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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:50:52 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:50:52 -0700 |
| commit | aed52f37844af41dd6896fafd7a46b0dae6b4d6e (patch) | |
| tree | 0a7091bfd7f1db0e20b2e37a92f7f16c50a60ce2 /17329-h | |
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diff --git a/17329-h/17329-h.htm b/17329-h/17329-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e86a886 --- /dev/null +++ b/17329-h/17329-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12214 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + History of Egypt, by Maspero, Volume 9 + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd7; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 2em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + pre { font-family: Times; font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, +Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 9 (of 12), by G. Maspero + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 9 (of 12) + +Author: G. Maspero + +Editor: A.H. Sayce + +Translator: M.L. McClure + +Release Date: December 16, 2005 [EBook #17329] +Last Updated: September 8, 2016 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF EGYPT, CHALDÆA *** + + + + +Produced by David Widger + + + + +Character set: ISO-8859-1 + + +</pre> + + <p> + <br /> <a name="linkimage-0001" id="linkimage-0001"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/spines.jpg" width="100%" alt="Spines " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0002" id="linkimage-0002"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover " /> + </div> + <h1> + HISTORY OF EGYPT <br /><br /> CHALDEA, SYRIA, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA + </h1> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By G. MASPERO, <br /><br /> Honorable Doctor of Civil Laws, and Fellow of + Queen’s College, <br /> Oxford; Member of the Institute and Professor at + the College of France + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Edited by A. H. SAYCE, <br /> Professor of Assyriology, Oxford + </h3> + <h4> + Translated by M. L. McCLURE, <br /> Member of the Committee of the Egypt + Exploration Fund + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + CONTAINING OVER TWELVE HUNDRED COLORED PLATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + Volume IX. + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h3> + LONDON <br /> THE GROLIER SOCIETY <br /> PUBLISHERS + </h3> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" width="100%" alt="Frontispiece " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> A Howling Dervish <br /> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0004" id="linkimage-0004"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/titlepage.jpg" width="100%" alt="Titlepage " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0005" id="linkimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/001.jpg" width="100%" alt="001.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0006" id="linkimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/002.jpg" width="100%" alt="002.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <h2> + <i>THE IRANIAN CONQUEST</i> + </h2> + <p> + <i>THE IRANIAN RELIGIONS—CYRUS IN LYDIA AND AT BABYLON; CAMBYSES IN + EGYPT—DARIUS AND THE ORGANISATION OF THE EMPIRE.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The constitution of the Median empire borrowed from the ancient peoples + of the Euphrates: its religion only is peculiar to itself—Legends + concerning Zoroaster, his laws; the Avesta and its history—Elements + contained in it of primitive religion—The supreme god Ahura-mazâ and + his Amêsha-spentas: the Yazatas, the Fravashis—Angrô-mainyus and his + agents, the Daîvas, the Pairîkas, their struggle with Ahura-mazdâ—The + duties of man here below, funerals, his fate after death—-Worship + and temples: fire-altars, sacrifices, the Magi</i>. + </p> + <p> + <i>Cyrus and the legends concerning his origin: his revolt against + Astyages and the fall of the Median empire—The early years of the + reign of Nabonidus: revolutions in Tyre, the taking of Harrân—The + end of the reign of Alyattes, Lydian art and its earliest coinage—Croesus, + his relations with continental Greece, his conquests, his alliances with + Babylon and Egypt—The war between Lydia and Persia: the defeat of + the Lydians, the taking of Sardes, the death of Croesus and subsequent + legends relating to it—The submission of the cities of the Asiatic + littoral.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Cyrus in Bactriana and in the eastern regions of the Iranian table-land + —The impression produced on the Chaldæan by his victories; the + Jewish exiles, Ezekiel and his dreams of restoration, the new temple, the + prophecies against Babylon; general discontent with Nabonidus—The + attach of Cyrus and the battle of Zalzallat, the taking of Babylon and the + fall of Nabonidus: the end of the Chaldæan empire and the deliverance of + the Jews.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Egypt under Amasis: building works, support given to the Greeks; + Naukratis, its temples, its constitution, and its prosperity—Preparations + for defence and the unpopularity of Amasis with the native Egyptians—The + death of Cyrus and legends relating to it: his palace at Pasargadæ and his + tomb—Cambyses and Smerdis—The legendary causes of the war with + Egypt—Psammetichus III., the battle of Pelusium; Egypt reduced to a + Persian province.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Cambyses’ plans for conquest; the abortive expeditions to the oceans of + Amnion and Carthage—The kingdom of Ethiopia, its kings, its customs: + the Persians fail to reach Napata, the madness of Cambyses—The fraud + of Gaumâta, the death of Cambyses and the reign of the pseudo-Smerdis, the + accession of Darius—The revolution in Susiana, Chaldæa, and Media: + Nebuchadrezzar III. and the fall of Babylon, the death of Orætes, the + defeat of Khshatrita, restoration of peace throughout Asia, Egyptian + affairs and the re-establishment of the royal power.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The organisation of the country and its division into satrapies: the + satrap, the military commander, the royal secretary; couriers, main roads, + the Eyes and Ears of the king—The financial system and the + provincial taxes: the daric—Advantages and drawbacks of the system + of division into satrapies; the royal guard and the military organisation + of the empire—The conquest of the Hapta-Hindu and the prospect of + war with Greece.</i> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I—THE IRANIAN CONQUEST </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkB2HCH0001"> CHAPTER II—THE LAST DAYS OF THE OLD + EASTERN WORLD </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>List of Illustrations</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0001"> Spines </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0002"> Cover </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0004"> Titlepage </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0005"> 001.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0006"> 002.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0007"> 003.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0008"> 012.jpg the Ahura-mazd of The Bas-reliefs Of + Persepolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0009"> 012b.jpg Hypostyle of Hall Of Xerxes: Detail + Of Entablature </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0010"> 013.jpg an Iranian Genius in Form of a Winged + Bull </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0011"> 014.jpg Ahura-mazd Bestowing the Tokens of + Royalty on An Iranian King </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0012"> 016a.jpg the Moon-god </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0013"> 016b.jpg God of the Wind </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0014"> 017a.jpg Atar the God of Fire </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0015"> 017b.jpg Aurvataspa </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0016"> 017c.jpg Mithra </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0017"> 018.jpg Mylitta-anÂhita </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0018"> 018a.jpg Nana-anÂhita </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0019"> 022.jpg One of the Bad Genii, Subject to + AngrÔ-mainyus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0020"> 023.jpg the King Struggling Against an Evil + Genius </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0021"> 031.jpg the Two Iranian Altakrat + Nakhsh-Î-rustem </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0022"> 032.jpg the Two Iranian Altars of Murgab </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0023"> 032b.jpg the Occupations of Ani in The + Elysian Fields </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0024"> 033.jpg the Sacred Fire Burning on The Altar + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0025"> 039.jpg a Royal Hunting-party in Hun </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0026"> 042.jpg Remains of the Palace Of Ecbatana + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0027"> 050.jpg the Tumulus of Alyattes and The + Entrance to The Passage </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0028"> 051.jpg One of the Lydian Ornaments in The + Louvre </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0029"> 052.jpg Mould for Jewellery of Lydian Origin + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0030"> 053.jpg a Lydian Funery Couch </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0031"> 054a.jpg Lydian Coin Bearing a Running Fox + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0032"> 054b.jpg Lydian Coin With a Hare </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0033"> 055.jpg Lydian Coins With a Lion and Lion’s + Head </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0034"> 056a.jpg Coin Bearing Head of Mouflon Goat + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0035"> 056b.jpg Money of Croesus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0036"> 059.jpg View of the Site and Ruins Of Ephesus + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0037"> 075.jpg Croesus on his Pyre </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0038"> 078.jpg a Persian King Fighting With Greeks + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0039"> 080.jpg the Present Site of Miletus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0040"> 083.jpg a Lycian City Upon Its Inaccessible + Rock </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0041"> 105.jpg Table of the Last Kings Of Ptolemy + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0042"> 111.jpg an Osiris Stretched Full Length on + the Ground </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0043"> 112.jpg the Two Goddesses of Law; Ani Adoring + Osiris The Trial of the Conscience; Toth and The Feather Of The Law. + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0044"> 113.jpg Amasis in Adoration Before the Bull + Apis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0045"> 114.jpg the Naos of Amasis at Thmuis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0046"> 120.jpg the Present Site of Naucratis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0047"> 128.jpg Cyrus the Achaemenian </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0048"> 129.jpg the Tomb Op Cyrus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0049"> 138.jpg Psammetichus Iii. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0050"> 145.jpg the Naophoros Statuette of The + Vatican </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0051"> 147.jpg Ethiopian Gkoup </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0052"> 148.jpg Encampment de Bacharis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0053"> 159.jpg Darius, Son of Hystaspes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0054"> 166.jpg Darius Piercing a Rebel With his + Lance Before A Group of Four Prisoners </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0055"> 174.jpg Rebels Brought to Darius by + Ahura-mazd This Is The Scene Depicted on the Rock of Behistun. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0056"> 175.jpg the Rocks of Behistun </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0057"> 181.jpg Map of the Archaemenian Strapies </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0058"> 186.jpg Street Vender of Curios After the + Painting By Gerome. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0059"> 188.jpg Daric of Darius, Son Of Hystaspes + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkimage-0060"> 192.jpg Funeral Offerings. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0005"> 197.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0006"> 198.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0007"> 199.jpg Page Image </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0008"> 209.jpg a Cypriot Chariot </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0009"> 212a.jpg Alexander I. Of Macedon </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0010"> 212b.jpg a Phoenician Galley </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0011"> 214.jpg Map of Marathon </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0012"> 215.jpg the Battle-field of Marathon </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0013"> 219.jpg Darius on the Stele of The Isthmus + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0014"> 220.jpg Walls of the Fortress Of + Ditsh-el-qalÂa </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0015"> 221.jpg the Great Temple of Darius at HabÎt + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0016"> 224.jpg Xerxes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0017"> 227.jpg a Trireme in Motion </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0019"> 238.jpg Map </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0020"> 239.jpg the Battle-field of Plataea </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0021"> 247.jpg Artaxerxes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0022"> 258.jpg View of the Achaemenian Ruins Of + Istakhr </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0023"> 260.jpg the Tomb of Darius </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0024"> 261.jpg the Hill of The Royal Achaemenian + Tombs At Nakush-i-rustem </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0025"> 262.jpg One of the Capitals from Susa </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0026"> 262b.jpg Freize of Archers at Suza </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0027"> 263.jpg General Ruins of Persipolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0028"> 267.jpg the Propylaea of Xerxes I. At + Persepolis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0029"> 268.jpg Bas-relief of the Staircase Leading + to The Apadana of Xerxes </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0030"> 269.jpg the King on his Throne </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0031"> 270.jpg a View of the Apadana Of Susa, + Restored </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0032"> 273.jpg Processional Display of Tribute + Brought to The King of Persia </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0033"> 276.jpg Darius II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0034"> 279.jpg Cyrus the Younger </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0035"> 280.jpg Artaxerxes Mnemon </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0036"> 287.jpg Hakoris </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0037"> 291.jpg Pharnabazus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0038"> 293.jpg Artaxerxes II. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0039"> 296.jpg Datames III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0040"> 299.jpb Nectanebo I </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0041"> 305.jpg Evagoras II. Of Salamis </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0042"> 312.jpg Table of the Last Egyptian Dynasties + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0043"> 313.jpg Small Temple of Nectanebo, at the + Southern Extremity of Philae </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0044"> 314.jpg Naos of Nectanebo in the Temple at + Edfu </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0045"> 315.jpg Great Gate of Nectanebo at Karnak + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0046"> 316.jpg Fragment of a Naos Of the Time Of + Nectanebo II. In the Bologna Museum </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0047"> 317.jpg One of the Lions in The Vatican </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0048"> 321.jpg Map of the Persian Empire </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0049"> 325.jpg Coins of the Satraps With Aramaean + Inscriptions </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0050"> 326.jpg a Lycian Tomb </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0051"> 327b.jpg Statue of Mausolus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0052"> 327a.jpg Coin of a Lycian King </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0053"> 328.jpg Lycian Sarcophagus Decorated With + Greek Carvings </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0054"> 337.jpg Chaldean Seal With Aramaic + Inscription </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0055"> 346.jpg Fountain and School of the Mother Of + Little Mohamad </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0056"> 348.jpg Modern Mohammedan Shekhs Tombs </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0057"> 349.jpg Part of the Inundation in a Palm + Grove </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0058"> 350.jpg Ephemeral Hovels of Clay Or Dried + Bricks </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0059"> 359.jpg the Step Pyramid Seen from The Grove + Op Palm Trees to the North of Saqqarah </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0060"> 362a.jpg Long Strings of Laden Vessels </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0061"> 362b.jpg the Vast Sheet of Water in The + Midday Heat </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0062"> 363.jpg the Mountains Honeycombed With Tombs + And Quarries </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0063"> 367.jpg Darius III. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0064"> 368.jpg an Elephant Armed for War </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0065"> 376.jpg the Battlefield of Issus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0066"> 377.jpg a Bas-relief on A Sidonian + Sarcophagus </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0067"> 379.jpg the Isthmus of Tyre at The Present + Day </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkBimage-0068"> 382.jpg the Battle of Arbela, from The + Mosaic Of Herculanum </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <a name="linkimage-0007" id="linkimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/003.jpg" width="100%" alt="003.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I—THE IRANIAN CONQUEST + </h2> + <p> + <i>The Iranian religions—Cyrus in Lydia and at Babylon: Cambyses in + Egypt —Darius and the organisation of the empire.</i> + </p> + <p> + The Median empire is the least known of all those which held sway for a + time over the destinies of a portion of Western Asia. The reason of this + is not to be ascribed to the shortness of its duration: the Chaldæan + empire of Nebuchadrezzar lasted for a period quite as brief, and yet the + main outlines of its history can be established with some certainty in + spite of large blanks and much obscurity. Whereas at Babylon, moreover, + original documents abound, enabling us to put together, feature by + feature, the picture of its ancient civilisation and of the chronology of + its kings, we possess no contemporary monuments of Ecbatana to furnish + direct information as to its history. To form any idea of the Median kings + or their people, we are reduced to haphazard notices gleaned from the + chroniclers of other lands, retailing a few isolated facts, anecdotes, + legends, and conjectures, and, as these materials reach us through the + medium of the Babylonians or the Greeks of the fifth or sixth century + B.C., the picture which we endeavour to compose from them is always + imperfect or out of perspective. We seemingly catch glimpses of + ostentatious luxury, of a political and military organisation, and a + method of government analogous to that which prevailed at later periods + among the Persians, but more imperfect, ruder, and nearer to barbarism—a + Persia, in fact, in the rudimentary stage, with its ruling spirit and + essential characteristics as yet undeveloped. The machinery of state had + doubtless been adopted almost in its entirety from the political + organisations which obtained in the kingdoms of Assyria, Elam, and + Chaldæa, with which sovereignties the founders of the Median empire had + held in turns relations as vassals, enemies, and allies; but once we + penetrate this veneer of Mesopotamian civilisation and reach the inner + life of the people, we find in the religion they profess—mingled + with some borrowed traits—a world of unfamiliar myths and dogmas of + native origin. + </p> + <p> + The main outlines of this religion were already fixed when the Medes rose + in rebellion against Assur-bani-pal; and the very name of <i>Confessor</i>—Fravartîsh—applied + to the chief of that day, proves that it was the faith of the royal + family. It was a religion common to all the Iranians, the Persians as well + as the Medes, and legend honoured as its first lawgiver and expounder an + ancient prophet named Zarathustra, known to us as Zoroaster.* Most + classical writers relegated Zoroaster to some remote age of antiquity—thus + he is variously said to have lived six thousand years before the death of + Plato,** five thousand before the Trojan war,*** one thousand before + Moses, and six hundred before Xerxes’ campaign against Athens; while some + few only affirmed that he had lived at a comparatively recent period, and + made him out a disciple of the philosopher Pythagoras, who flourished + about the middle of the fifth century B.C. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name Zarathustra has been interpreted in a score of + different ways. The Greeks sometimes attributed to it the + meaning “worshipper of the stars,” probably by reason of the + similarity in sound of the termination “-astres” of + Zoroaster with the word “astron.” Among modern writers, H. + Rawlinson derived it from the Assyrian Zîru-Ishtar, “the + seed of Ishtar,” but the etymology now most generally + accepted is that of Burnouf, according to which it would + signify “the man with gold-coloured camels,” the “possessor + of tawny camels.” The ordinary Greek form Zoroaster seems to + be derived from some name quite distinct from Zarathustra. + + ** This was, as Pliny records, the opinion of Eudoxus; not + Eudoxus of Cnidus, pupil of Plato, as is usually stated, but + a more obscure personage, Eudoxus of Rhodes. + + *** This was the statement of Hermodorus. +</pre> + <p> + According to the most ancient national traditions, he was born in the + Aryanem-vaêjô, or, in other words, in the region between the Araxes and + the Kur, to the west of the Caspian Sea. Later tradition asserted that his + conception was attended by supernatural circumstances, and the miracles + which accompanied his birth announced the advent of a saint destined to + regenerate the world by the revelation of the True Law. In the belief of + an Iranian, every man, every living creature now existing or henceforth to + exist, not excluding the gods themselves, possesses a Frôhar, or guardian + spirit, who is assigned to him at his entrance into the world, and who is + thenceforth devoted entirely to watching over his material and moral + well-being,* About the time appointed for the appearance of the prophet, + his Frôhar was, by divine grace, imprisoned in the heart of a Haoma,** and + was absorbed, along with the juice of the plant, by the priest + Purushâspa,*** during a sacrifice, a ray of heavenly glory descending at + the same time into the bosom of a maiden of noble race, named Dughdôva, + whom Purushâspa shortly afterwards espoused. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Fravashi (for <i>fravarti</i>, from <i>fra-var</i>, “to support, + nourish”), or the <i>frôhar (feruer)</i>, is, properly speaking, + the nurse, the genius who nurtures. Many of the practices + relating to the conception and cult of the Fravashis seem to + me to go back to the primitive period of the Iranian + religions. + + ** The haoma is an <i>Asclepias Sarcostema Viminalis</i>. + + *** The name signifies “He who has many horses.” + </pre> + <p> + Zoroaster was engendered from the mingling of the Frôhar with the + celestial ray. The evil spirit, whose supremacy he threatened, endeavoured + to destroy him as soon as he saw the light, and despatched one of his + agents, named Bôuiti, from the country of the far north to oppose him; but + the infant prophet immediately pronounced the formula with which the psalm + for the offering of the waters opens: “The will of the Lord is the rule of + good!” and proceeded to pour libations in honour of the river Darêja, on + the banks of which he had been born a moment before, reciting at the same + time the “profession of faith which puts evil spirits to flight.” Bôuiti + fled aghast, but his master set to work upon some fresh device. Zoroaster + allowed him, however, no time to complete his plans: he rose up, and + undismayed by the malicious riddles propounded to him by his adversary, + advanced against him with his hands full of stones—stones as large + as a house—with which the good deity supplied him. The mere sight of + him dispersed the demons, and they regained the gates of their hell in + headlong flight, shrieking out, “How shall we succeed in destroying him? + For he is the weapon which strikes down evil beings; he is the scourge of + evil beings.” His infancy and youth were spent in constant disputation + with evil spirits: ever assailed, he ever came out victorious, and issued + more perfect from each attack. When he was thirty years old, one of the + good spirits, Vôhumanô, appeared to him, and conducted him into the + presence of Ahura-mazdâ, the Supreme Being. When invited to question the + deity, Zoroaster asked, “Which is the best of the creatures which are upon + the earth?” The answer was, that the man whose heart is pure, he excels + among his fellows. He next desired to know the names and functions of the + angels, and the nature and attributes of evil. His instruction ended, he + crossed a mountain of flames, and underwent a terrible ordeal of + purification, during which his breast was pierced with a sword, and melted + lead poured into his entrails without his suffering any pain: only after + this ordeal did he receive from the hands of Ahura-mazdâ the Book of the + Law, the Avesta, was then sent back to his native land bearing his + precious burden. At that time, Vîshtâspa, son of Aurvatâspa, was reigning + over Bactria. For ten years Zoroaster had only one disciple, his cousin + Maidhyoi-Mâonha, but after that he succeeded in converting, one after the + other, the two sons of Hvôgva, the grand vizir Jâmâspa, who afterwards + married the prophet’s daughter, and Frashaoshtra, whose daughter Hvôgvi he + himself espoused; the queen, Hutaosa, was the next convert, and + afterwards, through her persuasions, the king Vîshtâspa himself became a + disciple. The triumph of the good cause was hastened by the result of a + formal disputation between the prophet and the wise men of the court: for + three days they essayed to bewilder him with their captious objections and + their magic arts, thirty standing on his right hand and thirty on his + left, but he baffled their wiles, aided by grace from above, and having + forced them to avow themselves at the end of their resources, he completed + his victory by reciting the Avesta before them. The legend adds, that + after rallying the majority of the people round him, he lived to a good + old age, honoured of all men for his saintly life. According to some + accounts, he was stricken dead by lightning,* while others say he was + killed by a Turanian soldier, Brâtrôk-rêsh, in a war against the Hyaonas. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is, under very diverse forms, the version preferred + by Western historians of the post-classical period. +</pre> + <p> + The question has often been asked whether Zoroaster belongs to the domain + of legend or of history. The only certain thing we know concerning him is + his name; all the rest is mythical, poetic, or religious fiction. + Classical writers attributed to him the composition or editing of all the + writings comprised in Persian literature: the whole consisted, they said, + of two hundred thousand verses which had been expounded and analysed by + Hermippus in his commentaries on the secret doctrines of the Magi. The + Iranians themselves averred that he had given the world twenty-one volumes—the + twenty-one <i>Nasks</i> of the Avesta,* which the Supreme Deity had + created from the twenty-one words of the Magian profession of faith, the + <i>Ahuna Vairya</i>. King Vîshtâspa is said to have caused two authentic + copies of the Avesta—which contained in all ten or twelve hundred + chapters**—to be made, one of which was consigned to the archives of + the empire, the other laid up in the treasury of a fortress, either + Shapîgân, Shîzîgân, Samarcand, or Persepolis.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The word <i>Avesta</i>, in Pehlevi <i>Apastâk</i>, whence come the + Persian forms <i>âvasta, ôstâ</i>, is derived from the + Achæmenian word <i>Abasta</i>, which signifies <i>law</i> in the + inscriptions of Darius. The term Zend-Avesta, commonly used + to designate the sacred book of the Persians, is incorrectly + derived from the expression <i>Apastâc u Zend</i>, which in + Pehlevi designates first the law itself, and then the + translation and commentary in more modern language which + conduces to a <i>knowledge (Zend)</i> of the law. The customary + application, therefore, of the name Zend to the language of + the Avesta is incorrect. + + ** The Dinkart fixes the number of chapters at 1000, and the + Shâh-Nâmak at 1200, written on plates of gold. According to + Masudi, the book itself and the two commentaries formed + 12,000 volumes, written in letters of gold, the twenty-one + Nasks each contained 200 pages, and the whole of these + writings had been inscribed on 12,000 cow-hides. + + *** The site of Shapîgân or Shaspîgân is unknown. J. + Darmesteter suggests that it ought to be read as <i>Shizîgân</i>, + which would permit of the identification of the place with + Shîz, one of the ancient religious centres of Iran, whose + temple was visited by the Sassanids on their accession to + the throne. According to the Ardâ-Vîrâf the law was + preserved at Istakhr, or Persepolis, according to the Shâh- + Nâmak at Samarcand in the temple of the Fire-god. +</pre> + <p> + Alexander is said to have burnt the former copy: the latter, stolen by the + Greeks, is reported to have been translated into their language and to + have furnished them with all their scientific knowledge. One of the + Arsacids, Vologesus I., caused a search to be made for all the fragments + which existed either in writing or in the memory of the faithful,* and + this collection, added to in the reign of the Sassanid king, Ardashîr + Bâbagan, by the high priest Tansar, and fixed in its present form under + Sapor I., was recognised as the religious code of the empire in the time + of Sapor II., about the fourth century of the Christian era.*** The text + is composed, as may be seen, of three distinct strata, which are by no + means equally ancient;*** one can, nevertheless, make out from it with + sufficient certainty the principal features of the religion and cult of + Iran, such as they were under the Achæmenids, and perhaps even under the + hegemony of the Medes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Tradition speaks simply of a King Valkash, without + specifying which of the four kings named Vologesus is + intended. James Darmesteter has given good reasons for + believing that this Valkash is Vologesus I. (50-75 A.D.), + the contemporary of Nero. + + ** This is the tradition reproduced in two versions of the + Dinkart. + + *** Darmesteter declares that ancient Zoroastrianism is, in + its main lines, the religion of the Median Magi, even though + he assigns the latest possible date to the composition of + the Avesta as now existing, and thinks he can discern in it + Greek, Jewish, and Christian elements. +</pre> + <p> + It is a complicated system of religion, and presupposes a long period of + development. The doctrines are subtle; the ceremonial order of worship, + loaded with strict observances, is interrupted at every moment by laws + prescribing minute details of ritual,* which were only put in practice by + priests and strict devotees, and were unknown to the mass of the faithful. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Renan defined the Avesta as “the Code of a very small + religious sect; it is a Talmud, a book of casuistry and + strict observance. I have difficulty in believing that the + great Persian empire, which, at least in religious matters, + professed a certain breadth of ideas, could have had a law + so strict. I think, that had the Persians possessed a sacred + book of this description, the Greeks must have mentioned + it.” + </pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0010" id="linkimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:53%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/013.jpg" + alt="013.jpg an Iranian Genius in Form of a Winged Bull " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + The primitive, base of this religion is difficult to discern clearly: but + we may recognise in it most of those beings or personifications of natural + phenomena which were the chief objects of worship among all the ancient + nations of Western Asia—the stars, Sirius, the moon, the sun, water + and fire, plants, animals beneficial to mankind, such as the cow and the + dog, good and evil spirits everywhere present, and beneficent or + malevolent souls of mortal men, but all systematised, graduated, and + reduced to sacerdotal principles, according to the prescriptions of a + powerful priesthood. Families consecrated to the service of the altar had + ended, as among the Hebrews, by separating themselves from the rest of the + nation and forming a special tribe, that of the Magi, which was the last + to enter into the composition of the nation in historic times. All the + Magi were not necessarily devoted to the service of religion, but all who + did so devote themselves sprang from the Magian tribe; the Avesta, in its + oldest form, was the sacred book of the Magi, as well as that of the + priests who handed down their religious tradition under the various + dynasties, native or foreign, who bore rule over Iran. + </p> + <p> + The Creator was described as “the whole circle of the heavens,” “the most + steadfast among the gods,” for “he clothes himself with the solid vault of + the firmament as his raiment,” “the most beautiful, the most intelligent, + he whose members are most harmoniously proportioned; his body was the + light and the sovereign glory, the sun and the moon were his eyes.” The + theologians had gradually spiritualised the conception of this deity + without absolutely disconnecting him from the material universe. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0008" id="linkimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/012.jpg" width="100%" + alt="012.jpg the Ahura-mazd of The Bas-reliefs Of Persepolis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Flandin and Coste. +</pre> + <p> + He remained under ordinary circumstances invisible to mortal eyes, and he + could conceal his identity even from the highest gods, but he occasionally + manifested himself in human form. He borrowed in such case from Assyria + the symbol of Assur, and the sculptors depict him with the upper part of + his body rising above that winged disk which is carved in a hovering + attitude on the pediments of Assyrian monuments or stelæ. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0009" id="linkimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/012b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="012b.jpg Hypostyle of Hall Of Xerxes: Detail Of Entablature " /> + </div> + <p> + In later days he was portrayed under the form of a king of imposing + stature and majestic mien, who revealed himself from time to time to the + princes of Iran.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In a passage of Philo of Byblos the god is described as + having the head of a falcon or an eagle, perhaps by + confusion with one of the genii represented on the walls of + the palaces. +</pre> + <p> + He was named Ahurô-mazdâo or Ahura-mazdâ, the omniscient lord,* <i>Spento-mainyus</i>, + the spirit of good, <i>Mainyus-spenishtô</i>** the most beneficent of + spirits. