by the lungs is
+carried to the various parts of the body by the little blood corpuscles.
+The effect of strong liquors is to injure these corpuscles so that they
+cannot carry so much oxygen as they ought to do. For this reason, the
+blood of a drunkard is darker in color than that of a temperate person,
+and contains more carbonic-acid gas. The drunkard's lungs may supply all
+the air he needs, but his blood has been so damaged that he cannot use
+it. Excessive smoking has a similar effect.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Our bodies need air, just as a candle or a fire does.
+
+2. A small animal shut up in a close jar soon dies for want of air. We
+need the oxygen which the air contains.
+
+3. Oxygen causes a sort of burning in our bodies.
+
+4. The burning in our bodies keeps us warm, and destroys some of the
+waste matters.
+
+5. The breathing organs are the windpipe and bronchial tubes, the
+voice-box, the epiglottis, the nostrils, the soft palate, the lungs, the
+air-cells, the pleura, the diaphragm, and the chest walls.
+
+6. When we breathe we use our lungs like a pair of bellows.
+
+7. A man's lungs hold nearly one and a half gallons of air.
+
+8. In ordinary breathing we use less than a pint of air, but when
+   necessary we can use much more.
+
+9. The air we breathe out contains carbonic-acid gas and another
+invisible poison.
+
+10. A candle will not burn in air which has been breathed, and animals
+die when confined in such air.
+
+11. The lungs purify the blood. While passing through the lungs, the
+color of the blood changes from purple to bright red.
+
+12. Plants purify the air by removing the carbonic-acid gas.
+
+13. Alcohol and tobacco injure the blood corpuscles so that they cannot
+take up the oxygen from the air which the lungs receive.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE LUNGS HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. Pure Air Necessary.~--A person may go without eating for a month, or
+without drinking for several days, and still live; but a strong man will
+die in a few moments if deprived of air. It is very important that we
+breathe plenty of pure air. There are many ways in which the air becomes
+impure.
+
+~2. Bad Odors.~--Anything which rots or decays will in so doing produce
+an unpleasant odor. Bad odors produced in this way are very harmful and
+likely to make us sick. Many people have rotting potatoes and other
+vegetables in their cellars, and swill barrels, and heaps of refuse in
+their back yards. These are all dangerous to health, and often give rise
+to very serious disease. We should always remember that bad odors caused
+by decaying substances are signs of danger to health and life, and that
+these substances should be removed from us, or we should get away from
+them, as soon as possible.
+
+~3. Germs.~--The chief reason why bad odors are dangerous is that they
+almost always have with them little living things called _germs_. Germs
+are so small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye: it takes a
+strong microscope to enable us to see them, but they are so powerful to
+do harm that if we receive them into our bodies they are likely to make
+us very sick, and they often cause death.
+
+~4. Contagious Diseases.~--You have heard about diphtheria and scarlet
+fever and measles, and other "catching diseases." When a person is sick
+with one of these diseases, the air about him is poisoned with germs or
+something similar, which may give the same disease to other persons who
+inhale it. So when a person is sick from one of these diseases, it is
+very important that he should be put in a room by himself and shut away
+from every one but the doctor and the nurse. It is also necessary that
+all the clothing and bedding used by the sick person, and everything in
+the room, as well as the room itself, should be carefully cleansed and
+disinfected when the person has recovered, so as to wipe out every trace
+of the disease. The writer has known many cases in which persons who
+have been sick with some of these diseases were careless and gave the
+disease to others who died of it, although they themselves recovered. Do
+you not think it very wrong for a person to give to another through
+carelessness a disease which may cause his death?
+
+~5.~ Unhealthful vapors and odors of various sorts arise from cisterns
+and damp, close places under a house. Rooms which are shaded and shut up
+so closely that fresh air and sunshine seldom get into them should be
+avoided as dangerous to health.
+
+~6. Breath-Poisoned Air.~--The most dangerous of all the poisons to
+which we are exposed through the air are those of the breath, of which
+we learned in a preceding lesson. We need plenty of fresh air to take
+the place of the air which we poison by our breath. Every time we
+breathe, we spoil at least _half a barrelful of air_. We breathe twenty
+times a minute, and hence spoil ten barrels of air in one minute. How
+many barrels would this make in one hour? We need an equal quantity of
+pure air to take the place of the spoiled air, or not less than ten
+barrels every minute, or _six hundred barrels every hour_.
+
+~7. Ventilation.~--The only way to obtain the amount of fresh air
+needed, when we are shut up in-doors, is to have some means provided by
+which the fresh air shall be brought in and the old and impure air
+carried out. Changing the air by such means is called _ventilation_.
+Every house, and especially every sleeping-room, should be well
+ventilated. School-houses, churches, and other places where many people
+gather, need perfect ventilation. Ask your teacher to show you how the
+school-room is ventilated; and when you go home, talk to your parents
+about the ventilation of the house in which you live.
+
+~8.~ Many people ventilate their houses by opening the doors and
+windows. This is a very good way of ventilating a house in warm weather,
+but is a very poor way in cold weather, as it causes cold draughts, and
+makes the floor cold, so that it is difficult to keep the feet warm. It
+is much better to have the air warmed by a furnace or some similar
+means, before it enters the rooms. There ought also to be in each room a
+register to take the foul air out, so that it will not be necessary to
+open the windows. This register should be placed at the floor, because
+when the pure air enters the room warm, it first rises to the upper part
+of the room, and then as it cools and at the same time becomes impure,
+it settles to the floor, where it should be taken out by the register.
+
+~9. How to Breathe.~--We should always take pains to expand the lungs
+well in breathing, and to use the entire chest, both the upper and the
+lower part. Clothing should be worn in such a way that every portion of
+the chest can be expanded. For this reason it is very wrong to wear the
+clothing tight about the waist. Clothing so worn is likely to cause the
+lungs to become diseased.
+
+~10. Bad Habits.~--Students are very apt to make themselves flat-chested
+and round-shouldered by leaning over their desks while writing or
+studying. This is very harmful. We should always use great care to sit
+erect and to draw the shoulders well back. Then, if we take pains to
+fill the lungs well a great many times every day, we shall form the
+habit of expanding the lungs, and shall breathe deeper, even when we are
+not thinking about doing so.
+
+~11. Breathing through the Nose.~--In breathing, we should always take
+care to draw the air in through the nose, and not through the mouth. The
+nose acts as a strainer, to remove particles of dust which might do harm
+if allowed to enter the lungs. It also warms and moistens the air in
+cold weather. The habit of breathing through the mouth often gives rise
+to serious disease of the throat and lungs.
+
+~12. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Lungs.~--Both alcohol and
+tobacco produce disease of the breathing organs. Smoking injures the
+throat and sometimes causes loss of smell. Serious and even fatal
+diseases of the lungs are often caused by alcohol.
+
+~13.~ Many people suppose that the use of alcohol will save a man from
+consumption. This is not true. A man may become a drunkard by the use of
+alcohol, and yet he is more likely to have consumption than he would
+have been if he had been a total abstainer. "Drunkard's consumption" is
+one of the most dreadful forms of this disease.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Pure air is as necessary as food and drink.
+
+2. Anything which is rotting or undergoing decay causes a bad odor, and
+thus makes the air impure.
+
+3. Foul air contains germs which cause disease and often death.
+
+4. Persons sick with "catching" diseases should be carefully avoided.
+Such persons should be shut away from those who are well, and their
+rooms and clothing should be carefully cleansed and disinfected.
+
+5. The breath poisons the air about us. Each breath spoils half a
+barrelful of air.
+
+6. We should change the air in our houses, or ventilate them, so that we
+may always have pure air.
+
+7. We should always keep the body erect, and expand the lungs well in
+breathing.
+
+8. The clothing about the chest and waist should be loose, so that the
+lungs may have room to expand.
+
+9. Always breathe through the nose.
+
+10. Tobacco causes disease of the throat and nose.
+
+11. Alcohol causes consumption and other diseases of the lungs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE SKIN AND WHAT IT DOES.
+
+
+~1. The Skin.~--The skin is the covering of the body. It fits so exactly
+that it has the precise shape of the body, like a closely fitting
+garment. If you will take up a little fold of the skin you will see that
+it can be stretched like a piece of india-rubber. Like rubber, when it
+is released it quickly contracts and appears as before.
+
+~2. The Bark of Trees.~--Did you ever peel the bark off of a young tree?
+If so, you have noticed that there were really two barks, an outer bark,
+as thin as paper, through which you could almost see, and an inner and
+much thicker bark, which lay next to the wood of the tree. You can peel
+the outer bark off without doing the tree much harm. Indeed, if you will
+notice some of the fruit or shade trees in the yard, at home, you will
+see that the outer bark of the tree peels itself off, a little at a
+time, and that new bark grows in its place. If you tear off the inner
+bark, however, it will injure the tree. It will make it bleed, or cause
+the sap to run. The sap is the blood of the tree. The bark is the skin
+of the tree. When the bare place heals over, an ugly scar will be left.
+
+~3. The Cuticle.~--Our bodies, like trees, have two skins, or really one
+skin with an outer and an inner layer. When a person burns himself so as
+to make a blister, the outer skin, called the _cuticle_, is separated
+from the inner by a quantity of water or serum poured out from the
+blood. This causes the blister to rise above the surrounding skin. If
+you puncture the blister the water runs out. Now we may easily remove
+the cuticle and examine it. The cuticle, we shall find, looks very much
+like the skin which lines the inside of an egg-shell, and it is almost
+as thin.
+
+~4.~ The cuticle is very thin in most parts of the body, but in some
+places, as the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, it is quite
+thick. This is because these parts of the skin come in contact with
+objects in such a way as to be liable to injury if not thus protected.
+The cuticle has no blood-vessels and very few nerves. With a fine needle
+and thread you can easily take a stitch in it without making it bleed or
+causing any pain.
+
+~5. The Pigment.~--The under side of the cuticle is colored by little
+particles of pigment or coloring matter. The color of this pigment
+differs in different races. In the negro, the color of the pigment is
+black. In some races the pigment is brown. In white persons there is
+very little pigment, and in some persons, called albinos, there is none
+at all.
+
+~6. The Inner or True Skin.~--The inner skin, like the inner bark of a
+tree, is much thicker than the outer skin. It is much more important,
+and for this reason is sometimes called the _true skin_. It contains
+nerves and blood-vessels.
+
+[Illustration: SKIN OF PALM OF HAND MAGNIFIED.]
+
+~7. The Sweat Glands.~--If you look at the palm of the hand you will see
+many coarse lines, and by looking much closer you will see that the palm
+is completely covered with very fine ridges and furrows. Now, if you
+examine these ridges with a magnifying-glass, you will find arranged
+along each ridge a number of little dark spots. Each of these points is
+the mouth of a very small tube. This is called a _sweat duct_. These
+ducts run down through both the outer and inner layers of the skin. At
+the under side of the true skin the end of the tube is rolled up in a
+coil, as you can see by looking at the illustration on the following
+page. The coiled parts of the tubes are called _sweat glands_, because
+they separate from the blood the fluid which we call sweat or
+perspiration.
+
+~8. The Oil Glands.~--There are other little glands in the skin which
+make fat or oil. The oil is poured out upon the skin to keep it soft and
+smooth.
+
+[Illustration: THE STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN.]
+
+~9. The Hair.~--There are some curious little pockets in the skin. Out
+of each of these pockets grows a hair. On some parts of the body the
+hairs are coarse and long; on other parts they are fine and short.
+
+~10.~ Many of the ducts leading from the oil glands open into the
+pockets or pouches from which the hairs grow. The oil makes the hair
+soft and glossy. Nature has thus provided an excellent means for oiling
+the hair.
+
+~11.~ The hair is chiefly useful as a protection. It is also an
+ornament.
+
+~12. The Nails.~--The nails of the fingers and the toes grow out of
+little pockets in the skin just as the hairs do. Both the hair and the
+nails are really parts of the outer skin, which is curiously changed and
+hardened. The nails lie upon the surface of the true skin and grow from
+the under side as well as from the little fold of skin at the root of
+the nail. They are made to give firmness and protection to the ends of
+the fingers and toes. The nails of the fingers are also useful in
+picking up small objects and in many other ways.
+
+~13. Uses of the Skin.~--The skin is useful in several ways:
+
+(1) _It Removes Waste._--The sweat glands and ducts are constantly at
+work removing from the blood particles which have been worn out and can
+be of no further use. If we get very warm, or if we run or work very
+hard, the skin becomes wet with sweat. In a little while, if we stop to
+rest, the sweat is all gone. What becomes of it? You say it dries up,
+which means that it has passed off into the air. Sweating is going on
+all the time, but we do not sweat so much when we are quiet and are not
+too warm, and so the sweat dries up as fast as it is produced, and we do
+not see it. Nearly a quart of sweat escapes from the skin daily.
+
+(2) _Breathing through the Skin._--We breathe to a slight extent through
+the skin. There are some lower animals which breathe with their skins
+altogether. A frog can breathe with its skin so well that it can live
+for some time after its lungs have been removed. Breathing is an
+important part of the work of the skin, and we should be careful, by
+keeping it clean and healthy, to give it a good chance to breathe all
+that it can.
+
+(3) _The Skin Absorbs._--The skin absorbs many substances which come in
+contact with it, and hence should be kept clean. If the foul substances
+which are removed in the sweat are allowed to remain upon the skin, they
+may be taken back into the system and thus do much harm.
+
+(4) _The Skin has Feeling._--When anything touches the skin we know it
+by the feeling. We can tell a great many things about objects by feeling
+of them. If we happen to stick a pin into the skin we feel pain. We are
+also able to tell the difference between things which are hot and those
+which are cold. Thus the sense of feeling which the skin has is very
+useful to us.
+
+(5) _The Skin Protects the Body._--The skin is a natural clothing which
+protects us much better than any other kind of clothing could. It is so
+soft and pliable that it cannot hurt the most delicate part which it
+covers, yet it is very strong and tough.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The skin is the covering of the body. It has two layers, the outer,
+called the cuticle, and the inner, called the true skin.
+
+2. A substance called pigment is found between the two skins. This gives
+the skin its color.
+
+3. The true skin has blood-vessels and nerves, but the cuticle has no
+blood-vessels and very few nerves.
+
+4. In the true skin are glands which produce sweat, and others which
+make fat, or oil.
+
+5. The nails are really a part of the skin. They are firm and hard, and
+protect the ends of the fingers and the toes.
+
+6. The hair grows from the true skin. The hair is made soft and glossy
+by oil from the oil glands of the skin.
+
+7. The skin is a very useful organ. It removes waste matters, it
+breathes, it absorbs, it has feeling, and it protects the body.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE SKIN.
+
+
+~1. Uses of the Pores of the Skin.~--Many years ago, at a great
+celebration, a little boy was covered all over with varnish and gold
+leaf, so as to make him represent an angel. The little gilded boy looked
+very pretty for a short time, but soon he became very sick, and in a few
+hours he was dead. Can you guess what made him die? He died because the
+pores of his skin were stopped up, and the sweat glands could not carry
+off the poisonous matter from his body.
+
+~2. Cleanliness.~--Did you ever know of a boy who had his skin
+varnished? Not exactly, perhaps; but there are many boys who do not have
+their skins washed as often as they ought to be, and the sweat and oil
+and dead scales form a sort of varnish which stops up the little ducts
+and prevents the air from getting to the skin, almost as much as a coat
+of varnish would do.
+
+~3. The Sweat Glands.~--The sweat glands and ducts are like little
+sewers, made to carry away some of the impurities of the body. There are
+so many of them that, if they were all put together, they would make a
+tube two or three miles long. These little sewers drain off almost a
+quart of impurities in the form of sweat every day. So you see that it
+is very important for the skin to be kept clean and healthy.
+
+~4. Bathing.~--A bird takes a bath every day. Dogs and many other
+animals like to go into the water to bathe. Some of you have seen a
+great elephant take a bath by showering the water over himself with his
+trunk. To keep the skin healthy we should bathe frequently.
+
+~5.~ When we take a bath for cleanliness it is necessary to use a little
+soap, so as to remove the oil which is mixed up with the dry sweat, dead
+scales, and dirt which may have become attached to the skin.
+
+~6.~ It is not well to take hot baths very often, as they have a
+tendency to make the skin too sensitive. Bathing in cool water hardens
+the skin, and renders one less likely to take cold.