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * <i>Ahura</i> is derived from <i>Ahu</i> = <i>Lord</i>: Mazdâo can be + analysed into the component parts, <i>maz = great</i>, and <i>dâo + = he who knows</i>. At first the two terms were + interchangeable, and even in the Gâthas the form Mazda Ahura + is employed much more often than the form Ahura Mazda. In + the Achsemenian inscriptions, Auramazdâ is only found as a + single word, except in an inscription of Xerxes, where the + two terms are in one passage separated and declined <i>Aurahya + mazdâha</i>. The form Ormuzd, Ormazd, usually employed by + Europeans, is that assumed by the name in modern Persian. + + ** These two names are given to him more especially in + connection with his antagonism to Angrômainyus. +</pre> + <p> + Himself uncreated, he is the creator of all things, but he is assisted in + the administration of the universe by legions of beings, who are all + subject to him.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Darius styles Ahura-mazdâ, <i>mathishta bagânâm</i>, the + greatest of the gods, and Xerxes invokes the protection of + Ahura-mazdâ along with that of the gods. The classical + writers also mention gods alongside of Ahura-mazdâ as + recognised not only among the Achæmenian Persians, but also + among the Parthians. Darmesteter considers that the earliest + Achæmenids worshipped Ahura-mazdâ alone, “placing the other + gods together in a subordinate and anonymous group: May + Ahura-mazdâ and the other gods protect me.” + </pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0011" id="linkimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/014.jpg" width="100%" + alt="014.jpg Ahura-mazd Bestowing the Tokens of Royalty on An Iranian King " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + The most powerful among his ministers were originally nature-gods, such as + the sun, the moon, the earth, the winds, and the waters. The sunny plains + of Persia and Media afforded abundant witnesses of their power, as did the + snow-clad peaks, the deep gorges through which rushed roaring torrents, + and the mountain ranges of Ararat or Taurus, where the force of the + subterranean fires was manifested by so many startling exhibitions of + spontaneous conflagration.* The same spiritualising tendency which had + already considerably modified the essential concept of Ahura-mazdâ, + affected also that of the inferior deities, and tended to tone down in + them the grosser traits of their character. It had already placed at their + head six genii of a superior order, six ever-active energies, who, after + assisting their master at the creation of the universe, now presided under + his guidance over the kingdoms and forces of nature.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All these inferior deities, heroes, and genii who presided + over Persia, the royal family, and the different parts of + the empire, are often mentioned in the most ancient + classical authors that have come down to us. + + ** The six Amesha-spentas, with their several + characteristics, are enumerated in a passage of the <i>De + Iside</i>. This exposition of Persian doctrine is usually + attributed to Theopompus, from which we may deduce the + existence of a belief in the Amesha-spentas in the + Achsemenian period. J. Darmesteter affirms, on the contrary, + that “the author describes the Zoro-astrianism of his own + times (the second century A.D.), and quotes Theopompus for a + special doctrine, that of the periods of the world’s life.” + Although this last point is correct, the first part of + Darmesteter’s theory does not seem to me justified by + investigation. The whole passage of Plutarch is a well- + arranged composition of uniform style, which may be regarded + as an exposition of the system described by Theopompus, + probably in the eighth of his Philippics. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0012" id="linkimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:20%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/016a.jpg" alt="016a.jpg the Moon-god " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0013" id="linkimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/016b.jpg" alt="016b.jpg God of the Wind " /> + </div> + <p> + These benevolent and immortal beings—<i>Amesha-spentas</i>—were, + in the order of precedence, Vohu-manô (good thought), Asha-vahista + (perfect holiness), Khshathra-vairya (good government), Spenta-armaiti + (meek piety), Haurvatât (health), Ameretât (immortality). Each of them had + a special domain assigned to him in which to display his energy + untrammelled: Vohu-manô had charge of cattle, Asha-vahista of fire, + Khshathra-vairya of metals, Spenta-armaiti of the earth, Haurvatât and + Ameretât of vegetation and of water. They were represented in human form, + either masculine as Vohu-manô and Asha-vahista,* or feminine as + Spenta-armaiti, the daughter and spouse of Ahura-mazdâ, who became the + mother of the first man, Gayomaretan, and, through Gayomaretan, ancestress + of the whole human race. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The image of Asha-vahista is known to us from coins of the + Indo-Scythian kings of Bactriana. Vohu-manô is described as + a young man. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0014" id="linkimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/017a.jpg" + alt="017a.jpg Atar the God of Fire " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher-Gudin; +coin of King +Kanishka, + +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0015" id="linkimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/017b.jpg" alt="017b.jpg Aurvataspa " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher-Gudin +</pre> + <p> + Sometimes Ahura-mazdâ is himself included among the Amesha-spentas, thus + bringing their number up to seven; sometimes his place is taken by a + certain Sraôsha (obedience to the law), the first who offered sacrifice + and recited the prayers of the ritual. Subordinate to these great spirits + were the Yazatas, scattered by thousands over creation, presiding over the + machinery of nature and maintaining it in working order. Most of them + received no special names, but many exercised wide authority, and several + were accredited by the people with an influence not less than that of the + greater deities themselves. Such Were the regent of the stars—Tishtrya, + the bull with golden horns, Sirius, the sparkling one; Mâo, the moon-god; + the wind, Vâto; the atmosphere, Vayu, the strongest of the strong, the + warrior with golden armour, who gathers the storm and hurls it against the + demon; Atar, fire under its principal forms, divine fire, sacred fire, and + earthly fire; Vere-thraghna, the author of war and giver of victory; + Aurva-taspa, the son of the waters, the lightning born among the clouds; + and lastly, the spirit of the dawn, the watchful Mithra, “who, first of + the celestial Yazatas, soars above Mount Hara,* before the immortal sun + with his swift steeds, who, first in golden splendour, passes over the + beautiful mountains and casts his glance benign on the dwellings of the + Aryans.” ** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Hara is Haroberezaiti, or Elburz, the mountain over which + the sun rises, “around which many a star revolves, where + there is neither night nor darkness, no wind of cold or + heat, no sickness leading to a thousand kinds of death, nor + infection caused by the Daôvas, and whose summit is never + reached by the clouds.” + + ** This is the Mithra whose religion became so powerful in + Alexandrian and Roman times. His sphere of action is defined + in the Bundehesh. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0016" id="linkimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/017c.jpg" alt="017c.jpg Mithra " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher-Gudin; +coin of King +Huvishka, +</pre> + <p> + Mithra was a charming youth of beautiful countenance, his head surrounded + with a radiant halo. The nymph Anâhita was adored under the form of one of + the incarnations of the Babylonian goddess Mylitta, a youthful and slender + female, with well-developed breasts and broad hips, sometimes represented + clothed in furs and sometimes nude.* Like the foreign goddess to whom she + was assimilated, she was the dispenser of fertility and of love; the + heroes of antiquity, and even Ahura-mazdâ himself, had vied with one + another in their worship of her, and she had lavished her favours freely + on all.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The popularity of these two deities was already well + established at the period we are dealing with, for Herodotus + mentions Mithra and confuses him with Anâhita. + + ** Her name Ardvî-Sûra Anâhita seems to signify <i>the lofty + and immaculate power</i>. +</pre> + <p> + The less important Yazatas were hardly to be distinguished from the + innumerable multitude of Fravashis. The Fravasliis are the divine types of + all intelligent beings. They were originally brought into being by + Ahura-mazdâ as a distinct species from the human, but they had allowed + themselves to be entangled in matter, and to be fettered in the bodies of + men, in order to hasten the final destruction of the demons and the advent + of the reign of good.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The legend of the descent of the Fravashis to dwell among + men is narrated in the Bundehesh. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0017" id="linkimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:22%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/018a.jpg" alt="018a.jpg Mylitta-anÂhita " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher- +Gudin, from Loftus +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0018" id="linkimage-0018"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/018b.jpg" alt="018b.jpg Nana-anÂhita " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher-Gudin, +coin of King +Huvishka, +</pre> + <p> + Once incarnate, a Fravasliis devotes himself to the well-being of the + mortal with whom he is associated; and when once more released from the + flesh, he continues the struggle against evil with an energy whose + efficacy is proportionate to the virtue and purity displayed in life by + the mortal to whom he has been temporarily joined. The last six days of + the year are dedicated to the Fravashis. They leave their heavenly abodes + at this time to visit the spots which were their earthly dwelling-places, + and they wander through the villages inquiring, “Who wishes to hire us? + Who will offer us a sacrifice? Who will make us their own, welcome us, and + receive us with plenteous offerings of food and raiment, with a prayer + which bestows sanctity on him who offers it?” And if they find a man to + hearken to their request, they bless him: “May his house be blessed with + herds of oxen and troops of men, a swift horse and a strongly built + chariot, a man who knoweth how to pray to God, a chieftain in the council + who may ever offer us sacrifices with a hand filled with food and raiment, + with a prayer which bestows sanctity on him who offers it!” Ahura-mazdâ + created the universe, not by the work of his hands, but by the magic of + his word, and he desired to create it entirely free from defects. His + creation, however, can only exist by the free play and equilibrium of + opposing forces, to which he gives activity: the incompatibility of + tendency displayed by these forces, and their alternations of growth and + decay, inspired the Iranians with the idea that they were the result of + two contradictory principles, the one beneficent and good, the other + adverse to everything emanating from the former.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Spiegel, who at first considered that the Iranian dualism + was derived from polytheism, and was a preliminary stage in + the development of monotheism, held afterwards that a rigid + monotheism had preceded this dualism. The classical writers, + who knew Zoroastrianism at the height of its glory, never + suggested that the two principles might be derived from a + superior principle, nor that they were subject to such a + principle. The Iranian books themselves nowhere definitely + affirm that there existed a single principle distinct from + the two opposing principles. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0019" id="linkimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:51%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/022.jpg" + alt="022.jpg One of the Bad Genii, Subject to AngrÔ-mainyus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a +photograph taken from the +original bas-relief in glazed +tiles in the Louvre. +</pre> + <p> + In opposition to the god of light, they necessarily formed the idea of a + god of darkness, the god of the underworld, who presides over death, + Angrô-mainyus. The two opposing principles reigned at first, each in his + own domain, as rivals, but not as irreconcilable adversaries: they were + considered as in fixed opposition to each other, and as having coexisted + for ages without coming into actual conflict, separated as they were by + the intervening void. As long as the principle of good was content to + remain shut up inactive in his barren glory, the principle of evil + slumbered unconscious in a darkness that knew no beginning; but when at + last “the spirit who giveth increase”—Spentô-mainyus—determined + to manifest himself, the first throes of his vivifying activity roused + from inertia the spirit of destruction and of pain, Angrô-mainyus. The + heaven was not yet in existence, nor the waters, nor the earth, nor ox, + nor fire, nor man, nor demons, nor brute beasts, nor any living thing, + when the evil spirit hurled himself upon the light to quench it for ever, + but Ahura-mazdâ had already called forth the ministers of his will—Amêsha-spentas, + Yazatas, Fravashis—and he recited the prayer of twenty-one words in + which all the elements of morality are summed up, the Ahuna-vairya: “The + will of the Lord is the rule of good. Let the gifts of Vohu-manô be + bestowed on the works accomplished, at this moment, for Mazda. He makes + Ahura to reign, he who protects the poor.” The effect of this prayer was + irresistible: “When Ahura had pronounced the first part of the formula, + Zânak Mînoî, the spirit of destruction, bowed himself with terror; at the + second part he fell upon his knees; and at the third and last he felt + himself powerless to hurt the creatures of Ahura-mazdâ.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Theopompus was already aware of this alternation of good + and bad periods. According to the tradition enshrined in the + first chapter of the Bundehesh, it was the result of a sort + of compact agreed upon at the beginning by Ahura-mazdâ and + Angrô-mainyus. Ahura-mazdâ, rearing to be overcome if he + entered upon the struggle immediately, but sure of final + victory if he could gain time, proposed to his adversary a + truce of nine thousand years, at the expiration of which the + battle should begin. As soon as the compact was made, Angrô- + mainyus realised that he had been tricked into taking a + false step, but it was not till after three thousand years + that he decided to break the truce and open the conflict. +</pre> + <p> + The strife, kindled at the beginning of time between the two gods, has + gone on ever since with alternations of success and defeat; each in turn + has the victory for a regular period of three thousand years; but when + these periods are ended, at the expiration of twelve thousand years, evil + will be finally and for ever defeated. While awaiting this blessed fulness + of time, as Spentô-mainyus shows himself in all that is good and + beautiful, in light, virtue, and justice, so Angrô-mainyus is to be + perceived in all that is hateful and ugly, in darkness, sin, and crime. + Against the six Amesha-spentas he sets in array six spirits of equal power—Akem-manô, + evil thought; Andra, the devouring fire, who introduces discontent and sin + wherever he penetrates; Sauru, the flaming arrow of death, who inspires + bloodthirsty tyrants, who incites men to theft and murder; Nâongaithya, + arrogance and pride; Tauru, thirst; and Zairi, hunger.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The last five of these spirits are enumerated in the + <i>Vendidad</i>, and the first, Akem-manô, is there replaced by + Nasu, the chief spirit of evil. +</pre> + <p> + To the Yazatas he opposed the Daêvas, who never cease to torment mankind, + and so through all the ranks of nature he set over against each good and + useful creation a counter-creation of rival tendency. “‘Like a fly he + crept into’ and infected ‘the whole universe.’ He rendered the world as + dark at full noonday as in the darkest night. He covered the soil with + vermin, with his creatures of venomous bite and poisonous sting, with + serpents, scorpions, and frogs, so that there was not a space as small as + a needle’s point but swarmed with his vermin. He smote vegetation, and of + a sudden the plants withered.... He attacked the flames, and mingled them + with smoke and dimness. The planets, with their thousands of demons, + dashed against the vault of heaven and waged war on the stars, and the + universe became darkened like a space which the fire blackens with its + smoke.” And the conflict grew ever keener over the world and over man, of + whom the evil one was jealous, and whom he sought to humiliate. + </p> + <p> + The children of Angrô-mainyus disguised themselves under those monstrous + forms in which the imagination of the Chaldæans had clothed the allies of + Mummu-Tiamât, such as lions with bulls’ heads, and the wings and claws of + eagles, which the Achæmenian king combats on behalf of his subjects, + boldly thrusting them through with his short sword. Aêshma of the + blood-stained lance, terrible in wrath, is the most trusted leader of + these dread bands,* the chief of twenty other Daêvas of repulsive aspect—Astô-vîdhôtu, + the demon of death, who would devote to destruction the estimable + Fravashis;** Apaosha, the enemy of Tishtrya the wicked black horse, the + bringer of drought, who interferes with the distribution of the + fertilising waters; and Bûiti, who essayed to kill Zoroaster at his + birth.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name Aêshma means <i>anger</i>. He is the Asmodeus, Aêshmo- + daevô, of Rabbinic legends. + + ** The name of this demon signifies <i>He who separates the + bones</i>. + + *** The Greater Bundehesh connects the demon Bûiti with the + Indian Buddha, and J. Darmestefer seems inclined to accept + this interpretation. In this case we must either admit that + the demon Bûiti is of relatively late origin, or that he + has, in the legend of Zoroaster, taken the place of a demon + whose name resembled his own closely enough to admit of the + assimilation. +</pre> + <p> + The female demons, the Bruges, the Incubi (Yâtus), the Succubi (Pairîka), + the Peris of our fairy tales, mingled familiarly with mankind before the + time of the prophet, and contracted with them fruitful alliances, but + Zoroaster broke up their ranks, and prohibited them from becoming + incarnate in any form but that of beasts; their hatred, however, is still + unquenched, and their power will only be effectually overthrown at the + consummation of time. It is a matter of uncertainty whether the Medes + already admitted the possibility of a fresh revelation, preparing the + latest generations of mankind for the advent of the reign of good. The + traditions enshrined in the sacred books of Iran announce the coming of + three prophets, sons of Zoroaster —Ukhshyatereta, Ukhshyatnemô, and + Saoshyant* —who shall bring about universal salvation. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The legend ran that they had been conceived in the waters + of the lake Kansu. The name Saoshyant signifies <i>the useful + one, the saviour</i>; Ukshyate-reta, <i>he who malces the good + increase</i>; Ukshyatnemô, <i>he who makes prayer increase</i>. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0020" id="linkimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:29%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/023.jpg" + alt="023.jpg the King Struggling Against an Evil Genius " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from the photograph +in Marcel Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + Saoshyant, assisted by fifteen men and fifteen pure women, who have + already lived on earth, and are awaiting their final destiny in a magic + slumber, shall offer the final sacrifice, the virtue of which shall bring + about the resurrection of the dead. “The sovereign light shall accompany + him and his friends, when he shall revivify the world and ransom it from + old age and death, from corruption and decay, and shall render it + eternally living, eternally growing, and master of itself.” The fatal + conflict shall be protracted, but the champions of Saoshyant shall at + length obtain the victory. “Before them shall bow Aêshma of the + blood-stained lance and of ominous renown, and Saoshyant shall strike down + the she-demon of the unholy light, the daughter of darkness. Akem-manô + strikes, but Vohu-manô shall strike him in his turn; the lying word shall + strike, but the word of truth shall strike him in his turn; Haurvatât and + Ameretâfc shall strike down hunger and thirst; Haurvatât and Ameretât + shall strike down terrible hunger and terrible thirst.” Angrô-mainyus + himself shall be paralysed with terror, and shall be forced to confess the + supremacy of good: he shall withdraw into the depths of hell, whence he + shall never again issue forth, and all the reanimated beings devoted to + the Mazdean law shall live an eternity of peace and contentment. + </p> + <p> + Man, therefore, incessantly distracted between the two principles, laid + wait for by the Baêvas, defended by the Yazatas, must endeavour to act + according to law and justice in the condition in which fate has placed + him. He has been raised up here on earth to contribute as far as in him + lies to the increase of life and of good, and in proportion as he works + for this end or against it, is he the <i>ashavan</i>, the pure, the + faithful one on earth and the blessed one in heaven, or the <i>anashavan</i>, + the lawless miscreant who counteracts purity. The highest grade in the + hierarchy of men belongs of right to the Mage or the <i>âthravan</i>, to + the priest whose voice inspires the demons with fear, or the soldier whose + club despatches the impious, but a place of honour at their side is + assigned to the peasant, who reclaims from the power of Angrô-mainyus the + dry and sterile fields. Among the places where the earth thrives most + joyously is reckoned that “where a worshipper of Ahura-mazdâ builds a + house, with a chaplain, with cattle, with a wife, with sons, with a fair + flock; where man grows the most corn, herbage, and fruit trees; where he + spreads water on a soil without water, and drains off water where there is + too much of it.” He who sows corn, sows good, and promotes the Mazdean + faith; “he nourishes the Mazdean religion as fifty men would do rocking a + child in the cradle, five hundred women giving it suck from their + breasts.* When the corn was created the Daêvas leaped, when it sprouted + the Daêvas lost courage, when the stem set the Daêvas wept, when the ear + swelled the Daêvas fled. In the house where corn is mouldering the Daêvas + lodge, but when the corn sprouts, one might say that a hot iron is being + turned round in their mouths.” And the reason of their horror is easily + divined: “Whoso eats not, has no power either to accomplish a valiant work + of religion, or to labour with valour, or yet to beget children valiantly; + it is by eating that the universe lives, and it dies from not eating.” The + faithful follower of Zoroaster owes no obligation towards the impious man + or towards a stranger,** but is ever bound to render help to his + coreligionist. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The original text says in a more enigmatical fashion, “he + nourishes the religion of Mazdâ as a hundred feet of men and + a thousand breasts of women might do.” + + ** Charity is called in Parsee language, <i>ashô-dâd</i> the + <i>gift to a pious man</i>, or the <i>gift of piety</i>, and the pious + man, the <i>ashavan</i>, is by definition the worshipper of + Ahura-mazdâ alone. +</pre> + <p> + He will give a garment to the naked, and by so doing will wound Zemaka, + the demon of winter. He will never refuse food to the hungry labourer, + under pain of eternal torments, and his charity will extend even to the + brute beasts, provided that they belong to the species created by + Ahura-mazdâ: he has duties towards them, and their complaints, heard in + heaven, shall be fatal to him later on if he has provoked them. + Asha-vahista will condemn to hell the cruel man who has ill-treated the + ox, or allowed his flocks to suffer; and the killing of a hedgehog is no + less severely punished—for does not a hedgehog devour the ants who + steal the grain? The dog is in every case an especially sacred animal—the + shepherd’s dog, the watchdog, the hunting-dog, even the prowling dog. It + is not lawful to give any dog a blow which renders him impotent, or to + slit his ears, or to cut his foot, without incurring grave + responsibilities in this world and in the next; it is necessary to feed + the dog well, and not to throw bones to him which are too hard, nor have + his food served hot enough to burn his tongue or his throat. For the rest, + the faithful Zoroastrian was bound to believe in his god, to offer to him + the orthodox prayers and sacrifices, to be simple in heart, truthful, the + slave of his pledged word, loyal in his very smallest acts. If he had once + departed from the right way, he could only return to it by repentance and + by purification, accompanied by pious deeds: to exterminate noxious + animals, the creatures of Angrô-mainyus and the abode of his demons, such + as the frog, the scorpion, the serpent or the ant, to clear the sterile + tracts, to restore impoverished land, to construct bridges over running + water, to distribute implements of husbandry to pions men, or to build + them a house, to give a pure and healthy maiden in marriage to a just man,—these + were so many means of expiation appointed by the prophet.* Marriage was + strictly obligatory,** and seemed more praiseworthy in proportion as the + kinship existing between the married pair was the closer: not only was the + sister united in marriage to her brother, as in Egypt, but the father to + his daughter, and the mother to her son, at least among the Magi. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A passage in the <i>Vendidad</i> even enumerates how many + noisome beasts must be slain to accomplish one full work of + expiation—“to kill 1000 serpents of those who drag + themselves upon the belly, and 2000 of the other species, + 1000 land frogs or 2000 water frogs, 1000 ants who steal the + grain,” and so on. + + ** The <i>Vendidad</i> says, “And I tell thee, O Spitama + Zarathustra, the man who has a wife is above him who lives + in continency;” and, as we have seen in the text, one of + these forms of expiation consisted in “marrying to a worthy + man a young girl who has never known a man” (<i>Vendidad</i>, 14, + § 15). Herodotus of old remarked that one of the chief + merits in an Iranian was to have many children: the King of + Persia encouraged fecundity in his realm, and awarded a + prize each year to that one of his subjects who could boast + the most numerous progeny. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0022" id="linkimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/032.jpg" + alt="032.jpg the Two Iranian Altars of Murgab " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from Plandin and Coste. +</pre> + <p> + Polygamy was also encouraged and widely practised: the code imposed no + limit on the number of wives and concubines, and custom was in favour of a + man’s having as many wives as his fortune permitted him to maintain. On + the occasion of a death, it was forbidden to burn the corpse, to bury it, + or to cast it into a river, as it would have polluted the fire, the earth, + or the water—an unpardonable offence. The corpse could be disposed + of in different ways. The Persians were accustomed to cover it with a + thick layer of wax, and then to bury it in the ground: the wax coating + obviated the pollution which direct contact would have brought upon the + soil. The Magi, and probably also strict devotees, following their + example, exposed the corpse in the open air, abandoning it to the birds or + beasts of prey. It was considered a great misfortune if these respected + the body, for it was an almost certain indication of the wrath of + Ahura-mazdâ, and it was thought that the defunct had led an evil life. + When the bones had been sufficiently stripped of flesh, they were + collected together, and deposited either in an earthenware urn or in a + stone ossuary with a cover, or in a monumental tomb either hollowed out in + the heart of the mountain or in the living rock, or raised up above the + level of the ground. Meanwhile the soul remained in the neighbourhood for + three days, hovering near the head of the corpse, and by the recitation of + prayers it experienced, according to its condition of purity or impurity, + as much of joy or sadness as the whole world experiences. When the third + night was past, the just soul set forth across luminous plains, refreshed + by a perfumed breeze, and its good thoughts and words and deeds took shape + before it “under the guise of a young maiden, radiant and strong, with + well-developed bust, noble mien, and glorious face, about fifteen years of + age, and as beautiful as the most beautiful;” the unrighteous soul, on the + contrary, directed its course towards the north, through a tainted land, + amid the squalls of a pestilential hurricane, and there encountered its + past ill deeds, under the form of an ugly and wicked young woman, the + ugliest and most wicked it had ever seen. The genius Rashnu Razishta, the + essentially truthful, weighed its virtues or vices in an unerring balance, + and acquitted or Condemned it on the impartial testimony of its past life. + On issuing from the judgment-hall, the soul arrived at the approach to the + bridge Cinvaut, which, thrown across the abyss of hell, led to paradise. + The soul, if impious, was unable to cross this bridge, but was hurled down + into the abyss, where it became the slave of Angrô-mainyus. If pure, it + crossed the bridge without difficulty by the help of the angel Sraôsha, + and was welcomed by Vohu-manô, who conducted it before the throne of + Ahura-mazdâ, in the same way as he had led Zoroaster, and assigned to it + the post which it should occupy until the day of the resurrection of the + body.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All this picture of the fate of the soul is taken from the + <i>Vendidad</i>, where the fate of the just is described, and in + the <i>Yasht</i>, where the condition of faithful and impious + souls respectively is set forth on parallel lines. The + classical authors teach us nothing on this subject, and the + little they actually say only proves that the Persians + believed in the immortality of the soul. The main outlines + of the picture here set forth go back to the times of the + Achæmenids and the Medes, except the abstract conception of + the goddess who leads the soul of the dead as an incarnation + of his good or evil deeds. +</pre> + <p> + The religious observances enjoined on the members of the priestly caste + were innumerable and minute. Ahura-mazdâ and his colleagues had not, as + was the fashion among the Assyrians and Egyptians, either temples or + tabernacles, and though they were represented sometimes under human or + animal forms, and even in some cases on bas-reliefs, yet no one ever + ventured to set up in their sanctuaries those so-called animated or + prophetic statues to which the majority of the nations had rendered or + were rendering their solicitous homage. Altars, however, were erected on + the tops of hills, in palaces, or in the centre of cities, on which fires + were kindled in honour of the inferior deities or of the supreme god + himself. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0021" id="linkimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/031.jpg" width="100%" + alt="031.jpg the Two Iranian Altakrat Nakhsh-Î-rustem " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a heliogravure in Marcel Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + Two altars were usually set up together, and they are thus found here and + there among the ruins, as at Nakhsh-î-Kustem, the necropolis of + Persepolis, where a pair of such altars exist; these are cut, each out of + a single block, in a rocky mass which rises some thirteen feet above the + level of the surrounding plain. They are of cubic form and squat + appearance, looking like towers flanked at the four corners by supporting + columns which are connected by circular arches; above a narrow moulding + rises a crest of somewhat triangular projections; the hearth is hollowed + out on the summit of each altar.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to Perrot and Chipiez, “it is not impossible + that these altars were older than the great buildings of + Persepolis, and that they were erected for the old Persian + town which Darius raised to the position of capital.” + </pre> + <p> + At Meshed-î-Murgâb, on the site of the ancient Pasargadas, the altars have + disappeared, but the basements on which they were erected are still + visible, as also the flight of eight steps by which they were approached. + Those altars on which burned, a perpetual fire were not left exposed to + the open air: they would have run too great a risk of contracting + impurities, such as dust borne by the wind, flights of birds, dew, rain, + or snow. They were enclosed in slight structures, well protected by walls, + and attaining in some cases considerable dimensions, or in pavilion-shaped + edifices of stone adorned with columns. + </p> + <p> + The sacrificial rites were of long duration, and frequent, and were + rendered very complex by interminable manual acts, ceremonial gestures, + and incantations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0023" id="linkimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/032b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="032b.jpg the Occupations of Ani in The Elysian Fields " /> + </div> + <p> + In cases where the altar was not devoted to maintaining a perpetual fire, + it was kindled when necessary with small twigs previously barked and + purified, and was subsequently fed with precious woods, preferably cypress + or laurel;* care was taken not to quicken the flame by blowing, for the + human breath would have desecrated the fire by merely passing over it; + death was the punishment for any one who voluntarily committed such a + heinous sacrilege. The recognised offering consisted of flowers, bread, + fruit, and perfumes, but these were often accompanied, as in all ancient + religions, by a bloody sacrifice; the sacrifice of a horse was considered + the most efficacious, but an ox, a cow, a sheep, a camel, an ass, or a + stag was frequently offered: in certain circumstances, especially when it + was desired to conciliate the favour of the god of the underworld, a human + victim, probably as a survival of very ancient rites was preferred.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Pausanias, who witnessed the cult as practised at + Hierocæsarsea, remarked the curious colour of the ashes + heaped upon the altar. + + * Most modern writers deny the authenticity of Herodotus’ + account, because a sacrifice of this kind is opposed to the + spirit of the Magian religion, which is undoubtedly the + case, as far as the latest form of the religion is + concerned; but the testimony of Herodotus is so plain that + the fact itself must be considered as indisputable. We may + note that the passage refers to the foundation of a city; + and if we remember how persistent was the custom of human + sacrifice among ancient races at the foundation of + buildings, we shall be led to the conclusion that the + ceremony described by the Greek historian was a survival of + a very ancient usage, which had not yet fallen entirely into + desuetude at the Achæmenian epoch. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0024" id="linkimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:35%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/033.jpg" + alt="033.jpg the Sacred Fire Burning on The Altar " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from the impression of +a Persian intaglio. +</pre> + <p> + The king, whose royal position made him the representative of Ahura-mazdâ + on earth, was, in fact, a high priest, and was himself able to officiate + at the altar, but no one else could dispense with the mediation of the + Magi. The worshippers proceeded in solemn procession to the spot where the + ceremony was to take place, and there the priest, wearing the tiara on his + head, recited an invocation in a slow and mysterious voice, and implored + the blessings of heaven on the king and nation. He then slaughtered the + victim by a blow on the head, and divided it into portions, which he gave + back to the offerer without reserving any of them, for Ahura-mazdâ + required nothing but the soul; in certain cases, the victim was entirely + consumed by fire, but more frequently nothing but a little of the fat and + some of the entrails were taken to feed and maintain the flame, and + sometimes even this was omitted.* Sacrifices were of frequent occurrence. + Without mentioning the extraordinary occasions on which a king would have + a thousand bulls slain at one time,** the Achæmenian kings killed each day + a thousand bullocks, asses, and stags: sacrifice under such circumstances + was another name for butchery, the object of which was to furnish the + court with a sufficient supply of pure meat. The ceremonial bore + resemblance in many ways to that still employed by the modern Zoroastrians + of Persia and India. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A relic of this custom may be discerned in the expiatory + sacrifice decreed in the <i>Vendidad</i>: “He shall sacrifice a + thousand head of small cattle, and he shall place their + entrails devoutly on the fire, with libations.” + + ** The number 1000 seems to have had some ritualistic + significance, for it often recurs in the penances imposed on + the faithful as expiation for their sins: thus it was + enjoined to slay 1000 serpents, 1000 frogs, 1000 ants who + steal the grain, 1000 head of small cattle, 1000 swift + horses, 1000 camels, 1000 brown oxen. +</pre> + <p> + The officiating priest covered his mouth with the bands which fell from + his mitre, to prevent the god from being polluted by his breath; he held + in his hand the baresman, or sacred bunch of tamarisk, and prepared the + mysterious liquor from the haoma plant.* He was accustomed each morning to + celebrate divine service before the sacred fire, not to speak of the + periodic festivals in which he shared the offices with all the members of + his tribe, such as the feast of Mithra, the feast of the Fravashis,** the + feast commemorating the rout of Angrô-mainyus,*** the feast of the Saksea, + during which the slaves were masters of the house.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The drink mentioned by the author of the <i>De Iside</i>, which + was extracted from the plant Omômi, and which the Magi + offered to the god of the underworld, is certainly the + haoma. The rite mentioned by the Greek author, which appears + to be an incantation against Ahriman, required, it seems, a + potion in which the blood of a wolf was a necessary + ingredient: this questionable draught was then carried to a + place where the sun’s rays never shone, and was there + sprinkled on the ground as a libation. + + ** Menander speaks of this festival as conducted in his own + times, and tells us that it was called Eurdigan; modern + authorities usually admit that it goes back to the times of + the Achæmenids or even beyond. + + *** Agathias says that every worshipper of Ahura-mazdâ is + enjoined to kill the greatest possible number of animals + created by Angrô-mainyus, and bring to the Magi the fruits + of his hunting. Herodotus had already spoken of this + destruction of life as one of the duties incumbent on every + Persian, and this gives probability to the view of modern + writers that the festival went back to the Achæmenian epoch. + + **** The festival of the Sakoa is mentioned by Ctesias. It + was also a Babylonian festival, and most modern authorities + conclude from this double use of the name that the festival + was borrowed from the Babylonians by the Persians, but this + point is not so certain as it is made out to be, and at any + rate the borrowing must have taken place very early, for the + festival was already well established in the Achæmenian + period. +</pre> + <p> + All the Magi were not necessarily devoted to the priesthood; but those + only became apt in the execution of their functions who had been dedicated + to them from infancy, and who, having received the necessary instruction, + were duly consecrated. These adepts were divided into several classes, of + which three at least were never confounded in their functions—the + sorcerers, the interpreters of dreams, and the most venerated sages—and + from these three classes were chosen the ruling body of the order and its + supreme head. Their rule of life was strict and austere, and was + encumbered with a thousand observances indispensable to the preservation + of perfect purity in their persons, their altars, their victims, and their + sacrificial vessels and implements. The Magi of highest rank abstained + from every form of living thing as food, and the rest only partook of meat + under certain restrictions. Their dress was unpretentious, they wore no + jewels, and observed strict fidelity to the marriage vow;* and the virtues + with which they were accredited obtained for them, from very early times, + unbounded influence over the minds of the common people as well as over + those of the nobles: the king himself boasted of being their pupil, and + took no serious step in state affairs without consulting Ahura-mazdâ or + the other gods by their mediation. The classical writers maintain that the + Magi often cloaked monstrous vices under their apparent strictness, and it + is possible that this was the case in later days, but even then moral + depravity was probably rather the exception than the rule among them:*** + the majority of the Magi faithfully observed the rules of honest living + and ceremonial purity enjoined on them in the books handed down by their + ancestors. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Clement of Alexandria assures us that they were strictly + celibate, but besides the fact that married Magi are + mentioned several times, celibacy is still considered by + Zoroastrians an inferior state to that of marriage. + + ** In the Greek period, a spurious epitaph of Darius, son of + Hystaspes, was quoted, in which the king says of himself, “I + was the pupil of the Magi.” + + *** These accusations are nearly all directed against their + incestuous marriages: it seems that the classical writers + took for a refinement of debauchery what really was before + all things a religious practice. +</pre> + <p> + There is reason to believe that the Magi were all-powerful among the + Medes, and that the reign of Astyages was virtually the reign of the + priestly caste; but all the Iranian states did not submit so patiently to + their authority, and the Persians at last proved openly refractory. Their + kings, lords of Susa as well as of Pasargadse, wielded all the resources + of Elam, and their military power must have equalled, if it did not + already surpass, that of their suzerain lords. Their tribes, less devoted + to the manner of living of the Assyrians and Chaldæans, had preserved a + vigour and power of endurance which the Medes no longer possessed; and + they needed but an ambitious and capable leader, to rise rapidly from the + rank of subjects to that of rulers of Iran, and to become in a short time + masters of Asia. Such a chief they found in Cyrus,* son of Cambyses; but + although no more illustrious name than his occurs in the list of the + founders of mighty empires, the history of no other has suffered more + disfigurement from the imagination of his own subjects or from the rancour + of the nations he had conquered.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The original form of the name is Kûru, Kûrush, with a long + <i>o</i>, which forces us to reject the proposed connection with + the name of the Indian hero Kuru, in which the <i>u</i> is short. + Numerous etymologies of the name Cyrus have been proposed. + The Persians themselves attributed to it the sense of <i>the + Sun</i>. + + ** We possess two entirely different versions of the history + of the origin of Cyrus, but one, that of Herodotus, has + reached us intact, while that of Ctesias is only known to us + in fragments from extracts made by Nicolas of Damascus, and + by Photius. Spiegel and Duncker thought to recognise in the + tradition followed by Ctesias one of the Persian accounts of + the history of Cyrus, but Bauer refuses to admit this + hypothesis, and prefers to consider it as a romance put + together by the author, according to the taste of his own + times, from facts partly different from those utilised by + Herodotus, and partly borrowed from Herodotus himself: but + it should very probably be regarded as an account of Median + origin, in which the founder of the Persian empire is + portrayed in the most unfavourable light. Or perhaps it may + be regarded as the form of the legend current among the + Pharnaspids who established themselves as satraps of + Dascylium in the time of the Achæmenids, and to whom the + royal house of Cappadocia traced its origin. It is almost + certain that the account given by Herodotus represents a + Median version of the legend, and, considering the important + part played in it by Harpagus, probably that version which + was current among the descendants of that nobleman. The + historian Dinon, as far as we can judge from the extant + fragments of his work, and from the abridgment made by + Trogus Pompeius, adopted the narrative of Ctesias, mingling + with it, however, some details taken from Herodotus and the + romance of Xenophon, the Cyropodia. +</pre> + <p> + The Medes, who could not forgive him for having made them subject to their + ancient vassals, took delight in holding him up to scorn, and not being + able to deny the fact of his triumph, explained it by the adoption of + tortuous and despicable methods. They would not even allow that he was of + royal birth, but asserted that he was of ignoble origin, the son of a + female goatherd and a certain Atradates,* who, belonging to the savage + clan of the Mardians, lived by brigandage. Cyrus himself, according to + this account, spent his infancy and early youth in a condition not far + short of slavery, employed at first in sweeping out the exterior portions + of the palace, performing afterwards the same office in the private + apartments, subsequently promoted to the charge of the lamps and torches, + and finally admitted to the number of the royal cupbearers who filled the + king’s goblet at table. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to one of the historians consulted by Strabo, + Cyrus himself, and not his father, was called Atradates. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0025" id="linkimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/039.jpg" width="100%" + alt="039.jpg a Royal Hunting-party in Hun " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the silver vase in the Museum + of the Hermitage. +</pre> + <p> + When he was at length enrolled in the bodyguard,* he won distinction by + his skill in all military exercises, and having risen from rank to rank, + received command of an expedition against the Cadusians. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The tradition reproduced by Dinon narrated that Cyrus had + begun by serving among the Kavasses, the three hundred + staff-bearers who accompanied the sovereign when he appeared + in public, and that he passed next into the royal body- + guard, and that once having attained this rank, he passed + rapidly through all the superior grades of the military + profession. +</pre> + <p> + On the march he fell in with a Persian groom named OEbaras,* who had been + cruelly scourged for some misdeed, and was occupied in the transportation + of manure in a boat: in obedience to an oracle the two united their + fortunes, and together devised a vast scheme for liberating their + compatriots from the Median yoke. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This OEbaras whom Ctesias makes the accomplice of Cyrus, + seems to be an antedated forestallment of theoebaras whom + the tradition followed by Herodotus knows as master of the + horse under Darius, and to whom that king owed his elevation + to the throne. +</pre> + <p> + How Atradates secretly prepared the revolt of the Mardians; how Cyrus left + his camp to return to the court at Ecbatana, and obtained from Astyages + permission to repair to his native country under pretext of offering + sacrifices, but in reality to place himself at the head of the + conspirators; how, finally, the indiscretion of a woman revealed the whole + plot to a eunuch of the harem, and how he warned Astyages in the middle of + his evening banquet by means of a musician or singing-girl, was frequently + narrated by the Median bards in their epic poems, and hence the story + spread until it reached in later times even as far as the Greeks.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to Ctesias, it was a singing-girl who revealed + the existence of the plot to Astyages; according to Dinon, + it was the bard Angarês. Windischmann has compared this name + with that of the Vedic guild of singers, the Angira. +</pre> + <p> + Astyages, roused to action by the danger, abandons the pleasures of the + chase in which his activity had hitherto found vent, sets out on the track + of the rebel, wins a preliminary victory on the Hyrba, and kills the + father of Cyrus: some days after, he again overtakes the rebels, at the + entrance to the defiles leading to Pasargadse, and for the second time + fortune is on the point of declaring in his favour, when the Persian + women, bringing back their husbands and sons to the conflict, urge them on + to victory. The fame of their triumph having spread abroad, the satraps + and provinces successfully declared for the conqueror; Hyrcania, first, + followed by the Parthians, the Sakae, and the Bactrians: Astyages was left + almost alone, save for a few faithful followers, in the palace at + Ecbatana. His daughter Amytis and his son-in-law Spitamas concealed him so + successfully on the top of the palace, that he escaped discovery up to the + moment when Cyrus was on the point of torturing his grandchildren to force + them to reveal his hiding-place: thereupon he gave himself up to his + enemies, but was at length, after being subjected to harsh treatment for a + time, set at liberty and entrusted with the government of a mountain tribe + dwelling to the south-east of the Caspian Sea, that of the Barcanians. + Later on he perished through the treachery of OEbaras, and his corpse was + left unburied in the desert, but by divine interposition relays of lions + were sent to guard it from the attacks of beasts of prey: Cyrus, + acquainted with this miraculous circumstance, went in search of the body + and gave it a magnificent burial.* Another legend asserted, on the + contrary, that Cyrus was closely connected with the royal line of + Cyaxares; this tradition was originally circulated among the great Median + families who attached themselves to the Achaemenian dynasty.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The passage in Herodotus leads Marquart to believe that + the murder of Astyages formed part of the primitive legend, + but was possibly attributed to Cambysos, son of Cyrus, + rather than to OEbaras, the companion of the conqueror’s + early years. + + ** This is the legend as told to Herodotus in Asia Minor, + probably by the members of the family of Harpagus, which the + Greek historian tried to render credible by interpreting the + miraculous incidents in a rationalising manner. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0026" id="linkimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:48%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/042.jpg" + alt="042.jpg Remains of the Palace Of Ecbatana " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from Coste and Flandin. +</pre> + <p> + According to this legend Astyages had no male heirs, and the sceptre would + have naturally descended from him to his daughter Mandanê and her sons. + Astyages was much alarmed by a certain dream concerning his daughter: he + dreamt that water gushed forth so copiously from her womb as to flood not + only Ecbatana, but the whole of Asia, and the interpreters, as much + terrified as himself, counselled him not to give Mandanê in marriage to a + Persian noble of the race of the Achæmenids, named Cambyses; but a second + dream soon troubled the security into which this union had lulled him: he + saw issuing from his daughter’s womb a vine whose branches overshadowed + Asia, and the interpreters, being once more consulted, predicted that a + grandson was about to be born to him whose ambition would cost him his + crown. He therefore bade a certain nobleman of his court, named Harpagus—he + whose descendants preserved this version of the story of Cyrus—to + seize the infant and put it to death as soon as its mother should give it + birth; but the man, touched with pity, caused the child to be exposed in + the woods by one of the royal shepherds. A bitch gave suck to the tiny + creature, who, however, would soon have succumbed to the inclemency of the + weather, had not the shepherd’s wife, being lately delivered of a + still-born son, persuaded her husband to rescue the infant, whom she + nursed with the same tenderness as if he had been her own child. The dog + was, as we know, a sacred animal among the Iranians: the incident of the + bitch seems, then, to have been regarded by them as an indication of + divine intervention, but the Greeks were shocked by the idea, and invented + an explanation consonant with their own customs. They supposed that the + woman had borne the name of Spakô: Spakô signifying <i>bitch</i> in the + language of Media.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus asserts that the child’s foster-mother was + called in Greek <i>Kynô</i>, in Median <i>Spalcô</i>, which comes to + the same thing, for <i>spaha</i> means <i>bitch</i> in Median. Further + on he asserts that the parents of the child heard of the + name of his nurse with joy, as being of good augury; “and, + in order that the Persians might think that Cyrus had been + preserved alive by divine agency, <i>they spread abroad the + report that Cyrus had been suckled by a bitch</i>. And thus + arose the fable commonly accepted.” Trogus Pompeius received + the original story probably through Dinon, and inserted it + in his book. +</pre> + <p> + Cyrus grew to boyhood, and being accepted by Mandanê as her son, returned + to the court; his grandfather consented to spare his life, but, to avenge + himself on Harpagus, he caused the limbs of the nobleman’s own son to be + served up to him at a feast. Thenceforth Harpagus had but one idea, to + overthrow the tyrant and transfer the crown to the young prince: his + project succeeded, and Cyrus, having overcome Astyages, was proclaimed + king by the Medes as well as by the Persians. The real history of Cyrus, + as far as we can ascertain it, was less romantic. We gather that Kurush, + known to us as Cyrus, succeeded his father Cambyses as ruler of Anshân + about 559 or 558 B.C.,* and that he revolted against Astyages in 553 or + 552 B.C.,** and defeated him. The Median army thereupon seizing its own + leader, delivered him into the hands of the conqueror: Ecbatana was taken + and sacked, and the empire fell at one blow, or, more properly speaking, + underwent a transformation (550 B.C.). The transformation was, in fact, an + internal revolution in which the two peoples of the same race changed + places. The name of the Medes lost nothing of the prestige which it + enjoyed in foreign lands, but that of the Persians was henceforth united + with it, and shared its renown: like Astyages and his predecessors, Cyrus + and his successors reigned equally over the two leading branches of the + ancient Iranian stock, but whereas the former had been kings of the Medes + and Persians, the latter became henceforth kings of the Persians and + Medes.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The length of Cyrus’ reign is fixed at thirty years by + Ctesias, followed by Dinon and Trogus Pompeius, but at + twenty-nine years by Herodotus, whose computation I here + follow. Hitherto the beginning of his reign has been made to + coincide with the fall of Astyages, which was consequently + placed in 569 or 568 B.C., but the discovery of the <i>Annals + of Nabonidus</i> obliges us to place the taking of Ecbatana in + the sixth year of the Babylonian king, which corresponds to + the year 550 B.C., and consequently to hold that Cyrus + reckoned his twenty-nine years from the moment when he + succeeded his father Cambyses. + + ** The inscription on the <i>Rassam Cylinder of Abu-Habba</i>, + seems to make the fall of the Median king, who was suzerain + of the Scythians of Harrân, coincide with the third year of + Nabonidus, or the year 553-2 B.C. But it is only the date of + the commencement of hostilities between Cyrus and Astyages + which is here furnished, and this manner of interpreting the + text agrees with the statement of the Median traditions + handed down by the classical authors, that three combats + took place between Astyages and Cyrus before the final + victory of the Persians. + + *** This equality of the two peoples is indicated by the + very terms employed by Darius, whom he speaks of them, in + the <i>Great Inscription of Behistun</i>. He says, for example, + in connection with the revolt of the false Smerdis, that + “the deception prevailed greatly in the land, in Persia and + Media as well as in the other provinces,” and further on, + that “the whole people rose, and passed over from Cambyses + to him, Persia and Media as well as the other countries.” In + the same way he mentions “the army of Persians and Medes + which was with him,” and one sees that he considered Medes + and Persians to be on exactly the same footing. +</pre> + <p> + The change effected was so natural that their nearest neighbours, the + Chaldæans, showed no signs of uneasiness at the outset. They confined + themselves to the bare registration of the fact in their annals at the + appointed date, without comment, and Nabonidus in no way deviated from the + pious routine which it had hitherto pleased him to follow. Under a + sovereign so good-natured there was little likelihood of war, at all + events with external foes, but insurrections were always breaking out in + different parts of his territory, and we read of difficulties in Khumê in + the first year of his reign, in Hamath in his second year, and troubles in + Plionicia in the third year, which afforded an opportunity for settling + the Tyrian question. Tyre had led a far from peaceful existence ever since + the day when, from sheer apathy, she had accepted the supremacy of + Nebuchadrezzar.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * All these events are known through the excerpt from + Menander preserved to us by Josephus in his treatise + <i>Against Apion</i>. +</pre> + <p> + Baal II. had peacefully reigned there for ten years (574-564), but after + his death the people had overthrown the monarchy, and various <i>suffetes</i> + had followed one another rapidly—Eknibaal ruled two months, Khelbes + ten months, the high priest Abbar three months, the two brothers Mutton + and Gerastratus six years, all of them no doubt in the midst of endless + disturbances; whereupon a certain Baalezor restored the royal dignity, but + only to enjoy it for the space of one year. On his death, the inhabitants + begged the Chaldæans to send them, as a successor to the crown, one of + those princes whom, according to custom, Baal had not long previously + given over as hostages for a guarantee of his loyalty, and Nergal-sharuzur + for this purpose selected from their number Mahar-baal, who was probably a + son of Ithobaal (558-557).* When, at the end of four years, the death of + Mahar-baal left the throne vacant (554-553), the Tyrians petitioned for + his brother Hirôm, and Nabonidus, who was then engaged in Syria, came + south as far as Phoenicia and installed the prince.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The fragment of Menander does not give the Babylonian + king’s name, but a simple chronological calculation proves + him to have been Nergal-sharuzur. + + ** <i>Annals of Nabonidus</i>, where mention is made of a certain + Nabu-makhdan-uzur—but the reading of the name is uncertain + —who seems to be in revolt against the Chaldæans. Floigl has + very ingeniously harmonised the dates of the Annals with + those obtained from the fragment of Menander, and has thence + concluded that the object of the expedition of the third + year was the enthroning of Hirôm which is mentioned in the + fragment, and during whose fourteenth year Cyrus became King + of Babylon. +</pre> + <p> + This took place at the very moment when Cyrus was preparing his expedition + against Astyages; and the Babylonian monarch took advantage of the + agitation into which the Medes were thrown by this invasion, to carry into + execution a project which he had been planning ever since his accession. + Shortly after that event he had had a dream, in which Marduk, the great + lord, and Sin, the light of heaven and earth, had appeared on either side + of his couch, the former addressing him in the following words: + “Nabonidus, King of Babylon, with the horses of thy chariot bring brick, + rebuild E-khul-khul, the temple of Harrân, that Sin, the great lord, may + take up his abode therein.” Nabonidus had respectfully pointed out that + the town was in the hands of the Scythians, who were subjects of the + Medes, but the god had replied: “The Scythian of whom thou speakest, he, + his country and the kings his protectors, are no more.” Cyrus was the + instrument of the fulfilment of the prophecy. Nabonidus took possession of + Harrân without difficulty, and immediately put the necessary work in hand. + This was, indeed, the sole benefit that he derived from the changes which + were taking place, and it is probable that his inaction was the result of + the enfeebled condition of the empire. The country over which he ruled, + exhausted by the Assyrian conquest, and depopulated by the Scythian + invasions, had not had time to recover its forces since it had passed into + the hands of the Chaldæans; and the wars which Nebuchadrezzar had been + obliged to undertake for the purpose of strengthening his own power, + though few in number and not fraught with danger, had tended to prolong + the state of weakness into which it had sunk. If the hero of the dynasty + who had conquered Egypt had not ventured to measure his strength with the + Median princes, and if he had courted the friendship not only of the + warlike Cyaxares but of the effeminate Astyages, it would not be prudent + for Nabonidus to come into collision with the victorious new-comers from + the heart of Iran. Chaldsea doubtless was right in avoiding hostilities, + at all events so long as she had to bear the brunt of them alone, but + other nations had not the same motives for exercising prudence, and Lydia + was fully assured that the moment had come for her to again take up the + ambitious designs which the treaty of 585 had forced her to renounce. + Alyattes, relieved from anxiety with regard to the Medes, had confined his + energies to establishing firmly his kingdom in the regions of Asia Minor + extending westwards from the Halys and the Anti-Taurus. The acquisition of + Colophon, the destruction of Smyrna, the alliance with the towns of the + littoral, had ensured him undisputed possession of the valleys of the + Caicus and the Hermus, but the plains of the Maeander in the south, and + the mountainous districts of Mysia in the north, were not yet fully + brought under his sway. He completed the occupation of the Troad and Mysia + about 584, and afterwards made of the entire province an appanage for + Adramyttios, who was either his son or his brother.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The doings of Alyattes in Troas and in Mysia are vouched + for by the anecdote related by Plutarch concerning this + king’s relations with Pittakos. The founding of Adramyttium + is attributed to him by Stephen of Byzantium, after + Aristotle, who made Adramyttios the brother of Croesus. + Radat gives good reasons for believing that Adramyttios was + brother to Alyattes and uncle to Crosus, and the same person + as Adramys, the son of Sadyattes, according to Xanthus of + Lydia. Radet gives the year 584 for the date of these + events. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0027" id="linkimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:55%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/050.jpg" + alt="050.jpg the Tumulus of Alyattes and The Entrance to The Passage " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, from the +sketch by Spiegolthal. +</pre> + <p> + He even carried his arms into Bithynia, where, to enforce his rule, he + built several strongholds, one of which, called Alyatta, commanded the + main road leading from the basin of the Rhyndacus to that of the + Sangarius, skirting the spurs of Olympus.* He experienced some difficulty + in reducing Caria, and did not finally succeed in his efforts till nearly + the close of his reign in 566. Adramyttios was then dead, and his fief had + devolved on his eldest surviving brother or nephew, Crosus, whose mother + was by birth a Carian. This prince had incurred his father’s displeasure + by his prodigality, and an influential party desired that he should be set + aside in favour of his brother Pantaleon, the son of Alyattes by an + Ionian. Croesus, having sown his wild oats, was anxious to regain his + father’s favour, and his only chance of so doing was by distinguishing + himself in the coming war, if only money could be found for paying his + mercenaries. Sadyattes, the richest banker in Lydia, who had already had + dealings with all the members of the royal family, refused to make him a + loan, but Theokharides of Priênê advanced him a thousand gold staters, + which enabled Crosus to enroll his contingent at Bphesus, and to be the + first to present himself at the rallying-place for the troops.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Radet places the operations in Bithynia before the Median + war, towards 594 at the latest. I think that they are more + probably connected with those in Mysia, and that they form + part of the various measures taken after the Median war to + achieve the occupation of the regions west of the Halys. + + ** A mutilated extract from Xanthus of Lydia in Suidas seems + to carry these events back to the time of the war against + Priênê, towards the beginning of the reign. The united + evidence of the accompanying circumstances proves that they + belong to the time of the old age of Alyattes, and makes it + very likely that they occurred in 566, the date proposed by + Radet for the Carian campaign. +</pre> + <p> + Caria was annexed to the kingdom, but the conditions under which the + annexation took place are not known to us;* and Croesus contributed so + considerably to the success of the campaign, that he was reinstated in + popular favour. Alyattes, however, was advancing in years, and was soon + about to rejoin his adversaries Cyaxares and Nebuchadrezzar in Hades. Like + the Pharaohs, the kings of Lydia were accustomed to construct during their + lifetime the monuments in which they were to repose after death. Their + necropolis was situated not far from Sardes, on the shores of the little + lake Gygaea; it was here, close to the resting-place of his ancestors and + their wives, that Alyattes chose the spot for his tomb,** and his subjects + did not lose the opportunity of proving to what extent he had gained their + affections. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The fragment of Nicolas of Damascus does not speak of the + result of the war, but it was certainly favourable, for + Herodotus counts the Carians among Croesus’ subjects. + + ** The only one of these monuments, besides that of + Alyattes, which is mentioned by the ancients, belonged to + one of the favourites of Gyges, and was called <i>the Tomb of + the Courtesan</i>. Strabo, by a manifest error, has applied + this name <i>to</i> the tomb of Alyattes. +</pre> + <p> + His predecessors had been obliged to finish their work at their own + expense and by forced labour;* but in the case of Alyattes the three + wealthiest classes of the population, the merchants, the craftsmen, and + the courtesans, all united to erect for him an enormous tumulus, the + remains of which still rise 220 feet above the plains of the Hermus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +* This, at least, seems to be the import of the passage in Clearchus of +Soli, where that historian gives an account of the erection of the <i>Tomb +of the Courtesan</i>. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0028" id="linkimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:46%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/051.jpg" + alt="051.jpg One of the Lydian Ornaments in The Louvre " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + The sub-structure consisted of a circular wall of great blocks of + limestone resting on the solid rock, and it contained in the centre a + vault of grey marble which was reached by a vaulted passage. A huge mound + of red clay and yellowish earth was raised above the chamber, surmounted + by a small column representing a phallus, and by four stelæ covered with + inscriptions, erected at the four cardinal points. It follows the + traditional type of burial-places in use among the old Asianic races, but + it is constructed with greater regularity than most of them; Alyattes was + laid within it in 561, after a glorious reign of forty-nine years.* + </p> + <p> + * Herodotus gave fifty-seven years’ length of reign to Alyattes, whilst + the chronographers, who go back as far as Xanthus of Lydia, through Julius + Africanus, attribute to him only forty-nine; historians now prefer the + latter figures, at least as representing the maximum length of reign. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0029" id="linkimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/052.jpg" width="100%" + alt="052.jpg Mould for Jewellery of Lydian Origin " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + It was wholly due to him that Lydia was for the moment raised to the level + of the most powerful states which then existed on the eastern shores of + the Mediterranean. He was by nature of a violent and uncontrolled temper, + and during his earlier years he gave way to fits of anger, in which he + would rend the clothes of those who came in his way or would spit in their + faces, but with advancing years his character became more softened, and he + finally earned the reputation of being a just and moderate sovereign. The + little that we know of his life reveals an energy and steadfastness of + purpose quite unusual; he proceeded slowly but surely in his undertakings, + and if he did not succeed in extending his domains as far as he had hoped + at the beginning of his campaigns against the Medes, he at all events + never lost any of the provinces he had acquired. Under his auspices + agriculture flourished, and manufactures attained a degree of perfection + hitherto unknown. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0030" id="linkimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/053.jpg" width="100%" alt="053.jpg a Lydian Funery Couch " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Choisy. +</pre> + <p> + None of the vases in gold, silver, or wrought-iron, which he dedicated and + placed among the treasures of the Greek temples, has come down to us, but + at rare intervals ornaments of admirable workmanship are found in the + Lydian tombs. Those now in the Louvre exhibit, in addition to human + figures somewhat awkwardly treated, heads of rams, bulls, and griffins of + a singular delicacy and faithfulness to nature. These examples reveal a + blending of Grecian types and methods of production with those of Egypt or + Chaldæa, the Hellenic being predominant,* and the same combination of + heterogeneous elements must have existed in the other domains of + industrial art—-in the dyed and embroidered stuffs,** the vases,*** + and the furniture.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The ornaments, of which we have now no specimens, but only + the original moulds cut in serpentine, betray imitation of + Assyria and Chaldæa. +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + ** The custom of clothing themselves in dyed and embroidered + stuffs was one of the effeminate habits with which the poet + Xenophanes reproached the Ionians as having been learned + from their Lydian neighbours. + + *** M. Perrot points out that one of the vases discovered by + G. Dennis at Bintépé is an evident imitation of the Egyptian + and Phoenician chevroned glasses. The shape of the vase is + one of those found represented, with the same decoration, on + Egyptian monuments subsequent to the Middle Empire, where + the chevroned lines seem to be derived from the undulations + of ribbon-alabaster. + + **** The stone funerary couches which have been discovered + in Lydian tombs are evidently copied from pieces of wooden + furniture similarly arranged and decorated. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0031" id="linkimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:32%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/054a.jpg" + alt="054a.jpg Lydian Coin Bearing a Running Fox " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin. + +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0032" id="linkimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/054b.jpg" + alt="054b.jpg Lydian Coin With a Hare " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin. +</pre> + <p> + [These illustrations are larger than the original pieces.