+
+~7. The Clothing.~--The skin should be protected by proper clothing, but
+it is not well to wear more than is necessary, as it makes the skin so
+sensitive that one is liable to take cold.
+
+~8. The Proper Temperature of Rooms.~--It is also very unwise for a
+person to keep the rooms in which he lives too warm, and to stay too
+much in-doors, as it makes him very liable to take cold when he goes
+out-of-doors. One who is out of doors in all kinds of weather seldom
+takes cold.
+
+~9. Care of the Hair and the Nails.~--The scalp should be kept clean by
+thorough and frequent washing and daily brushing. Hair oils are seldom
+needed. If the skin of the head is kept in a healthy condition, the hair
+requires no oil.
+
+~10.~ The habit of biting and picking the fingernails is a very
+unpleasant one, and keeps the nails in a broken and unhealthy condition.
+The nails should be carefully trimmed with a sharp knife or a pair of
+scissors.
+
+~11. Effects of Narcotics and Stimulants upon the Skin.~--Alcohol,
+tobacco, opium, and all other narcotics and stimulants have a bad effect
+upon the skin. Alcohol often causes the skin to become red and blotched,
+and tobacco gives it a dingy and unhealthy appearance.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. If the pores of the skin are closed, a person will die.
+
+2. We should bathe often enough to keep the skin clean.
+
+3. We should not keep our rooms too warm, and should avoid wearing too
+much clothing.
+
+4. Alcohol, tobacco, and other stimulants and narcotics injure the skin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE KIDNEYS AND THEIR WORK.
+
+
+~1. The Kidneys.~--The kidneys are among the most important organs of
+the body. They are in the cavity of the abdomen, near the back-bone, up
+under the lower border of the ribs. Perhaps you have seen the kidneys of
+a sheep or a hog. If you have, you know very nearly how the kidneys of
+our own bodies appear.
+
+[Illustration: KIDNEY.]
+
+~2. The Work of the Kidneys.~--The work of the kidneys is to separate
+from the blood certain very poisonous substances, which would soon cause
+our death if they were not removed. It is very important to keep these
+useful organs in good health, because a person is certain to die very
+soon when the kidneys are in any way seriously injured.
+
+~3. How to Keep the Kidneys Healthy.~--One way of keeping the kidneys in
+good health is to drink plenty of pure water, and to avoid eating too
+much meat and rich food. Pepper, mustard, and other hot sauces are very
+harmful to the kidneys.
+
+~4. Importance of Keeping the Skin Clean.~--The work of the kidneys is
+very similar to that of the skin; and when the skin does not do its full
+duty, the kidneys have to do more than they should, and hence are likely
+to become diseased. For this reason, persons who allow their skins to
+become inactive by neglecting to bathe frequently are apt to have
+disease of the kidneys.
+
+~5. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Kidneys.~--A piece of beef
+placed in alcohol soon becomes dry and hard, and shrivels up as though
+it had been burned. The effect upon the kidneys of drinking strong
+liquor is almost the same. Beer and hard cider also do the kidneys harm,
+sometimes producing incurable disease of these important organs.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The kidneys somewhat resemble the skin in their structure and in
+their work.
+
+2. The kidneys remove from the blood some poisonous substances.
+
+3. To keep the kidneys healthy we should drink plenty of water, avoid
+irritating foods and drinks, and keep the skin in health by proper
+bathing.
+
+4. The drinking of strong liquors often causes incurable disease of the
+kidneys.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+OUR BONES AND THEIR USES.
+
+
+~1. The Bones.~--In an earlier chapter we learned something about the
+bones. This we must try to recall. You will remember that we called the
+bones the framework of the body, just as the timbers which are first put
+up in building a house are called its frame.
+
+~2. The Skeleton.~--All the bones together make up the _skeleton_. (See
+page 95.) There are about two hundred bones in all. They are of many
+different shapes. They vary in size from the little bones of the ear,
+which are the smallest, to the upper bone of the leg, which is the
+largest in the body.
+
+~3.~ The skeleton is divided into four parts: the _skull_, the _trunk_,
+the _arms_, and the _legs_. We must learn something more about the bones
+of each part.
+
+~4. The Skull.~--The _skull_ is somewhat like a shell. It is made of a
+number of bones joined together in such a way as to leave a hollow place
+inside to hold the brain. The front part of the skull forms the
+framework of the face and the jaws. In each ear there are three curious
+little bones, which aid us in hearing.
+
+~5. The Trunk.~--The bones of the trunk are, the _ribs_, the
+_breast-bone_, the _pelvis_, and the _back-bone_. The bones of the trunk
+form a framework to support and protect the various organs within its
+cavities.
+
+~6. The Ribs.~--There are twelve _ribs_ on each side. The ribs join the
+back-bone at the back. They are connected by cartilage to the
+breast-bone in front. They look somewhat like the hoops of a barrel.
+With the breast-bone and the back-bone they form a bony cage to contain
+and protect the heart and the lungs.
+
+~7. The Pelvis.~--The pelvis is at the lower part of the trunk. It is
+formed by three bones, closely joined together. The large bones at
+either side are called the hip-bones. Each hip-bone contains a deep
+round cavity in which the upper end of the thigh-bone rests.
+
+~8. The Back-bone.~--The _back-bone_, or spinal column, is made up of
+twenty-four small bones, joined together in such a way that the whole
+can be bent in various directions. The skull rests upon the upper end of
+the spinal column. The lower end of the back-bone forms a part of the
+pelvis.
+
+[Illustration: SKELETON OF A MAN.]
+
+~9. The Spinal Canal.~--Each of the separate bones that make up the
+back-bone has an opening through it, and the bones are so arranged, one
+above another, that the openings make a sort of canal in the back-bone.
+By the connection of the spinal column to the head, this canal opens
+into the cavity of the skull. Through this canal there passes a peculiar
+substance called the _spinal cord_, of which we shall learn more at
+another time.
+
+~10. The Arms.~--Each of the arms has five bones, besides the small
+bones of the hand. They are the _collar-bone_, which connects the
+shoulder to the breast-bone, the _shoulder-blade_, at the back of the
+shoulders, the _upper arm-bone_, between the shoulder and the elbow, and
+the two _lower arm-bones_, between the elbow and the wrist. There are
+eight little bones in the wrist, five in that part of the hand next to
+the wrist, and fourteen in the fingers and thumb.
+
+~11. The Legs.~--The bones of the leg are the _thigh_ or _upper
+leg-bone_, the _knee-pan_ or _knee-cap_, which covers the front of the
+knee, the two bones of the _lower leg_, the _heel-bone_ and six other
+bones in the _ankle_, five bones in that part of the foot next to the
+ankle, and fourteen bones in the _toes_.
+
+~12. Use of the Bones.~--The skeleton is not only necessary as a
+framework for the body, but it is useful in other ways. Some of the
+bones, as the skull, protect delicate parts. The brain is so soft and
+delicate that it would be very unsafe without its solid bony covering.
+The spinal cord also needs the protection which it finds in the strong
+but flexible back-bone. The bones help to move our hands and arms, and
+assist us in walking.
+
+~13. The Joints.~--The places where two or more bones are fastened
+together are called _joints_. Some joints we can move very freely, as
+those of the shoulder and the hip. Others have no motion at all, as
+those of the bones of the skull.
+
+~14. Cartilage.~--The ends of bones which come together to form a joint
+are covered with a smooth, tough substance, which protects the bone from
+wear. This is called _gristle_ or _cartilage_. You have, no doubt, seen
+the gristle on the end of a "soup-bone" or on one of the bones of a
+"joint of beef."
+
+~15.~ The joint contains a fluid to oil it, so that the ends of the
+bones move upon each other very easily. If the joints were dry, every
+movement of the body would be very difficult and painful.
+
+~16.~ The bones are held together at the joints by means of strong bands
+called _ligaments_.
+
+~17. How the Bones are Made.~--The bones are not so solid as they seem
+to be. The outside of most bones is much harder and firmer than the
+inside. Long bones, like those of the arms and the legs, are hollow. The
+hollow space is filled with _marrow_, in which are the blood-vessels
+which nourish the bone.
+
+~18. An Experiment.~--If you will weigh a piece of bone, then burn it in
+the fire for several hours, and then weigh it again, you will find that
+it has lost about one third of its weight. You will also notice that it
+has become brittle, and that it seems like chalk.
+
+~19. Why the Bones are Brittle.~--The hard, brittle portion of a bone
+which is left after it has been burned contains a good deal of chalk and
+other earthy substances, sometimes called bone-earth. It is this which
+makes the bones so hard and firm that they do not bend by the weight of
+the body. When we are young, the bones have less of this bone-earth, and
+so they bend easily, and readily get out of shape. When we get old, they
+contain so much bone-earth that they become more brittle, and often
+break very easily.
+
+~20.~ A person's height depends upon the length of his bones. The use of
+alcohol and tobacco by a growing boy has a tendency to stunt the growth
+of his bones, so that they do not develop as they should.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. There are about two hundred bones in the body.
+
+2. All together they are called the skeleton.
+
+  3. The skeleton is divided as follows:
+
+  _a._ The skull.
+
+                   { Ribs.
+  _b._ The trunk.  { Breast-bone.
+                   { Pelvis.
+                   { Back-bone.
+                   { Collar-bone.
+                   { Shoulder-blade.
+
+                   { Upper arm-bones.
+ _c._ The arms.    { Lower arm-bones.
+                   { Wrist.
+                   { Hand and fingers.
+
+                   { Thigh.
+                   { Knee-pan.
+  _d._ The legs.   { Lower-leg bones.
+                   { Ankle, including heel-bone.
+                   { Foot and toes.
+
+4. The bones are useful for support, protection, and motion.
+
+5. The place where two bones join is called a joint.
+
+6. The tough substance which covers the ends of many bones is called
+cartilage or gristle.
+
+7. The joints are enabled to work easily by the aid of a fluid secreted
+for that purpose.
+
+8. The ends of the bones are held together in a joint by means of
+ligaments.
+
+9. Bones are about two thirds earthy matter and one third animal matter.
+
+10. The use of alcohol and tobacco may prevent proper development of the
+bones.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE BONES HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. Composition of the Bones.~--Our bones, like the rest of our bodies,
+are made of what we eat. If our food does not contain enough of the
+substances which are needed to make healthy bone, the bones will become
+unhealthy. They may be too soft and become bent or otherwise misshapen.
+This is one of the reasons why bread made from the whole grain is so
+much more healthful than that made from very fine white flour. In making
+fine white flour the miller takes out the very best part of the grain,
+just what is needed to make strong and healthy bones. Oatmeal is a very
+good food for making healthy bones.
+
+~2. Bones of Children.~--Sometimes little children try to walk before
+the bones have become hard enough to support the weight of the body.
+This causes the legs to become crooked. In some countries young children
+work in factories and at various trades. This is wrong, because it
+dwarfs their growth, and makes them puny and sickly.
+
+~3. Improper Positions.~--The bones are so soft and flexible when we
+are young that they are very easily bent out of shape if we allow
+ourselves to take improper positions in sitting, lying, or standing.
+This is the way in which flat and hollow chests, uneven shoulders,
+curved spines, and many other deformities are caused.
+
+[Illustration: IMPROPER POSITION.]
+
+~4.~ In sitting, standing, and walking, we should always take care to
+keep the shoulders well back and the chest well expanded, so that we may
+not grow misshapen and deformed. Many boys and girls have ugly curves in
+their backbones which have been caused by sitting at high desks with one
+elbow on the desk, thus raising the shoulder of that side so high that
+the spine becomes crooked. The illustrations on this and the following
+page show good and bad positions and also the effects of bad positions.
+
+[Illustration: PROPER POSITION.]
+
+~5. Seats and Desks.~--The seats and desks of school-children should be
+of proper height. The seats should be low enough to allow the feet to
+rest easily upon the floor, but not too low. The desk should be of such
+a height that, in writing, one shoulder will not be raised above the
+other. If a young person bends the body forward, he will, after a time,
+become round-shouldered and his chest will become so flattened that the
+lungs cannot be well expanded.
+
+[Illustration: DESK TOO HIGH.]
+
+~6.~ Standing on one foot, sitting bent forward when reading or at work,
+sleeping with the head raised high upon a thick pillow or bolster, are
+ways in which young persons often grow out of shape.
+
+[Illustration: SEAT TOO HIGH.]
+
+~7. The Clothing.~--Wearing the clothing tight about the waist often
+produces serious deformities of the bones of the trunk, and makes the
+chest so small that the lungs have not room to act properly. Tight or
+high-heeled shoes also often deform and injure the feet and make the
+gait stiff and awkward.
+
+~8. Broken Bones.~--By rough play or by accident the bones may be broken
+in two just as you might break a stick. If the broken parts are placed
+right, Nature will cement them together and make the bone strong again;
+but sometimes the bones do not unite, and sometimes they grow together
+out of proper shape, so that permanent injury is done.
+
+~9. Sprains.~--In a similar manner the ligaments which hold the bones
+together, in a joint, are sometimes torn or over-stretched. Such an
+accident is called a sprain. A sprain is a very painful accident, and a
+joint injured in this way needs to rest quite a long time so that the
+torn ligaments may grow together.
+
+~10. Bones out of Joint.~--Sometimes the ligaments are torn so badly
+that the ends of the bones are displaced, and then we say they are put
+out of joint. This is a very bad accident indeed, but it often happens
+to boys while wrestling or playing at other rough games.
+
+~11.~ Children sometimes have a trick of pulling the fingers to cause
+the knuckles to "crack." This is a very foolish and harmful practice. It
+weakens the joints and causes them to grow large and unsightly.
+
+~12.~ When a man uses alcohol and tobacco, their effects upon the bones
+are not so apparent as are the effects upon the blood, the nerves, and
+other organs; but when the poisonous drugs are used by a growing boy,
+their damaging influence is very plainly seen. A boy who smokes cigars
+or cigarettes, or who uses strong alcoholic liquors, is likely to be so
+stunted that even his bones will not grow of a proper length and he will
+become dwarfed or deformed.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. To keep the bones healthy they must have plenty of healthful food.
+
+2. The whole-grain preparations furnish the best food for the bones.
+
+3. Walking at too early an age often makes the legs crooked.
+
+4. Hard work at too early an age stunts the growth.
+
+5. Bad positions and tight or poorly-fitting clothing are common causes
+of flat chests, round shoulders, and other deformities.
+
+6. Tight or high-heeled shoes deform the feet and make the gait awkward.
+
+7. The bones may be easily broken or put out of joint, or the ligaments
+may be torn by rough play.
+
+8. Alcohol prevents healthy growth.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.
+
+THE MUSCLES AND HOW WE USE THEM.
+
+
+~1. The Muscles.~--Where do people obtain the beefsteak and the
+mutton-chops which they eat for breakfast? From the butcher, you will
+say; and the butcher gets them from the sheep and cattle which he kills.
+If you will clasp your arm you will notice that the bones are covered by
+a soft substance, the flesh. When the skin of an animal has been taken
+off, we can see that some of the flesh is white or yellow and some of it
+is red. The white or yellow flesh is fat. The red flesh is lean meat,
+and it is composed of muscles.
+
+~2. The Number of Muscles.~--We have about five hundred different
+muscles in the body. They are arranged in such a way as to cover the
+bones and make the body round and beautiful. They are of different forms
+and sizes.
+
+~3.~ With a very few exceptions the muscles are arranged in pairs; that
+is, we have two alike of each form and size, one for each side of the
+body.
+
+~4. How a Muscle is Formed.~--If you will examine a piece of corned or
+salted beef which has been well boiled, you will notice that it seems to
+be made up of bundles of small fibres or threads of flesh. With a little
+care you can pick one of the small fibres into fine threads. Now, if you
+look at one of these under a microscope you find that it is made of
+still finer fibres, which are much smaller than the threads of a
+spider's web. One of these smallest threads is called a _muscular
+fibre_. Many thousands of muscular fibres are required to make a muscle.
+
+[Illustration: MUSCULAR FIBRES.]
+
+~5.~ Most of the muscles are made fast to the bones. Generally, one end
+is attached to one bone, and the other to another bone. Sometimes one
+end is made fast to a bone and the other to the skin or to other
+muscles.
+
+~6. The Tendons.~--Many of the muscles are not joined to the bones
+directly, but are made fast to them by means of firm cords called
+_tendons_. If you will place the thumb of your left hand upon the wrist
+of the right hand, and then work the fingers of the right hand, you may
+feel these cords moving underneath the skin.
+
+~7. What the Muscles Do.~--With the left hand grasp the right arm just
+in front of the elbow. Now shut the right hand tightly. Now open it.
+Repeat several times. The left hand feels something moving in the flesh.
+The motion is caused by the working of the muscles, which shorten and
+harden when they act.
+
+~8.~ All the movements of the body are made by means of muscles. When we
+move our hands, even when we close the mouth or the eyes, or make a wry
+face, we use the muscles. We could not speak, laugh, sing, or breathe
+without muscles.
+
+~9. Self-acting Muscles.~--Did you ever have a fit of sneezing or
+hiccoughing? If you ever did, very likely you tried hard to stop but
+could not. Do you know why one cannot always stop sneezing or
+hiccoughing when he desires to do so? It is because there are certain
+muscles in the body which do not act simply when we wish them to act,
+but when it is necessary that they should. The muscles which act when we
+sneeze or hiccough are of this kind. The arm and the hand do not act
+unless we wish them to do so. Suppose it were the same with the heart.
+We should have to stay awake all the while to keep it going, because it
+would not act when we were asleep. The same is true of our breathing. We
+breathe when we are asleep as well as when we are awake, because the
+breathing muscles work even when we do not think about them.
+
+~10.~ The stomach, the intestines, the blood-vessels, and many other
+organs within the body have this kind of muscles. The work of these
+self-acting muscles is very wonderful indeed. Without it we could not
+live a moment. This knowledge should lead us to consider how dependent
+we are, each moment of our lives, upon the delicate machinery by which
+the most important work of our bodies is performed, and how particular
+we should be to keep it in good order by taking proper care of
+ourselves.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The flesh, or lean meat, is composed of muscles.
+
+2. There are five hundred muscles in the body.
+
+3. Muscles are composed of many small threads called muscular fibres.
+
+4. Many of the muscles are joined to the bones by strong white cords
+called tendons.
+
+5. Muscular fibres can contract so as to lessen their length. It is in
+this way that the muscles perform their work.
+
+6. All bodily motions are due to the action of the muscles.
+
+7. Most of the muscles act only when we wish them to do so. Some
+muscles, however, act when it is necessary for them to do so, whether we
+will that they should act or not, and when we are asleep as well as when
+we are awake.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. How to Make the Muscles Strong.~--With which hand can you lift the
+more? with the right hand or with the left? Why do you think you can
+lift more with the right hand than with the left? A blacksmith swings a
+heavy hammer with his right arm, and that arm becomes very large and
+strong. If we wish our muscles to grow large and strong, so that our
+bodies will be healthy and vigorous, we must take plenty of exercise.
+
+~2. Effects of Idleness.~--If a boy should carry one hand in his pocket
+all the time, and use only the other hand and arm, the idle arm would
+become small and weak, while the other would grow large and strong. Any
+part of the body which is not used will after a time become weak. Little
+boys and girls who do not take plenty of exercise are likely to be pale
+and puny. It is important that we should take the proper amount of
+exercise every day, just as we take our food and drink every day.
+
+~3. Healthful Exercise.~--Some kinds of play, and almost all kinds of
+work which children have to do, are good ways of taking exercise. A very
+good kind of exercise for little boys and girls is that found in running
+errands or doing chores about the house.
+
+~4. Food and Strength.~--A great part of our food goes to nourish the
+muscles. Some foods make us strong, while others do not. Plain foods,
+such as bread, meat, potatoes, and milk, are good for the muscles; but
+cakes and pies, and things which are not food, such as mustard, pepper,
+and spices, do not give us strength, and are likely to do us harm.
+
+~5. Over-Exertion.~--We ought not to exert ourselves too much in lifting
+heavy weights, or trying to do things which are too hard for us.
+Sometimes the muscles are permanently injured in this way.
+
+~6. The Clothing.~--We ought not to wear our clothing so tight as to
+press hard upon any part of the body. If we do, it will cause the
+muscles of that part to become weak. If the clothing is worn tight about
+the waist, great mischief is often done. The lungs cannot expand
+properly, the stomach and liver are pressed out of shape, and the
+internal organs are crowded out of their proper places.
+
+~7. Tight Shoes.~--People are often made very lame from wearing tight
+shoes. Their muscles cannot act properly, and their feet grow out of
+shape.
+
+~8.~ In China, it is fashionable for rich ladies to have small feet, and
+they tie them up in cloths so that they cannot grow. The foot is
+squeezed out of shape. Here is a picture of a foot which has been
+treated in this way. It does not look much like a human foot, does it? A
+woman who has such feet finds it so difficult to walk that she has to be
+carried about much of the time. Do you not think it is very wrong and
+foolish to treat the feet so badly? You will say, "Yes;" but the Chinese
+woman thinks it is a great deal worse to lace the clothing tight about
+the body so as to make the waist small.
+
+[Illustration: FOOT OF CHINESE WOMAN.]
+
+~9. Effects of Alcohol upon the Muscles.~--When an intemperate man takes
+a glass of strong drink, it makes him feel strong; but when he tries to
+lift, or to do any kind of hard work, he cannot lift so much nor work so
+hard as he could have done without the liquor. This is because alcohol
+poisons the muscles and makes them weak.
+
+~10. Effects of Drunkenness.~--When a man has become addicted to strong
+drink, his muscles become partly paralyzed, so that he cannot walk as
+steadily or speak as readily or as clearly as before. His fingers are
+clumsy, and his movements uncertain. If he is an artist or a jeweller,
+he cannot do as fine work as when he is sober. When a man gets very
+drunk, he is for a time completely paralyzed, so that he cannot walk or
+move, and seems almost like a dead man.
+
+~11.~ If you had a good horse that had carried you a long way in a
+carriage, and you wanted to travel farther, what would you do if the
+horse were so tired that he kept stopping in the road? Would you let him
+rest and give him some water to drink and some nice hay and oats to eat,
+or would you strike him hard with a whip to make him go faster? If you
+should whip him he would act as though he were not tired at all, but do
+you think the whip would make him strong, as rest and hay and oats
+would?
+
+~12.~ When a tired man takes alcohol, it acts like a whip; it makes
+every part of the body work faster and harder than it ought to work, and
+thus wastes the man's strength and makes him weaker, although for a
+little while his nerves are made stupid, so that he does not know that
+he is tired and ought to rest.
+
+~13.~ When you grow up to be men and women you will want to have strong
+muscles. So you must be careful not to give alcohol a chance to injure
+them. If you never taste it in any form you will be sure to suffer no
+harm from it.
+
+~14. Effects of Tobacco on the Muscles.~--Boys who smoke cigars or
+cigarettes, or who chew tobacco, are not likely to grow up to be strong
+and healthy men. They do not have plump and rosy cheeks and strong
+muscles like other boys.
+
+~15.~ The evil effect of tobacco upon boys is now so well known that in
+many countries and in some states of this country laws have been made
+which do not allow alcohol or tobacco to be sold or given to boys. In
+Switzerland, if a boy is found smoking upon the streets, he is arrested
+just as though he had been caught stealing. And is not this really what
+a boy does when he smokes? He robs his constitution of its vigor, and
+allows tobacco to steal away from him the strength he will need when he
+becomes a man.
+
+~16. Tea and Coffee.~--Strong tea and coffee, while by no means so bad
+as alcohol and tobacco, may make us weak and sick. A person who drinks
+strong tea or coffee feels less tired while at work than if he had not
+taken it, but he is more tired afterwards. So you see that tea and
+coffee are also whips, small whips we might call them, and yet they
+really act in the same way as do other narcotics and stimulants. They
+make a person feel stronger than he really is, and thus he is led to use
+more strength than he can afford to do.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. We must use the muscles to make them grow large and strong.
+
+2. Exercise should be taken regularly.
+
+3. Exercise makes the muscles strong, the body beautiful, the lungs
+active, the heart vigorous, and the whole body healthy.
+
+4. Things we ought not to do: To run or play hard just before or after
+eating; to strain our muscles by lifting too heavy weights; to exercise
+so violently as to get out of breath; to lie, sit, stand, or walk in a
+cramped position, or awkward manner; to wear the clothing so tight as to
+press hard upon the muscles.
+
+5. Good food is necessary to make the muscles strong and healthy.
+
+6. Alcohol makes the muscles weak, although at first it makes us feel
+stronger.
+
+7. A boy who uses tobacco will not grow as strong and well as one who
+does not.
+
+8. The use of strong tea and coffee may injure the muscles.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.
+
+HOW WE FEEL AND THINK.
+
+
+~1. How we Think.~--With what part of the body do we think? You will at
+once say that we think with the head; but we do not think with the whole
+head. Some parts of the head we use for other purposes, as the mouth to
+eat and speak with, and the nose to smell and breathe with. The part we
+think with is inside of the skull, safely placed in a little room at the
+top and back part of the head. Do you remember the name of this organ
+which fills the hollow place inside of the skull? We learned some time
+ago that it is called the _brain_. It is with the brain that we study
+and remember and reason. So the brain is one of the most important
+organs in our body, and we must try to learn all we can about it.
+
+~2. The Brain.~--You cannot see and examine your own brain because it is
+shut up in the skull; but perhaps you can find the brain of a sheep or a
+calf at the meat market. The brain of one of these animals looks very
+nearly like your own.
+
+~3. The Large Brain and the Small Brain.~--In examining a brain we
+should notice first of all that there are really two brains, a _large
+brain_ and a _small brain_. The large brain is in the top and front of
+the skull, and the small one lies beneath the back part of the larger
+one, If we look again we shall see that each brain is divided in the
+middle into a right and a left half. Each half is, in fact, a complete
+brain, so that we really have two pairs of brains.
+
+[Illustration: THE BRAIN.]
+
+~4. Brain Cells.~--The brain is a curious organ of a grayish color
+outside and white inside. It is soft, almost like jelly, and this is why
+it is placed so carefully in a strong, bony box. If we should put a
+little piece of the brain under a microscope, we should find that it is
+made up of a great number of very small objects called _nerve_ or
+_brain cells_. In the illustration you can see some of these brain
+cells.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN CELLS.]
+
+~5. The Nerves.~--Each cell has one or more branches. Some of the
+branches are joined to the branches of other cells so as to unite the
+cells together, just as children take hold of one another's hands. Other
+branches are drawn out very long.
+
+~6.~ The long branches are such slender threads that a great number of
+them together would not be as large as a fine silk thread. A great many
+of these fine nerve threads are bound up in little bundles which look
+like white cords. These are called _nerves_.
+
+~7.~ The nerves branch out from the brain through openings in the skull,
+and go to every part of the body. Every little muscle fibre, the heart,
+the stomach, the lungs, the liver, even the bones--all have nerves
+coming to them from the brain. So you see that the brain is not wholly
+shut up in the skull, because its cells have slender branches running
+into all parts of the body; and thus the brain itself is really in every
+part of the body, though we usually speak of it as being entirely in the
+skull.
+
+~8. The Spinal Cord.~--There are a number of small holes in the skull
+through which the nerves pass out, but most of the nerves are bound up
+in one large bundle and pass out through an opening at the back part of
+the skull and runs downward through a long canal in the backbone. This
+bundle of nerves forms the _spinal cord_. The spinal cord contains cells
+also, like those of the brain. It is really a continuation of the brain
+down through the backbone.
+
+[Illustration: BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD.]
+
+~9. Nerves from the Spinal Cord.~--The spinal cord gives off branches of
+nerves which go to the arms, the chest, the legs, and other parts. One
+of the branches which goes to the hand runs along the back side of the
+arm, passing over the elbow. If we happen to strike the elbow against
+some sharp object, we sometimes hit this nerve. When we do so, the under
+side of the arm and the little finger feel very numb and strange. This
+is why you call this part of the elbow the "funny" or "crazy bone." The
+cells of the spinal cord also send out branches to the body and to other
+cells in the brain.
+
+~10. How we Feel.~--If we cut or burn ourselves we suffer pain. Can you
+tell why it hurts us to prick the flesh with a pin, or to pinch or burn
+or bruise it? It is because the flesh contains a great many
+nerve-branches from the brain. When we hurt the skin or the flesh, in
+any way, these nerves are injured. There are so many of these little
+nerves in the flesh and skin that we cannot put the finest needle into
+the flesh without hurting some of them.
+
+~11. The Use of Pain.~--It is not pleasant for us to have pain, but if
+the nerves gave us no pain when we are hurt we might get our limbs
+burned or frozen and know nothing about it until too late to save them.
+
+~12. Nerves of Feeling.~--We have different kinds of nerves of feeling.
+Those we have learned about feel pain. Others feel objects. If you take
+a marble or a pencil in the hand you know what it is by the feeling of
+the object. This kind of feeling is called the sense of touch.
+
+~13.~ There are other nerves of feeling by means of which we are able to
+hear, see, taste, and smell, of which we shall learn in another lesson.
+Besides these we have nerves which tell us whether objects are cold or
+hot, and heavy or light. Nerves of feeling also tell us when we are
+hungry, or thirsty, or tired, and when we need more air to breathe.
+
+~14. Nerves of Work.~--There are other nerves which are made just like
+the nerves of feeling, but which do not feel. These nerves have a very
+different use. They come from cells in the brain which have charge of
+the different kinds of work done in the body, and they send their
+branches to the parts which do the work; hence we call them _nerves of
+work_.
+
+~15.~ One set of cells sends nerves to the heart, and these make it go
+fast or slow as is necessary. Another sends nerves to the liver,
+stomach, and other digestive organs, and causes them to do their part in
+the digestion of the food. Other cells send branches to the muscles and
+make them act when we wish them to do so. Thus you see how very useful
+the brain and nerves are. They keep all the different parts of the body
+working together in harmony, just like a well-trained army, or a great
+number of workmen building a block of houses. Without the brain and
+nerves the body would be just like an army without a commander, or a lot
+of workmen without an overseer.
+
+~16. How we Use the Nerves.~--If you happen to touch your hand to a hot
+stove, what takes place? You will say that your arm pulls the hand away.
+Do you know why? Let us see. The nerves of feeling in the hand tell the
+nerve cells in the brain from which they come that the hand is being
+burned. The cells which feel cannot do anything for the hand, but some
+of their branches run over to another part of the brain, which sends
+nerves down to the muscles of the arm. These cells, through their nerve
+branches, cause the muscles to contract. The cells of feeling ask the
+cells which have charge of the muscles to make the muscles of the arm
+pull the hand away, which they do very quickly.
+
+~17.~ So you see the nerves are very much like telegraph or telephone
+wires. By means of them the brain finds out all about what is happening
+in the body, and sends out its orders to the various organs, which may
+be called its servants.
+
+~18. An Experiment.~--A man once tried an experiment which seemed very
+cruel. He took a dove and cut open its skull and took out its large
+brain. What do you think the effect was? The dove did not die at once,
+as you would expect. It lived for some time, but it did not know
+anything. It did not know when it was hungry, and would not eat or drink
+unless the food or water was placed in its mouth. If a man gets a blow
+on his head, so hard as to break his skull, the large brain is often
+hurt so badly that its cells cannot work, and so the man is in the same
+condition as the poor dove. He does not know anything. He cannot think
+or talk, and lies as though he were asleep.
+
+~19.~ By these and many other facts we know that the large brain is the
+part with which we remember, think, and reason. It is the seat of the
+mind. We go to sleep because the large brain is tired and cannot work
+any longer. We stop thinking when we are sound asleep, but sometimes we
+do not sleep soundly, and then the large brain works a little and we
+dream.
+
+~20. What the Little Brain Does.~--The little brain[B] thinks too, but
+it does not do the same kind of thinking as the large brain. We may use
+our arms and legs and many other parts when we wish to do so; and if we
+do not care to use them we may allow them to remain quiet. This is not
+the case with some other organs. It is necessary, for example, that the
+heart, the lungs, and many other organs of the body should keep at work
+all the time. If the large brain had to attend to all of these
+different kinds of work besides thinking about what we see, hear, and
+read, and other things which we do, it would have too much work to do,
+and would not be able to do it all well. Besides, the large brain
+sometimes falls asleep. So the large brain lets the little brain do the
+kinds of work which have to be attended to all the time, and the little
+brain keeps steadily at work when we are asleep as well as when we are
+awake.
+
+~21. What the Spinal Cord Does.~--If you tickle a person's foot when he
+is asleep, he will pull it up just as he would if he were awake, only
+not quite so quickly. What do you suppose makes the muscles of the leg
+contract when the brain is asleep and does not know that the foot is
+being tickled? And here is another curious fact. When you were coming to
+school this morning you did not have to think about every step you took.
+Perhaps you were talking or looking over your lessons; but your legs
+walked right along all the time, and without your thinking about them.
+Can you tell how?
+
+~22.~ It would be too much trouble for the large brain to stop to think
+every time we step, and the little brain has work enough to do in taking
+care of the heart and lungs and other organs, without keeping watch of
+the feet when we are asleep, so as to pull them up if some mischievous
+person tickles them. So Nature puts a few nerve cells in the spinal cord
+which can do a certain easy kind of thinking. When we do things over and
+over a great many times, these cells, after a time, learn to do them
+without the help of the large brain. This is the way a piano-player
+becomes so expert. He does not have to think all the time where each
+finger is to go. After the tunes have been played a great many times,
+the spinal cord knows them so well that it makes the hands play them
+almost without any effort of the large brain.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. The part of the body with which we think is the brain.
+
+2. The brain is found filling the hollow place in the skull.
+
+3. There are two brains, the large brain and the small brain.
+
+4. Each brain is divided into two equal and complete halves, thus making
+two pairs of brains.
+
+5. The brain is largely made up of very small objects called nerve or
+brain cells.
+
+6. The nerve cells send out very fine branches which form the nerves.
+
+7. The nerve branches or fibres run to every part of the body. They pass
+out from the brain to the rest of the body through a number of openings
+in the skull.
+
+8. Most of the nerve branches pass out through a large opening at the
+back of the skull, in one large bundle called the spinal cord.
+
+9. The spinal cord runs down through a canal in the backbone, and all
+along gives off branches to the various parts of the body.
+
+10. It gives us pain to prick or hurt the flesh in any way, because when
+we do so we injure some of the little nerve branches of the brain cells.
+
+11. When we suffer, we really feel a pain in the brain. We know this
+because if a nerve is cut in two, we may hurt the part to which it goes
+without giving any pain.
+
+12. We have different kinds of nerves of feeling.
+
+13. There are other nerves besides those of feeling. These are nerves of
+work.
+
+14. The nerves of work have charge of the heart, the lungs, the muscles,
+the liver, the stomach, and every part of the body which can work or
+act.
+
+15. The brain and nerves control the body and make all the different
+parts work together in harmony, just as a general controls an army.
+
+16. The brain uses the nerves very much as a man uses the telephone or
+telegraph wires.
+
+17. With the large brain we remember, think, and reason.
+
+18. The little brain does the simple kind of thinking, by means of which
+the heart, lungs, and other vital organs are kept at work even when we
+are asleep.
+
+19. The spinal cord does a still more simple kind of work. It enables us
+to walk and to do other familiar acts without using the large brain to
+think every moment just what we are doing.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII.
+
+HOW TO KEEP THE BRAIN AND NERVES HEALTHY.
+
+
+~1. Uses of the Brain.~--What do you think a boy or girl would be good
+for without any brain or nerves? Such a boy or girl could not see, hear,
+feel, talk, run about, or play, and would not know any more than a
+cabbage or a potato knows. If the brain or nerves are sick, they cannot
+work well, and so are not worth as much as when they are healthy.
+
+~2. The Brain Sympathizes with Other Organs.~--Did you ever have a
+headache? Did you feel happy and good-natured when your head ached hard,
+and could you study and play as well as when you are well? It is very
+important that we should keep our brain and nerves healthy, and to do
+this we must take good care of the stomach and all other organs, because
+the brain sympathizes with them when they are sick.
+
+~3. We must have Pure Air.~--How do you feel when the school-room is too
+warm and close? Do you not feel dull and sleepy and so stupid that you
+can hardly study? This is because the brain needs good, pure blood to
+enable it to work well. So we must always be careful to have plenty of
+pure air to breathe.
+
+~4. We should Exercise the Brain.~--What do we do when we want to
+strengthen our muscles? We make them work hard every day, do we not? The
+exercise makes them grow large and strong. It is just the same with our
+brains. If we study hard and learn our lessons well, then our brains
+grow strong, and study becomes easy. But if we only half study, and do
+not learn our lessons perfectly, then the study does not do our brains
+very much good.
+
+~5. We should Take Muscular Exercise.~--When you get tired of study, an
+hour's play, or exercise of some sort, rests you and makes you feel
+brighter, so that you can learn more easily. This is because exercise is
+necessary to make the blood circulate well. It will then carry out the
+worn-out particles and supply the brain and nerves with fresh, pure
+blood. So the same exercise which makes our muscles strong makes our
+brains healthier also.
+
+~6. We should be Careful of our Diet.~--We ought to eat plenty of good,
+simple food, such as milk, fruits, grains, and vegetables. It is not
+well for children to eat freely of meat, as it is very stimulating and
+likely to excite the brain and make the nerves irritable. Mustard,
+pepper, and all hot sauces and spices have a tendency to injure the
+brain and nerves.
+
+~7. We should Allow the Brain to Rest at the Proper Time.~--When we are
+tired and sleepy we cannot think well, and cannot remember what we learn
+if we try to study. If we have plenty of sleep, free from bad or
+exciting dreams, we awake in the morning rested and refreshed, because
+while we have been asleep Nature has put the brain and nerves in good
+repair for us. We ought not to stay up late at night. We should not eat
+late or hearty suppers, as this will prevent our sleeping well.
+
+~8. We Ought Not to Allow Ourselves to Become Angry.~--When a person
+flies into a passion he does his brain and nerves great harm. It is
+really dangerous to get angry. Persons have dropped dead instantly in a
+fit of anger.
+
+~9. We should Shun Bad Habits.~--Bad habits are very hard to give up,
+and hence we should be careful to avoid them. When a child learns to
+swear, or to use slang phrases, the brain after a while will make him
+swear or use bad words before he thinks. In a similar manner other bad
+habits are acquired.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. A person without a brain or nerves would be of no more account than a
+vegetable.
+
+2. When the brain or nerves are sick they cannot perform their duties
+properly.
+
+3. To keep the brain and nerves in good health, we must take good care
+of the stomach and all other important organs of the body.
+
+4. There are many things which we may do to keep the brain and nerves
+strong and well.
+
+5. The brain needs pure blood, and so we must be careful to breathe pure
+air.
+
+6. The brain gets strength by exercise, just as the muscles do. Hence,
+study is healthful, and makes the brain strong.
+
+7. A good memory is very necessary, but we should not try to remember
+everything.
+
+8. It is very important that we learn how to observe things closely.
+
+9. Exercise in the open air rests and clears the brain by helping the
+blood to circulate.
+
+10. Plenty of wholesome and simple food is necessary to keep the brain
+and nerves in good health. Spices, condiments, and rich foods in general
+are stimulating and harmful.
+
+11. Plenty of sleep is needed to rest the brain and nerves.
+
+12. It is dangerous as well as wicked to become very angry.
+
+13. We should be careful to avoid forming bad habits of any sort, as
+they are hard to break, and often adhere to one through life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.
+
+BAD EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
+
+
+~1. Drunkenness.~--Did you ever see a man who was drunk? If you live in
+a city it is very likely that you have. How did the drunken man behave?
+Perhaps he was noisy and silly. Perhaps he was angry and tried to pick a
+quarrel with some one.
+
+~2.~ What made the man drunk? You say whiskey, but it may have been
+wine, or beer, or hard cider that he drank. Anything that contains
+alcohol will make a man drunk, for it is the alcohol which does all the
+mischief.
+
+~3. The Whiskey Flush.~--You can almost always tell when a man has been
+drinking, even when he has not taken enough to make him drunk. You know
+by his flushed face and red eyes. When a man's face blushes from the use
+of alcohol, his whole body blushes at the same time. His muscles, his
+lungs, and his liver blush; his brain and spinal cord blush also.
+
+~4.~ When a man has taken just enough alcohol to make his face blush a
+little, the extra amount of blood in the brain makes him think and talk
+more lively, and he is very jolly and gay. This makes many people think
+that alcohol does them good. But if we notice what a man says when he is
+excited by alcohol, we shall find that his remarks are often silly and
+reckless. He says very unwise and foolish things, for which he feels
+sorry when he becomes sober.
+
+~5. Alcohol Paralyzes.~--How does a drunken man walk? Let us see why he
+staggers. When a man takes a certain amount of alcohol his small brain
+and spinal cord become partly paralyzed, so that they cannot do their
+duty well; and so, when he tries to walk he reels and stumbles along,
+often falling down, and sometimes hurting himself very much. The fact is
+that the alcohol has put his spinal cord and small brain to sleep so
+that he cannot make his legs do what he wants them to do. Now, if still
+more alcohol is taken the whole brain becomes paralyzed, and then the
+man is so nearly dead that we say he is "dead drunk." It is exceedingly
+dangerous to become dead drunk, as the brain may be so completely
+paralyzed that it will not recover.
+
+~6.~ A small amount of alcohol does not make a man dead drunk, but it
+poisons and paralyzes his brain and nerves just according to the
+quantity he takes.
+
+~7.~ If a person holds a little alcohol in his mouth for a few moments,
+the tongue and cheeks feel numb. This is because the alcohol paralyzes
+them so that they cannot feel or taste. When taken into the stomach it
+has much the same kind of effect upon the nerves of the whole body.
+
+~8. Alcohol a Deceiver.~--A hungry man takes a drink of whiskey and
+benumbs the nerves of his stomach so that he does not feel hungry.
+Alcohol puts to sleep the sentinels which Nature has set in the body to
+warn us of danger. A man who is cold takes alcohol and feels warm,
+though he is really colder. He lies down in his false comfort and
+freezes to death. A tired man takes his glass of grog and feels rested
+and strong, though he is really weaker than before. A poor man gets
+drunk and feels so rich that he spends what little money he has. The
+alcohol paralyzes his judgment and steals away his good sense. Thus
+alcohol is always a deceiver.
+
+~9. Delirium Tremens.~ (De-lir'-i-um Tre'-mens.)--When a man takes
+strong liquors regularly he very soon injures his brain and nerves so
+that they do not get quiet, as they should, at night, and he does not
+sleep well. He has frightful dreams. He sees all sorts of wild animals
+and horrid shapes in his dreams. Perhaps you have sometimes had such
+dreams from eating late suppers or indigestible food.
+
+~10.~ Did you ever have a dream when you were awake? If a man drinks a
+great deal he is likely to have a terrible disease known as _delirium
+tremens_, in which he sees the same frightful things when he is wide
+awake that he dreams about when he is asleep. This is one of the
+terrible effects of alcohol upon the brain and nerves.
+
+~11. Alcohol Paralysis.~--You have seen how a drunken man staggers when
+he walks. Did you ever see a man who walked just as though he were drunk
+when he was really sober? This is because a part of the brain or spinal
+cord has been permanently injured or paralyzed. Alcohol is not the only
+cause of this disease, and so you must not think every person who
+staggers is or has been a drunkard; but alcohol is a very frequent cause
+of paralysis.
+
+~12. Effects of Alcohol upon the Mind and Character.~--When a man is
+under the influence of alcohol is his character good or bad? Is a man
+likely to be good, or to be bad, when he is drunk or excited by drink?
+Most men behave badly when they are drunk, and after they have been
+drunk a great many times they often behave badly all the time. A great
+many of the men who are shut up in prisons would not have been sent
+there if they had never learned to drink.
+
+~13. A Legacy.~--Do you know what a legacy is? If your father should die
+and leave to you a fine house or farm, or money in the bank, or books,
+or horses, or any other kind of property to have for your own, it would
+be a legacy. When a person gets anything in this way from a parent we
+say that he inherits it.
+
+~14.~ We inherit a great many things besides houses and lands and other
+kinds of property. For instance, perhaps you remember hearing some one
+say that you have eyes and hair the same color as your mother's, and
+that your nose and chin are like your father's. So you have inherited
+the color of your hair and eyes from your mother and the shape of your
+chin and nose from your father.
+
+~15. The Alcohol Legacy.~--The inside of a boy's head is just as much
+like his parents' as the outside of it. In other words, we inherit our
+brains just as we do our faces. So, if a man spoils his brain with
+alcohol and gets an alcohol appetite, his children will be likely to
+have unhealthy brains and an appetite for alcohol also, and may become
+drunkards. Is not that a dreadful kind of legacy to inherit?
+
+~16.~ A child that has no mind is called an idiot. Such a child cannot
+talk, or read, or sing, and does not know enough to take proper care of
+itself. This is one of the bad legacies which drunken parents sometimes
+leave to their children.
+
+~17. Effects of Tobacco on the Brain and Nerves.~--The effects of
+tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as those of alcohol.
+Tobacco, like alcohol, is a narcotic. It benumbs and paralyzes the
+nerves, and it is by this means that it obtains such an influence over
+those who use it.
+
+~18.~ The hand of a man or boy who uses tobacco often becomes so
+unsteady that he can scarcely write. Do you know what makes it so
+unsteady? It is because the cells which send nerves to the muscles of
+the hand are diseased. When a person has a trembling hand you say he is
+nervous. If you feel his pulse you will find that it does not beat
+steadily and regularly as it ought to do. The heart is nervous and
+trembles just the same as the muscles do. This shows that the tobacco
+has poisoned the cells in the brain which regulate the heart.
+
+~19.~ Wise physicians will tell you that one reason why tobacco is bad
+for boys is that it hurts their brains so that they cannot learn well,
+and do not become as useful and successful men as they might be.
+
+~20.~ Students in the naval and military schools of this country are not
+allowed to use tobacco on account of its bad effects upon the mind. In
+France the use of tobacco is forbidden to all students in the public
+schools.
+
+~21. Tobacco Leads to Vice.~--Boys who use tobacco are more liable to
+get into company with boys who have other bad habits, and so are apt to
+become bad in many other ways. The use of tobacco often makes men want
+strong drink, and thus leads to drunkenness. If you wish to grow up with
+a steady hand, a strong heart, and a good character you will never touch
+tobacco.
+
+~22. Effects of Tea and Coffee on the Nerves.~--People who use strong
+tea and coffee are often inclined to be nervous. This shows that strong
+tea and coffee, like alcohol and tobacco, are very injurious to the
+nerves.
+
+~23. Opium, Chloral, etc.~--There are several drugs which are given by
+physicians to relieve pain or to produce sleep. They are sometimes
+helpful, but their use is very dangerous. Opium and chloral belong to
+this class of medicines. The danger is that, after a person has used the
+medicine a little while, he will continue to use it. If a person takes a
+poisonous drug every time he has a little pain, he will soon form the
+habit of using it, and may never break it off. There are many thousands
+of people who use opium all the time, and they are very much injured by
+it in mind and body. The mind becomes dull and stupid and the body weak
+and feeble. No medicine of this sort should ever be taken unless
+prescribed by a physician.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. In order to be well and useful we must keep the brain and nerves
+healthy.
+
+2. To keep the brain healthy we need plenty of pure air to breathe;
+proper exercise of the brain by study; sufficient exercise of the
+muscles in play and work; plenty of good food to make pure blood; a
+proper amount of rest and sleep.
+
+3. There are several things we ought not to do. We should not read or
+study too much. We should not allow ourselves to become excited or
+angry. We should avoid learning bad habits.
+
+4. Alcohol paralyzes the brain and nerves.
+
+5. Alcohol deceives a person who takes it by making him feel strong when
+he is weak; warm when he is cold; rich when he is poor; well when he is
+sick.
+
+6. Alcohol makes men wicked. Most men who commit crimes are men who use
+liquor.
+
+7. The effects of tobacco upon the brain and nerves are much the same as
+those of alcohol. Tobacco is very injurious to the mind.
+
+8. Tobacco-using often leads boys to drunkenness and other vices.
+
+9. The use of opium and chloral produces even worse effects than the use
+of alcohol or tobacco.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.
+
+HOW WE HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE, AND FEEL.
+
+
+~1. The Senses.~--We have five senses--_hearing_, _seeing_, _smelling_,
+_tasting_, and _feeling_. These are called special senses because they
+are very different from each other. They also differ from the general
+sense of feeling by means of which we feel pain when any part is hurt.
+
+~2. Organs of the Special Senses.~--Each of the special senses has a
+special set of nerves and also special cells in the brain which have
+charge of them. We say that we see with our eyes, hear with our ears,
+feel with our fingers, etc.; but, really, we see, hear, taste, and smell
+in the brain just as we feel in the brain. The eyes, ears, nose, and
+other organs of the special senses are the instruments by means of which
+the brain sees, hears, smells, etc.
+
+~3. Sound and the Vibrations which it Causes.~--All sounds are made by
+jars or vibrations of objects. Sounds cause objects to vibrate or
+tremble. A loud sound sometimes jars a whole house, while other sounds
+are so gentle and soft that we cannot feel them in the same way that we
+feel loud sounds. But Nature has made for us an ingenious organ by means
+of which we can feel these very fine vibrations as well as loud ones. We
+call this organ the _ear_.
+
+~4. The Ear.~--The part of the ear which we can see is shaped somewhat
+like a trumpet. The small opening near the middle of the ear leads into
+a _canal_ or tube which extends into the head about an inch. At the
+inner end there is a curious little chamber. This is called the _drum_
+of the ear, because between it and the canal of the ear there is
+stretched a thin membrane like the head of a drum. The ear-drum is also
+called the _middle ear_.
+
+[Illustration: THE EAR.]
+
+~5. Bones of the Ear.~--Within the drum of the ear there are three
+curious little bones which are joined together so as to make a complete
+chain, reaching from the drum-head to the other side of the drum. The
+last bone fits into a little hole which leads into another curious
+chamber. This chamber, which is called the _inner ear_, is filled with
+fluid, and in this fluid the nerve of hearing is spread out. A part of
+the inner ear looks very much like a snail shell.
+
+[Illustration: THE INSIDE OF THE EAR.]
+
+~6. How we Hear.~--Scratch with a pin upon one end of a long wooden
+pole. Have some one listen with the ear placed close against the other
+end of the pole. He will tell you that he hears the scratching of the
+pin very plainly. This is because the scratching jars the ear and
+especially the drum-head, which vibrates just as the head of a drum does
+when it is beaten with a drum-stick. When the drum-head vibrates it
+moves the bones of the ear, and these carry the vibration to the nerves
+of hearing in the inner chamber. We hear all sounds in the same way,
+only most sounds come to the ear through the air.
+
+The snail-shell of the inner part of the ear hears musical sounds. The
+rest of the inner ear hears ordinary sounds or noises.
+
+~7. How to Keep the Ears Healthy.~--The ears are very delicate organs
+and must be carefully treated. The following things about the care of
+the ears should never be forgotten:
+
+(1.) Never use a pin, toothpick, or any other sharp instrument to clean
+out the ear. There is great danger that the drum-head will be torn, and
+thus the hearing will be injured. Neither is it ever necessary to use an
+ear-spoon to remove the wax. Working at the ear causes more wax to form.
+
+(2.) Do not allow cold water to enter the ear or a cold wind to blow
+directly into it.
+
+(3.) If anything accidentally gets into the ear, do not work at it, but
+hold the head over to one side while water is made to run in from a
+syringe. If an insect has gone into the ear, pour in a little oil. This
+will kill the insect or make it come out.
+
+(4.) Never shout into another person's ear. The ear may be greatly
+injured in this way.
+
+(5.) Boxing or pulling the ears is likely to produce deafness, and ought
+never to be done.
+
+~8. The Eye.~--The eye is one of the most wonderful organs in the whole
+body. It enables us to know what is going on at some distance from us,
+and to enjoy many beautiful things which our sense of hearing and other
+senses can tell us nothing about. It also enables us to read. Let us
+learn how this wonderful organ is made.
+
+~9. The Eyeball.~--Looking at the eye, we see first a round part which
+rolls in different directions. This is the _eyeball_. We see only the
+front side of the eyeball as it fits into a hollow in the skull. Being
+thus in a safe place, it is not likely to get hurt.
+
+[Illustration: THE EYE.]
+
+The eyeball is mostly filled with a clear substance very much like
+jelly. It is so clear that the light can shine through it just as easily
+as it can shine through water.
+
+~10. The Pupil.~--If you look sharply at the eyeball you will see a
+small black hole just in the centre. This is a little window which lets
+the light into the inside of the eyeball. We call this the _pupil_. Just
+around the pupil is a colored ring which gives the eye its color. We say
+a person has blue or brown or gray eyes according as this ring is blue
+or brown or gray. This colored ring is a kind of curtain for the window
+of the eye.
+
+~11.~ If you observe the pupil closely, you will see that it is
+sometimes larger and sometimes smaller. If you look at the light the
+pupil is small; if you turn away from the light the pupil grows larger
+at once. This is because the curtain closes when in a bright light and
+opens in the darkness. It does this of itself without our thinking about
+it. In this way the eye is protected from too strong a light, which
+would do it great harm.
+
+~12.~ If you look a little sidewise at the eyeball, you will see that
+the curtain has something in front of it which is clear as glass. It is
+about the shape of a watch crystal, only very much smaller. This is to
+the eye what the glass is to the windows of a house. It closes the
+opening in the front of the eyeball and yet lets the light shine in.
+
+~13. The White of the Eye.~--The white of the eye is a tough, firm
+membrane which encloses the eyeball and keeps it in a round shape.
+
+~14. The Lens.~--Do you know what a lens is? Perhaps you do not know it
+by this name, but you are familiar with the spectacles which people
+sometimes wear to help their eyes. The glasses in the spectacle frames
+are called lenses. Well, there is something in the eye almost exactly
+like one of these lenses, only smaller. It is also called a _lens_. If
+some one will get the eye of an ox for you, you can cut it open and find
+this part. The lens is placed in the eyeball just behind the pupil. (See
+picture.)
+
+[Illustration: THE INSIDE OF THE EYE.]
+
+~15. The Nerves of Sight.~--But a person might have an eyeball with all
+the parts we have learned about and yet not be able to see. Can you tell
+what more is needed? There must be a nerve. This nerve comes from some
+little nerve cells in the brain and enters the eyeball at the back of
+the eye; there it is spread out on the inside of the black lining of the
+white of the eye.
+
+~16. The Eyelids.~--Now we know all that it is necessary for us to learn
+about the eyeball, so let us notice some other parts about the eye.
+First there are the eyelids. They are little folds of skin fringed with
+hairs, which we can shut up so as to cover the eyeball and keep out the
+light when we want to sleep or when we are in danger of getting dust or
+smoke into the eye. The hairs placed along the edge of the lids help to
+keep the dust out when the eyes are open.
+
+~17. The Eyebrows.~--The row of hairs placed above the eye is called the
+eyebrow. Like the eyelids, the eyebrows catch some substances which
+might fall into the eye, and they also serve to turn off the
+perspiration and keep it out of the eyes.
+
+~18. The Tear Gland.~--Do you know where the tears come from? There is a
+little gland snugly placed away in the socket of the eye just above the
+eyeball, which makes tears in the same way that the salivary glands make
+saliva. It is called the _tear gland_. The gland usually makes just
+enough tears to keep the eye moist. There are times when it makes more
+than enough, as when something gets into the eye, or when we suffer pain
+or feel unhappy. Then the tears are carried off by means of a little
+tube which runs down into the nose from the inner corner of the eye.
+When the tears are formed so fast that they cannot all get away through
+this tube, they pass over the edge of the lower eyelid and flow down the
+cheek.
+
+~19. Muscles of the Eyes.~--By means of little muscles which are
+fastened to the eyeball, we are able to turn the eye in almost every
+direction.
+
+~20. How we See.~--Now we want to know how we see with the eye. This is
+not very easy to understand, but we can learn something about it. Let us
+make a little experiment. Here is a glass lens. If we hold it before a
+window and place a piece of smooth white paper behind it, we can see a
+picture of the houses and trees and fences, and other things
+out-of-doors. The picture made by the lens looks exactly like the view
+out-of-doors, except that it is upside down. This is one of the curious
+things that a lens does. The lens of the eye acts just like a glass
+lens. It makes a picture of everything we see, upon the ends of the
+nerves of sight which are spread out at the back of the eyeball. The
+nerves of sight tell their nerves in the brain about the picture, just
+as the nerves of feeling tell their cells when they are touched with a
+pin; and this is how we see.
+
+~21.~ Did you ever look through a spyglass or an opera-glass? If so, you
+know you must make the tube longer or shorter according as you look at
+things near by or far away. The eye also has to be changed a little
+when we look from near to distant objects. Look out of the window at a
+tree a long way off. Now place a lead pencil between the eyes and the
+tree. You can scarcely see the pencil while you look sharply at the
+tree, and if you look at the pencil you cannot see the tree distinctly.
+
+~22.~ There is a little muscle in the eye which makes the change needed
+to enable us to see objects close by as well as those which are farther
+away. When people grow old the little muscles cannot do this so well,
+and hence old people have to put on glasses to see objects near by, as
+in reading. Children should not try to wear old persons' glasses, as
+this is likely to injure their eyes.
+
+~23. How to Keep the Eyes Healthy.~--(1.) Never continue the use of the
+eyes at fine work, such as reading or fancy-work, after they have become
+very tired.
+
+(2.) Do not try to read or to use the eyes with a poor light--in the
+twilight, for instance, before the gas or lamps are lighted.
+
+(3.) In reading or studying, do not sit with the light from either a
+lamp or a window shining directly upon the face. Have the light come
+from behind and shine over the left shoulder if possible.
+
+(4.) Never expose the eyes to a sudden, bright light by looking at the
+sun or at a lamp on first awaking in the morning, or by passing quickly
+from a dark room into a lighted one.
+
+(5.) Do not read when lying down, or when riding on a street car or
+railway train.
+
+(6.) If any object gets into the eye have it removed as soon as
+possible.
+
+(7.) A great many persons hurt their eyes by using various kinds of
+eye-washes. Never use anything of this kind unless told to do so by a
+good physician.
+
+~24. How we Smell.~--If we wish to smell anything very strongly, we
+sniff or suddenly draw the air up through the nose. We do this to bring
+more air to the nerves of smell, which are placed at the upper part of
+the inside of the nose.
+
+[Illustration: INSIDE OF THE NOSE.]
+
+~25.~ Smelling is a sort of feeling. The nerves of smell are so
+sensitive that they can discover things in the air which we cannot taste
+or see. An Indian uses his sense of smell to tell him whether things
+are good to eat or not. He knows that things which have a pleasant smell
+are likely to be good for him and not likely to make him sick.
+
+We do not make so much use of the sense of smell as do the savages and
+many lower animals, and hence we are not able to smell so acutely. Many
+persons lose the sense of smell altogether, from neglecting colds in the
+head.
+
+~26. How we Taste.~--The tongue and the palate have very delicate nerves
+by means of which we taste. We cannot taste with the whole of the
+tongue. The very tip of the tongue has only nerves of touch or feeling.
+
+~27.~ The use of the sense of taste is to give us pleasure and to tell
+us whether different substances are healthful or injurious. Things which
+are poisonous and likely to make us sick almost always have an
+unpleasant taste as well as an unpleasant odor. Things which have a
+pleasant taste are usually harmless.
+
+~28. Bad Tastes.~--People sometimes learn to like things which have a
+very unpleasant taste. Pepper, mustard, pepper-sauce, and other hot
+sauces, alcohol, and tobacco are harmful substances of this sort. When
+used freely they injure the sense of taste so that it cannot detect and
+enjoy fine and delicate flavors. These substances, as we have elsewhere
+learned, also do the stomach harm and injure the nerves and other parts
+of the body.
+
+~29. The Sense of Touch.~--If you put your hand upon an object you can
+tell whether it is hard or soft, smooth or rough, and can learn whether
+it is round or square, or of some other shape. You are able to do this
+by means of the nerves of touch, which are found in the skin in all
+parts of the body. If you wished to know how an object feels, would you
+touch it with the elbow, or the knee, or the cheek? You will say, No.
+You would feel of it with the hand, and would touch it with the ends of
+the fingers. You can feel objects better with the ends of the fingers
+because there are more nerves of touch in the part of the skin covering
+the ends of the fingers than in most other parts of the body.
+
+~30.~ The sense of touch is more delicate in the tip of the tongue than
+in any other part. This is because it is necessary to use the sense of
+touch in the tongue to assist the sense of taste in finding out whether
+things are good to eat or not. The sense of touch is also very useful to
+us in many other ways. We hardly know how useful it really is until we
+are deprived of some of our other senses, as sight or hearing. In a
+blind man the sense of touch often becomes surprisingly acute.
+
+~31. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Special Senses.~--All the
+special senses--hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling--depend upon
+the brain and nerves. Whatever does harm to the brain and nerves must
+injure the special senses also. We have learned how alcohol and tobacco,
+and all other narcotics and stimulants, injure and sometimes destroy the
+brain cells and their nerve branches, and so we can understand that a
+person who uses these poisonous substances will, by so doing, injure the
+delicate organs with which he hears, sees, smells, etc.
+
+~32.~ Persons who use tobacco and strong drink sometimes become blind,
+because these poisons injure the nerves of sight. The ears are
+frequently injured by the use of tobacco. Smoking cigarettes and
+snuff-taking destroy the sense of smell. The poison of the tobacco
+paralyzes the nerves of taste so that they cannot detect flavors.
+Tea-tasters and other persons who need to have a delicate sense of taste
+do not use either alcohol or tobacco.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. We have five special senses--hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and
+feeling.
+
+2. The ear is the organ of hearing, and has three parts, called the
+external ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The inner ear contains
+the nerve of hearing.
+
+3. The middle ear is separated from the external ear by the drum-head.
+The drum-head is connected with the inner ear by a chain of bones.
+
+4. Sounds cause the drum-head to vibrate. The ear-bones convey the
+vibration from the drum-head to the nerve of hearing.
+
+5. To keep the ear healthy we must avoid meddling with it or putting
+things into it.
+
+6. The eye is the organ of sight. The chief parts of the eye are the
+eyeball, the socket, and the eyelids.
+
+7. In the eyeball are the pupil, the lens, and the nerve of sight.
+
+8. The eyeball is moved in various directions by six small muscles.
+
+9. The eye is moistened by tears from the tear-gland.
+
+10. When we look at an object the lens of the eye makes a picture on the
+nerve of sight, at the back part of the eyeball.
+
+11. To keep the eyes healthy we should be careful not to tax them long
+at a time with fine work, or to use them in a poor light.
+
+12. The nerves of smell are placed in the upper part of the inside of
+the nose.
+
+13. "Colds" often destroy the sense of smell.
+
+14. The nerves of taste are placed in the tongue and palate.
+
+15. Many things which we think we taste we really do not taste, but
+smell or feel.
+
+16. Objects which have a pleasant taste are usually healthful, while
+those which have a bad taste are usually harmful.
+
+17. Pepper, mustard, etc., as well as alcohol and tobacco, have an
+unpleasant taste, and are not healthful. If we use them we shall injure
+the nerves of taste as well as other parts of the body.
+
+18. We feel objects by means of the sense of touch.
+
+19. The sense of touch is most acute at the tip of the tongue and the
+ends of the fingers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.
+
+ALCOHOL.
+
+
+~1.~ As we learned in the early part of our study of this subject,
+alcohol is produced by _fermentation_. It is afterwards separated from
+water and other substances by _distillation_. We will now learn a few
+more things about alcohol.
+
+~2. Alcohol Burns.~--If alcohol is placed in a lamp, it will burn much
+like kerosene oil. Indeed, it does not need a lamp to help it burn as
+does oil. If a few drops of alcohol are placed upon a plate, it may be
+lighted with a match, and will burn with a pale blue flame. Thus you see
+that alcohol is a sort of burning fluid.
+
+~3.~ The vapor of alcohol will burn also, and under some circumstances
+it will explode. On this account it is better not to try any experiments
+with it unless some older person is close by to direct you, so that no
+harm may be done. Alcohol is really a dangerous substance even though we
+do not take it as a drink.
+
+~4. An Interesting Experiment.~--We have told you that all fermented
+drinks contain alcohol. You will remember that wine, beer, ale, and
+cider are fermented drinks. We know that these drinks contain alcohol
+because the chemist can separate the alcohol from the water and other
+substances, and thus learn just how much alcohol each contains.
+
+~5.~ If we should remove all the alcohol from wine, no one would care to
+drink it. The same is true of beer and cider. It is very easy to remove
+the alcohol by the simple process of heating. This is the way the
+chemist separates it. The heat drives the alcohol off with the steam. If
+the heating is continued long enough, all the alcohol will be driven
+off. The Chinaman boils his wine before drinking it. Perhaps this is one
+reason why Chinamen are so seldom found drunken.
+
+~6.~ By a simple experiment which your parents or your teacher can
+perform for you, it can be readily proven that different fermented
+drinks contain alcohol, and also that the alcohol may be driven off by
+heat. Place a basin half full of water upon the stove where it will soon
+boil. Put into a glass bottle enough beer or cider so that when the
+bottle stands up in the basin the liquid in the bottle will be at about
+the same height as the water in the basin. Now place in the neck of the
+bottle a closely fitting cork in which there has been inserted a piece
+of the stem of a clay pipe or a small glass tube. Place the bottle in
+the basin. Watch carefully until the liquid in the bottle begins to
+boil. Now apply a lighted match to the end of the pipe-stem or glass
+tube. Perhaps you will observe nothing at first, but continue placing
+the match to the pipe-stem, and pretty soon you will notice a little
+blue flame burning at the end of the stem. It will go out often, but you
+can light it again. This is proof that alcohol is escaping from the
+liquid in the bottle. After the liquid has been boiling for some time,
+the flame goes out, and cannot be re-lighted, because the alcohol has
+been all driven off.
+
+[Illustration: Alcohol experiment.]
+
+~7. The Alcohol Breath.~--You have doubtless heard that a person who is
+under the influence of liquor may be known by his breath. His breath
+smells of alcohol. This is because his lungs are trying to remove the
+alcohol from his blood as fast as possible, so as to prevent injury to
+the blood corpuscles and the tissues of the body. It is the vapor of
+alcohol mixed with his breath that causes the odor.
+
+~8.~ You may have heard that sometimes men take such quantities of
+liquor that the breath becomes strong with the vapor of alcohol and
+takes fire when a light is brought near the mouth. These stories are
+probably not true, although it sometimes happens that persons become
+diseased in such a way that the breath will take fire if it comes in
+contact with a light. Alcohol may be a cause of this kind of disease.
+
+~9. Making Alcohol.~--It may be that some of our young readers would
+like to find out for themselves that alcohol is really made by
+fermentation. This may be done by an easy experiment. You know that
+yeast will cause bread to "rise" or ferment. As we have elsewhere
+learned, a little alcohol is formed in the fermentation of bread, but is
+driven off by the heat of the oven in baking, so that we do not take any
+of it into our stomachs when we eat the bread. If we place a little
+baker's yeast in sweetened water, it will cause it to ferment and
+produce alcohol. To make alcohol, all we have to do is to place a little
+yeast and some sweetened water in a bottle and put it away in a warm
+place for a few hours until it has had time to ferment. You will know
+when fermentation has taken place by the great number of small bubbles
+which appear. When the liquid has fermented, you may prove that alcohol
+is present by means of the same experiment by which you found the
+alcohol in cider or wine. (See page 160.)
+
+~10.~ Alcohol is made from the sweet juices of fruits by simply allowing
+them to ferment. Wine, as you know, is fermented grape juice. Cider is
+fermented apple juice. The strong alcoholic liquor obtained by
+distilling wine, cider, or any kind of fermented fruit juice, is known
+as brandy.
+
+~11. How Beer is Made.~--Beer is made from grain of some sort. The grain
+is first moistened and kept in a warm place for a few days until it
+begins to sprout. The young plant needs sugar for its food; and so while
+the grain is sprouting, the starch in the grain is changed into sugar by
+a curious kind of digestion. This, as you will remember, is the way in
+which the saliva acts upon starch. So far no very great harm has been
+done, only sprouted grain, though very sweet, is not so good to eat as
+grain which has not sprouted. Nature intends the sugar to be used as
+food for the little sproutlet; but the brewer wants it for another
+purpose, and he stops the growth of the plant by drying the grain in a
+hot room.
+
+~12.~ The next thing the brewer does is to grind the sprouted grain and
+soak it in water. The water dissolves out the sugar. Next he adds yeast
+to the sweet liquor and allows it to ferment, thus converting the sugar
+into alcohol. Potatoes are sometimes treated in a similar way.
+
+~13.~ By distilling beer, a strong liquor known as whiskey is obtained.
+Sometimes juniper berries are distilled with the beer. The liquor
+obtained is then called gin. In the West Indies, on the great sugar
+plantations, large quantities of liquor are made from the skimmings and
+cleanings of the vessels in which the sweet juice of the sugar-cane is
+boiled down. These refuse matters are mixed with water and fermented,
+then distilled. This liquor is called rum.
+
+~14.~ Now you have learned enough about alcohol to know that it is not
+produced by plants in the same way that food is, but that it is the
+result of a sort of decay. In making alcohol, good food is destroyed and
+made into a substance which is not fit for food, and which produces a
+great amount of sickness and destroys many lives. Do you not think it a
+pity that such great quantities of good corn and other grains should be
+wasted in this way when they might be employed for a useful purpose?
+
+~15. The Alcohol Family.~--Scientists tell us that there are several
+different kinds of alcohol. Naphtha is a strong-smelling liquid
+sometimes used by painters to thin their paint and make it dry quickly.
+It does not have the same odor as alcohol, but it looks and acts very
+much like it. It will burn as alcohol does. It kills animals and plants.
+It will make a person drunk if he takes a sufficient quantity of it.
+Indeed, it is so like alcohol that it really is a kind of alcohol.
+
+~16.~ There are also other kinds of alcohol. Fusel-oil, a deadly poison,
+is an alcohol. A very small amount of this alcohol will make a person
+very drunk. Fusel-oil is found in bad whiskey. (All whiskey is bad, but
+some kinds are worse than others.) This is why such whiskey makes men so
+furiously drunk. It also causes speedy death in those who use it
+frequently. There are still other kinds of alcohol, some of which are
+even worse than fusel-oil. So you see this is a very bad family.
+
+~17.~ Like most other bad families, this alcohol family has many bad
+relations. You have heard of carbolic acid, a powerful poison. This is
+one of the relatives of the alcohol family. Creosote is another
+poisonous substance closely related to alcohol. Ether and chloroform, by
+which people are made insensible during surgical operations, are also
+relatives of alcohol. They are, in fact, made from alcohol. These
+substances, although really useful, are very poisonous and dangerous. Do
+you not think it will be very wise and prudent for you to have nothing
+to do with alcohol in any form, even wine, beer, or cider, since it
+belongs to such a bad family and has so many bad relations?
+
+~18.~ Some persons think that they will suffer no harm if they take only
+wine or beer, or perhaps hard cider. This is a great mistake. A person
+may get drunk on any of these drinks if a sufficient amount be taken.
+Besides, boys who use wine, beer, or cider, rarely fail to become fond
+of stronger liquors. A great many men who have died drunkards began with
+cider. Cider begins to ferment within a day or two after it is made, and
+becomes stronger in alcohol all the time for many months.
+
+~19. "Bitters."~--There are other liquids not called "drinks" which
+contain alcohol. "Bitters" usually contain more alcohol than is found in
+ale or wine, and sometimes more than in the strongest whiskey. "Jamaica
+ginger" is almost pure alcohol. Hence, it is often as harmful for a
+person to use these medicines freely as to use alcoholic liquors in any
+other form.
+
+~20.~ Alcoholic liquors of all kinds are often adulterated. That is,
+they contain other poisons besides alcohol. In consequence of this,
+they may become even more harmful than when pure; but this does not make
+it safe to use even pure liquor. Alcohol is itself more harmful than the
+other drugs usually added in adulteration. It is important that you
+should know this, for many people think they will not suffer much harm
+from the use of alcohol if they are careful to obtain pure liquors.
+
+~21. Some Experiments.~--How many of you remember what you have learned
+in previous lessons about the poisonous effects of alcohol? Do people
+ever die at once from its effects? Only a short time ago a man made a
+bet that he could take five drinks of whiskey in five seconds. He
+dropped dead when he had swallowed the fourth glass. No one ever
+suffered such an effect from taking water or milk or any other good food
+or drink.
+
+~22.~ A man once made an experiment by mistake. He was carrying some
+alcohol across a lawn. He accidentally spilled some upon the grass. The
+next day he found the grass as dead and brown as though it had been
+scorched by fire.
+
+~23.~ Mr. Darwin, the great naturalist, once made a curious experiment.
+He took a little plant with three healthy green leaves, and shut it up
+under a glass jar where there was a tea-spoonful of alcohol. The
+alcohol was in a dish by itself, so it did not touch the plant; but the
+vapor of the alcohol mixed with the air in the jar so that the plant had
+to breathe it. In less than half an hour he took the plant out. Its
+leaves were faded and somewhat shrivelled. The next morning it appeared
+to be dead. Do you suppose the odor of milk or meat, or of any good
+food, would affect a plant like that? Animals shut up with alcohol die
+in just the same way.
+
+~24. A Drunken Plant.~--How many of you remember about a curious plant
+that catches flies? Do you remember its name? What does the Venus's
+fly-trap do with the flies after it catches them? Do you say that it
+eats them? Really this is what it does, for it dissolves and absorbs
+them. In other words, it digests them. This is just what our stomachs do
+to the food we eat.
+
+~25.~ A few years ago Mr. Darwin thought that he would see what effect
+alcohol would have upon the digestion of a plant. So he put a
+fly-catching plant in a jar with some alcohol for just five minutes. The
+alcohol did not touch the plant, because the jar was only wet with the
+alcohol on the inside. When he took the plant out, he found that it
+could not catch flies, and that its digestion was spoiled so that it
+could not even digest very tender bits of meat which were placed on its
+leaves. The plant was drunk.
+
+~26.~ Mr. Darwin tried a great many experiments with various poisons,
+and found that the plants were affected in much the same way by ether
+and chloroform, and also by nicotine, the poisonous oil of tobacco.
+Sugar, milk, and other foods had no such effect. This does not look much
+as though alcohol would help digestion; does it?
+
+~27. Effects of Alcohol on Digestion.~--Dr. Roberts, a very eminent
+English scientist, made many experiments, a few years ago, to ascertain
+positively about the effect of alcohol upon digestion. He concluded that
+alcohol, even in small doses, delays digestion. This is quite contrary
+to the belief of very many people, who suppose that wine, cider, or
+stronger liquors aid digestion. The use of alcohol in the form of beer
+or other alcoholic drinks is often a cause of serious disease of the
+stomach and other digestive organs.
+
+~28. Effects of Alcohol on Animal Heat.~--A large part of the food we
+eat is used in keeping our bodies warm. Most of the starch, sugar, and
+fat in our food serves the body as a sort of fuel. It is by this means
+that the body is kept always at about the same temperature, which is
+just a little less than one hundred degrees. This is why we need more
+food in very cold weather than in very warm weather.
+
+~29.~ When a person takes alcohol, it is found that instead of being
+made warmer by it, he is not so warm as before. He feels warmer, but if
+his temperature be ascertained by means of a thermometer placed in his
+mouth, it is found that he is really colder. The more alcohol a person
+takes the colder he becomes. If alcohol were good food would we expect
+this to be the case? It is probably true that the alcohol does make a
+little heat, but at the same time it causes us to lose much more heat
+than it makes. The outside of the body is not so warm as the inside.
+This is because the warm blood in the blood-vessels of the skin is
+cooled more rapidly than the blood in the interior of the body. The
+effect of alcohol is to cause the blood-vessels of the outside of the
+body to become much enlarged. This is why the face becomes flushed. A
+larger amount of warm blood is brought from the inside of the body to
+the outside, where it is cooled very rapidly; and thus the body loses
+heat, instead of gaining it, under the influence of alcohol. This is not
+true of any proper food substance.
+
+~30. Alcohol in the Polar Regions.~--Experience teaches the same thing
+as science respecting the effect of alcohol. Captain Ross, Dr. Kane,
+Captain Parry, Captain Hall, Lieutenant Greely, and many other famous
+explorers who have spent long months amid the ice and snow and intense
+cold of the countries near the North Pole, all say that alcohol does not
+warm a man when he is cold, and does not keep him from getting cold.
+Indeed, alcohol is considered so dangerous in these cold regions that no
+Arctic explorer at the present time could be induced to use it. The
+Hudson Bay Company do not allow the men who work for them to use any
+kind of alcoholic liquors. Alcohol is a great deceiver, is it not? It
+makes a man think he is warmer, when he is really colder. Many men are
+frozen to death while drunk.
+
+~31. Alcohol in Hot Regions.~--Bruce, Livingstone, and Stanley, and all
+great African travellers, condemn the use of alcohol in that hot country
+as well as elsewhere. The Yuma Indians, who live in Arizona and New
+Mexico, where the weather is sometimes much hotter than we ever know it
+here, have made a law of their own against the use of liquor. If one of
+the tribe becomes drunk, he is severely punished. This law they have
+made because of the evil effects of liquor which they noticed among the
+members of their tribe who used to become intoxicated. Do you not think
+that a very wise thing for Indians to do?
+
+~32. Sunstroke.~--Do you know what sunstroke is? If you do not, your
+parents or teacher will tell yow that persons exposed to the heat of the
+sun on a hot summer day are sometimes overcome by it. They become weak,
+giddy, or insensible, and not infrequently die. Scores of people are
+sometimes stricken down in a single day in some of our large cities. It
+may occur to you that if alcohol cools the body, it would be a good
+thing for a person to take to prevent or relieve an attack of sunstroke.
+On the contrary, it is found that those who use alcoholic drinks are
+much more liable to sunstroke than others. This is on account of the
+poisonous effects of the alcohol upon the nerves. No doctor would think
+of giving alcohol in any form to a man suffering with sunstroke.
+
+~33. Effects of Alcohol upon the Tissues.~--Here are two interesting
+experiments which your teacher or parents can make for you.
+
+_Experiment 1._ Place a piece of tender beefsteak in a saucer and cover
+it with alcohol. Put it away over night. In the morning the beefsteak
+will be found to be shrunken, dried, and almost as tough as a piece of
+leather. This shows the effect of alcohol upon the tissues, which are
+essentially like those of lower animals.
+
+_Experiment 2._ Break an egg into a half glassful of alcohol. Stir the
+egg and alcohol together for a few minutes. Soon you will see that the
+egg begins to harden and look just as though it had been boiled.
+
+~34.~ This is the effect of strong alcohol. The alcohol of alcoholic
+drinks has water and other things mixed with it, so that it does not act
+so quickly nor so severely as pure alcohol; but the effect is
+essentially the same in character. It is partly in this way that the
+brain, nerves, muscles, and other tissues of drinking men and women
+become diseased.
+
+Eminent physicians tell us that a large share of the unfortunate persons
+who are shut up in insane asylums are brought there by alcohol. Is it
+not a dreadful thing that one's mind should be thus ruined by a useless
+and harmful practice?
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+1. Alcohol is produced by fermentation, and obtained by distillation. It
+will burn like kerosene oil and other burning fluids.
+
+2. The vapor of alcohol will burn and will sometimes explode.
+
+3. Alcohol may be separated from beer and other fermented liquids by
+boiling.
+
+4. Brandy is distilled from fermented fruit juice, whiskey and gin from
+beer or fermented grains, rum from fermented molasses.
+
+5. Alcohol is the result of a sort of decay, and much good food is
+destroyed in producing it.
+
+6. Besides ordinary alcohol, there are several other kinds. Naphtha and
+fusel-oil are alcohols.
+
+7. All the members of the alcohol family are poisons; all will burn, and
+all will intoxicate. The alcohol family have several bad relations,
+among which are carbolic acid, ether, and chloroform.
+
+8. Cider, beer, and wine are harmful and dangerous as well as strong
+liquors. "Bitters" often contain as much alcohol as the strongest
+liquors, and sometimes more.
+
+9. Alcoholic liquors are sometimes adulterated, but they usually contain
+no poison worse than alcohol. Pure alcohol is scarcely less dangerous
+than that which is adulterated.
+
+10. Death sometimes occurs almost instantly from taking strong liquors.
+
+11. Alcohol will kill grass and other plants, if poured upon them or
+about their roots.
+
+12. Mr. Darwin proved that the vapor of alcohol will kill plants; also
+that plants become intoxicated by breathing the vapor of alcohol.
+
+13. Alcohol, even in small quantities, hinders digestion.
+
+14. Alcohol causes the body to lose heat so rapidly that it becomes
+cooler instead of warmer.
+
+15. The danger of freezing to death when exposed to extreme cold is
+greatly increased by taking alcohol.
+
+16. Stanley, and other African explorers, say that it is dangerous to
+use alcoholic drinks in hot climates.
+
+17. In very hot weather, persons who use alcoholic drinks are more
+subject to sunstroke than those who do not.
+
+18. Beefsteak soaked in alcohol becomes tough like leather. An egg
+placed in alcohol is hardened as though it had been boiled.
+
+19. The effect of alcohol upon the brain, nerves, and other tissues of
+the body is much the same as upon the beefsteak and the egg.
+
+
+
+
+QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
+
+
+CHAPTER I. THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN.--What is the body like? Does
+the body resemble anything else besides a house? How is it like a
+machine? Name the different parts of the body. What is anatomy?
+physiology? hygiene?
+
+CHAPTER II. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE BODY.--What are the main
+parts of the body? Name the different parts of the head; of the trunk;
+of each arm; of each leg. What covers the body?
+
+CHAPTER III. THE INSIDE OF THE BODY.--What is the name of the
+framework of the body? What is the skull? How is the back-bone formed?
+Name the two cavities of the trunk. What does the chest contain? the
+abdomen?
+
+CHAPTER IV. OUR FOODS.--Of what are our bodies made? What are
+foods? Where do we get our foods? Name some animal foods; some vegetable
+foods. What are poisons?
+
+CHAPTER V. UNHEALTHFUL FOODS.--Is the flesh of diseased animals
+good for food? What can you say about unripe, stale, or mouldy foods?
+What is adulteration of foods? What foods are most likely to be
+adulterated? Are pepper, mustard, and other condiments proper foods?
+What about tobacco? What is the effect of tobacco upon boys?
+
+CHAPTER VI. OUR DRINKS.--What is the only thing that will
+satisfy thirst? Why do we need water? How does water sometimes become
+impure? What is the effect of using impure water? What are the
+properties of good water? Are tea and coffee good drinks? How is alcohol
+made? Give familiar examples of fermentation. How are pure alcohol and
+strong liquors made? Is alcohol a food? Why do you think it is a poison?
+Do you think moderate drinking is healthful?
+
+CHAPTER VII. HOW WE DIGEST.--What is digestion? What is the
+digestive tube? Name the different digestive organs. How many sets of
+teeth has a person in his lifetime? How many teeth in each set? How many
+pairs of salivary glands? What do they form? What is the gullet?
+Describe the stomach. What is the gastric juice? How long is the
+intestinal canal? What fluid is formed in the intestines? Where is the
+liver found, and how large is it? What does the liver produce? What is
+the gall-bladder, and what is its use? What does the liver do besides
+producing bile? What and where is the pancreas? What does the pancreas
+do? Where is the spleen? How many important organs of digestion are
+there? How many digestive fluids?
+
+CHAPTER VIII. DIGESTION OF A MOUTHFUL OF BREAD.--Name the
+different processes of digestion [mastication, action of saliva,
+swallowing, action of stomach and gastric juice, action of bile, action
+of pancreatic juice, action of intestines and intestinal juice,
+absorption, liver digestion]. Describe the digestion of a mouthful of
+bread. Where is the food taken after it has been absorbed? What are the
+lacteals? What is the thoracic duct?
+
+CHAPTER IX. BAD HABITS IN EATING.--What is indigestion? Mention
+some of the causes of indigestion. How does eating too fast cause
+indigestion? Eating too much? too frequently? Irregularly? when tired?
+How do tea and coffee impair digestion? Why is it harmful to use iced
+foods and drinks? Why should we not eat pepper and other hot and
+irritating things? How should the teeth be cared for? How does
+tobacco-using affect the stomach? What dreadful disease is sometimes
+caused by tobacco? How does alcohol affect the gastric juice? the
+stomach? the liver?
+
+CHAPTER X. A DROP OF BLOOD.--What does the blood contain? How
+many kinds of blood corpuscles are there? What work is done for the body
+by each kind of corpuscles?
+
+CHAPTER XI. WHY THE HEART BEATS.--Where is the heart? Why does
+the heart beat? How many chambers has the heart? What are the
+blood-vessels? How many kinds of blood-vessels are there? Name them.
+What is the difference between venous blood and arterial blood? What
+change occurs in the blood in the lungs? What is the pulse? How much
+work does the heart do every twenty-four hours? What are the lymphatics?
+What do they contain, and what is their purpose? What are lymphatic
+glands?
+
+CHAPTER XII. HOW TO KEEP THE HEART AND BLOOD HEALTHY.--Name
+some things likely to injure the heart or the blood. What is the effect
+of violent exercise? of bad air? of bad food? of loss of sleep? of
+violent anger? What can you say about clothing? What is the effect of
+alcohol upon the blood? the heart? the bodily heat? What is the effect
+of tobacco upon the heart? the pulse? the blood? What is the effect of
+tea and coffee upon the heart? What is a cold? In a case of bleeding
+from a wound, how can you tell whether a vein or an artery is cut? How
+would you stop the bleeding from an artery? from a vein? How would you
+stop nose-bleed?
+
+CHAPTER XIII. WHY AND HOW WE BREATHE.--What happens to a
+lighted candle if shut up in a small, close place? to a mouse? Why is
+air so necessary for a burning candle and for animals? How is the heat
+of our bodies produced? Name the principal organs of breathing.
+Describe each. How do we use the lungs in breathing? How much air will a
+man's lungs hold? How much air do we use with each breath? What
+poisonous substance does the air which we breathe out contain? Will a
+candle burn in air which has been breathed? What happens to animals
+placed in such air? What change takes place in the blood as it passes
+through the lungs? How do plants purify the air?
+
+CHAPTER XIV. HOW TO KEEP THE LUNGS HEALTHY.--What is the thing
+most necessary to preserve life? Name some of the ways in which the
+blood becomes impure. Why is bad-smelling air dangerous to health? What
+are germs? Why are some diseases "catching"? Name some such diseases.
+What should be done with a person who has a "catching" disease? What is
+the effect of the breath upon the air? How much air is poisoned and made
+unfit to breathe by each breath? How much air do we spoil every minute?
+every hour? How much pure air does each person need every minute? every
+hour? How do we get fresh air into our houses? Why are windows and doors
+not good means of ventilating in cold weather? How should a room be
+ventilated? How should we use the lungs in breathing? What about the
+clothing in reference to the lungs? Why is it injurious to breathe
+habitually through the mouth? What is the effect of alcohol upon the
+lungs? What is the effect of tobacco-using upon the throat and nose?
+
+CHAPTER XV. THE SKIN AND WHAT IT DOES.--How many layers in the
+skin? What is each called? To what is the color of the skin due? What
+glands are found in the true skin? What are the nails and what is their
+purpose? How does the hair grow? Name the different uses of the skin?
+
+CHAPTER XVI. HOW TO TAKE CARE OF THE SKIN.--What happened to
+the little boy who was covered with gold leaf? Why did he die? What is
+the effect of neglecting to keep the skin clean? What is the effect of
+wearing too much clothing and living in rooms which are too warm? How
+should the hair be cared for? the nails? What is the effect of alcohol,
+tobacco, and other narcotics upon the skin?
+
+CHAPTER XVII. THE KIDNEYS AND THEIR WORK.--What is the work of
+the kidneys? How may we keep these organs healthy? What is the effect of
+alcohol upon the kidneys?
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. OUR BONES AND THEIR USES.--How many bones in the
+body? What are the bones called when taken all together? Name the
+principal parts of the skeleton. Name the bones of the trunk, of the
+arms, of the legs. What are the uses of the bones? What is a joint? What
+is cartilage? By what are the bones held together? Of what are the bones
+largely composed?
+
+CHAPTER XIX. HOW TO KEEP THE BONES HEALTHY.--What sort of
+bread is best for the bones? Why? If a child tries to walk too early why
+are its legs likely to become crooked? What are the effects of sitting
+or lying in bad positions? Of wearing tight or poorly-fitting clothing?
+Of tight or high-heeled shoes? What injuries are likely to happen to the
+bones and joints by accident or rough play?
+
+CHAPTER XX. THE MUSCLES AND HOW WE USE THEM.--How many muscles
+in the body? Of what are the muscles composed? How are many of the
+muscles connected to the bones? To what are all bodily movements due?
+How do the muscles act? What causes the muscles to act? Do all muscles
+act only when we will to have them act?
+
+CHAPTER XXI. HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY.--What makes the
+right arm of the blacksmith stronger than the left one? How should
+exercise be taken? Mention some things in relation to the use of the
+muscles which we ought not to do, and state the reasons why. What is the
+effect of alcohol upon the muscles? of tobacco? of tea and coffee?
+
+CHAPTER XXII. HOW WE FEEL AND THINK.--With what part of the
+body do we think? How many brains does a man have? How is each brain
+divided? Of what is the brain largely composed? Where do the nerves
+begin? What is the spinal cord? Why does it cause pain to prick the
+finger? How many kinds of nerves are there? (_Ans._ Two; nerves of
+feeling and nerves of work.) Name some of the different kinds of nerves
+of feeling? Name some of the different kinds of work controlled by the
+nerves of work. Of what use to the body are the brain and nerves? How
+does the brain use the nerves? Of what use is the large brain? What does
+the little brain do? Of what use is the spinal cord?
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. HOW TO KEEP THE BRAIN AND NERVES
+HEALTHY.--Mention some things which we need to do to keep the brain
+and nerves healthy. Mention some things which we ought not to do.
+
+CHAPTER XXIV. BAD EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL UPON THE BRAIN AND
+NERVES.--What is the effect of alcohol upon the brain and nerves?
+Does alcohol produce real strength? Does it produce real warmth? Does
+alcohol make people better or worse? What is the effect of tobacco upon
+the brain and nerves? Does the use of tobacco lead to other evil habits?
+What about the effect of opium and other narcotics?
+
+CHAPTER XXV. HOW WE HEAR, SEE, SMELL, TASTE, AND FEEL.--How
+many senses have we? What is the ear? Name the three parts of the ear.
+How do we hear? How should we treat the ear?
+
+Name the principal parts of the eye? What are found in the eyeball? How
+is the eyeball moved in the socket? How is the eye moistened? Of what
+use is the lens of the eye? Of what use is the pupil of the eye? How may
+we preserve the eyesight?
+
+Where are the nerves of smell located? Of what use is the sense of
+smell?
+
+Where are the nerves of taste found? How is the sense of taste sometimes
+injured or lost? What do we detect with the sense of taste? Of what use
+to us is the sense of taste?
+
+With what sense do we feel objects? In what parts of the body is this
+sense most delicate? Upon what do all the special senses depend? Does
+anything that injures the brain and nerves also injure the special
+senses? What is the effect of alcohol and tobacco upon the sense of
+sight? How is the hearing affected by tobacco-using? The sense of smell?
+The sense of taste?
+
+CHAPTER XXVI. ALCOHOL.--How is alcohol produced? In what
+respect is alcohol like kerosene oil? Is alcohol a dangerous thing even
+if we do not drink it? How can you prove that there is alcohol in wine,
+beer, cider, and other fermented drinks? Can you tell by the odor of his
+breath when a person has been drinking? Why? Does the breath ever take
+fire? May alcohol be a cause? From what is brandy made? How are whiskey,
+gin, and rum made? Is alcohol a result of growth, like fruits and
+grains, or of decay? Is there more than one kind of alcohol? Mention
+some of the members of the alcohol family. In what ways are the members
+of this family alike? Name some of the bad relations. Are cider and
+beer, as well as whiskey, dangerous? Why? Mention some other things,
+besides drinks, which contain alcohol. Are alcoholic drinks adulterated?
+Is pure alcohol safe? Is instant death ever produced by alcohol? Will
+alcohol kill plants? Describe Mr. Darwin's experiment which proved this.
+Can plants be made drunk by alcohol? Describe the experiment which
+proves this. What has Dr. Roberts proven concerning the influence of
+alcohol upon digestion? How are our bodies kept warm? Explain how
+alcohol makes the body cooler? Do Arctic explorers use alcohol? Why not?
+Does the use of alcohol prevent sunstroke? What do Stanley and
+Livingstone say about the use of alcohol in Africa? What is the effect
+of using alcohol upon meat and eggs? What is the effect of alcohol upon
+the brain and other tissues of the body? Does alcohol cause insanity and
+other diseases of the brain and nerves?
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[A] More properly _Carbonic dioxid_.
+
+[B] For the sake of brevity and clearness the author has included under
+the term "little brain" the _medulla oblongata_ as well as the
+_cerebellum_.
+
+
+THE END.
+
+
+
+
+Aids to Field and Laboratory Work in Botany
+
+_Apgars' Plant Analysis._ By E.A. and A.C. APGAR.
+
+Cloth, small 4to, 124 pages                                   55 cents
+
+A book of blank schedules, adapted to Gray's Botanies, for pupils' use
+in writing and preserving brief systematic descriptions of the plants
+analyzed by them in field or class work. Space is allowed for
+descriptions of about one hundred and twenty-four plants with an
+alphabetical index.
+
+An analytical arrangement of botanical terms is provided, in which the
+words defined are illustrated by small wood cuts, which show at a glance
+the characteristics named in the definition.
+
+By using the Plant Analysis, pupils will become familiar with the
+meaning of botanical terms, and will learn how to apply these terms in
+botanical descriptions.
+
+_Apgar's Trees of the Northern United States_
+
+Their Study, Description, and Determination. For the use of Schools and
+Private Students. By AUSTIN C. APGAR.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 224 pages. Copiously Illustrated                 $1.00
+
+This work has been prepared as an accessory to the study of Botany, and
+to assist and encourage teachers in introducing into their classes
+instruction in Nature Study. The trees of our forests, lawns, yards,
+orchards, streets, borders and parks afford a most favorable and
+fruitful field for the purposes of such study. They are real objects of
+nature, easily accessible, and of such a character as to admit of being
+studied at all seasons and in all localities. Besides, the subject is
+one of general and increasing interest, and one that can be taught
+successfully by those who have had no regular scientific training.
+
+
+_Copies of either of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any
+address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+STORER AND LINDSAY'S
+
+~Elementary Manual of Chemistry~
+
+By F.H. STORER, S.B., A.M., and W.B. LINDSAY, A.B., B.S.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 453 pages. Illustrated.                   Price, $1.20
+
+This work is the lineal descendant of the "Manual of Inorganic
+Chemistry" of Eliot and Storer, and the "Elementary Manual of Chemistry"
+of Eliot, Storer and Nichols. It is in fact the last named book
+thoroughly revised, rewritten and enlarged to represent the present
+condition of chemical knowledge and to meet the demands of American
+teachers for a class book on Chemistry, at once scientific in statement
+and clear in method.
+
+The purpose of the book is to facilitate the study and teaching of
+Chemistry by the experimental and inductive method. It presents the
+leading facts and theories of the science in such simple and concise
+manner that they can be readily understood and applied by the student.
+The book is equally valuable in the class-room and the laboratory. The
+instructor will find in it the essentials of chemical science developed
+in easy and appropriate sequence, its facts and generalizations
+expressed accurately and scientifically as well as clearly, forcibly and
+elegantly.
+
+     "It is safe to say that no text-book has exerted so wide an
+     influence on the study of chemistry in this country as this work,
+     originally written by Eliot and Storer. Its distinguished authors
+     were leaders in teaching Chemistry as a means of mental training in
+     general education, and in organizing and perfecting a system of
+     instructing students in large classes by the experimental method.
+     As revised and improved by Professor Nichols, it continued to give
+     the highest satisfaction in our best schools and colleges. After
+     the death of Professor Nichols, when it became necessary to revise
+     the work again, Professor Lindsay, of Dickinson College, was
+     selected to assist Dr. Storer in the work. The present edition has
+     been entirely rewritten by them, following throughout the same plan
+     and arrangement of the previous editions, which have been so highly
+     approved by a generation of scholars and teachers.
+
+     "If a book, like an individual, has a history, certainly the record
+     of this one, covering a period of nearly thirty years, is of the
+     highest and most honorable character."--_From The American Journal
+     of Science._
+
+_Copies of this book will be sent prepaid to any address, on receipt of
+the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+~Chemistry~
+
+TEXT-BOOKS AND LABORATORY METHODS
+
+  Storer and Lindsay's Elementary Manual of Chemistry
+  By F.H. STORER, A.M., S.B., and W.B. LINDSAY, Ph.D.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 453 pages                                      $1.20
+  A standard manual for secondary schools and colleges.
+
+  Clarke's Elements of Chemistry
+  By F.W. CLARKE. Cloth, 12mo, 379 pages                      $1.20
+  A scientific book for high schools and colleges.
+
+  Cooley's New Elementary Chemistry for Beginners
+  By LEROY C. COOLEY, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 300 pages            72 cents
+  A book of experimental chemistry for beginners.
+
+  Steele's Popular Chemistry
+  By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 343 pages           $1.00
+  A popular treatise for schools and private students.
+
+  Youmans's Class-Book of Chemistry
+  By E.L. YOUMANS, M.D. Revised by W.J. Youmans, M.D.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 404 pages                                      $1.22
+  For schools, colleges, and general reading.
+
+  Brewster's First Book of Chemistry
+  By MARY SHAW-BREWSTER. Boards, 12mo, 144 pages              66 cents
+  An elementary class-book for beginners in the study.
+
+  Armstrong and Norton's Laboratory Manual of Chemistry
+  By JAMES E. ARMSTRONG and JAMES H. NORTON.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 144 pages                                      50 cents
+  A brief course of experiments in chemistry,
+  covering about forty weeks' work in the laboratory.
+
+  Cooley's Laboratory Studies in Chemistry
+  By LEROY C. COOLEY, Ph.D. Cloth, 8vo, 144 pages             50 cents
+  A carefully selected series of 151 experiments,
+  designed to teach the fundamental facts and
+  principles of chemistry for secondary schools.
+
+  Keiser's Laboratory Work in Chemistry
+  By EDWARD H. KEISER, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 119 pages           50 cents
+  A series of experiments in general inorganic chemistry,
+  intended to illustrate and supplement the work of the
+  class-room.
+
+  Qualitative Chemical Analysis of Inorganic Substances
+  As practiced in Georgetown College, D.C.
+  Cloth, 4to, 61 pages                                        $1.50
+  Designed to serve as both text-book and laboratory
+  manual in Qualitative Analysis.
+
+
+_Copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
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+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+~Physics~
+
+  Cooley's Student's Manual of Physics
+  For the Study Room and Laboratory. By L.C. COOLEY,
+  Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Vassar College.
+  Cloth, 12mo, 448 pages. Illustrated                         $1.00
+  A new text-book in Physics for high schools, academies, and colleges. It
+  embodies a full and thorough treatment of the laws of physics, the best
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+  physics, and a full course in laboratory practice. Special care has been
+  taken to select experiments which will not overtax the capacities of
+  beginners nor require expensive apparatus, but which at the same time
+  will call for systematic and original work and lead to accurate results.
+
+  Harrington's Physics for Grammar Schools
+  BY C.L. HARRINGTON, M.A. Cloth, 12mo, 123 pages.            50 cents
+  A practical text-book based on the natural or experimental method,
+  elementary enough for pupils in grammar schools, and affording a
+  thorough preparation for advanced study.
+
+  Appletons' School Physics
+  Cloth, 12mo, 552 pages                                      $1.20
+  A thoroughly modern text-book on Natural Philosophy, which
+  reflects the most advanced pedagogical methods and the latest laboratory
+  practice.
+
+  Steele's Popular Physics
+  By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 392 pages           $1.00
+  A popular text-book, in which the principles of the science are
+  presented in such an attractive manner as to awaken and fix the attention
+  of every pupil.
+
+  Trowbridge's New Physics
+  By JOHN TROWBRIDGE, S.D. Cloth, 12mo, 387 pages             $1.20
+  A thoroughly modern work, intended as a class manual of Physics
+  for colleges and advanced preparatory schools.
+
+  Hammel's Observation Blanks in Physics
+  By WILLIAM C.A. HAMMEL.
+  Flexible, quarto, 42 pages. Illustrated                     30 cents
+  A pupil's laboratory manual and notebook for the first term's work.
+  Blanks are left in which the pupil writes his observations and the
+  principles illustrated.
+
+
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+American Book Company
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+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Laboratory Physics
+
+Hammel's Observation Blanks in Physics
+
+By WILLIAM C.A. HAMMEL, Professor of Physics in Maryland State
+School, Boards, Quarto, 42 pages. Illustrated                 30 cents
+
+These Observation Blanks are designed for use as a Pupil's Laboratory
+Manual and Note Book for the first term's work in the study of Physics.
+They combine in convenient form descriptions and illustrations of the
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+reference to the elements of Air, Liquids, and Heat; directions for
+making the required apparatus from simple inexpensive materials, and for
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+observed and inferred concerning the experiment and the principle
+illustrated.
+
+The experiments are carefully selected in the light of experience and
+arranged in logical order. The treatment throughout is in accordance
+with the best laboratory practice of the day.
+
+Hon. W.T. Harris, U.S. Commissioner of Education, says of these Blanks:
+
+"I have seen several attempts to assist the work of pupils engaged in
+the study of Physics, but I have never seen anything which promises to
+be of such practical assistance as Hammel's Observation Blanks."
+
+
+_Specimen copies of the above book will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Burnet's Zooelogy
+
+FOR
+
+HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES
+
+BY
+
+  MARGARETTA BURNET
+  Teacher of Zooelogy, Woodward High School, Cincinnati, O.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages. Illustrated.                   Price, 75 cents
+
+This new text-book on Zooelogy is intended for classes in High Schools,
+Academies, and other Secondary Schools. While sufficiently elementary
+for beginners in the study it is full and comprehensive enough for
+students pursuing a regular course in the Natural Sciences. It has been
+prepared by a practical teacher, and is the direct result of school-room
+experience, field observation and laboratory practice.
+
+The design of the book is to give a good general knowledge of the
+subject of Zooelogy, to cultivate an interest in nature study, and to
+encourage the pupil to observe and to compare for himself and then to
+arrange and classify his knowledge. Only typical or principal forms are
+described, and in their description only such technical terms are used
+as are necessary, and these are carefully defined.
+
+Each subject is fully illustrated, the illustrations being selected and
+arranged to aid the pupil in understanding the structure of each form.
+
+
+_Copies of Burnet's School Zooelogy will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Zooelogy and Natural History
+
+Burnet's School Zooelogy
+
+By MARGARETTA BURNET. Cloth, 12mo, 216 pages                  75 cents
+
+A new text-book for high schools and academies, by a practical teacher;
+sufficiently elementary for beginners and full enough for the usual
+course in Natural History.
+
+Needham's Elementary Lessons in Zooelogy
+
+By JAMES G. NEEDHAM, M.S. Cloth, 12mo, 302 pages              90 cents
+
+An elementary text-book for high schools, academies, normal schools and
+preparatory college classes. Special attention is given to the study by
+scientific methods, laboratory practice, microscopic study and practical
+zooetomy.
+
+Cooper's Animal Life
+
+By SARAH COOPER. Cloth, 12mo, 427 pages                       $1.25
+
+An attractive book for young people. Admirably adapted for supplementary
+readings in Natural History.
+
+Holders' Elementary Zooelogy
+
+By C.F. HOLDER, and J.B. HOLDER, M.D.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 401 pages                                        $1.20
+
+A text-book for high school classes and other schools of secondary
+grade.
+
+Hooker's Natural History
+
+By WORTHINGTON HOOKER, M.D. Cloth, 12mo, 394 pages 90 cents
+
+Designed either for the use of schools or for the general reader.
+
+Morse's First Book in Zooelogy
+
+By EDWARD S. MORSE, Ph.D. Boards, 12mo, 204 pages             87 cents
+
+For the first study of animal life. The examples presented are such as
+are common and familiar.
+
+Nicholson's Text-Book of Zooelogy
+
+By H.A. NICHOLSON, M.D. Cloth, 12mo, 421 pages                $1.38
+
+Revised edition. Adapted for advanced grades of high schools or
+academies and for first work in college classes.
+
+Steele's Popular Zooelogy
+
+By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D., and J.W.P. JENKS.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 369 pages                                        $1.20
+
+For academies, preparatory schools and general reading. This popular
+work is marked by the same clearness of method and simplicity of
+statement that characterize all Prof. Steele's text-books in the Natural
+Sciences.
+
+Tenneys' Natural History of Animals
+
+By SANBORN TENNEY and ABBEY A. TENNEY.
+
+Revised Edition. Cloth, 12mo, 281 pages                       $1.20
+
+This new edition has been entirely reset and thoroughly revised, the
+recent changes in classification introduced, and the book in all
+respects brought up to date.
+
+Treat's Home Studies in Nature
+
+By Mrs. MARY TREAT. Cloth, 12mo, 244 pages                    90 cents
+
+An interesting and instructive addition to the works on Natural History.
+
+
+_Copies of any of the above books will be sent prepaid to any address,
+on receipt of the price, by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Text-Books in Geology
+
+Dana's Geological Story Briefly Told
+
+By JAMES D. DANA. Cloth, 12mo, 302 pages                      $1.15
+
+A new edition of this popular work for beginners in the study and for
+the general reader. The book has been entirely rewritten, and improved
+by the addition of many new illustrations and interesting descriptions
+of the latest phases and discoveries of the science. In contents and
+dress it is an attractive volume either for the reader or student.
+
+Dana's Revised Text-Book of Geology
+
+Edited by WILLIAM NORTH RICE, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of
+Geology, Wesleyan University. Cloth, 12mo, 482 pages.         $1.40
+
+This is the standard text-book for high school and elementary college
+work. The book has been thoroughly revised, enlarged, and improved,
+while the general and distinctive features of the former work have been
+preserved. As now published, it combines the results of the life
+experience and observation of its distinguished author with the latest
+discoveries and researches in the science.
+
+Dana's Manual of Geology
+
+By JAMES D. DANA.
+
+Cloth, 8vo, 1087 pages. 1575 illustrations                    $5.00
+
+This great work was thoroughly revised and entirely rewritten under the
+direct supervision of its author, just before his death. It is
+recognized as a standard authority, and is used as a manual of
+instruction in all higher institutions of learning.
+
+Le Conte's Compend of Geology
+
+By JOSEPH LE CONTE, LL.D. Cloth, 12mo, 399 pages              $1.20
+
+Designed for high schools, academies, and all secondary schools.
+
+Steele's Fourteen Weeks in Geology
+
+By J. DORMAN STEELE, Ph.D. Cloth, 12mo, 280 pages             $1.00
+
+A popular book for elementary classes and the general reader.
+
+Andrews's Elementary Geology
+
+By E.B. ANDREWS, LL.D. Cloth, 12mo, 283 pages                 $1.00
+
+Adapted for elementary classes. Contains a special treatment of the
+geology of the Mississippi Valley.
+
+
+_Copies of any of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any address
+on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A New Astronomy
+
+BY
+
+DAVID P. TODD, M.A., Ph.D.
+
+Professor of Astronomy and Director of the Observatory, Amherst College.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 480 pages. Illustrated                    Price, $1.30
+
+This book is designed for classes pursuing the study in High Schools,
+Academies, and Colleges. The author's long experience as a director in
+astronomical observatories and in teaching the subject has given him
+unusual qualifications and advantages for preparing an ideal text-book.
+
+The noteworthy feature which distinguishes this from other text-books on
+Astronomy is the practical way in which the subjects treated are
+enforced by laboratory experiments and methods. In this the author
+follows the principle that Astronomy is preeminently a science of
+observation and should be so taught.
+
+By placing more importance on the physical than on the mathematical
+facts of Astronomy the author has made every page of the book deeply
+interesting to the student and the general reader. The treatment of the
+planets and other heavenly bodies and of the law of universal
+gravitation is unusually full, clear, and illuminative. The marvelous
+discoveries of Astronomy in recent years, and the latest advances in
+methods of teaching the science, are all represented.
+
+The illustrations are an important feature of the book. Many of them are
+so ingeniously devised that they explain at a glance what pages of mere
+description could not make clear.
+
+
+_Copies of Todd's New Astronomy will be sent, prepaid, to any address on
+receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+A Laboratory Manual in Practical Botany
+
+For use in Secondary Schools and for Elementary Work in Colleges
+
+By CHARLES H. CLARK, A.M., D.Sc.,
+
+Principal of Windsor Hall School, Waban, Mass.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 272 pages. Illustrated                           96 cents
+
+The course of botanical study outlined in this book is intended to give
+the student a general view of the subject, and at the same time to lay a
+foundation upon which more advanced studies may be built. The book is
+primarily a laboratory manual and follows the method recommended by the
+Committee of Ten and employed by the best teachers. So pursued, the
+study of botany provides the means of developing habits of close and
+accurate observation and of cultivating the reasoning powers that can
+scarcely be claimed for any other subject taught in the schools.
+
+It provides a systematic outline of classification to serve as a guide
+in laboratory work and in the practical study of the life histories of
+plants, their modes of reproduction, manner of life, etc. The treatment
+is suggestive and general to adapt it to the courses of study in
+different schools, and to allow the teacher to follow his own ideas in
+selecting the work of his class.
+
+
+Clark's Laboratory Manual in Practical Botany _will be sent, prepaid, to
+any address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Important New Books
+
+Crockett's Plane and Spherical Trigonometry
+
+By C.W. CROCKETT, C.E., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy
+in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. With Tables. Cloth,
+8vo. 310 pages                                                $1.25
+
+The Same. Without Tables                                       1.00
+
+Logarithmic and Trigonometric Tables (separate)                1.00
+
+A clear analytic treatment of the elements of Plane and Spherical
+Trigonometry and their practical applications to Surveying, Geodesy, and
+Astronomy, with convenient and accurate "five place" tables for the use
+of the student, engineer, and surveyor. Designed for High Schools,
+Colleges, and Technical Institutions.
+
+Raymond's Plane Surveying
+
+By W.G. RAYMOND, C.E., Member American Society of Civil
+Engineers, Professor of Geodesy, Road Engineering, and Topographical
+Drawing in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.
+
+Cloth, 8vo. 485 pages. With Tables and Illustrations          $3.00
+
+A modern text-book for the study and practice of Land, Topographical,
+Hydrographical, and Mine Surveying. Special attention is given to such
+practical subjects as system in office work, to labor-saving devices, to
+cooerdinate methods, and to the explanation of difficulties encountered
+by young surveyors. The appendix contains a large number of original
+problems, and a full set of tables for class and field work.
+
+Todd's New Astronomy
+
+By DAVID P. TODD, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Astronomy and
+Director of the Observatory, Amherst College.
+
+Cloth, 12mo. 500 pages. Illustrated                           $1.30
+
+A new Astronomy designed for classes pursuing the study in High Schools,
+Academies, and other Preparatory Schools. The treatment throughout is
+simple, clear, scientific, and deeply interesting. The illustrations
+include sketches from the author's laboratory and expeditions, and
+numerous reproductions from astronomical photographs.
+
+
+_Copies of the above books will be sent, prepaid, to any address on
+receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Birds of the United States
+
+A Manual for the Identification of Species East of the Rocky Mountains
+
+By AUSTIN C. APGAR
+
+Author of "Trees of the Northern United States," etc.
+
+Cloth, 12mo, 415 pages, with numerous
+illustrations.                                         Price, $2.00
+
+The object of this book is to encourage the study of Birds by making it
+a pleasant and easy task. The treatment, while thoroughly scientific and
+accurate, is interesting and popular in form and attractive to the
+reader or student. It covers the following divisions and subjects:
+
+PART I. A general description of Birds and an explanation of
+the technical terms used by ornithologists.
+
+PART II. Classification and description of each species with
+Key.
+
+PART III. The study of Birds in the field, with Key for their
+identification.
+
+PART IV. Preparation of Bird specimens.
+
+The descriptions of the several species have been prepared with great
+care and present several advantages over those in other books. They are
+short and so expressed that they may be recalled readily while looking
+at the bird. They are thus especially adapted for field use. The
+illustrations were drawn especially for this work. Their number,
+scientific accuracy, and careful execution add much to the value and
+interest of the book. The general Key to Land and Water Birds and a very
+full index make the book convenient and serviceable both for the study
+and for field work.
+
+
+_Apgar's Birds of the United States will be sent, prepaid, to any
+address on receipt of the price by the Publishers:_
+
+American Book Company
+
+  NEW YORK  .   CINCINNATI   .   CHICAGO
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