—Tr.] + </p> + <p> + Lydia, inheriting the traditions of Phrygia, and like that state situated + on the border of two worlds, allied moreover with Egypt as well as + Babylon, and in regular communication with the Delta, borrowed from each + that which fell in with her tastes or seemed likely to be most helpful to + her in her commercial relations. As the country produced gold in + considerable quantities, and received still more from extraneous sources, + the precious metal came soon to be employed as a means of exchange under + other conditions than those which had hitherto prevailed. Besides acting + as commission agents and middle-men for the disposal of merchandise at + Sardes, Ephesus, Miletus, Clazomenaa, and all the maritime cities, the + Lydians performed at the same time the functions of pawnbrokers, + money-changers, and bankers, and they were ready to make loans to private + individuals as well as to kings. Obliged by the exigencies of their trade + to cut up the large gold ingots into sections sufficiently small to + represent the smallest values required in daily life, they did not at + first impress upon these portions any stamp as a guarantee of the exact + weight or the purity of the metal; they were estimated like the <i>tabonu</i> + of the Egyptians, by actual weighing on the occasion of each business + transaction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0033" id="linkimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/055a.jpg" + alt="055a.jpg Lydian Coins With a Lion and Lion’s Head " /> + </div> + <p> + + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="055b (7K)" src="images/055b.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0034" id="linkimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/056a.jpg" width="100%" + alt="056a.jpg Coin Bearing Head of Mouflon Goat " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0035" id="linkimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/056b.jpg" width="100%" alt="056b.jpg Money of Croesus " /> + </div> + <p> + The idea at length occurred to them to impress each of these pieces with a + common stamp, serving, like the trade-marks employed by certain guilds of + artisans, to testify at once to their genuineness and their exact weight: + in a word, they were the inventors of money. The most ancient coinage of + their mint was like a flattened sphere, more or less ovoid, in form: it + consisted at first of electrum, and afterwards of smelted gold, upon which + parallel striae or shallow creases were made by a hammer. There were two + kinds of coinage, differing considerably from each other; one consisted of + the heavy stater, weighing about 14.20 grammes, perhaps of Phoenician + origin, the other of the light stater, of some 10.80 grammes in weight, + which doubtless served as money for the local needs of Lydia: both forms + were subdivided into pieces representing respectively the third, the + sixth, the twelfth, and the twenty-fourth of the value of the original. + </p> + <p> + The stamp which came to be impressed upon the money was in relief, and + varied with the banker; * when political communities began to follow the + example of individuals, it also bore the name of the city where it was + minted. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * [The best English numismatists do not agree with M. + Babelon’s “banker” theory. Cf. Barclay V. Head, <i>Historia + Nummorum</i>, p. xxxiv.—-Tr.] +</pre> + <p> + The type of impression once selected, was little modified for fear of + exciting mistrust among the people, but it was more finely executed and + enlarged so as to cover one of the faces, that which we now call the <i>obverse</i>. + Several subjects entered into the composition of the design, each being + impressed by a special punch: thus in the central concavity we find the + figure of a running fox, emblem of Apollo Bassareus, and in two similar + depressions, one above and the other below the central, appear a horse’s + or stag’s head, and a flower with four petals. Later on the design was + simplified, and contained only one, or at most two figures—a hare + squatting under a tortuous climbing plant, a roaring lion crouching with + its head turned to the left, the grinning muzzle of a lion, the horned + profile of an antelope or mouflon sheep: rosettes and flowers, included + within a square depression, were then used to replace the stria and + irregular lines of the reverse. These first efforts were without + inscriptions; it was not long, however, before there came to be used, in + addition to the figures, legends, from which we sometimes learn the name + of the banker; we read, for instance, “I am the mark of Phannes,” on a + stater of electrum struck at Ephesus, with a stag grazing on the right. We + are ignorant as to which of the Lydian kings first made use of the new + invention, and so threw into circulation the gold and electrum which + filled his treasury to overflowing. The ancients say it was Gyges, but the + Gygads of their time cannot be ascribed to him; they were, without any + doubt, simply ingots marked with the stamp of the banker of the time, and + were attributed to Gyges either out of pure imagination or by mistake.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The gold of Gyges is known to us through a passage in + Pollux. Fr. Lenormant attributed to Gyges the coins which + Babelon restores to the banks of Asia Minor. Babelon sees in + the Gygads only “ingots of gold, struck <i>possibly</i> in the + name of Gyges, capable of being used as coin, doubtless + representing a definitely fixed weight, but still lacking + that ultimate perfection which characterises the coinage of + civilised peoples: from the standpoint of circulation in the + market their shape was defective and inconvenient; their + subdivision did not extend to such small fractions as to + make all payments easy; they were too large and too dear for + easy circulation through many hands.” + </pre> + <p> + The same must be said of the pieces of money which have been assigned to + his successors, and, even when we find on them traces of writing, we + cannot be sure of their identification; one legend which was considered to + contain the name of Sadyattes has been made out, without producing + conviction, as involving, instead, that of Clazomenæ. There is no + certainty until after the time of Alyattes, that is, in the reign of + Croesus. It is, as a fact, to this prince that we owe the fine gold and + silver coins bearing on the obverse a demi-lion couchant confronting a + bull treated similarly.* The two creatures appear to threaten one another, + and the introduction of the lion recalls a tradition regarding the city of + Sardes; it may represent the actual animal which was alleged to have been + begotten by King Meles of one of his concubines, and which he caused to be + carried solemnly round the city walls to render them impregnable. + </p> + <p> + Croesus did not succeed to the throne of his father without trouble. His + enemies had not laid down their arms after the Carian campaign, and they + endeavoured to rid themselves of him by all the means in use at Oriental + courts. The Ionian mother of his rival furnished the slave who kneaded the + bread with poison, telling her to mix it with the dough, but the woman + revealed the intended crime to her master, who at once took the necessary + measures to frustrate the plot; later on in life he dedicated in the + temple of Delphi a statue of gold representing the faithful bread-maker.** + The chief of the rival party seems to have been Sadyattes, the banker from + whom Croesus had endeavoured to borrow money at the beginning of his + career, but several of the Lydian nobles, whose exercise of feudal rights + had been restricted by the growing authority of the Mermnado, either + secretly or openly gave their adhesion to Pantaleon, among them being + Glaucias of Sidênê; the Greek cities, always ready to chafe at authority, + were naturally inclined to support a claimant born of a Greek mother, and + Pindarus the tyrant of Ephesus, and grandson of the Melas who had married + the daughter of Gyges, joined the conspirators. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Lenormant ascribed an issue of coins without inscriptions + to the kings Ardys, Sadyattes, and Alyattes, but this has + since been believed not to have been their work. + + ** Herodotus mentions the statue of the bread-maker, giving + no reason why Crosus dedicated it. The author quoted by + Plutarch would have it that in revenge he made his half- + brothers eat the poisoned bread. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0036" id="linkimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/059.jpg" width="100%" + alt="059.jpg View of the Site and Ruins Of Ephesus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + As soon as Alyattes was dead, Crosus, who was kept informed by his spies + of their plans, took action with a rapidity which disconcerted his + adversaries. It is not known what became of Pantaleon, whether he was + executed or fled the country, but his friends were tortured to death or + had to purchase their pardon dearly. Sadyattes was stretched on a rack and + torn with carding combs.* Glaucias, besieged in his fortress of Sidênê, + opened its gates after a desperate resistance; the king demolished the + walls, and pronounced a solemn curse on those who should thereafter + rebuild them. Pindarus, summoned to surrender, refused, but as he had not + sufficient troops to defend the entire city, he evacuated the lower + quarters, and concentrated all his forces on the defence of the citadel; + he refused to open negotiations until after the fall of a tower at the + moment when a practicable breach had been made, and succeeded in obtaining + an honourable capitulation for himself and his people by a ruse. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The history of Sadyattes and of his part in the conspiracy + results from points of agreement which have been established + between various passages in Herodotus and in Nicolas of + Damascus, where the person is sometimes named and sometimes + not. +</pre> + <p> + He dedicated the town to Artemis, and by means of a rope connected the + city walls with the temple, which stood nearly a mile away in the suburbs, + and then entreated for peace in the name of the goddess. Croesus was + amused at the artifice, and granted favourable conditions to the + inhabitants, but insisted on the expulsion of the tyrant. The latter bowed + before the decree, and confiding the care of his children and possessions + to his friend Pasicles, left for the Peloponnesus with his retinue. + Bphesus up to this time had been a kind of allied principality, whose + chiefs, united to the royal family of Lydia by marriages from generation + to generation, recognised the nominal suzerainty of the reigning king + rather than his effective authority. It was in fact a species of + protectorate, which, while furthering the commercial interests of Lydia, + satisfied at the same time the passion of the Greek cities for autonomy. + Croesus, encouraged by his first success, could not rest contented with + such a compromise. He attacked, successively, Miletus and the various + Ionian, Æolian, and Dorian communities of the littoral, and brought them + all under his sway, promising on their capitulation that their local + constitutions should be respected if they became direct dependencies of + his empire. He placed garrisons in such towns as were strategically + important for him to occupy, but everywhere else he razed to the ground + the fortresses and ramparts which might afford protection to his enemies + in case of rebellion, compelling the inhabitants to take up their abode on + the open plain where they could not readily defend themselves.* The + administration of the affairs of each city was entrusted to either a + wealthy citizen, or an hereditary tyrant, or an elected magistrate, who + was held responsible for its loyalty; the administrator paid over the + tribute to the sovereign’s treasurers, levied the specified contingent and + took command of it in time of war, settled any quarrels which might occur, + and was empowered, when necessary, to exile turbulent and ambitious + persons whose words or actions appeared to him to be suspicious. Croesus + treated with generosity those republics which tendered him loyal + obedience, and affected a special devotion to their gods. He gave a large + number of ex-voto offerings to the much-revered sanctuary of Bran-chidse, + in the territory of Miletus; he dedicated some golden heifers at the + Artemision of Ephesus, and erected the greater number of the columns of + that temple at his own expense.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * He treated thus the Ephesians and the Ilians. + + ** The fragments of columns brought from this temple by Wood + and preserved in the British Museum have on one of the bases + the remains of an inscription confirming the testimony of + Herodotus. +</pre> + <p> + At one time in his career he appears to have contemplated extending his + dominion over the Greek islands, and planned, as was said, the equipment + of a fleet, but he soon acknowledged the imprudence of such a project, and + confined his efforts to strengthening his advantageous position on the + littoral by contracting alliances with the island populations and with the + nations of Greece proper.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * He seems to have been deterred from his project by a + sarcastic remark made, as some say, by Pittakos the + Mitylenian, or according to others, by Bias of Priênê. +</pre> + <p> + Following the diplomacy of his ancestors, he began by devoting himself to + the gods of the country, and took every pains to gain the good graces of + Apollo of Delphi. He dispensed his gifts with such liberality that neither + his contemporaries nor subsequent generations grew weary of admiring it. + On one occasion he is said to have sacrificed three thousand animals, and + burnt, moreover, on the pyre the costly contents of a palace—couches + covered with silver and gold, coverlets and robes of purple, and golden + vials. His subjects were commanded to contribute to the offering, and he + caused one hundred and seventeen hollow half-bricks to be cast of the gold + which they brought him for this purpose. These bricks were placed in + regular layers within the treasury at Delphi where the gifts of Lydia from + the time of Alyattes were deposited, and the top of the pile was + surmounted by a lion of fine gold of such a size that the pedestal and + statue together were worth £1,200,000 of our present money. These, + however, formed only a tithe of his gifts; many of the objects dedicated + by him were dispersed half a century (548 B.C.) later when the temple was + burnt, and found their way into the treasuries of the Greek states which + enjoyed the favour of Apollo—among them being an enormous gold cup + sent to Clazomeme, and four barrels of silver and two bowls, one of silver + and one of gold, sent to the Corinthians. The people at Delphi, as well as + their god, participated in the royal largesse, and Croesus distributed to + them the sum of two staters per head. No doubt their gratitude led them by + degrees to exaggerate the total of the benefits showered upon them, + especially as time went on and their recollection of the king became + fainter; but even when we reduce the number of the many gifts which they + attributed to him, we are still obliged to acknowledge that they surpassed + anything hitherto recorded, and that they produced throughout the whole of + Greece the effect that Croesus had desired. The oracle granted to him and + to the Lydians the rights of citizenship in perpetuity, the privilege of + priority in consulting it before all comers, precedence for his legates + over other foreign embassies, and a place of honour at the games and at + all religious ceremonies. It was, in fact, the admission of Lydia into the + Hellenic concert, and the offerings which Croesus showered upon the + sanctuaries of lesser fame—that of Zeus at Dodona, of Amphiaraos at + Oropos, of Trophonios at Lebadsea, on the oracle of Abee in Phocis, and on + the Ismenian Apollo at Thebes—secured a general approval of the act. + Political alliances contracted with the great families of Athens, the + Alcmonidæ and Eupatridæ,* with the Cypselidæ of, Corinth,** and with the + Heraclidæ of Sparta,*** completed the policy of bribery which Croesus had + inaugurated in the sacerdotal republics, with the result that, towards + 548, being in the position of uncontested patron of the Greeks of Asia, he + could count upon the sympathetic neutrality of the majority of their + compatriots in Europe, and on the effective support of a smaller number of + them in the event of his being forced into hostilities with one or other + of his Asiatic rivals. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Traditions as to Crcesus’ relations with Alcrnseon are + preserved by Herodotus. The king compelled the inhabitants of + Lampsacus, his vassals, to release the elder Miltiades, whom + they had taken prisoner, and thus earned the gratitude of + the Eupatridæ. + + ** Alyattes had been the ally of Periander, as is proved by + an anecdote in Herodotus. This friendship continued under + Crosus, for after the fall of the monarchy, when the special + treasuries of Lydia were suppressed, the ex-voto offerings + of the Lydian kings were deposited in the treasury of + Corinth. + + *** According to Theopompus, the Lacedaemonians, wishing to + gild the face of the statue of the Amyclsean, Apollo, and + finding no gold in Greece, consulted the Delphian + prophetess: by her advice they sent to Lydia to buy the + precious metal from Croesus. +</pre> + <p> + This, however, constituted merely one side of his policy, and the + negotiations which he carried on with his western neighbours were + conducted simultaneously with his wars against those of the east. Alyattes + had asserted his supremacy over the whole of the country on the western + side of the Halys, but it was of a very vague kind, having no definite + form, and devoid of practical results as far as several of the districts + in the interior were concerned. Croesus made it a reality, and in less + than ten years all the peoples contained within it, the Lycians excepted—Mysians, + Phrygians, Mariandynians, Paphlagonians, Thynians, Bithynians, and + Pamphylians—had rendered him homage. In its constitution his empire + in no way differed from those which at that time shared the rule of + Western Asia; the number of districts administered directly by the + sovereign were inconsiderable, and most of the states comprised in it + preserved their autonomy. Phrygia had its own princes, who were + descendants of Midas,* and in the same way Caria and Mysia also retained + theirs; but these vassal lords paid tribute and furnished contingents to + their liege of Sardes, and garrisons lodged in their citadels as well as + military stations or towns founded in strategic positions, such as Prusa** + in Bithynia, Cibyra, Hyda, Grimenothyræ, and Temenothyræ,*** kept strict + watch over them, securing the while free circulation for caravans or + individual merchants throughout the whole country. Croesus had achieved + his conquest just as Media was tottering to its fall under the attacks of + the Persians. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is proved by the history of the Prince Adrastus in + Herodotus. Herodotus probably alluded to this colonisation + by Crcesus, when he said that the Mysians of Olympus were + descendants of Lydian colonists. + + ** Strabo merely says that the Kibyrates were descended from + the Lydians who dwelt in Cabalia; since Croesus was, as far + as we know, the only Lydian king who ever possessed this + part of Asia, Radet, with good reason, concludes that Kibyra + was colonised by him. + + *** Radet has given good reasons for believing that at least + some of these towns were enlarged and fortified by Croesus. +</pre> + <p> + Their victory placed the Lydian king in a position of great perplexity, + since it annulled the treaties concluded after the eclipse of 585, and by + releasing him from the obligations then contracted, afforded him an + opportunity of extending the limits within which his father had confined + himself. Now or never was the time for crossing the Halys in order to + seize those mineral districts with which his subjects had so long had + commercial relations; on the other hand, the unexpected energy of which + the Persians had just given proof, their bravery, their desire for + conquest, and the valour of their leader, all tended to deter him from the + project: should he be victorious, Cyrus would probably not rest contented + with tke annexation of a few unimportant districts or the imposition of a + tribute, but would treat his adversary as he had Astyages, and having + dethroned him, would divide Lydia into departments to be ruled by one or + other of his partisans. Warlike ideas, nevertheless, prevailed at the + court of Sardes, and, taking all into consideration, we cannot deny that + they had reason on their side. The fall of Ecbatana had sealed the fate of + Media proper, and its immediate dependencies had naturally shared the + fortunes of the capital; but the more distant provinces still wavered, and + they would probably attempt to take advantage of the change of rule to + regain their liberty. Cyrus, obliged to take up arms against them, would + no longer have his entire forces at his disposal, and by attacking him at + that juncture it might be possible to check his power before it became + irresistible. Having sketched out his plan of campaign, Croesus prepared + to execute it with all possible celerity. Egypt and Chaldæa, like himself, + doubtless felt themselves menaced; he experienced little difficulty in + persuading them to act in concert with him in face of the common peril, + and he obtained from both Amasis and Nabonidus promises of effective + co-operation. At the same time he had recourse to the Greek oracles, and + that of Delphi was instrumental in obtaining for him a treaty of alliance + and friendship with Sparta. Negotiations had been carried on so rapidly, + that by the end of 548 all was in readiness for a simultaneous movement; + Sparta was equipping a fleet, and merely awaited the return of the + favourable season to embark her contingent; Egypt had already despatched + hers, and her Cypriot vassals were on the point of starting, while bands + of Thracian infantry were marching to reinforce the Lydian army. These + various elements represented so considerable a force of men, that, had + they been ranged on a field of battle, Cyrus would have experienced + considerable difficulty in overcoming them. An unforeseen act of treachery + obliged the Lydians to hasten their preparations and commence hostilities + before the moment agreed on. Eurybatos, an Ephesian, to whom the king had + entrusted large sums of money for the purpose of raising mercenaries in + the Peloponnesus, fled with his gold into Persia, and betrayed the secret + of the coalition. The Achaemenian sovereign did not hesitate to forestall + the attack, and promptly assumed the offensive. The transport of an army + from Ecbatana to the middle course of the Halys would have been a long and + laborious undertaking, even had it kept within the territory of the + empire; it would have necessitated crossing the mountain groups of Armenia + at their greatest width, and that at a time when the snow was still lying + deep upon the ground and the torrents were swollen and unfordable. The + most direct route, which passed through Assyria and the part of + Mesopotamia south of the Masios, lay for the most part in the hands of the + Chaldæans, but their enfeebled condition justified Cyrus’s choice of it, + and he resolved, in the event of their resistance, to cut his way through + sword in hand. He therefore bore down upon Arbela by the gorges of + Rowandîz in the month Nisan, making as though he were bound for + Karduniash; but before the Babylonians had time to recover from their + alarm at this movement, he crossed the river not far from Nineveh and + struck into Mesopotamia. He probably skirted the slopes of the Masios, + overcoming and killing in the month Iyyâr some petty king, probably the + ruler of Armenia,* and debouched into Cappadocia. This province was almost + entirely in the power of the enemy; Nabonidus had despatched couriers by + the shortest route in order to warn his ally, and if necessary to claim + his promised help. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ploigl, who was the first to refer a certain passage in + the <i>Annals of Nabonidus</i> to the expedition against Croesus, + restored Is[parda] as the name of the country mentioned, and + saw even the capture of Sardes in the events of the month + Iyyâr, in direct contradiction to the Greek tradition. The + connection between the campaign beyond the Tigris and the + Lydian war seems to me incontestable, but the Babylonian + chronicler has merely recorded the events which affected + Babylonia. Cyrus’ object was both to intimidate Nabonidus + and also to secure possession of the most direct, and at the + same time the easiest, route: by cutting across Mesopotamia, + he avoided the difficult marches in the mountainous + districts of Armenia. Perhaps we should combine, with the + information of the <i>Annals</i>, the passage of Xenophon, where + it is said that the Armenians refused tribute and service to + the King of Persia: Cyrus would have punished the rebels on + his way, after crossing the Euphrates. +</pre> + <p> + Croesus, when he received them, had with him only the smaller portion of + his army, the Lydian cavalry, the contingents of his Asiatic subjects, and + a few Greek veterans, and it would probably have been wiser to defer the + attack till after the disembarkation of the Lacedaemonians; but hesitation + at so critical a moment might have discouraged his followers, and decided + his fate before any action had taken place. He therefore collected his + troops together, fell upon the right bank of the Halys,* devastated the + country, occupied Pteria and the neighbouring towns, and exiled the + inhabitants to a distance. He had just completed the subjection of the + White Syrians when he was met by an emissary from the Persians; Cyrus + offered him his life, and confirmed his authority on condition of his + pleading for mercy and taking the oath of vassalage.** Croesus sent a + proud refusal, which was followed by a brilliant victory, after which a + truce of three months was concluded between the belligerents.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * On this point Herodotus tells a current story of his time: + Thaïes had a trench dug behind the army, which was probably + encamped in one of the bends made by the Halys; he then + diverted the stream into this new bed, with the result that + the Lydians found themselves on the right bank of the river + without having had the trouble of crossing it. + + ** Nicolas of Damascus records that Cyrus, after the capture + of Sardes, for a short time contemplated making Croesus a + vassal king, or at least a satrap of Lydia. + + *** We have two very different accounts of this campaign, + viz. that of Herodotus, and that of Polyonus. According to + Herodotus, Croesus gave battle only once in Pteria, with + indecisive result, and on the next day quietly retired to + his kingdom, thinking that Cyrus would not dare to pursue + him. According to Polyonus, Croesus, victorious in a first + engagement owing to a more or less plausible military + stratagem, consented to a truce, but on the day after was + completely defeated, and obliged to return to his kingdom + with a routed army. Herodotus’ account of the fall of + Croesus and of Sardes, borrowed partly from a good written + source, Xanthus or Charon of Lampsacus, partly from the + tradition of the Harpagidse, seems to have for its object + the soothing of the vanity both of the Persians and of the + Lydians, since, if the result of the war could not be + contested, the issue of the battle was at least left + uncertain. If he has given a faithful account, no one can + understand why Croesus should have retired and ceded White + Syria to a rival who had never conquered him. The account + given by Polysenus, in spite of the improbability of some of + its details, comes from a well-informed author: the defeat + of the Lydians in the second battle explains the retreat of + Crcesus, who is without excuse in Herodotus’ version of the + affair. Pompeius Trogus adopted a version similar to that of + Polysenus. +</pre> + <p> + Cyrus employed the respite in attempting to win over the Greek cities of + the littoral, which he pictured to himself as nursing a bitter hatred + against the Mermnadæ; but it is to be doubted if his emissaries succeeded + even in wresting a declaration of neutrality from the Milesians; the + remainder, Ionians and Æolians, all continued faithful to their oaths.* On + the resumption of hostilities, the tide of fortune turned, and the Lydians + were crushed by the superior forces of the Persians and the Medes; Crcesus + retired under cover of night, burning the country as he retreated, to + prevent the enemy from following him, and crossed the Halys with the + remains of his battalions. The season was already far advanced; he thought + that the Persians, threatened in the rear by the Babylonian troops, would + shrink from the prospect of a winter campaign, and he fell back upon + Sardes without further lingering in Phrygia. But Nabonidus did not feel + himself called upon to show the same devotion that his ally had evinced + towards him, or perhaps the priests who governed in his name did not + permit him to fulfil his engagements.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus makes the attempted corruption of the Ionians to + date from the beginning of the war, even before Cyrus took + the field. + + ** The author followed by Pompeius Trogus has alone + preserved the record of this treaty. The fact is important + as explaining Croesus’ behaviour after his defeat, but + Schubert goes too far when he re-establishes on this ground + an actual campaign of Cyrus against Babylon: Radet has come + back to the right view in seeing only a treaty made with + Nabonidus. +</pre> + <p> + As soon as peace was proposed, he accepted terms, without once considering + the danger to which the Lydians were exposed by his defection. The Persian + king raised his camp as soon as all fear of an attack to rearward was + removed, and, falling upon defenceless Phrygia, pushed forward to Sardes + in spite of the inclemency of the season. No movement could have been + better planned, or have produced such startling results. Croesus had + disbanded the greater part of his feudal contingents, and had kept only + his body-guard about him, the remainder of his army—natives, + mercenaries, and allies—having received orders not to reassemble + till the following spring. The king hastily called together all his + available troops, both Lydians and foreigners, and confronted his enemies + for the second time. Even under these unfavourable conditions he hoped to + gain the advantage, had his cavalry, the finest in the world, been able to + take part in the engagement. But Cyrus had placed in front of his lines a + detachment of camels, and the smell of these animals so frightened the + Lydian horses that they snorted and refused to charge.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus’ mention of the use of camels is confirmed, with + various readings, by Xenophon, by Polysenus, and by Ælian; + their employment does not necessarily belong to a legendary + form of the story, especially if we suppose that the camel, + unknown before in Asia Minor, was first introduced there by + the Persian army. The site of the battle is not precisely + known. According to Herodotus, the fight took place in the + great plain before Sardes, which is crossed by several small + tributaries of the Hermus, amongst others the Hyllus. Radet + recognises that the Hyllus of Herodotus is the whole or part + of the stream now called the Kusu-tchaî, and he places the + scene of action near the township of Adala, which would + correspond with Xenophon’s Thymbrara. This continues to be + the most likely hypothesis. After the battle Croesus would + have fled along the Hermus towards Sardes. Xenophon’s story + is a pure romance. +</pre> + <p> + Croesus was again worsted on the confines of the plain of the Hermus, and + taking refuge in the citadel of Sardes, he despatched couriers to his + allies in Greece and Egypt to beg for succour without delay. The + Lacedaemonians hurried on the mobilisation of their troops, and their + vessels were on the point of weighing anchor, when the news arrived that + Sardes had fallen in the early days of December, and that Croesus himself + was a prisoner.* How the town came to be taken, the Greeks themselves + never knew, and their chroniclers have given several different accounts of + the event.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Radet gives the date of the capture of Sardes as about + November 15, 546; but the number and importance of the + events occurring between the retreat of Croesus and the + decisive catastrophe—the negotiations with Babylon, the + settling into winter quarters, the march of Cyrus across + Phrygia—must have required a longer time than Radet allots + to them in his hypothesis, and I make the date a month + later. + + ** Ctesias and Xenophon seem to depend on Herodotus, the + former with additional fabulous details concerning his + OEbaras, Cyrus’ counsellor, which show the probable origin + of his additions. Polysenus had at his disposal a different + story, the same probably that he used for his account of the + campaign in Cappadocia, for in it can be recognised the wish + to satisfy, within possible limits, the pride of the + Lydians: here again the decisive success is preceded by a + check given to Cyrus and a three months’ truce. +</pre> + <p> + The least improbable is that found in Herodotus. The blockade had lasted, + so he tells us, fourteen days, when Cyrus announced that he would richly + reward the first man to scale the walls. Many were tempted by his + promises, but were unsuccessful in their efforts, and their failure had + discouraged all further attempts, when a Mardian soldier, named Hyreades, + on duty at the foot of the steep slopes overlooking the Tmolus, saw a + Lydian descend from rock to rock in search of his helmet which he had + lost, and regain the city by the same way without any great difficulty. He + noted carefully the exact spot, and in company with a few comrades climbed + up till he reached the ramparts; others followed, and taking the besieged + unawares, they opened the gates to the main body of the army.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * About three and a half centuries later Sardes was captured + in the same way by one of the generals of Antiochus the + Great. +</pre> + <p> + Croesus could not bear to survive the downfall of his kingdom: he erected + a funeral pyre in the courtyard of his palace, and took up his position on + it, together with his wives, his daughters, and the noblest youths of his + court, surrounded by his most precious possessions. He could cite the + example of more than one vanquished monarch of the ancient Asiatic world + in choosing such an end, and one of the fabulous ancestors of his race, + Sandon-Herakles, had perished after this fashion in the midst of the + flames. Was the sacrifice carried out? Everything leads us to believe that + it was, but popular feeling could not be resigned to the idea that a + prince who had shown such liberality towards the gods in his prosperity + should be abandoned by them in the time of his direst need. They came to + believe that the Lydian monarch had expiated by his own defeat the crime + by the help of which his ancestor Gyges had usurped the throne. Apollo had + endeavoured to delay the punishment till the next generation, that it + might fall on the son of his votary, but he had succeeded in obtaining + from fate a respite of three years only. Even then he had not despaired, + and had warned Croesus by the voice of the oracles. They had foretold him + that, in crossing the Halys, the Lydians ^would destroy a great empire, + and that their power would last till the day when a mule should sit upon + the throne of Media. Croesus, blinded by fate, could not see that Cyrus, + who was of mixed race, Persian by his father and Median by his mother, was + the predicted mule. He therefore crossed the Halys, and a great empire + fell, but it was his own. At all events, the god might have desired to + show that to honour his altars and adorn his temple was in itself, after + all, the best of treasures. “When Sardes, suffering the vengeance of Zeus, + was conquered by the army of the Persians, the god of the golden sword, + Apollo, was the guardian of Croesus. When the day of despair arrived, the + king could not resign himself to tears and servitude; within the + brazen-walled court he erected a funeral pyre, on which, together with his + chaste spouse and his bitterly lamenting daughters of beautiful locks, he + mounted; he raised his hands towards the depths of the ether and cried: + ‘Proud fate, where is the gratitude of the gods, where is the prince, the + child of Leto? Where is now the house of Alyattes?... The ancient citadel + of Sardes has fallen, the Pactolus of golden waves runs red with blood; + ignominiously are the women driven from their well-decked chambers! That + which was once my hated foe is now my friend, and the sweetest thing is to + die!’ Thus he spoke, and ordered the softly moving eunuch* to set fire to + the wooden structure. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The word translated “softly moving eunuch” is here perhaps + a proper name: the slave whose duty it was to kindle the + pyre was called Abrobatas in the version of the story chosen + by Bacchylides, while that adopted by the potter whose work + is reproduced on the opposite page, calls him Euthymos. +</pre> + <p> + The maidens shrieked and threw their arms around their mother, for the + death before them was that most hated by mortals. But just when the + sparkling fury of the cruel fire had spread around, Zeus, calling up a + black-flanked cloud, extinguished the yellow flame. + </p> + <p> + Nothing is incredible of that which the will of the gods has decreed: + Apollo of Delos, seizing the old man, bore him, together with his + daughters of tender feet, into the Hyperborean land as a reward for his + piety, for no mortal had sent richer offerings to the illustrious Pythô!” + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0037" id="linkimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/075.jpg" width="100%" alt="075.jpg Cimesus on his Pyre " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph of the original in + the Museum of the Louvre. +</pre> + <p> + This miraculous ending delighted the poets and inspired many fine lines, + but history could with difficulty accommodate itself to such a + materialistic intervention of a divine being, and sought a less fabulous + solution. The legend which appeared most probable to the worthy Herodotus + did not even admit that the Lydian king took his own life; it was Cyrus + who condemned him, either with a view of devoting the first-fruits of his + victory to the immortals, or to test whether the immortals would save the + rival whose piety had been so frequently held up to his admiration. The + edges of the pyre had already taken light, when the Lydian king sighed and + thrice repeated the name of Solon. It was a tardy recollection of a + conversation in which the Athenian sage had stated, without being + believed, that none can be accounted truly happy while they still live. + Cyrus, applying it to himself, was seized with remorse or pity, and + commanded the bystanders to quench the fire, but their efforts were in + vain. Thereupon Croesus implored the pity of Apollo, and suddenly the sky, + which up till then had been serene and clear, became overcast; thick + clouds collected, and rain fell so heavily that the burning pile was at + once extinguished.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The story told by Nicolas of Damascus comes down probably + from Xanthus of Lydia, but with many additions borrowed + directly from Herodotus and rhetorical developments by the + author himself. Most other writers who tell the story depend + for their information, either directly or indirectly, on + Herodotus: in later times it was supposed that the Lydian + king was preserved from the flames by the use of some + talisman such as the Ephesian letters. +</pre> + <p> + Well treated by his conqueror, the Lydian king is said to have become his + friend and most loyal counsellor; he accepted from him the fief of Barênê + in Media, often accompanied him in his campaigns, and on more than one + occasion was of great service to him by the wise advice which he gave. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0038" id="linkimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/078.jpg" + alt="078.jpg a Persian King Fighting With Greeks " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from an intaglio +reproduced in the +<i>Antiquités du +Bosphore cimmérien.</i> +</pre> + <p> + We may well ask what would have taken place had he gained the decisive + victory over Cyrus that he hoped. Chaldæa possessed merely the semblance + of her former greatness and power, and if she still maintained her hold + over Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, and parts of Arabia, it was because + these provinces, impoverished by the Assyrian conquest, and entirely laid + waste by the Scythians, had lost the most energetic elements of their + populations, and felt themselves too much enfeebled to rise against their + suzerain. Egypt, like Chaldæa, was in a state of decadence, and even + though her Pharaohs attempted to compensate for the inferiority of their + native troops by employing foreign mercenaries, their attempts at Asiatic + rule always issued in defeat, and just as the Babylonian sovereigns were + unable to reduce them to servitude, so they on their part were powerless + to gain an advantage over the sovereigns of Babylon. Hence Lydia, in her + youth and vigour, would have found little difficulty in gaining the + ascendency over her two recent allies, but beyond that she could not hope + to push her success; her restricted territory, sparse population, and + outlying position would always have debarred her from exercising any + durable dominion over them, and though absolute mistress of Asia Minor, + the countries beyond the Taurus were always destined to elude her grasp. + If the Achæmenian, therefore, had confined himself, at all events for the + time being, to the ancient limits of his kingdom, Egypt and Chaldæa would + have continued to vegetate each within their respective area, and the + triumph of Croesus would, on the whole, have caused but little change in + the actual balance of power in the East. + </p> + <p> + The downfall of Croesus, on the contrary, marked a decisive era in the + world’s history. His army was the only one, from the point of numbers and + organisation, which was a match for that of Cyrus, and from the day of its + dispersion it was evident that neither Egypt nor Chaldæa had any chance of + victory on the battle-field. The subjection of Babylon and Harrân, of + Hamath, Damascus, Tyre and Sidon, of Memphis and Thebes, now became merely + a question of time, and that not far distant; the whole of Asia, and that + part of Africa which had been the oldest cradle of human civilisation, + were now to pass into the hands of one man and form a single empire, for + the benefit of the new race which was issuing forth in irresistible + strength from the recesses of the Iranian table-land. It was destined, + from the very outset, to come into conflict with an older, but no less + vigorous race than itself, that of the Greeks, whose colonists, after + having swarmed along the coasts of the Mediterranean, were now beginning + to quit the seaboard and penetrate wherever they could into the interior. + </p> + <p> + They had been on friendly terms with that dynasty of the Meramadæ who had + shown reverence for the Hellenic gods; they had, as a whole, disdained to + betray Croesus, or to turn upon him when he was in difficulties beyond the + Halys; and now that he had succumbed to his fate, they considered that the + ties which had bound them to Sardes were broken, and they were determined + to preserve their independence at all costs. This spirit of + insubordination would have to be promptly dealt with and tightly curbed, + if perpetual troubles in the future were to be avoided. The Asianic + peoples soon rallied round their new master—Phrygians, Mysians, the + inhabitants on the shores of the Black Sea, and those of the Pamphylian + coast;* even Cilicia, which had held its own against Chaldæa, Media, and + Lydia, was now brought under the rising power, and its kings were + henceforward obedient to the Persian rule.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * None of the documents actually say this, but the general + tenor of Herodotus’ account seems to show clearly that, with + the exception of the Greek cities of the Carians and + Lycians, all the peoples who had formed part of the Lydian + dominion under Croesus submitted, without any appreciable + resistance, after the taking of Sardes. + + ** Herodotus mentions a second Syennesis king of Cilicia + forty years later at the time of the Ionian revolt. +</pre> + <p> + The two leagues of the Ionians and Æolians had at first offered to + recognise Cyrus as their suzerain under the same conditions as those with + which Croesus had been satisfied; but he had consented to accept it only + in the case of Miletus, and had demanded from the rest an unconditional + surrender. This they had refused, and, uniting in a common cause perhaps + for the first time in their existence, they had resolved to take up arms. + As the Persians possessed no fleet, the Creeks had nothing to fear from + the side of the Ægean, and the severity of the winter prevented any attack + being made from the land side till the following spring. They meanwhile + sought the aid of their mother-country, and despatched an embassy to the + Spartans; the latter did not consider it prudent to lend them troops, as + they would have done in the case of Croesus, but they authorised Lakrines, + one of their principal citizens, to demand of the great king that he + should respect the Hellenic cities, under pain of incurring their enmity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0039" id="linkimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/080.jpg" width="100%" + alt="080.jpg the Present Site of Miletus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + Cyrus was fully occupied with the events then taking place in the eastern + regions of Iran; Babylon had not ventured upon any move after having + learned the news of the fall of Sardes, but the Bactrians and the Sakæ had + been in open revolt during the whole of the year that he had been detained + in the extreme west, and a still longer absence might risk the loss of his + prestige in Media, and even in Persia itself.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The tradition followed by Ctesias maintained that the + submission of the eastern peoples was an accomplished fact + when the Lydian war began. That adopted by Herodotus placed + this event after the fall of Croesus; at any rate, it showed + that fear of the Bactrians and the Sakæ, as well as of the + Babylonians and Egyptians was the cause that hastened Cyrus’ + retreat. +</pre> + <p> + The threat of the Lacedaæmonians had little effect upon him; he inquired + as to what Sparta and Greece were, and having been informed, he ironically + begged the Lacedæmonian envoy to thank his compatriots for the good advice + with which they had honoured him; “but,” he added, “take care that I do + not soon cause you to babble, not of the ills of the Ionians, but of your + own.” He confided the government of Sardes to one of his officers, named + Tabalos, and having entrusted Paktyas, one of the Lydians who had embraced + his cause, with the removal of the treasures of Croesus to Persia, he + hastily set out for Ecbatana. He had scarcely accomplished half of his + journey when a revolt broke out in his rear; Paktyas, instead of obeying + his instructions, intrigued with the Ionians, and, with the mercenaries he + had hired from them, besieged Tabalos in the citadel of Sardes. If the + place capitulated, the entire conquest would have to be repeated; + fortunately it held out, and its resistance gave Cyrus time to send its + governor reinforcements, commanded by Mazares the Median. As soon as they + approached the city, Paktyas, conscious that he had lost the day, took + refuge at Kymê. Its inhabitants, on being summoned to deliver him up, + refused, but helped him to escape to Mytilene, where the inhabitants of + the island attempted to sell him to the enemy for a large sum of money. + The Kymæans saved him a second time, and conveyed him to the temple of + Athene Poliarchos at Chios. The citizens, however, dragged him from his + retreat, and delivered him over to the Median general in exchange for + Atarneus, a district of Mysia, the possession of which they were disputing + with the Lesbians.* Paktyas being a prisoner, the Lydians were soon + recalled to order, and Mazares was able to devote his entire energies to + the reduction of the Greek cities; but he had accomplished merely the sack + of Priênê,** and the devastation of the suburbs of Magnesia on the æander, + when he died from some illness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A passage which has been preserved of Charon of Lampsacus + sums up in a few words the account given by Herodotus of the + adventures of Paktyas, but without mentioning the treachery + of the islanders: he confines himself to saying Cyrus caught + the fugitive after the latter had successively left Chios + and Mytilene. + + ** Herodotus attributes the taking of this city to the + Persian Tabules, who is evidently the Tabalos of Herodotus. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0040" id="linkimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/083.jpg" + alt="083.jpg a Lycian City Upon Its Inaccessible Rock " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The rock and tombs of Tlôs, +drawn by Boudier, from +the view in Fellows. +</pre> + <p> + The Median Harpagus, to whom tradition assigns so curious a part as + regards Astyages and the infant Cyrus, succeeded him as governor of the + ancient Lydian kingdom, and completed the work which he had begun. The + first two places to be besieged were Phocæa and Teos, but their + inhabitants preferred exile to slavery; the Phocæans sailed away to found + Marseilles in the western regions of the Mediterranean, and the people of + Teos settled along the coast of Thracia, near to the gold-mines of the + Pangseus, and there built Abdera on the site of an ancient Clazomenian + colony. The other Greek towns were either taken by assault or voluntarily + opened their gates, so that ere long both Ionians and Æolians were, with + the exception of the Samians, under Persian rule. The very position of the + latter rendered them safe from attack; without a fleet they could not be + approached, and the only people who could have furnished Cyrus with + vessels were the Phoenicians, who were not as yet under his power. The + rebellion having been suppressed in this quarter, Harpagus made a descent + into Caria; the natives hastened to place themselves under the Persian + yoke, and the Dorian colonies scattered along the coast, Halicarnas-sus, + Cnidos, and the islands of Cos and Rhodes, followed their examples, but + Lycia refused to yield without a struggle. + </p> + <p> + Its steep mountain chains, its sequestered valleys, its towns and + fortresses perched on inaccessible rocks, all rendered it easy for the + inhabitants to carry on a successful petty warfare against the enemy. The + inhabitants of Xanthos, although very inferior in numbers, issued down + into the plain and disputed the victory with the invaders for a + considerable time; at length their defeat and the capitulation of their + town induced the remainder of the Lycians to lay down arms, and brought + about the final pacification of the peninsula. It was parcelled out into + several governorships, according to its ethnographical affinities; as for + instance, the governorship of Lydia, that of Ionia, that of Phrygia,* and + others whose names are unknown to us. Harpàgus appeared to have resided at + Sardes, and exercised vice-regal functions over the various districts, but + he obtained from the king an extensive property in Lycia and in Caria, + which subsequently caused these two provinces to be regarded as an + appanage of his family. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus calls a certain Mitrobates satrap of Daskylion; + he had perhaps been already given this office by Cyrus. + Orcetes had been made governor of Ionia and Lydia by Cyrus. +</pre> + <p> + While thus consolidating his first conquest, Cyrus penetrated into the + unknown regions of the far East. Nothing would have been easier for him + than to have fallen upon Babylon and overthrown, as it were by the way, + the decadent rule of Nabonidus; but the formidable aspect which the empire + still presented, in spite of its enfeebled condition, must have deceived + him, and he was unwilling to come into conflict with it until he had made + a final reckoning with the restless and unsettled peoples between the + Caspian and the slopes on the Indian side of the table-land of Iran. As + far as we are able to judge, they were for the most part of Iranian + extraction, and had the same religion, institutions, and customs as the + Medes and Persians. Tradition had already referred the origin of + Zoroaster, and the scene of his preaching, to Bactriana, that land of + heroes whose exploits formed the theme of Persian epic song. It is not + known, as we have already had occasion to remark, by what ties it was + bound to the empire of Cyaxares, nor indeed if it ever had been actually + attached to it. We do not possess, unfortunately, more than almost + worthless scraps of information on this part of the reign of Cyrus, + perhaps the most important period of it, since then, for the first time, + peoples who had been hitherto strangers to the Asiatic world were brought + within its influence. If Ctesias is to be credited, Bactriana was one of + the first districts to be conquered. Its inhabitants were regarded as + being among the bravest of the East, and furnished the best soldiers. They + at first obtained some successes, but laid down arms on hearing that Cyrus + had married a daughter of Astyages.* This tradition was prevalent at a + time when the Achaemenians were putting forward the theory that they, and + Cyrus before them, were the legitimate successors of the old Median + sovereigns; they welcomed every legend which tended to justify their + pretensions, and this particular one was certain to please them, since it + attributed the submission of Bactriana not to a mere display of brute + force, but to the recognition of an hereditary right. The annexation of + this province entailed, as a matter of course, that of Margiana, of the + Khoramnians,** and of Sogdiana. Cyrus constructed fortresses in all these + districts, the most celebrated being that of Kyropolis, which commanded + one of the principal fords of the Iaxartes.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the campaign which Ctesias places before the + Lydian war, but which Herodotus relegates to a date after + the capture of Sardes. + + ** Ctesias must have spoken of the submission of these + peoples, for a few words of a description which he gave of + the Khoramnians have been preserved to us. + + *** Tomaschek identifies Kyra or Kyropolis with the present + Ura-Tepe, but distinguishes it from the Kyreskhata of + Ptolemy, to which he assigns a site near Usgent. +</pre> + <p> + The steppes of Siberia arrested his course on the north, but to the east, + in the mountains of Chinese Turkestan, the Sakas, who were renowned for + their wealth and bravery, did not escape his ambitious designs. The + account which has come down to us of his campaigns against them is a mere + romance of love and adventure, in which real history plays a very small + part. He is said to have attacked and defeated them at the first onset, + taking their King Amorges prisoner; but this capture, which Cyrus + considered a decisive advantage, was supposed to have turned the tide of + fortune against him. Sparêthra, the wife of Amorges, rallied the fugitives + round her, defeated the invaders in several engagements, and took so many + of their men captive, that they were glad to restore her husband to her in + exchange for the prisoners she had made. The struggle finally ended, + however, in the subjection of the Sakae; they engaged to pay tribute, and + thenceforward constituted the advance-guard of the Iranians against the + Nomads of the East. Cyrus, before quitting their neighbourhood, again + ascended the table-land, and reduced Ariana, Thatagus, Harauvati, Zaranka, + and the country of Cabul; and we may well ask if he found leisure to turn + southwards beyond Lake Hamun and reach the shores of the Indian Ocean. One + tradition, of little weight, relates that, like Alexander at a later date, + he lost his army in the arid deserts of Gedrosia; the one fact that + remains is that the conquest of Gedrosia was achieved, but the details of + it are lost. The period covered by his campaigns was from five to six + years, from 545 to 539, but Cyrus returned from these expeditions into the + unknown only to plan fresh undertakings. There remained nothing now to + hinder him from marching against the Chaldæans, and the discord prevailing + at Babylon added to his chance of success. Nabonidus’s passion for + archæology had in no way lessened since the opening of his reign. The + temple restorations prompted by it absorbed the bulk of his revenues. He + made excavations in the sub-structures of the most ancient sanctuaries, + such as Larsam, Uruk, Uru, Sippar, and Nipur; and when his digging was + rewarded by the discovery of cylinders placed there by his predecessors, + his delight knew no bounds. Such finds constituted the great events of his + life, in comparison with which the political revolutions of Asia and + Africa diminished in importance day by day. It is difficult to tell + whether this indifference to the weighty affairs of government was as + complete as it appears to us at this distance of time. Certain facts + recorded in the official chronicles of that date go to prove that, except + in name and external pomp, the king was a nonentity. The real power lay in + the hands of the nobles and generals, and Bel-sharuzur, the king’s son, + directed affairs for them in his father’s name. Nabonidus meanwhile + resided in a state of inactivity at his palace of Tima, and it is possible + that his condition may have really been that of a prisoner, for he never + left Tima to go to Babylon, even on the days of great festivals, and his + absence prevented the celebration of the higher rites of the national + religion, with the procession of Bel and its accompanying ceremonies, for + several consecutive years. The people suffered from these quarrels in high + places; not only the native Babylonians or Kaldâ, who were thus deprived + of their accustomed spectacles, and whose piety was scandalised by these + dissensions, but also the foreign races dispersed over Mesopotamia, from + the confluence of the Khabur to the mouths of the Euphrates. Too widely + scattered or too weak to make an open declaration of their independence, + their hopes and their apprehensions were alternately raised by the various + reports of hostilities which reached their ears. The news of the first + victories of the Persians aroused in the exiled Jews the idea of speedy + deliverance, and Cyrus clearly appeared to them as the hero chosen by + Jahveh to reinstate them in the country, of their forefathers. + </p> + <p> + The number of the Jewish exiles, which perhaps at first had not exceeded + 20,000* had largely increased in the half-century of their captivity, and + even if numerically they were of no great importance, their social + condition entitled them to be considered as the <i>élite</i> of all + Israel. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The body of exiles of 597 consisted of ten thousand + persons, of whom seven thousand belonged to the wealthy, and + one thousand to the artisan class, while the remainder + consisted of people attached to the court (2 Kings xxiv. 14- + 16). In the body of 587 are reckoned three thousand and + twenty-three inhabitants of Judah, and eight hundred and + thirty-two dwellers in Jerusalem. But the body of exiles of + 581 numbers only seven hundred and forty-five persons (Jer. + lii. 30). These numbers are sufficiently moderate to be + possibly exact, but they are far from being certain. +</pre> + <p> + There had at first been the two kings, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, their + families, the aristocracy of Judah, the priests and pontiff of the temple, + the prophets, the most skilled of the artisan class and the soldiery. + Though distributed over Babylon and the neighbouring cities, we know from + authentic sources of only one of their settlements, that of Tell-Abîb on + the Chebar* though many of the Jewish colonies which flourished + thereabouts in Roman times could undoubtedly trace their origin to the + days of the captivity; one legend found in the Talmud affirmed that the + synagogue of Shafyâthîb, near Nehardaa, had been built by King Jehoiachin + with stones brought from the ruins of the temple at Jerusalem. These + communities enjoyed a fairly complete autonomy, and were free to + administer their own affairs as they pleased, provided that they paid + their tribute or performed their appointed labours without complaint. The + shêkhs, or elders of the family or tribe, who had played so important a + part in their native land, still held their respective positions; the + Chaldæans had permitted them to retain all the possessions which they had + been able to bring with them into exile, and recognised them as the rulers + of their people, who were responsible to their conquerors for the + obedience of those under them, leaving them entire liberty to exercise + their authority so long as they maintained order and tranquillity among + their subordinates.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ezek. iii. 15. The Chebar or Kebar has been erroneously + identified with the Khabur; cuneiform documents show that it + was one of the canals near Nipur. + + ** Cf. the assemblies of these chiefs at the house of + Ezekiel and their action (viii. 1; xiv. 1; xx. 1). +</pre> + <p> + How the latter existed, and what industries they pursued in order to earn + their daily bread, no writer of the time has left on record. The rich + plain of the Euphrates differed so widely from the soil to which they had + been accustomed in the land of Judah, with its bare or sparsely wooded + hills, slopes cultivated in terraces, narrow and ill-watered wadys, and + tortuous and parched valleys, that they must have felt themselves much out + of their element in their Chaldæan surroundings. They had all of them, + however, whether artisans, labourers, soldiers, gold-workers, or + merchants, to earn their living, and they succeeded in doing so, following + meanwhile the advice of Jeremiah, by taking every precaution that the seed + of Israel should not be diminished.* The imagination of pious writers of a + later date delighted to represent the exiled Jews as giving way to apathy + and vain regrets: “By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we + wept, when we remembered Zion. Upon the willows in the midst thereof we + hanged up our harps. For there they that led us captive required of us + songs, and they that wasted us required of us mirth, saying, Sing us one + of the songs of Zion. How shall we sing the Lord’s song in a strange + land?” ** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Jer. xxix. 1-7. + + ** Ps. cxxxvii. 1-4. +</pre> + <p> + This was true of the priests and scribes only. A blank had been made in + their existence from the moment when the conqueror had dragged them from + the routine of daily rites which their duties in the temple service + entailed upon them. The hours which had been formerly devoted to their + offices were now expended in bewailing the misfortunes of their nation, in + accusing themselves and others, and in demanding what crime had merited + this punishment, and why Jahveh, who had so often shown clemency to their + forefathers, had not extended His forgiveness to them. It was, however, by + the long-suffering of God that His prophets, and particularly Ezekiel, + were allowed to make known to them the true cause of their downfall. The + more Ezekiel in his retreat meditated upon their lot, the more did the + past appear to him as a lamentable conflict between divine justice and + Jewish iniquity. At the time of their sojourn in Egypt, Jahveh had taken + the house of Jacob under His protection, and in consideration of His help + had merely demanded of them that they should be faithful to Him. “Cast ye + away every man the abominations of his eyes, and defile not yourselves + with the idols of Egypt: I am the Lord your God.” The children of Israel, + however, had never observed this easy condition, and this was the root of + their ills; even before they were liberated from the yoke of Pharaoh, they + had betrayed their Protector, and He had thought to punish them: “But I + wrought for My name’s sake, that it should not be profaned in the sight of + the nations, among whom they were, in whose sight I made myself known unto + them.... So I caused them to go forth out of the land of Egypt, and + brought them into the wilderness. And I gave them My statutes, and showed + them My judgments, which if a man do, he shall live in them. Moreover also + I gave them My sabbaths, to be a sign between Me and them... but the house + of Israel rebelled against Me.” As they had acted in Egypt, so they acted + at the foot of Sinai, and again Jahveh could not bring Himself to destroy + them; He confined Himself to decreeing that none of those who had offended + Him should enter the Promised Land, and He extended His goodness to their + children. But these again showed themselves no wiser than their fathers; + scarcely had they taken possession of the inheritance which had fallen to + them, “a land flowing with milk and honey... the glory of all lands,” than + when they beheld “every high hill and every thick tree... they offered + there their sacrifices, and there they presented the provocation of their + offering, there also they made their sweet savour, and they poured out + there their drink offerings.” Not contented with profaning their altars by + impious ceremonies and offerings, they further bowed the knee to idols, + thinking in their hearts, “We will be as the nations, as the families of + the countries, to serve wood and stone.” “As I live, saith the Lord God, + surely with a mighty hand and with a stretched out arm, and with fury + poured out, will I be King over you.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1 Ezek. xx. +</pre> + <p> + However just the punishment, Bzekiel did not believe that it would last + for ever. The righteousness of God would not permit future generations to + be held responsible for ever for the sins of generations past and present. + “What mean ye, that ye use this proverb concerning the land of Israel, + saying, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are + set on edge? As I live, saith the Lord God, ye shall not have occasion to + use this proverb any more in Israel! Behold, all souls are Mine; as the + soul of the father, so also the soul of the son is Mine; the soul that + sinneth it shall die. But if a man be just... he shall surely live, saith + the Lord God.” Israel, therefore, was master of his own destiny. If he + persisted in erring from the right way, the hour of salvation was still + further removed from him; if he repented and observed the law, the Divine + anger would be turned away. “Therefore... O house of Israel... cast away + from you all your transgressions wherein ye have transgressed; and make + you a new heart and a new spirit; for why will ye die, O house of Israel? + For I have no pleasure in the death of him that dieth... wherefore turn + yourselves and live.” 1 There were those who objected that it was too late + to dream of regeneration and of hope in the future: “Our bones are dried + up and our hope is lost; we are clean cut off.” The prophet replied that + the Lord had carried him in the spirit and set him down in the midst of a + plain strewn with bones. “So I prophesied... and as I prophesied there was + a noise... and the bones came together, bone to his bone. And I beheld, + and lo, there were sinews upon them, and flesh came up and skin covered + them above; but there was no breath in them. Then said (the Lord) unto me, + Prophesy unto the wind, prophesy, son of man, and say to the wind, Thus + saith the Lord God: Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe upon + these slain, that they may live. So I prophesied as He commanded me, and + the breath came into them and they lived, and stood up upon their feet, an + exceeding great army. Then He said unto me... these bones are the whole + house of Israel.... Behold, I will open your graves and cause you to come + up out of your graves, O my people; and I will bring you into the land of + Israel.... And I will put My Spirit in you and ye shall live, and I will + place you in your own land; and ye shall know that I the Lord hath spoken + it and performed it, saith the Lord.” + </p> + <p> + A people raised from such depths would require a constitution, a new law + to take the place of the old, from the day when the exile should cease. + Ezekiel would willingly have dispensed with the monarchy, as it had been + tried since the time of Samuel with scarcely any good results. For every + Hezekiah or Josiah, how many kings of the type of Ahaz or Manasseh had + there been! The Jews were nevertheless still so sincerely attached to the + house of David, that the prophet judged it inopportune to exclude it from + his plan for their future government. He resolved to tolerate a king, but + a king of greater piety and with less liberty than the compiler of the + Book of Deuteronomy had pictured to himself, a servant of the servants of + God, whose principal function should be to provide the means of worship. + Indeed, the Lord Himself was the only Sovereign whom the prophet fully + accepted, though his concept of Him differed greatly from that of his + predecessors: from that, for instance, of Amos—the Lord God who + would do nothing without revealing “His secret unto His servants the + prophets;” or of Hosea—who desired “mercy, and not sacrifice; and + the knowledge of God more than burnt offerings.” The Jahveh of Ezekiel no + longer admitted any intercourse with the interpreters of His will. He held + “the son of man” at a distance, and would consent to communicate with him + only by means of angels who were His messengers. The love of His people + was, indeed, acceptable to Him, but He preferred their reverence and fear, + and the smell of the sacrifice offered according to the law was pleasing + to His nostrils. The first care of the returning exiles, therefore, would + be to build Him a house upon the holy mountain. Ezekiel called to mind the + temple of Solomon, in which the far-off years of his youth were spent, and + mentally rebuilt it on the same plan, but larger and more beautiful; first + the outer court, then the inner court and its chambers, and lastly the + sanctuary, the dimensions of which he calculates with scrupulous care: + “And the breadth of the entrance was ten cubits; and the sides of the + entrance were five cubits on the one side and five cubits on the other + side: and he measured the length thereof, forty cubits; and the breadth, + twenty cubits”—and so forth, with a wealth of technical details + often difficult to be understood. And as a building so well proportioned + should be served by a priesthood worthy of it, the sons of Zadok only were + to bear the sacerdotal office, for they alone had preserved their faith + unshaken; the other Lévites were to fill merely secondary posts, for not + only had they shared in the sins of the nation, but they had shown a bad + example in practising idolatry. The duties and prerogatives of each one, + the tithes and offerings, the sacrifices, the solemn festivals, the + preparation of the feasts,—all was foreseen and prearranged with + scrupulous exactitude. Ezekiel was, as we have seen, a priest; the + smallest details were as dear to him as the noblest offices of his + calling, and the minute ceremonial instructions as to the killing and + cooking of the sacrificial animals appeared to him as necessary to the + future prosperity of his people as the moral law. Towards the end, + however, the imagination of the seer soared above the formalism of the + sacrificing priest; he saw in a vision waters issuing out of the very + threshold of the divine house, flowing towards the Dead Sea through a + forest of fruit trees, “whose leaf shall not wither, neither shall the + fruit thereof fail.” The twelve tribes of Israel, alike those of whom a + remnant still existed as well as those which at different times had become + extinct, were to divide the regenerated land by lot among them—Dan + in the extreme north, Reuben and Judah in the south; and they would unite + to found once more, around Mount Sion, that new Jerusalem whose name + henceforth was to be Jahveh-shammah, “The Lord is there.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ezek. xlvii., xlviii. The image of the river seems to be + borrowed from the <i>vessel of water</i> of Chaldæan mythology. +</pre> + <p> + The influence of Ezekiel does not seem to have extended beyond a + restricted circle of admirers. Untouched by his preaching, many of the + exiles still persisted in their worship of the heathen gods; most of these + probably became merged in the bulk of the Chaldæan population, and were + lost, as far as Israel was concerned, as completely as were the earlier + exiles of Ephraim under Tiglath-pileser III. and Sargon. The greater + number of the Jews, however, remained faithful to their hopes of future + greatness, and applied themselves to discerning in passing events the + premonitory signs of deliverance. “Like as a woman with child, that + draweth near the time of her delivery, is in pain, and crieth out in her + pangs; so have we been before Thee, O Lord.... Come, my people, enter thou + into thy chambers, and shut thy doors about thee: hide thyself for a + little moment, until the indignation be overpast. For, behold, the Lord + cometh forth out of His place to punish the inhabitants of the earth for + their iniquity: the earth also shall disclose her blood, and shall no more + cover her slain.” * The condition of the people improved after the death of + Nebuchadrezzar. Amil-marduk took Jehoiachin out of the prison in which he + had languished for thirty years, and treated him with honour:** this was + not as yet the restoration that had been promised, but it was the end of + the persecution. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An anonymous prophet, about 570, in Isa. xxvi. 17, 20, 21. + + ** 2 Kings xxv. 27-30; cf. Jer. lii. 31-34. +</pre> + <p> + A period of court intrigues followed, during which the sceptre of + Nebuchadrezzar changed hands four times in less than seven years; then + came the accession of the peaceful and devout Nabonidus, the fall of + Astyages, and the first victories of Cyrus. Nothing escaped the vigilant + eye of the prophets, and they began to proclaim that the time was at hand, + then to predict the fall of Babylon, and to depict the barbarians in + revolt against her, and Israel released from the yoke by the all-powerful + will of the Persians. “Thus saith the Lord to His anointed, to Cyrus, + whose right hand I have holden to subdue nations before him, and I will + loose the loins of kings; to open the doors before him, and the gates + shall not be shut; I will go before thee and make the rugged places plain: + I will break in pieces the doors of brass, rend in sunder the bars of + iron: and I will give thee the treasures of darkness, and hidden riches of + secret places, that thou mayest know that I am the Lord which call thee by + thy name, even the God of Israel. For Jacob My servant’s sake, and Israel + My chosen, I have called thee by thy name: I have surnamed thee, though + thou hast not known Me.” * Nothing can stand before the victorious prince + whom Jahveh leads: “Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth; their idols are upon + the beasts, and upon the cattle: the things that ye carried about are made + a load, a burden to the weary beast. They stoop, they bow down together; + they could not deliver the burden, but themselves are gone into + captivity.” ** “O virgin daughter of Babylon, sit on the ground without a + throne, O daughter of the Chaldæans: for thou shalt no more be called + tender and delicate. Take the millstones and grind meal: remove thy veil, + strip off the train, uncover the leg, pass through the rivers. They + nakedness shall be uncovered, yea, thy shame shall be seen.... Sit thou + silent, and get thee into darkness, O daughter of the Chaldæans: for thou + shalt no more be called the lady of kingdoms.” *** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Second Isaiah, in Isa. xlv. 1-4. + + ** Second Isaiah, in Isa. xlvi. 1, 2. + + *** Second Isaiah, in Isa. xlvii. 1-5. +</pre> + <p> + The task which Cyrus had undertaken was not so difficult as we might + imagine. Not only was he hailed with delight by the strangers who thronged + Babylonia, but the Babylonians themselves were weary of their king, and + the majority of them were ready to welcome the Persian who would rid them + of him, as in old days they hailed the Assyrian kings who delivered them + from their Chaldæan lords. It is possible that towards the end of his + reign Nabonidus partly resumed the supreme power;* but anxious for the + future, and depending but little on human help, he had sought a more + powerful aid at the hands of the gods. He had apparently revived some of + the old forgotten cults, and had applied to their use revenues which + impoverished the endowment of the prevalent worship of his own time. As he + felt the growing danger approach, he remembered those towns of secondary + grade—Uru, Uruk, Larsam, and Eridu—all of which, lying outside + Nebuchadrezzar’s scheme of defence, would be sacrificed in the case of an + invasion: he had therefore brought away from them the most venerated + statues, those in which the spirit of the divinity was more particularly + pleased to dwell, and had shut them up in the capital, within the security + of its triple rampart.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This seems to follow from the part which he plays in the + final crisis, as told in the <i>Cylinder of Cyrus</i> and in the + <i>Annals</i>. + + ** The chronicler adds that the gods of Sippar, Kutha, and + Borsippa were not taken to Babylon; and indeed, these cities + being included within the lines of defence of the great + city, their gods were as well defended from the enemy as if + they had been in Babylon itself. +</pre> + <p> + This attempt to concentrate the divine powers, accentuating as it did the + supremacy of Bel-Marduk over his compeers, was doubtless flattering to his + pride and that of his priests, but was ill received by the rest of the + sacerdotal class and by the populace. All these divine guests had not only + to be lodged, but required to be watched over, decked, fed, and feted, + together with their respective temple retinues; and the prestige and + honour of the local Bel, as well as his revenues, were likely to suffer in + consequence. The clamour of the gods in the celestial heights soon + re-echoed throughout the land; the divinities complained of their sojourn + at Babylon as of a captivity in E-sagilla; they lamented over the + suppression of their daily sacrifices, and Marduk at length took pity on + them. He looked upon the countries of Sumir and Akkad, and saw their + sanctuaries in ruins and their towns lifeless as corpses; “he cast his + eyes over the surrounding regions; he searched them with his glance and + sought out a prince, upright, after his own heart, who should take his + hands. He proclaimed by name Cyrus, King of Anshân, and he called him by + his name to universal sovereignty.” Alike for the people of Babylon and + for the exiled Jew, and also doubtless for other stranger-colonies, Cyrus + appeared as a deliverer chosen by the gods; his speedy approach was + everywhere expected, if not with the same impatience, at least with an + almost joyful resignation. His plans were carried into action in the early + months of 538, and his habitual good fortune did not forsake him at this + decisive moment of his career. The immense citadel raised by + Nebuchadrezzar in the midst of his empire, in anticipation of an attack by + the Medes, was as yet intact, and the walls rising one behind another, the + moats, and the canals and marshes which protected it, had been so well + kept up or restored since his time, that their security was absolutely + complete; a besieging army could do little harm—it needed a whole + nation in revolt to compass its downfall. A whole nation also was required + for its defence, but the Babylonians were not inclined to second the + efforts of their sovereign. Nabonidus concentrated his troops at the point + most threatened, in the angle comprised near Opis between the Medic wall + and the bend of the Tigris, and waited in inaction the commencement of the + attack. It is supposed that Cyrus put two bodies of troops in motion: one + leaving Susa under his own command, took the usual route of all Blamite + invasions in the direction of the confluence of the Tigris and the Dîyala; + the other commanded by Gobryas, the satrap of Gutium, followed the course + of the Adhem or the Dîyala, and brought the northern contingents to the + rallying-place. From what we know of the facts as a whole, it would appear + that the besieging force chose the neighbourhood of the present Bagdad to + make a breach in the fortifications. Taking advantage of the months when + the rivers were at their lowest, they drew off the water from the Dîyala + and the Tigris till they so reduced the level that they were able to cross + on foot; they then cut their way through the ramparts on the left bank, + and rapidly transported the bulk of their forces into the very centre of + the enemy’s position. The principal body of the Chaldæan troops were still + at Opis, cut off from the capital; Cyrus fell upon them, overcame them on + the banks of the Zalzallat in the early days of Tammuz, urging forward + Gobryas meanwhile upon Babylon itself.* On the 14th of Tammuz, Nabonidus + evacuated Sippar, which at once fell into the hands of the Persian + outposts; on the 16th Gobryas entered Babylon without striking a blow, and + Nabonidus surrendered himself a prisoner.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * For the strategic interpretation of the events of this + campaign I have generally adopted the explanations of + Billerbeck. Herodotus’ account with regard to the river + Gyndes is probably a reminiscence of alterations made in the + river-courses at the time of the attack in the direction of + Bagdad. + + ** The <i>Cylinder of Cyrus</i>, 1. 17, expressly says so: + “Without combat or battle did Marduk make him enter + Babylon,” The <i>Annals of Nabonidus</i> confirm this testimony + of the official account. +</pre> + <p> + The victorious army had received orders to avoid all excesses which would + offend the people; they respected the property of the citizens and of the + temples, placed a strong detachment around Ê-sagilla to protect it from + plunder, and no armed soldier was allowed within the enclosure until the + king’ had determined on the fate of the vanquished. Cyrus arrived after a + fortnight had elapsed, on the 3rd of March-esvân, and his first act was + one of clemency. He prohibited all pillage, granted mercy to the + inhabitants, and entrusted the government of the city to Gobryas. + Bel-sharuzur, the son of Nabonidus, remained to be dealt with, and his + energetic nature might have been the cause of serious difficulties had he + been allowed an opportunity of rallying the last partisans of the dynasty + around him. Gobryas set out to attack him, and on the 11th of March-esvân + succeeded in surprising and slaying him. With him perished the last hope + of the Chaldæans, and the nobles and towns, still hesitating on what + course to pursue, now vied with each other in their haste to tender + submission. The means of securing their good will, at all events for the + moment, was clearly at hand, and it was used without any delay: their gods + were at once restored to them. This exodus extended over nearly two + months, during March-esvân and Adar, and on its termination a proclamation + of six days of mourning, up to the 3rd of Nisân, was made for the death of + Bel-sharuzur, and as an atonement for the faults of Nabonidus, after + which, on the 4th of Nisân, the notables of the city were called together + in the temple of Nebo to join in the last expiatory ceremonies. Cyrus did + not hesitate for a moment to act as Tiglath-pileser III. and most of the + Sargonids had done; he “took the hands of Bel,” and proclaimed himself + king of the country, but in order to secure the succession, he associated + his son Cambyses with himself as King of Babylon. Mesopotamia having been + restored to order, the provinces in their turn transferred their + allegiance to Persia; “the kings enthroned in their palaces, from the + Upper Sea to the Lower, those of Syria and those who dwell in tents, + brought their weighty tribute to Babylon and kissed the feet of the + suzerain.” Events had followed one another so quickly, and had entailed so + little bloodshed, that popular imagination was quite disconcerted: it + could not conceive that an empire of such an extent and of so formidable + an appearance should have succumbed almost without a battle, and three + generations had not elapsed before an entire cycle of legends had gathered + round the catastrophe. They related how Cyrus, having set out to make war, + with provisions of all kinds for his household, and especially with his + usual stores of water from the river Choaspes, the only kind of which he + deigned to drink, had reached the banks of the Gyndes. While seeking for a + ford, one of the white horses consecrated to the sun sprang into the + river, and being overturned by the current, was drowned before it could be + rescued. Cyrus regarded this accident as a personal affront, and + interrupted his expedition to avenge it. He employed his army during one + entire summer in digging three hundred and sixty canals, and thus caused + the principal arm of the stream to run dry, and he did not resume his + march upon Babylon till the following spring, when the level of the water + was low enough to permit of a woman crossing from one bank to the other + without wetting her knees. The Babylonians at first attempted to prevent + the blockade of the place, but being repulsed in their <i>sorties</i>, + they retired within the walls, much to Cyrus’s annoyance, for they were + provisioned for several years. He therefore undertook to turn the course + of the Euphrates into the Bahr-î-Nejîf, and having accomplished it, he + crept into the centre of the city by the dry bed of the river. If the + Babylonians had kept proper guard, the Persians would probably have been + surrounded and caught like fish in a net; but on that particular day they + were keeping one of their festivals, and continued their dancing and + singing till they suddenly found the streets alive with the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Babylon suffered in no way by her servitude, and far from its being a + source of unhappiness to her, she actually rejoiced in it; she was rid of + Nabonidus, whose sacrilegious innovations had scandalised her piety, and + she possessed in Cyrus a legitimate sovereign since he had “taken the + hands of Bel.” It pleased her to believe that she had conquered her victor + rather than been conquered by him, and she accommodated herself to her + Persian dynasty after the same fashion that she had in turn accustomed + herself to Cossæan or Elamite, Ninevite or Chaldæan dynasties in days gone + by. Nothing in or around the city was changed, and she remained what she + had been since the fall of Assyria, the real capital of the regions + situated between the Mediterranean and the Zagros. It seems that none of + her subjects—whether Syrians, Tyrians, Arabs, or Idumæans—attempted + to revolt against their new master, but passively accepted him, and the + Persian dominion extended uncontested as far as the isthmus of Suez; + Cyprus even, and such of the Phoenicians as were still dependencies of + Egypt, did homage to her without further hesitation. The Jews alone + appeared only half satisfied, for the clemency shown by Cyrus to their + oppressors disappointed their hopes and the predictions of their prophets. + They had sung in anticipation of children killed before their fathers’ + eyes, of houses pillaged, of women violated, and Babylon, the glory of the + empire and the beauty of Chaldæan pride, utterly destroyed like Sodom and + Gomorrha when overthrown by Jahveh. “It shall never be inhabited, neither + shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation: neither shall the + Arabian pitch tent there; neither shall shepherds make their flocks to lie + down there. But wild beasts of the desert shall lie there; and their + houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and ostriches shall dwell + there, and satyrs shall dance there. And wolves shall cry in their + castles, and jackals in the pleasant palaces.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The table of the last kings of Ptolemy and the monuments, + is given below:— +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0041" id="linkimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/105.jpg" width="100%" + alt="105.jpg Table of the Last Kings Of Ptolemy " /> + </div> + <p> + Cyrus, however, was seated on the throne, and the city of Nebuchadrezzar, + unlike that of Sargon and Sennacherib, still continued to play her part in + the world’s history. The revenge of Jerusalem had not been as complete as + that of Samaria, and her sons had to content themselves with obtaining the + cessation of their exile. It is impossible to say whether they had + contributed to the downfall of Nabonidus otherwise than by the fervency of + their prayers, or if they had rendered Cyrus some service either in the + course of his preparations or during his short campaign. They may have + contemplated taking up arms in his cause, and have been unable to carry + the project into execution owing to the rapidity with which events took + place. However this may be, he desired to reward them for their good + intentions, and in the same year as his victory, he promulgated a solemn + edict, in which he granted them permission to return to Judah and to + rebuild not only their city, but the temple of their God. The inhabitants + of the places where they were living were charged to furnish them with + silver, gold, materials, and cattle, which would be needed by those among + them who should claim the benefits of the edict; they even had restored to + them, by order of the king, what remained in the Babylonian treasury of + the vessels of gold and silver which had belonged to the sanctuary of + Jahveh. The heads of the community received the favour granted to them + from such high quarters, without any enthusiasm. Now that they were free + to go, they discovered that they were well off at Babylon. They would have + to give up their houses, their fields, their business, their habits of + indifference to politics, and brave the dangers of a caravan journey of + three or four months’ duration, finally encamping in the midst of ruins in + an impoverished country, surrounded by hostile and jealous neighbours; + such a prospect was not likely to find favour with many, and indeed it was + only the priests, the Lévites, and the more ardent of the lower classes + who welcomed the idea of the return with a touching fervour. The first + detachment organised their departure in 536, under the auspices of one of + the princes of the royal house, named Shauash-baluzur (Sheshbazzar), a son + of Jehoiachin.* It comprised only a small number of families, and + contained doubtless a few of the captives of Nebuchadrezzar who in their + childhood had seen the temple standing and had been present at its + destruction. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The name which is written Sheshbazzar in the Hebrew text + of the Book of Ezra (i. 9, 11; v. 14, 16) is rendered + Sasabalassaros in Lucian’s recension of the Septuagint, and + this latter form confirms the hypothesis of Hoonacker, which + is now universally accepted, that it corresponds to the + Babylonian Shamash-abaluzur. It is known that Shamash + becomes Shauash in Babylonian; thus Saosdukhînos comes from + Shamash-shumukîn: similarly Shamash-abaluzur has become + Shauash-abaluzur. Imbert has recognised Sheshbazzar, + Shauash-abaluzur in the Shenazzar mentioned in 1 Chron. iii. + 8, as being one of the sons of Jeconiah, and this + identification has been accepted by several recent + historians of Israel. It should be remembered that Shauash- + abaluzur and Zerubbabel have long been confounded one with + the other. +</pre> + <p> + The returning exiles at first settled in the small towns of Judah and + Benjamin, and it was not until seven months after their arrival that they + summoned courage to clear the sacred area in order to erect in its midst + an altar of sacrifice.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The history of this first return from captivity is + summarily set forth in Ezra i.; cf. v. 13-17; vi. 3-5, 15. + Its authenticity has been denied: with regard to this point + and the questions relating to Jewish history after the + exile, the modifications which have been imposed on the + original plan of this work have obliged me to suppress much + detail in the text and the whole of the bibliography in the + notes. +</pre> + <p> + They formed there, in the land of their fathers, a little colony, almost + lost among the heathen nations of former times—Philistines, + Idumasans, Moabites, Ammonites, and the settlers implanted at various + times in what had been the kingdom of Israel by the sovereigns of Assyria + and Chaldæa. Grouped around the Persian governor, who alone was able to + protect them from the hatred of their rivals, they had no hope of + prospering, or even of maintaining their position, except by exhibiting an + unshaken fidelity to their deliverers. It was on this very feeling that + Cyrus mainly relied when he granted them permission to return to their + native hills, and he was actuated as much by a far-seeing policy as from + the promptings of instinctive generosity. It was with satisfaction that he + saw in that distant province, lying on the frontier of the only enemy yet + left to him in the old world, a small band, devoted perforce to his + interests, and whose very existence depended entirely on that of his + empire. He no doubt extended the same favour to the other exiles in + Chaldæa who demanded it of him, but we do not know how many of them took + advantage of the occasion to return to their native countries, and this + exodus of the Jews still remains, so far as we know, a unique fact. The + administration continued the same as it had been under the Chaldæans; + Aramæan was still the official language in the provincial dependencies, + and the only change effected was the placing of Persians at the head of + public offices, as in Asia Minor, and allowing them a body of troops to + support their authority.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The presence of Persian troops in Asia Minor is proved by + the passage in Herodotus where he says that Orotes had with + him 1000 Persians as his body-guard. +</pre> + <p> + One great state alone remained of all those who had played a prominent + part in the history of the East. This was Egypt; and the policy which her + rulers had pursued since the development of the Iranian power apparently + rendered a struggle with it inevitable. Amasis had taken part in all the + coalitions which had as their object the perpetuation of the balance of + the powers in Western Asia; he had made a treaty with Croesus, and it is + possible that his contingents had fought in the battles before Sardes; + Lydia having fallen, he did all in his power to encourage Nabonidus in his + resistance. As soon as he found himself face to face with Cyrus, he + understood that a collision was imminent, and did his best in preparing to + meet it. Even if Cyrus had forgotten the support which had been freely + given to his rivals, the wealth of Egypt was in itself sufficient to + attract the Persian hordes to her frontiers. + </p> + <p> + A century later, the Egyptians, looking back on the past with a melancholy + retrospection, confessed that “never had the valley been more flourishing + or happier than under Amasis; never had the river shown itself more + beneficent to the soil, nor the soil more fertile for mankind, and the + inhabitated towns might be reckoned at 20,000 in number.” The widespread + activity exhibited under Psammetichus II., and Apries, was redoubled under + the usurper, and the quarries of Turah,* Silsileh,** Assuan, and even + those of Hammamât, were worked as in the palmy days of the Theban + dynasties. The island of Philæ, whose position just below the cataract + attracted to it the attention of the military engineers, was carefully + fortified and a temple built upon it, the materials of which were used + later on in the masonry of the sanctuary of Ptolemaic times. Thebes + exhibited a certain outburst of vitality under the impulse given by + Ankhnasnofiribri and by Shashonqu, the governor of her palace;*** two + small chapels, built in the centre of the town, still witness to the + queen’s devotion to Amon, of whom she was the priestess. Wealthy private + individuals did their best to emulate their sovereign’s example, and made + for themselves at Shêkh Abd-el-Gurnah and at Assassif those rock-hewn + tombs which rival those of the best periods in their extent and the beauty + of their bas-reliefs.**** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A stele of his forty-fourth year still exists in the + quarries of the Mokattam. + + ** According to Herodotus, it was from the quarries of + Elephantine that Amasis caused to be brought the largest + blocks which he used in the building of Sais. + + *** Her tomb still exists at Deir el-Medineh, and the + sarcophagus, taken from the tomb in 1833, is now in the + British Museum. + + **** The most important of these tombs is that of Petenit, + the father of Shashonqu, who was associated with + Ankhnasnofiribri in the government of Thebes. +</pre> + <p> + Most of the cities of the Said were in such a state of decadence that it + was no longer possible to restore to them their former prosperity, but + Abydos occupied too important a place in the beliefs connected with the + future world, and attracted too many pilgrims, to permit of its being + neglected. The whole of its ancient necropolis had been rifled by thieves + during the preceding centuries, and the monuments were nearly as much + buried by sand as in our own times. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0042" id="linkimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/111.jpg" width="100%" + alt="111.jpg an Osiris Stretched Full Length on the Ground " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, after Mariette. The monument is a + statuette measuring only 15 centimetres in length; it has + been reproduced to give an idea of the probable form of the + statue seen by Herodotus. +</pre> + <p> + The dismantled fortress now known as the Shunêt ez-Zebîb served as the + cemetery for the ibises of Thoth, and for the stillborn children of the + sacred singing-women, while the two Memnonia of Seti and Ramses, now + abandoned by their priests, had become mere objects of respectful + curiosity, on which devout Egyptians or passing travellers—Phoenicians, + Aramæans, Cypriots, Carians, and Greeks from Ionia and the isles—came + to carve their names.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The position occupied by the graffiti on certain portions + of the walls show that in these places in the temple of Seti + there was already a layer of sand varying from one to three + metres in depth. +</pre> + <p> + Amasis confided the work of general restoration to one of the principal + personages of his court, Pefzââunît, Prince of Sais, who devoted his + attention chiefly to two buildings—the great sanctuary of Osiris, + which was put into good condition throughout, and the very ancient + necropolis of Omm-el-Graab, where lay hidden the <i>àlquhah</i>, one of + the sepulchres of the god; he restored the naos, the table of offerings, + the barques, and the temple furniture, and provided for the sacred + patrimony by an endowment of fields, vineyards, palm groves, and revenues, + so as to ensure to the sanctuary offerings in perpetuity. It was a + complete architectural resurrection. The nomes of Middle Egypt, which had + suffered considerably during the Ethiopian and Assyrian wars, had some + chance of prosperity now that their lords were relieved from the necessity + of constantly fighting for some fresh pretender. Horu, son of + Psam-metichus, Prince of the Oleander nome, rebuilt the ancient sanctuary + of Harshafaîtu at Heracleopolis, and endowed it with a munificence which + rivalled that of Pefzââunîfc at Abydos. The king himself devoted his + resources chiefly to works at Memphis and in the Delta. He founded a + temple of Isis at Memphis, which Herodotus described as extending over an + immense area and being well worth seeing; unfortunately nothing now + remains of it, nor of the recumbent colossus, sixty feet in length, which + the king placed before the court of Phtah, nor of the two gigantic statues + which he raised in front of the temple, one on each side of the door. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0043" id="linkimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/112b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="112b.jpg the Two Goddesses of Law; Ani Adoring Osiris The Trial of the Conscience; Toth and The Feather Of The Law. " /> + </div> + <p> + Besides these architectural works, Amasis invested the funerary ceremonies + of the Apis-bulls with a magnificence rarely seen before his time, and the + official stelae which he carved to the memory of the animals who died in + his reign exhibit a perfection of style quite unusual. His labours at + Memphis, however, were eclipsed by the admirable work which he + accomplished at Sais. The propylæ which he added to the temple of Nît + “surpassed most other buildings of the same kind, as much by their height + and extent, as by the size and quality of the materials;” he had, + moreover, embellished them by a fine colonnade, and made an approach to + them by an avenue of sphinxes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0044" id="linkimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/113.jpg" width="100%" + alt="113.jpg Amasis in Adoration Before the Bull Apis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph taken in the + Louvre. +</pre> + <p> + In other parts of the same building were to be seen two superb obelisks, a + recumbent figure similar to that at Memphis, and a monolithic naos of rose + granite brought from the quarries of Elephantine. Amasis had a special + predilection for this kind of monument. That which he erected at Thmuis is + nearly twenty-three feet in height,* and the Louvre contains another + example, which though smaller still excites the admiration of the modern + visitor.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The exact measurements are 23 1/2 ft. in height, 12 ft. 9 + ins. in width, and 10 ft. 6 ins. in depth. The naos of Saft + el-Hinneh must have been smaller, but it is impossible to + determine its exact dimensions. + + ** It measures 9 ft. 7 ins. in height, 3 ft. 1 in. in width, + and 3 ft. 8 ins. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0045" id="linkimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/114.jpg" width="100%" + alt="114.jpg the Naos of Amasis at Thmuis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the sketch of Burton. +</pre> + <p> + The naos of Sais, which amazed Herodotus, was much larger than either of + the two already mentioned, or, indeed, than any known example. Tradition + states that it took two thousand boatmen three years to convey it down + from the first cataract. It measured nearly thirty feet high in the + interior, twenty-four feet in depth, and twelve feet in breadth; even when + hollowed out to contain the emblem of the god, it still weighed nearly + 500,000 kilograms. It never reached its appointed place in the sanctuary. + The story goes that “the architect, at the moment when the monument had + been moved as far as a certain spot in the temple, heaved a sigh, + oppressed with the thought of the time expended on its transport and weary + of the arduous work. Amasis overheard the sigh, and taking it as an omen, + he commanded that the block should be dragged no further. Others relate + that one of the overseers in charge of the work was crushed to death by + the monument, and for this reason it was left standing on the spot,” where + for centuries succeeding generations came to contemplate it.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The measurements given by Herodotus are so different from + those of any naos as yet discovered, that I follow Kenrick + in thinking that Herodotus saw the monument of Amasis lying + on its side, and that he took for the height what was really + the width in depth. It had been erected in the nome of + Athribis, and afterwards taken to Alexandria about the + Ptolemaic era; it was discovered under water in one of the + ports of the town at the beginning of this century, and + Drovetti, who recovered it, gave it to the Museum of the + Louvre in 1825. +</pre> + <p> + Amasis, in devoting his revenues to such magnificent works, fully shared + the spirit of the older Pharaohs, and his labours were nattering to the + national vanity, even though many lives were sacrificed in their + accomplishment; but the glory which they reflected on Egypt did not have + the effect of removing the unpopularity in which Tie was personally held. + The revolution which overthrew Apries had been provoked by the hatred of + the native party towards the foreigners; he himself had been the + instrument by which it had been accomplished, and it would have been only + natural that, having achieved a triumph in spite of the Greeks and the + mercenaries, he should have wished to be revenged on them, and have + expelled them from his dominions. But, as a fact, nothing of the kind took + place, and Amasis, once crowned, forgot the wrongs he had suffered as an + aspirant to the royal dignity; no sooner was he firmly seated on the + throne, than he recalled the strangers, and showed that he had only + friendly intentions with regard to them. His predecessors had received + them into favour, he, in fact, showed a perfect infatuation for them, and + became as complete a Greek as it was possible for an Egyptian to be. His + first care had been to make a treaty with the Dorians of Oyrene, and he + displayed so much tact in dealing with them, that they forgave him for the + skirmish of Irasa, and invited him to act as arbitrator in their + dissensions. A certain Arkesilas II. had recently succeeded the Battos who + had defeated the Egyptian troops, but his suspicious temper had obliged + his brothers to separate themselves from him, and they had founded further + westwards the independent city of Barca. On his threatening to evict them, + they sent a body of Libyans against him. Fighting ensued, and he was + beaten close to the town of Leukon. He lost 7000 hoplites in the + engagement, and the disaster aroused so much ill-feeling against him that + Laarchos, another of his brothers, strangled him. Laarchos succeeded him + amid the acclamations of the soldiery; but not long after, Eryxô and + Polyarchos, the wife and brother-in-law of his victim, surprised and + assassinated him in his turn. The partisans of Laarchos then had recourse + to the Pharaoh, who showed himself disposed to send them help; but his + preparations were suspended owing to the death of his mother. Polyarchos + repaired to Egypt before the royal mourning was ended, and pleaded his + cause with such urgency that he won over the king to his side; he obtained + the royal investiture for his sister’s child, who was still a minor, + Battos III., the lame, and thus placed Oyrene in a sort of vassalage to + the Egyptian crown.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus narrates these events without mentioning Amasis, + and Nicolas of Damascus adopted Herodotus’ account with + certain modifications taken from other sources. The + intervention of Amasis is mentioned only by Plutarch and by + Polyaanus; but the record of it had been handed down to them + by some more ancient author—perhaps by Akesandros; or + perhaps, in the first instance, by Hellanicos of Lesbos, who + gave a somewhat detailed account of certain points in + Egyptian history. The passage of Herodotus is also found + incorporated in accounts of Cyrenian origin: his informants + were interested in recalling deeds which reflected glory on + their country, like the defeat of Apries at Irasa, but not + in the memory of events so humiliating for them as the + sovereign intervention of Pharaoh only a few years after + this victory. And besides, the merely pacific success which + Amasis achieved was not of a nature to leave a profound mark + on the Egyptian mind. It is thus easy to explain how it was + that Herodotus makes no allusion to the part played by Egypt + in this affair. +</pre> + <p> + The ties which connected the two courts were subsequently drawn closer by + marriage; partly from policy and partly from a whim, Amasis espoused a + Cyrenian woman named Ladikê, the daughter, according to some, of Arkesilas + or of Battos, according to others, of a wealthy private individual named + Kritobulos.* The Greeks of Europe and Asia Minor fared no less to their + own satisfaction at his hand than their compatriots in Africa; following + the example of his ally Croesus, he entered into relations with their + oracles on several occasions, and sent them magnificent presents. The + temple of Delphi having been burnt down in 548, the Athenian family of the + Alcmæonides undertook to rebuild it from the ground for the sum of three + hundred talents, of which one-fourth was to be furnished by the Delphians. + When these, being too poor to pay the sum out of their own resources, made + an appeal to the generosity of other friendly powers, Amasis graciously + offered them a thousand talents of Egyptian alum, then esteemed the most + precious of all others. Alum was employed in dyeing, and was an expensive + commodity in the markets of Europe; the citizens of Delphi were all the + more sensible of Pharaoh’s generosity, since the united Greeks of the Nile + valley contributed only twenty <i>minæ</i> of the same mineral as their + quota. Amasis erected at Cyrene a statue of his wife Ladikê, and another + of the goddess Neît, gilded from head to foot, and to these he added his + own portrait, probably painted on a wooden panel.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The very fact of the marriage is considered by Wiedemann + as a pure legend, but there is nothing against its + authenticity; the curious story of the relations of the + woman with Amasis told by the Cyrenian commentators is the + only part which need be rejected. + + ** The text of Herodotus can only mean a painted panel + similar to those which have been found on the mummies of the + Græco-Roman era in the Fayum. +</pre> + <p> + He gave to Athene of Lindos two stone statues and a corselet of linen of + marvellous fineness;* and Hera of Samos received two wooden statues, which + a century later Herodotus found still intact. The Greeks flocked to Egypt + from all quarters of the world in such considerable numbers that the laws + relating to them had to be remodelled in order to avoid conflicts with the + natives. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It seems that one of these statues is that which, after + being taken to Constantinople, was destroyed in a fire in + 476 A.D. Fragments of the corselet still existed in the + first century of our era, but inquisitive persons used to + tear off pieces to see for themselves whether, as Herodotus + assures us, each thread was composed of three hundred and + sixty-five strands, every one visible with the naked eye. +</pre> + <p> + The townships founded a century earlier along the Pelusiac arm of the Nile + had increased still further since the time of Necho, and to their activity + was attributable the remarkable prosperity of the surrounding region. But + the position which they occupied on the most exposed side of Egypt was + regarded as permanently endangering the security of the country: her + liberty would be imperilled should they revolt during a war with the + neighbouring empire, and hand over the line of defence which was + garrisoned by them to the invader. Amasis therefore dispossessed their + inhabitants, and transferred them to Memphis and its environs. The change + benefited him in two ways, for, while securing himself from possible + treason, he gained a faithful guard for himself in the event of risings + taking place in his turbulent capital. While he thus distributed these + colonists of ancient standing to his best interests, he placed those of + quite recent date in the part of the Delta furthest removed from Asia, + where surveillance was most easy, in the triangle, namely, lying to the + west of Sais, between the Canopic branch of the Nile, the mountains, and + the sea-coast. The Milesians had established here some time previously, on + a canal connected with the main arm of the river, the factory of + Naucratis, which long remained in obscurity, but suddenly developed at the + beginning of the XXVIth dynasty, when Sais became the favourite residence + of the Pharaohs. This town Amasis made over to the Greeks so that they + might make it the commercial and religious centre of their communities in + Egypt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0046" id="linkimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/120.jpg" width="100%" + alt="120.jpg the Present Site of Naucratis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Reduced by Faucher-Gudin from the plan published by Petrie. + The site of the Hellenion is marked A, the modern Arab + village B, the temenos of Hera and Apollo E, that of the + Dioskuri F, and that of Aphrodite G. +</pre> + <p> + Temples already existed there, those of Apollo and Aphrodite, together + with all the political and religious institutions indispensable to the + constitution of an Hellenic city; but the influx of immigrants was so + large and rapid, that, after the lapse of a few years, the entire internal + organism and external aspect of the city were metamorphosed. New buildings + rose from the ground with incredible speed—the little temple of the + Dioskuri, the protectors of the sailor, the temple of the Samian Hera, + that of Zeus of Ægina, and that of Athene;* ere long the great temenos, + the Hellenion, was erected at the public expense by nine Æolian, Ionian, + and Dorian towns of Asia Minor, to serve as a place of assembly for their + countrymen, as a storehouse, as a sanctuary, and, if need be, even as a + refuge and fortress, so great was its area and so thick its walls.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The temple of Athene, the Nît of the Saite nome, is as yet + known only by an inscription in Pctrie. + + ** The site has been rediscovered by Petrie at the southern + extremity of and almost outside the town; the walls were + about 48 feet thick and 39 feet high, and the rectangular + area enclosed by them could easily contain fifty thousand + men. +</pre> + <p> + It was not possible for the constitution of Naucratis to be very + homogeneous, when a score of different elements assisted in its + composition. It appears to have been a compromise between the institutions + of the Dorians and those of the Ionians. Its supreme magistrates were + called timuchi, but their length of office and functions are alike unknown + to us. The inspectors of the emporia and markets could be elected only by + the citizens of the nine towns, and it is certain that the chief authority + was not entirely in the hands either of the timuchi or the inspectors; + perhaps each quarter of the town had its council taken from among the + oldest residents. A prytanasum was open to all comers where assemblies and + banquets were held on feast-days; here were celebrated at the public + expense the festivals of Dionysos and Apollo Komasos. Amasis made the city + a free port, accessible at all times to whoever should present themselves + with peaceable intent, and the privileges which he granted naturally + brought about the closing of all the other seaports of Egypt. When a Greek + ship, pursued by pirates, buffeted by storms, or disabled by an accident + at sea, ran ashore at some prohibited spot on the coast, the captain had + to appear before the nearest magistrate, in order to swear that he had not + violated the law wilfully, but from the force of circumstances. If his + excuse appeared reasonable, he was permitted to make his way to the mouth + of the Canopic branch of the Nile; but when the state of the wind or tide + did not allow of his departure, his cargo was transferred to boats of the + locality, and sent to the Hellenic settlement by the canals of the Delta. + This provision of the law brought prosperity to Naucratis; the whole of + the commerce of Egypt with the Greek world passed through her docks, and + in a few years she became one of the wealthiest emporia of the + Mediterranean. The inhabitants soon overflowed the surrounding country, + and covered it with villas and townships. Such merchants as refused to + submit to the rule of their own countrymen found a home in some other part + of the valley which suited them, and even Upper Egypt and the Libyan + desert were subject to their pacific inroads. The Milesians established + depots in the ancient city of Abydos;* the Cypriots and Lesbians, and the + people of Ephesus, Chios, and Samos, were scattered over the islands + formed by the network of canals and arms of the Nile, and delighted in + giving them the names of their respective countries;** Greeks of diverse + origin settled themselves at Neapolis, not far from Panopolis; and the + Samians belonging to the Æschrionian tribe penetrated as far as the Great + Oasis; in fact, there was scarcely a village where Hellenic traders were + not found, like the <i>bakals</i> of to-day, selling wine, perfumes, oil, + and salted provisions to the natives, practising usury in all its forms, + and averse from no means of enriching themselves as rapidly as possible. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In Stephen of Byzantium the name of the town is said to be + derived from that of the Milesian Abydos who founded it, + probably on the testimony of Aristagoras. Letronne has seen + that the historian meant a factory established by the + Milesians probably in the reign of Amasis, at the terminus + of the route leading to the Great Oasis. + + ** The compiler confines himself to stating that there were + in the Nile islands called Ephesus, Chios, Samos, Lesbos, + Cyprus, and so on; the explanation I have given in the text + accounts for this curious fact quite simply. +</pre> + <p> + Those who returned to their mother-country carried thither strange tales, + which aroused the curiosity and cupidity of their fellow-citizens; and + philosophers, merchants, and soldiers alike set out for the land of + wonders in pursuit of knowledge, wealth, or adventures. Amasis, ever alert + upon his Asiatic frontier, and always anxious to strengthen himself in + that quarter against a Chaldæan or Persian invasion, welcomed them with + open arms: those who remained in the country obtained employment about his + person, while such as left it not to return, carried away with them the + memory of his kindly treatment, and secured for him in Hellas alliances of + which he might one day stand in need. The conduct of Amasis was politic, + but it aroused the ill-feeling of his subjects against him. Like the Jews + under Hezekiah, the Babylonians under Nabonidus, and all other decadent + races threatened by ruin, they attributed their decline, not to their own + vices, but to the machinations of an angry god, and they looked on favours + granted to strangers as a sacrilege. Had not the Greeks brought their + divinities with them? Did they not pervert the simple country-folk, so + that they associated the Greek religion with that of their own country? + Money was scarce; Amasis had been obliged to debit the rations and pay of + his mercenaries to the accounts of the most venerated Egyptian temples—those + of Sais, Heliopolis, Bubastis, and Memphis; and each of these institutions + had to rebate so much per cent. on their annual revenues in favour of the + barbarians, and hand over to them considerable quantities of corn, cattle, + poultry, stuffs, woods, perfumes, and objects of all kinds. The priests + were loud in their indignation, the echo of which still rang in the ears + of the faithful some centuries later, and the lower classes making common + cause with their priests, a spirit of hatred was roused among the populace + as bitter as that which had previously caused the downfall of Apries. As + the fear of the army prevented this feeling from manifesting itself in a + revolt, it found expression in the secret calumnies which were circulated + against the king, and misrepresented the motives of all his actions. + Scores of malicious stories were repeated vilifying his character. It was + stated that before his accession he was much addicted to eating and + drinking, but that, suffering from want of money, he had not hesitated in + procuring what he wished for by all sorts of means, the most honest of + which had been secret theft. When made king, he had several times given + way to intoxication to such an extent as to be incapable of attending to + public business; his ministers were then obliged to relate moral tales to + him to bring him to a state of reason. Many persons having taunted him + with his low extraction, he had caused a statue of a divinity to be made + out of a gold basin in which he was accustomed to wash his feet, and he + had exposed it to the adoration of the faithful. When it had been + worshipped by them for some time, he revealed the origin of the idol, and + added “that it had been with himself as with the foot-pan.... If he were a + private person formerly, yet now he had come to be their king, and so he + bade them honour and reverence him.” Towards the middle and end of his + reign he was as much detested as he had been beloved at the outset. + </p> + <p> + He had, notwithstanding, so effectively armed Egypt that the Persians had + not ventured to risk a collision with her immediately after their conquest + of Babylon. Cyrus had spent ten years in compassing the downfall of + Nabonidus, and, calculating that that of Amasis would require no less a + period of time, he set methodically to work on the organisation of his + recently acquired territory; the cities of Phoenicia acknowledged him as + their suzerain, and furnished him with what had hitherto been a coveted + acquisition, a fleet. These preliminaries had apparently been already + accomplished, when the movements of the barbarians suddenly made his + presence in the far East imperative. He hurried thither, and was + mysteriously lost to sight (529). Tradition accounts for his death in + several ways. If Xenophon is to be credited, he died peaceably on his bed, + surrounded by his children, and edifying those present by his wisdom and + his almost superhuman resignation.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * A similar legend, but later in date, told how Cyrus, when + a hundred years old, asked one day to see his friends. He + was told that his son had had them all put to death: his + grief at the cruelty of Cambyses caused his death in a few + days. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0047" id="linkimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:40%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/128.jpg" alt="128.jpg Cyrus the Achaemenian " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph by Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + Berosus tells us that he was killed in a campaign against the Daliæ; + Ctesias states that, living been wounded in a skirmish with the Æerbikes, + one of the savage tribes of Bactriana, he succumbed to his injuries three + days after the engagement. According to the worthy Herodotus, he asked the + hand of Tomyris, Queen of the Massagetse, in marriage, and was refused + with disdain. He declared war against her to avenge his wounded vanity, + set out to fight with her beyond the Araxes, in the steppes of Turkestan, + defeated the advance-guard of cavalry, and took prisoner the heir to the + crown, Spargapises, who thereupon ran himself through with his sword. + “Then Tomyris collected all the forces of her kingdom, and gave him + (Cyrus) battle.” Of all the combats in which barbarians have engaged among + themselves, I reckon this to have been the fiercest. The following, as I + understand, was the manner of it:—First, the two armies stood apart + and shot their arrows at each other; then, when their quivers were empty, + they closed and fought hand to hand with lances and daggers; and thus they + continued fighting for a length of time, neither choosing to give ground. + At length the Massagetse prevailed. The greater part of the army of the + Persians was destroyed. Search was made among the slain by order of the + queen for the body of Cyrus; and when it was found, she took a skin, and, + filling it full of human blood, she dipped the head of Cyrus in the gore, + saying, as she thus insulted the corse, “I live and have conquered thee in + fight, and yet by thee am I ruined, for thou tookest my son with guile; + but thus I make good my threat, and give thee thy fill of blood.” The + engagement was not as serious as the legend would have us believe, and the + growth of the Persian power was in no way affected, by it. It cost Cyrus + his life, but his army experienced no serious disaster, and his men took + the king’s body and brought it to Pasargadæ. He had a palace there, the + remains of which can still be seen on the plain of Murgâb. The edifice was + unpretentious, built upon a rectangular plan, with two porches of four + columns on the longer sides, a lateral chamber at each of the four angles, + and a hypostyle hall in the centre, divided lengthways by two rows of + columns which supported the roof. The walls were decorated with + bas-reliefs, and wherever the inscriptions have not been destroyed, we can + read in cuneiform characters in the three languages which thenceforward + formed the official means of communication of the empire—Persian, + Medic, and Chaldæan—the name, title, and family of the royal + occupant. Cyrus himself is represented in a standing posture on the + pilasters, wearing a costume in which Egyptian and Assyrian features are + curiously combined. He is clothed from neck to ankle in the close-fitting + fringed tunic of the Babylonian and Mnevite sovereigns; his feet are + covered with laced boots, while four great wings, emblems of the supreme + power, overshadow his shoulders and loins, two of them raised in the air, + the others pointing to the earth; he wears on his head the Egyptian + skull-cap, from which rises one of the most complicated head-dresses of + the royal wardrobe of the Pharaohs. The monarch raises his right hand with + the gesture of a man speaking to an assembled people, and as if repeating + the legend traced above his image: “I am Cyrus, the king, the Achæmenian.” + He was buried not far off, in the monumental tomb which he had probably + built for himself in a square enclosure, having a portico on three of its + sides; a small chamber, with a ridge roof, rises from a base composed of + six receding steps, so arranged as to appear of unequal height. + </p> + <p> + The doorway is narrow, and so low that a man of medium statue finds some + difficulty in entering. It is surmounted by a hollow moulding, quite + Egyptian in style, and was closed by a two-leaved stone door. The golden + coffin rested on a couch of the same metal, covered with precious stuffs; + and a circular table, laden with drinking-vessels and ornaments enriched + with precious stones, completed the furniture of the chamber. The body of + the conqueror remained undisturbed on this spot for two centuries under + the care of the priests; but while Alexander was waging war on the Indian + frontier, the Greek officers, to whom he had entrusted the government of + Persia proper, allowed themselves to be tempted by the enormous wealth + which the funerary chapel was supposed to contain. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0048" id="linkimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/129.jpg" width="100%" alt="129.jpg the Tomb Op Cyrus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the heliogravure of Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + They opened the coffin, broke the couch and the table, and finding them + too heavy to carry away easily, they contented themselves with stealing + the drinking-vessels and jewels. Alexander on his return visited the + place, and caused the entrance to be closed with a slight wall of masonry; + he intended to restore the monument to its former splendour, but he + himself perished shortly after, and what remained of the contents probably + soon disappeared. After the death of Cyrus, popular imagination, drawing + on the inexhaustible materials furnished by his adventurous career, seemed + to delight in making him the ideal of all a monarch should be; they + attributed to him every virtue—gentleness, bravery, moderation, + justice, and wisdom. There is no reason to doubt that he possessed the + qualities of a good general—activity, energy, and courage, together + with the astuteness and the duplicity so necessary to success in Asiatic + conquest—but he does not appear to have possessed in the same degree + the gifts of a great administrator. He made no changes in the system of + government which from the time of Tiglath-pileser III. onwards had + obtained among all Oriental sovereigns; he placed satraps over the towns + and countries of recent acquisition, at Sardes and Babylon, in Syria and + Palestine, but without clearly defining their functions or subjecting them + to a supervision sufficiently strict to ensure the faithful performance of + their duties. He believed that he was destined to found a single empire in + which all the ancient empires were to be merged, and he all but carried + his task to a successful close: Egypt alone remained to be conquered when + he passed away. + </p> + <p> + His wife Kassandanê, a daughter of Pharnaspes, and an Achæmenian like + himself, had borne him five children; two sons, Cambyses* and Smerdis,** + and three daughters, Atossa, Roxana, and Artystonê.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Persian form of the name rendered Kambyses by the + Greeks was Kâbuzîyâ or Kambuzîya. Herodotus calls him the + son of Kassandanê, and the tradition which he has preserved + is certainly authentic. Ctesias has erroneously stated that + his mother was Amytis, the daughter of Astyages, and Dinon, + also erroneously, the Egyptian women Nitêtis; Diodorus + Siculus and Strabo make him the son of Meroê. + + ** The original form was Bardiya or Barzîya, “the laudable,” + and the first Greek transcript known, in Æschylus, is + Mardos, or, in the scholiasts on the passage, Merdias, which + has been corrupted into Marphios by Hellanikos and into + Merges by Pompeius Trogus. The form Smerdis in Herodotus, + and in the historians who follow him, is the result of a + mistaken assimilation of the Persian name with the purely + Greek one of Smerdis or Smerdies. + + *** Herodotus says that Atossa was the daughter of + Kassandanê, and the position which she held during three + reigns shows that she must have been so; Justi, however, + calls her the daughter of Amytis. A second daughter is + mentioned by Herodotus, the one whom Cambyses killed in + Egypt by a kick; he gives her no name, but she is probably + the same as the Roxana who according to Ctesias bore a + headless child. The youngest, Artystonê, was the favourite + wife of Darius. Josephus speaks of a fourth daughter of + Cyrus called Meroê, but without saying who was the mother of + this princess. +</pre> + <p> + Cambyses was probably born about 558, soon after his father’s accession, + and he was his legitimate successor, according to the Persian custom which + assigned the crown to the eldest of the sons born in the purple. He had + been associated, as we have seen, in the Babylonian regal power + immediately after the victory over Nabonidus, and on the eve of his + departure for the fatal campaign against the Massagetse his father, again + in accordance with the Persian law, had appointed him regent. A later + tradition, preserved by Ctesias, relates that on this occasion the + territory had been divided between the two sons: Smerdis, here called + Tanyoxarkes, having received as his share Bactriana, the Khoramnians, the + Parthians, and the Carmanians, under the suzerainty of his brother. + Cambyses, it is clear, inherited the whole empire, but intrigues gathered + round Smerdis, and revolts broke out in the provinces, incited, so it was + said, whether rightly or wrongly, by his partisans.* The new king was + possessed of a violent, merciless temper, and the Persians subsequently + emphasised the fact by saying that Cyrus had been a father to them, + Cambyses a master. The rebellions were repressed with a vigorous hand, and + finally Smerdis disappeared by royal order, and the secret of his fate was + so well kept, that it was believed, even by his mother and sisters, that + he was merely imprisoned in some obscure Median fortress.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus speaks of peoples subdued by Cambyses in Asia, + and this allusion can only refer to a revolt occurring after + the death of Cyrus, before the Egyptian expedition; these + troubles are explicitly recorded in Xenophon. + + ** The inscription of Behistun says distinctly that Cambyses + had his brother Bardîya put to death before the Egyptian + expedition; on the other hand, Herodotus makes the murder + occur during the Egyptian expedition and Ctesias after this + expedition. Ctesias’ version of the affair adds that + Cambyses, the better to dissimulate his crime, ordered the + murderer Sphendadates to pass himself off as Tanyoxarkes, as + there was a great resemblance between the two: Sphendadates + —the historian goes on to say—was exiled to Bactriana, + and it was not until five years afterwards that the mother + of the two princes heard of the murder and of the + substitution. These additions to the story are subsequent + developments suggested by the traditional account of the + Pseudo-Smerdis. In recent times several authorities have + expressed the opinion that all that is told us of the murder + of Smerdis and about the Pseudo-Smerdis is merely a legend, + invented by Darius or those about him in order to justify + his usurpation in the eyes of the people: the Pseudo-Smerdis + would be Smerdis himself, who revolted against Cambyses, and + was then, after he had reigned a few months, assassinated by + Darius. Winckler acknowledges “that certainty is impossible + in such a case;” and, in reality, all ancient tradition is + against his hypothesis, and it is best to accept Herodotus’ + account, with all its contradictions, until contemporaneous + documents enable us to decide what to accept and what to + reject in it. +</pre> + <p> + The ground being cleared of his rival, and affairs on the Scythian + frontier reduced to order, Cambyses took up the projects against Egypt at + the exact point at which his predecessor had left them. Amasis, who for + ten years had been expecting an attack, had taken every precaution in his + power against it, and had once more patiently begun to make overtures of + alliance with the Hellenic cities; those on the European continent did not + feel themselves so seriously menaced as to consider it to their interest + to furnish him with any assistance, but the Greeks of the independent + islands, with their chief, Poly crates, tyrant of Samos, received his + advances with alacrity. Polycrates had at his disposal a considerable + fleet, the finest hitherto seen in the waters of the Ægean, and this, + combined with the Egyptian navy, was not any too large a force to protect + the coasts of the Delta, now that the Persians had at their disposition + not only the vessels of the Æolian and Ionian cities, but those of + Phoenicia and Cyprus. A treaty was concluded, bringing about an exchange + of presents and amenities between the two princes which lasted as long as + peace prevailed, but was ruptured at the critical moment by the action of + Polycrates, though not actually through his own fault. The aristocratic + party, whose chiefs were always secretly plotting his overthrow, had given + their adherence to the Persians, and their conduct became so threatening + about the time of the death of Cyras, that Polycrates had to break his + engagements with Egypt in order to avert a catastrophe.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus laid the blame for the breach of the treaty to + the King of Egypt, and attributed to his fear of the + constant good fortune of Polycrates. The lattor’s accession + to power is fixed at about the year 540 by some, by others + in the year 537, or in the year 533-2; his negotiations with + Amasis must be placed somewhere during the last fifteen + years of the Pharaoh. +</pre> + <p> + He made a treaty with the Persian king, and sent a squadron of forty + galleys to join the fleet then being equipped in the Phoenician ports.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus records two opposing traditions: one that the + Samians joined in the Egyptian campaign, the other that they + went only as far as the neighbourhood of Karpathos. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0049" id="linkimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:29%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/138.jpg" alt="138.jpg Psammetichus III. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +of the original +in the Louvre. +</pre> + <p> + Amasis, therefore, when war at last broke out, found himself left to face + the enemy alone. The struggle was inevitable, and all the inhabitants of + the eastern coasts of the Mediterranean had long foreseen its coming. + Without taking into consideration the danger to which the Persian empire + and its Syrian provinces were exposed by the proximity of a strong and + able power such as Egypt, the hardy and warlike character of Cambyses + would naturally have prompted him to make an attempt to achieve what his + predecessors, the warrior-kings of Nineveh and Babylon, had always failed + to accomplish successfully. Policy ruled his line of action, and was + sufficient to explain it, but popular imagination sought other than the + very natural causes which had brought the most ancient and most recent of + the great empires of the world into opposition; romantic reasons were + therefore invented to account for the great drama which was being enacted, + and the details supplied varied considerably, according as the tradition + was current in Asia or Africa. It was said that a physician lent to Cyrus + by Amasis, to treat him for an affection of the eyes, was the cause of all + the evil. The unfortunate man, detained at Susa and chafing at his exile, + was said to have advised Cambyses to ask for the daughter of Pharaoh in + marriage, hoping either that Amasis would grant the request, and be + dishonoured in the eyes of his subjects for having degraded the solar race + by a union with a barbarian, or that he would boldly refuse, and thus + arouse the hatred of the Persians against himself. Amasis, after a slight + hesitation, substituted Nitêtis, a daughter of Apries, for his own child. + It happened that one day in sport Cambyses addressed the princess by the + name of her supposed father, whereupon she said, “I perceive, O king, that + you have no suspicion of the way in which you have been deceived by + Amasis; he took me, and having dressed me up as his own daughter, sent me + to you. In reality I am the daughter of Apries, who was his lord and + master until the day that he revolted, and, in concert with the rest of + the Egyptians, put his sovereign to death.” The deceit which Cambyses thus + discovered had been put upon him irritated him so greatly as to induce him + to turn his arms against Egypt. So ran the Persian account of the tale, + but on the banks of the Nile matters were explained otherwise. Here it was + said that it was to Cyrus himself that Nitêtis had been married, and that + she had borne Cambyses to him; the conquest had thus been merely a revenge + of the legitimate heirs of Psammetichus upon the usurper, and Cambyses had + ascended the throne less as a conqueror than as a Pharaoh of the line of + Apries. It was by this childish fiction that the Egyptians in their + decadence consoled themselves before the stranger for their loss of power. + Always proud of their ancient prowess, but incapable of imitating the + deeds of their forefathers, they none the less pretended that they could + neither be vanquished nor ruled except by one of themselves, and the story + of Nitêtis afforded complete satisfaction to their vanity. If Cambyses + were born of a solar princess, Persia could not be said to have imposed a + barbarian king upon Egypt, but, on the contrary, that Egypt had cleverly + foisted her Pharaoh upon Persia, and through Persia upon half the + universe. + </p> + <p> + One obstacle still separated the two foes—the desert and the marshes + of the Delta. The distance between the outposts of Pelusium and the + fortress of Ænysos* on the Syrian frontier was scarcely fifty-six miles, + and could be crossed by an army in less than ten days.** Formerly the + width of this strip of desert had been less, but the Assyrians, and after + them the Chaldæans, had vied with each other in laying waste the country, + and the absence of any settled population now rendered the transit + difficult. Cambyses had his head-quarters at Gaza, at the extreme limit of + his own dominions,*** but he was at a loss how to face this solitary + region without incurring the risk of seeing half his men buried beneath + its sands, and his uncertainty was delaying his departure when a stroke of + fortune relieved him from his difficulty. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Ænysos of Herodotus is now Khân Yunes. + + ** In 1799, Napoleon’s army left Kattiyeh on the 18th of + Pluviôse, and was at Gaza on the 7th of Ventose, after + remaining from the 21st to the 30th of Pluviôse before El- + Arîsh besieging that place. + + *** This seems to follow from the tradition, according to + which Cambyses left his treasures at Gaza during the + Egyptian campaign, and the town was thence called <i>Gaza</i>, + “the treasury.” The etymology is false, but the fact that + suggested it is probably correct, considering the situation + of Gaza and the part it must necessarily play in an invasion + of Egypt. +</pre> + <p> + Phanes of Halicarnassus, one of the mercenaries in the service of Egypt, a + man of shrewd judgment and an able soldier, fell out with Amasis for some + unknown reason, and left him to offer his services to his rival. This was + a serious loss for Egypt, since Phanes possessed considerable authority + over the mercenaries, and was better versed in Egyptian affairs than any + other person. He was pursued and taken within sight of the Lycian coast, + but he treated his captors to wine and escaped from them while they were + intoxicated. He placed Cambyses in communication with the shêkh of the + scattered tribes between Syria and the Delta. The Arab undertook to + furnish the Persian king with guides, as one of his predecessors had done + in years gone by for Esar-haddon, and to station relays of camels laden + with water along the route that the invading army was to follow. Having + taken these precautions, Cambyses entrusted the cares of government and + the regulation of his household to Oropastes,* one of the Persian magi, + and gave the order to march forward. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus calls this individual Patizeithes, and Dionysius + of Miletus, who lived a little before Herodotus, gives + Panzythes as a variant of this name: the variant passed into + the Syncellus as Pauzythes, but the original form + Patikhshâyathiya is a title signifying <i>viceroy, regent, or + minister</i>, answering to the modern Persian <i>Padishah</i>: + Herodotus, or the author he quotes, has taken the name of + the office for that of the individual. On the other hand, + Pompeius Trogus, who drew his information from good sources, + mentions, side by side with Comètes or Gaumata, his brother + Oropastes, whose name Ahura-upashta is quite correct, and + may mean, <i>Him whom Ahura helps</i>. It is generally admitted + that Pompeius Trogus, or rather Justin, has inverted the + parts they played, and that his Comètes is the Pseudo- + Smerdis, and not, as he says, Oropastes; it was, then, the + latter who was the usurper’s brother, and it is his name of + Oropastes which should be substituted for that of the + Patizeithes of Herodotus. +</pre> + <p> + On arriving at Pelusium, he learned that his adversary no longer existed. + Amasis had died after a short illness, and was succeeded by his son + Psammetichus III. + </p> + <p> + This change of command, at the most critical moment, was almost in itself, + a disaster. Àmasis, with his consummate experience of men and things, his + intimate knowledge of the resources of Egypt, his talents as a soldier and + a general, his personal prestige, his Hellenic leanings, commanded the + confidence of his own men and the respect of foreigners; but what could be + expected of his unknown successor, and who could say whether he were equal + to the heavy task which fate had assigned to him? The whole of the Nile + valley was a prey to gloomy presentiment.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Psammetichus III. has left us very few monuments, which is + accounted for by the extreme shortness of his reign. For the + same reason doubtless several writers of classical times + have ignored his existence, and have made the conquest of + Egypt take place under Amasis. Ctesias calls the Pharaoh + Amyrtseus, and gives the same name to those who rebelled + against the Persians in his own time, and he had an account + of the history of the conquest entirely different from that + of Herodotus. +</pre> + <p> + Egypt was threatened not only, as in the previous century, by the nations + of the Tigris and Euphrates, but all Asia, from the Indus to the + Hellespont, was about to fall on her to crush her. She was destitute of + all human help and allies, and the gods themselves appeared to have + forsaken her. The fellahin, inspired with vague alarm, recognised evil + omens in all around them. Rain is rare in the Thebaid, and storms occur + there only twice or three times in a century: but a few days after the + accession of Psammetichus, a shower of fine rain fell at Thebes, an event, + so it was stated with the exaggeration characteristic of the bearers of + ill news, which had never before occurred.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The inhabitants of the Said have, up to our own time, + always considered rain in the valley as an ill-omened event. + They used to say in the beginning of the nineteenth century, + when speaking of Napoleon’s expedition, “We knew that + misfortune threatened us, because it rained at Luxor shortly + before the French came.” Wilkinson assures us that rain is + not so rare at Thebes as Herodotus thought: he speaks of + five or six showers a year, and of a great storm on an + average every ten years. But even he admits that it is + confined to the mountain district, and does not reach the + plain: I never heard of rain at Luxor during the six winters + that I spent in Upper Egypt. +</pre> + <p> + Pharaoh hastened to meet the invader with all the men, chariots, and + native bowmen at his disposal, together with his Libyan and Cyrenoan + auxiliaries, and the Ionians, Carians, and Greeks of the isles and + mainland. The battle took place before Pelusium, and was fought on both + sides with brave desperation, since defeat meant servitude for the + Egyptians, and for the Persians, cut off by the desert from possible + retreat, captivity or annihilation. Phanes had been obliged to leave his + children behind him, and Pharaoh included them in his suite, to serve, if + needful, as hostages. The Carians and Ionians, who felt themselves + disgraced by the defection of their captain, called loudly for them just + before the commencement of the action. They were killed immediately in + front of the lines, their father being a powerless onlooker; their blood + was thrown into a cask half full of wine, and the horrible mixture was + drunk by the soldiers, who then furiously charged the enemy’s battalions. + The issue of the struggle was for a long time doubtful, but the Egyptians + were inferior in numbers; towards evening their lines gave way and the + flight began.* All was not, however, lost, if Psammetichus had but + followed the example of Taharqa, and defended the passage of the various + canals and arms of the river, disputing the ground inch by inch with the + Persians, and gaining time meanwhile to collect a fresh army. The king + lost his presence of mind, and without attempting to rally what remained + of his regiments, he hastened to take refuge within the White Wall. + Cambyses halted a few days to reduce Pelusium,** and in the mean time sent + a vessel of Mitylene to summon Memphis to capitulate: the infuriated + populace, as soon as they got wind of the message, massacred the herald + and the crew, and dragged their bleeding limbs through the streets. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * According to Herodotus, eighty years later the battle- + field used to be shown covered with bones, and it was said + that the Egyptians could be distinguished from the Persians + by the relative hardness of their skulls. + + ** Polysenus hands down a story that Cambyses, in order to + paralyse the resistance of the besieged, caused cats, dogs, + ibises, and other sacred animals to march at the head of his + attacking columns: the Egyptians would not venture to use + their arms for fear of wounding or killing some of their + gods. +</pre> + <p> + The city held out for a considerable time; when at length she opened her + gates, the remaining inhabitants of the Said who had hesitated up to then, + hastened to make their submission, and the whole of Egypt as far as Philae + became at one stroke a Persian province. The Libyans did not wait to be + summoned to bring their tribute; Cyrene and Barca followed their example, + but their offerings were so small that the conqueror’s irritation was + aroused, and deeming himself mocked, he gave way to his anger, and instead + of accepting them, he threw them to his soldiers with his own hand (B.C. + 525).* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The question as to the year in which Egypt was subdued by + Cambyses has long divided historians: I still agree with + those who place the conquest in the spring of 525. +</pre> + <p> + This sudden collapse of a power whose exalted position had defied all + attacks for centuries, and the tragic fate of the king who had received + his crown merely to lose it, filled contemporary beholders with + astonishment and pity. It was said that, ten days after the capitulation + of Memphis, the victorious king desired out of sport to test the endurance + of his prisoner. Psammetichus beheld his daughter and the daughters of his + nobles pass before him, half naked, with jars on their shoulders, and go + down to the Nile to fetch water from the river like common slaves; his son + and two thousand young men of the same age, in chains and with ropes round + their necks, also defiled before him on their way to die as a revenge for + the murder of the Mitylenians; yet he never for a moment lost his royal + imperturbability. But when one of his former companions in pleasure + chanced to pass, begging for alms and clothed in rags, Psammetichus + suddenly broke out into weeping, and lacerated his face in despair. + Cambyses, surprised at this excessive grief in a man who up till then had + exhibited such fortitude, demanded the reason of his conduct. “Son of + Cyrus,” he replied, “the misfortunes of my house are too unparalleled to + weep over, but not the affliction of my friend. When a man, on the verge + of old age, falls from luxury and abundance into extreme poverty, one may + well lament his fate.” When the speech was reported to Cambyses, he fully + recognised the truth of it. Croesus, who was also present, shed tears, and + the Persians round him were moved with pity. Cambyses, likewise touched, + commanded that the son of the Pharaoh should be saved, but the remission + of the sentence arrived too late. He at all events treated Pharaoh himself + with consideration, and it is possible that he might have replaced him on + the throne, under an oath of vassalage, had he not surprised him in a + conspiracy against his own life. He thereupon obliged him to poison + himself by drinking bulls’ blood, and he confided the government of the + Nile valley to a Persian named Aryandes. + </p> + <p> + No part of the ancient world now remained unconquered except the + semi-fabulous kingdom of Ethiopia in the far-off south. Cities and + monarchies, all the great actors of early times, had been laid in the dust + one after another—Tyre, Damascus, Carchemish, Urartu, Elam, Assyria, + Jerusalem, Media, the Lydians, Babylon, and finally Egypt; and the prey + they had fought over so fiercely and for so many centuries, now belonged + in its entirety to one master for the first time as far as memory could + reach back into the past. Cambyses, following in the footsteps of Cyrus, + had pursued his victorious way successfully, but it was another matter to + consolidate his conquests and to succeed in governing within the limits of + one empire so many incongruous elements—the people of the Caucasus + and those of the Nile valley, the Greeks of the Ægean and the Iranians, + the Scythians from beyond the Oxus and the Semites of the banks of the + Euphrates or of the Mediterranean coast; and time alone would show whether + this heritage would not fall to pieces as quickly as it had been built up. + The Asiatic elements of the empire appeared, at all events for the moment, + content with their lot, and Babylon showed herself more than usually + resigned; but Egypt had never accepted the yoke of the stranger willingly, + and the most fortunate of her Assyrian conquerors had never exercised more + than a passing supremacy over her. Cambyses realised that he would never + master her except by governing her himself for a period of several years, + and by making himself as Egyptian as a Persian could be without offending + his own subjects at home. He adopted the titles of the Pharaohs, their + double cartouche, their royal costume, and their solar filiation; as much + to satisfy his own personal animosity as to conciliate the Egyptian + priests, he repaired to Sais, violated the tomb of Amasis, and burnt the + mummy after offering it every insult.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus gives also a second account, which declares that + Cambyses thus treated the body, not of Amasis, but of some + unknown person whom he took for Amasis. The truth of the + story is generally contested, for the deed would have been, + as Herodotus himself remarks, contrary to Persian ideas + about the sanctity of fire. I think that by his cruel + treatment of the mummy, Cambyses wished to satisfy the + hatred of the natives against the Greek-loving king, and so + render himself more acceptable to them. The destruction of + the mummy entailing that of the soul, his act gave the + Saitic population a satisfaction similar to that experienced + by the refined cruelty of those who, a few centuries ago, + killed their enemies when in a state of deadly sin, and so + ensure not only their dismissal from this world, but also + their condemnation in the next. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0050" id="linkimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:30%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/145.jpg" + alt="145.jpg the Naophoros Statuette of The Vatican " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a photograph: the +head and hands are a +restoration of the +eighteenth century, +in the most +inappropriate +Græco-Roman style. +</pre> + <p> + He removed his troops from the temple of Nît, which they had turned into a + barrack to the horror of the faithful, and restored at his own expense the + damage they had done to the building. He condescended so far as to receive + instruction in the local religion, and was initiated in the worship of the + goddess by the priest Uzaharrîsnîti. This was, after all, a pursuance of + the policy employed by his father towards the Babylonians, and the + projects which he had in view necessitated his gaining the confidence of + the people at all costs. Asia having no more to offer him, two almost + untried fields lay open to his ambition—Africa and Europe—the + Greek world and what lay beyond it, the Carthaginian world and Ethiopia. + The necessity of making a final reckoning with Egypt had at the outset + summoned him to Africa, and it was therefore in that continent that he + determined to carry on his conquests. Memphis was necessarily the base of + his operations, the only point from which he could direct the march of his + armies in a westerly or southerly direction, and at the same time keep in + touch with the rest of his empire, and he would indeed have been imprudent + had he neglected anything which could make him acceptable to its + inhabitants. As soon as he felt he had gained their sympathies, he + despatched two expeditions, one to Carthage and one to Ethiopia. Cyrene + had spontaneously offered him her homage; he now further secured it by + sending thither with all honour Ladikê, the widow of Amasis, and he + apparently contemplated taking advantage of the good will of the Cyrenians + to approach Carthage by sea. The combined fleets of Ionia and Phonicia + were without doubt numerically sufficient for this undertaking, but the + Tyrians refused to serve against their own colonies, and he did not + venture to employ the Greeks alone in waters which were unfamiliar to + them. Besides this, the information which he obtained from those about him + convinced him that the overland route would enable him to reach his + destination more surely if more slowly; it would lead him from the banks + of the Nile to the Oases of the Theban desert, from there to the + Ammonians, and thence by way of the Libyans bordering on the Syrtes and + the Liby-phoenicians. He despatched an advance-guard of fifty thousand men + from Thebes to occupy the Oasis of Ammon and to prepare the various + halting-places for the bulk of the troops. The fate of these men has never + been clearly ascertained. They crossed the Oasis of El-Khargeh and + proceeded to the north-west in the direction of the oracle. The natives + afterwards related that when they had arrived halfway, a sudden storm of + wind fell upon them, and the entire force was buried under mounds of sand + during a halt. Cambyses was forced to take their word; in spite of all his + endeavours, no further news of his troops was forthcoming, except that + they never reached the temple, and that none of the generals or soldiers + ever again saw Egypt (524). The expedition to Ethiopia was not more + successful. Since the retreat of Tanuatamanu, the Pharaohs of Napata had + severed all direct relations with Asia; but on being interfered with by + Psammetichus I. and II., they had repulsed the invaders, and had + maintained their frontier almost within sight of Philæ.* In Nubia proper + they had merely a few outposts stationed in the ruins of the towns of the + Theban period—at Derr, at Pnubsu, at Wady-Halfa, and at Semneh; the + population again becoming dense and the valley fertile to the south of + this spot. Kush, like Egypt, was divided into two regions —To-Qonusît, + with its cities of Danguru,** Napata, Asta-muras, and Barua; and Alo,*** + which extended along the White and the Blue Nile in the plain of Sennaar: + the Asmakh, the descendants of the Mashauasha emigrants of the time of + Psammetichus I., dwelt on the southern border of Alo. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The northern boundary of Ethiopia is given us + approximately by the lists of temples in the inscriptions of + Harsiatef and of Nastosenen: Pnubsu is mentioned several + times as receiving gifts from the king, which carries the + permanent dominion of the Ethiopian kings as far as the + second cataract. + + ** Now Old Dongola. + + *** Berua is the Meroê of Strabo, Astaboras the modern Ed- + Dameîr, and Alo the kingdom of Aloah of the mediæval Arab + geographers. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0051" id="linkimage-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/147.jpg" width="100%" alt="147.jpg Ethiopian Gkoup " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the photograph by Berghoff. +</pre> + <p> + A number of half-savage tribes, Maditi and Bohrehsa, were settled to the + right and to the left of the territory watered by the Nile, between + Darfur, the mountains of Abyssinia, and the Red Sea; and the warlike + disposition of the Ethiopian kings found in these tribes an inexhaustible + field for obtaining easy victories and abundant spoil. Many of these + sovereigns—Piônkhi, Alaru, Harsiatef, Nastosenen—whose + respective positions in the royal line are still undetermined, specially + distinguished themselves in these struggles, but the few monuments they + have left, though bearing witness to their military enterprise and + ability, betray their utter decadence in everything connected with art, + language, and religion. The ancient Egyptian syllabary, adapted to the + needs of a barbarous tongue, had ended by losing its elegance; + architecture was degenerating, and sculpture slowly growing more and more + clumsy in appearance. Some of the work, however, is not wanting in a + certain rude nobility—as, for instance, the god and goddess carved + side by side in a block of grey granite. Ethiopian worship had become + permeated with strange superstitions, and its creed was degraded, in spite + of the strictness with which the priests supervised its application and + kept watch against every attempt to introduce innovations. Towards the end + of the seventh century some of the families attached to the temple of Am + on at Napata had endeavoured to bring about a kind of religious reform; + among other innovations they adopted the practice of substituting for the + ordinary sacrifice, new rites, the chief feature of which was the offering + of the flesh of the victim raw, instead of roasted with fire. This custom, + which was doubtless borrowed from the negroes of the Upper Nile, was + looked upon as a shameful heresy by the orthodox. The king repaired in + state to the temple of Anion, seized the priests who professed these + seditious beliefs, and burnt them alive. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0052" id="linkimage-0052"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/148b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="148b.jpg Encampment de Bacharis " /> + </div> + <p> + The use of raw meat, nevertheless, was not discontinued, and it gained + such ground in the course of ages that even Christianity was unable to + suppress it; up to the present time, the <i>brindê</i>, or piece of beef + cut from the living animal and eaten raw, is considered a delicacy by the + Abyssinians. + </p> + <p> + The isolation of the Ethiopians had rather increased than lowered their + reputation among other nations. Their transitory appearance on the + battle-fields of Asia had left a deep impression on the memories of their + opponents. The tenacity they had displayed during their conflict with + Assyria had effaced the remembrance of their defeat. Popular fancy + delighted to extol the wisdom of Sabaco,* and exalted Taharqa to the first + rank among the conquerors of the old world; now that Kush once more came + within the range of vision, it was invested with a share of all these + virtues, and the inquiries Cambyses made concerning it were calculated to + make him believe that he was about to enter on a struggle with a nation of + demigods rather than of men. He was informed that they were taller, more + beautiful, and more vigorous than all other mortals, that their age was + prolonged to one hundred and twenty years and more, and that they + possessed a marvellous fountain whose waters imparted perpetual youth to + then-bodies. There existed near their capital a meadow, perpetually + furnishing an inexhaustible supply of food and drink; whoever would might + partake of this “Table of the Sun,” and eat to his fill.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The eulogy bestowed on him by Herodotus shows the esteem + in which he was held even in the Saite period; later on he + seems to have become two persons, and so to have given birth + to the good Ethiopian king Aktisanes. + + ** Pausanias treats it as a traveller’s tale. Heeren thought + that he saw in Herodotus’ account a reference to intercourse + by signs, so frequent in Africa. The “Table of the Sun” + would thus have been a kind of market, whither the natives + would come for their provisions, using exchange to procure + them. I am inclined rather to believe the story to be a + recollection, partly of the actual custom of placing meats, + which the first comer might take, on the tombs in the + necropolis, partly of the mythical “Meadow of Offerings” + mentioned in the funerary texts, to which the souls of the + dead and the gods alike had access. This divine region would + have transferred to our earth by some folk-tale, like the + judgment of the dead, the entrance into the solar bark, and + other similar beliefs. +</pre> + <p> + Gold was so abundant that it was used for common purposes, even for the + chains of their prisoners; but, on the other hand, copper was rare and + much prized. Canibyses despatched some spies chosen from among the + Ichthyophagi of the Bed Sea to explore this region, and acting on the + report they brought back, he left Memphis at the head of an army and a + fleet.* The expedition was partly a success and partly a failure. It + followed the Nile valley as far as Korosko, and then struck across the + desert in the direction of Napata;** but provisions ran short before a + quarter of the march had been achieved, and famine obliged the invaders to + retrace their steps after having endured terrible sufferings.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus’ text speaks of an army only, but the accounts + of the wars between Ethiopia and Egypt show that the army + was always accompanied by the necessary fleet. + + ** It is usually thought that the expedition marched by the + side of the Nile as far as Napata; to support this theory + the name of a place mentioned in Pliny is quoted, Cambusis + at the third cataract, which is supposed to contain the name + of the conqueror. This town, which is sometimes mentioned by + the classical geographers, is called Kambiusit in the + Ethiopie texts, and the form of the name makes its + connection with the history of Cambyses easy. I think it + follows, from the text of Herodotus, that the Persians left + the grassy land, the river-valley, at a given moment, to + enter the sand, i.e. the desert. Now this is done to-day at + two points—near Korosko to rejoin the Nile at Abu-Hammed, + and near Wady-Halfah to avoid the part of the Nile called + the “Stony belly,” Batn el-Hagar. The Korosko route, being + the only one suitable for the transit of a body of troops, + and also the only route known to Herodotus, seems, I think, + likely to be the one which was followed in the present + instance; at all events, it fits in best with the fact that + Cambyses was obliged to retrace his steps hurriedly, when he + had accomplished hardly a fifth of the journey. + + *** Many modern historians are inclined to assume that + Cambyses’ expedition was completely successful, and that its + result was the overthrow of the ancient kingdom of Nepata + and the foundation of that of Meroê. Cambyses would have + given the new town which he built there the name of his + sister Meroê. The traditions concerning Cambusis and Meroê + belong to the Alexandrine era, and rest only on chance + similarities of sound. With regard to the Ethiopian province + of the Persian empire and to the Ethiopian neighbours of + Egypt whom Cambyses subdued, the latter are not necessarily + Ethiopians of Napata. Herodotus himself says that the + Ethiopians dwelt in the country above Elephantine, and that + half of what he calls the island of Takhompsô was inhabited + by Ethiopians: the subjugated Ethiopians and their country + plainly correspond with the Dodekaschênos of the Græco-Roman + era. +</pre> + <p> + Cambyses had to rest content with the acquisition of those portions of + Nubia adjoining the first cataract—the same, in fact, that had been + annexed to Egypt by Psammetichus I. and II. (523). The failure of this + expedition to the south, following so closely on the disaster which befell + that of the west, had a deplorable effect on the mind of Cambyses. He had + been subject, from childhood, to attacks of epilepsy, during which he + became a maniac and had no control over his actions. These reverses of + fortune aggravated the disease, and increased the frequency and length of + the attacks.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Recent historians admit neither the reality of the illness + of Cambyses nor the madness resulting from it, but consider + them Egyptian fables, invented out of spite towards the king + who had conquered and persecuted them. +</pre> + <p> + The bull Apis had died shortly before the close of the Ethiopian campaign, + and the Egyptians, after mourning for him during the prescribed number of + weeks, were bringing his successor with rejoicings into the temple of + Phtah, when the remains of the army re-entered Memphis. Cambyses, finding + the city holiday-making, imagined that it was rejoicing over his + misfortunes. He summoned the magistrates before him, and gave them over to + the executioner without deigning to listen to their explanations. He next + caused the priests to be brought to him, and when they had paraded the + Apis before him, he plunged his dagger into its flank with derisive + laughter: “Ah, evil people! So you make for yourselves divinities of flesh + and blood which fear the sword! It is indeed a fine god that you Egyptians + have here; I will have you to know, however, that you shall not rejoice + overmuch at having deceived me!” The priests were beaten as impostors, and + the bull languished from its wound and died in a few days*1 its priests + buried it, and chose another in its place without the usual ceremonies, so + as not to exasperate the anger of the tyrant,** but the horror evoked by + this double sacrilege raised passions against Cambyses which the ruin of + the country had failed to excite. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Later historians improved upon the account of Herodotus, + and it is said in the <i>De Iside</i>, that Cambyses killed the + Apis and threw him to the dogs. Here there is probably a + confusion between the conduct of Cambyses and that + attributed to the eunuch Bagoas nearly two centuries later, + at the time of the second conquest of Egypt by Ochus. + + ** Mariette discovered in the Serapseum and sent to the + Louvre fragments of the epitaph of an Apis buried in Epiphi + in the sixth year of Cambyses, which had therefore died a + few months previously. This fact contradicts the inference + from the epitaph of the Apis that died in the fourth year of + Darius, which would have been born in the fifth year of + Cambyses, if we allow that there could not have been two + Apises in Egypt at once. This was, indeed, the usual rule, + but a comparison of the two dates shows that here it was not + followed, and it is therefore simplest, until we have + further evidence, to conclude that at all events in cases of + violence, such as sacrilegious murder, there could have been + two Apises at once, one discharging his functions, and the + other unknown, living still in the midst of the herds. +</pre> + <p> + The manifestations of this antipathy irritated him to such an extent that + he completely changed his policy, and set himself from that time forward + to act counter to the customs and prejudices of the Egyptians. They + consequently regarded his memory with a vindictive hatred. The people + related that the gods had struck him with madness to avenge the murder of + the Apis, and they attributed to him numberless traits of senseless + cruelty, in which we can scarcely distinguish truth from fiction. It was + said that, having entered the temple of Phtah, he had ridiculed the + grotesque figure under which the god was represented, and had commanded + the statues to be burnt. On another occasion he had ordered the ancient + sepulchres to be opened, that he might see what was the appearance of the + mummies. The most faithful members of his family and household, it was + said, did not escape his fury. He killed his own sister Roxana, whom he + had married, by a kick in the abdomen; he slew the son of Prexaspes with + an arrow; he buried alive twelve influential Persians; he condemned + Croesus to death, and then repented, but punished the officers who had + failed to execute the sentence pronounced against the Lydian king.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The whole of this story of Croesus is entirely fabulous. +</pre> + <p> + He had no longer any reason for remaining in Egypt, since he had failed in + his undertakings; yet he did not quit the country, and through repeated + delays his departure was retarded a whole year. Meanwhile his long sojourn + in Africa, the report of his failures, and perhaps whispers of his + insanity, had sown the seeds of discontent in Asia; and as Darius said in + after-years, when recounting these events, “untruth had spread all over + the country, not only in Persia and Media, but in other provinces.” + Cambyses himself felt that a longer absence would be injurious to his + interests; he therefore crossed the isthmus in the spring of 521, and was + making his way through Northern Syria, perhaps in the neighbourhood of + Hamath,* when he learned that a revolution had broken out, and that its + rapid progress threatened the safety of his throne and life. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus calls the place where Cambyses died Agbatana + (Ecbatana). Pliny says that the town of Carmel was thus + named at first; but the place here mentioned cannot well + have been in that direction. It has been identified with + Batansea in the country between the Orontes and the + Euphrates, but the most likely theory is the one suggested + by a passage in Stephen of Byzantium, that the place in + question is the large Syrian city of Hamath. Josephus makes + him die at Damascus. +</pre> + <p> + Tradition asserted that a herald appeared before him and proclaimed aloud, + in the hearing of the whole army, that Cambyses, son of Cyrus, had ceased + to reign, and summoned whoever had till that day obeyed him to acknowledge + henceforth Smerdis, son of Cyrus, as their lord. Cambyses at first + believed that his brother had been spared by the assassins, and now, after + years of concealment, had at length declared himself; but he soon received + proofs that his orders had been faithfully accomplished, and it is said + that he wept at the remembrance of the fruitless crime. The usurper was + Gaumâta, one of the Persian Magi, whose resemblance to Smerdis was so + remarkable that even those who were cognisant of it invariably mistook the + one for the other,* and he was brother to that Oropastes to whom Cambyses + had entrusted the administration of his household before setting out for + Egypt.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Greek tradition is unanimous on this point, but the + inscription of Behistun does not mention it. + + ** The inscription of Behistun informs us that the usurper’s + name was Gaumâta. Pompeius Trogus alone, probably following + some author who made use of Charon of Lampsacus, handed down + this name in the form Comètes or Gometes, which his + abbreviator Justin carelessly applied to the second brother. + Ctesias gives the Mage the name Sphendadates, which answers + to the Old Persian Spentôdâta, “he who is given by the Holy + One,” i.e. by Ahura-mazdâ. The supporters of the Mage gave + him this name, as an heroic champion of the Mazdoan faith + who had destroyed such sanctuaries as were illegal, and + identified him with Spentôdâta, son of Wistâspa. +</pre> + <p> + Both of them were aware of the fate of Smerdis; they also knew that the + Persians were ignorant of it, and that every one at court, including the + mother and sisters of the prince, believed that he was still alive. + Gaumâta headed a revolt in the little town of Pasyauvadâ on the 14th of + Viyakhna, in the early days of March, 521, and he was hailed by the common + people from the moment of his appearance. Persia, Media, and the Iranian + provinces pronounced in his favour, and solemnly enthroned him three + months later, on the 9th of Garmapada; Babylon next accepted him, followed + by Elam and the regions of the Tigris. Though astounded at first by such a + widespread defection, Cambyses soon recovered his presence of mind, and + was about to march forward at the head of the troops who were still loyal + to him, when he mysteriously disappeared. Whether he was the victim of a + plot set on foot by those about him, is not known. The official version of + the story given by Darius states that he died by his own hand, and it + seems to insinuate that it was a voluntary act, but another account + affirms that he succumbed to an accident;* while mounting his horse, the + point of his dagger pierced his thigh in the same spot in which he had + stabbed the Apis of the Egyptians. Feeling himself seriously wounded, he + suddenly asked the name of the place where he was lying, and was told it + was “Agbatana” (Ecbatana). “Now, long before this, the oracle of Buto had + predicted that he should end his days in Agbatana, and he, believing it to + be the Agbatana in Media where were his treasures, understood that he + should die there in his old age; whereas the oracle meant Agbatana in + Syria. When he heard the name, he perceived his error. He understood what + the god intended, and cried, ‘It is here, then, that Cambyses, son of + Cyrus, must perish!’” He expired about three weeks after, leaving no + posterity and having appointed no successor.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It has been pointed out, for the purpose of harmonising + the testimony of Herodotus with that of the inscription of + Behistun, that although the latter speaks of the death of + Cambyses by his own hand, it does not say whether that death + was voluntary or accidental. + + ** The story of a person whose death has been predicted to + take place in some well-known place, and who has died in + some obscure spot of the same name, occurs several times in + different historians, e.g. in the account of the Emperor + Julian, and in that of Henry III. of England, who had been + told that he would die in Jerusalem, and whose death took + place in the Jerusalem Chamber at Westminster. Ctesias has + preserved an altogether different tradition—that Cambyses + on his return from Babylon wounded himself while carving a + piece of wood for his amusement, and died eleven days after + the accident. +</pre> + <p> + What took place in the ensuing months still remains an enigma to us. The + episode of Gaumâta has often been looked on as a national movement, which + momentarily restored to the Medes the supremacy of which Cyrus had robbed + them; but it was nothing of the sort. Gaumâta was not a Mede by birth: he + was a Persian, born in Persia, in the township of Pisyauvadâ, at the foot + of Mount Ara-kadrish, and the Persians recognised and supported him as + much as did the Medes. It has also been thought that he had attempted to + foment a religious revolution,* and, as a matter of fact, he destroyed + several temples in a few months. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Most of the ancient writers shared this opinion, and have + been followed therein by many modern writers. Rawlinson was + the first to show that Gaumâta’s movement was not Median, + and that he did not in the least alter the position of the + Persians in the empire: but he allows the Magian usurpation + to have been the prelude to a sort of religious reform. +</pre> + <p> + Here, however, the reform touched less upon a question of belief than on + one of fact. The unity of the empire presupposed the unity of the royal + fire, and where-ever that fire was burning another could not be lighted + without sacrilege in the eyes of the faithful. The pyres that Gaumâta + desired to extinguish were, no doubt, those which the feudal families had + maintained for their separate use in defiance of the law, and the measure + which abolished them had a political as well as a religious side. The + little we can glean of the line of action adopted by Smerdis does not + warrant the attribution to him of the vast projects which some modern + writers credit him with. He naturally sought to strengthen himself on the + throne, which by a stroke of good fortune he had ascended, and whatever he + did tended solely to this end. The name and the character that he had + assumed secured him the respect and fidelity of the Iranians: “there was + not one, either among the Medes or the Persians, nor among the members of + the Achæmenian race, who dreamed of disputing his power” in the early days + of his reign. The important thing in his eyes was, therefore, to maintain + among his subjects as long as possible the error as to his identity. He + put to death all, whether small or great, who had been in any way + implicated in the affairs of the real Smerdis, or whom he suspected of any + knowledge of the murder. He withdrew from public life as far as + practicable, and rarely allowed himself to be seen. Having inherited the + harem of his predecessors, together with their crown, he even went so far + as to condemn his wives to a complete seclusion. He did not venture to + hope, nor did those in his confidence, that the truth would not one day be + known, but he hoped to gain, without loss of time, sufficient popularity + to prevent the revelation of the imposture from damaging his prospects. + The seven great houses which he had dispossessed would, in such a case, + refuse to rally round him, and it was doubtless to lessen their prestige + that he extinguished their pyres; but the people did not trouble + themselves as to the origin of their sovereign, if he showed them his + favour and took proper precautions to secure their good will. He therefore + exempted the provinces from taxes and military service for a period of + three years. He had not time to pursue this policy, and if we may believe + tradition, the very precautions which he took to conceal his identity + became the cause of his misfortunes. In the royal harem there were, + together with the daughters of Cyrus, relatives of all the Persian + nobility, and the order issued to stop all their communications with the + outer world had excited suspicion: the avowals which had escaped Cambyses + before the catastrophe were now called to mind, and it was not long before + those in high places became convinced that they had been the dupes of an + audacious imposture. A conspiracy broke out, under the leadership of the + chiefs of the seven clans, among whom was numbered Darius, the son of + Hystaspes, who was connected, according to a genealogy more or less + authentic, with the family of the Achæmenides:* the conspirators surprised + Gaumâta in his palace of Sikayauvatish, which was situated in the district + of Nisaya, not far from Ecbatana, and assassinated him on the 10th of + Bâgayâdîsh, 521 B.C. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The passage in the Behistun inscription, in which Darius + sets forth his own genealogy, has received various + interpretations. That of Oppert seems still the most + probable, that the text indicates two parallel branches of + Achæmenides, which nourished side by side until Cambyses + died and Darius ascended the throne. Such a genealogy, + however, appears to be fictitious, invented solely for the + purpose of connecting Darius with the ancient royal line, + with which in reality he could claim no kinship, or only a + very distant connection. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0053" id="linkimage-0053"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/159.jpg" + alt="159.jpg Darius, Son of Hystaspes " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from M. Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + The exact particulars of this scene were never known, but popular + imagination soon supplied the defect, furnishing a full and complete + account of all that took place. In the first place, Phædimê, daughter of + Otanes, one of the seven, furnished an authentic proof of the fraud which + had been perpetrated. Her father had opportunely recalled the marvellous + resemblance between Smerdis and the Magian, and remembered at the same + time that the latter had been deprived of his ears in punishment for some + misdeed: he therefore sent certain instructions to Phffidimê, who, when + she made the discovery, at the peril of her life, that her husband had no + ears, communicated the information to the disaffected nobles. The + conspirators thereupon resolved to act without delay; but when they + arrived at the palace, they were greeted with an extraordinary piece of + intelligence. The Magi, disquieted by some vague rumours which were being + circulated against them, had besought Prexaspes to proclaim to the people + that the reigning monarch was indeed Smerdis himself. But Prexaspes, + instead of making the desired declaration, informed the multitude that the + son of Cyrus was indeed dead, for he himself had murdered him at the + bidding of Cambyses, and, having made this confession, he put himself to + death, in order to escape the vengeance of the Magi. This act of Prexaspes + was an additional inducement to the conspirators to execute their purpose. + The guard stationed at the gates of the palace dared not refuse admission + to so noble a company, and when the throne-room was reached and the + eunuchs forbade further advance, the seven boldly drew their swords and + forced their way to the apartment occupied by the two Magi. The usurpers + defended themselves with bravery, but succumbed at length to the superior + number of their opponents, after having wounded two of the conspirators. + Gobryas pinioned Gaumâta with his arms, and in such a way that Darius + hesitated to make the fatal thrust for fear of wounding his comrade; but + the latter bade him strike at all hazards, and by good fortune the sword + did not even graze him. The crime accomplished, the seven conspirators + agreed to choose as king that member of their company whose horse should + first neigh after sunrise: a stratagem of his groom caused the election to + fall on Darius. As soon as he was duly enthroned, he instituted a festival + called the “magophonia,” or “massacre of the Magi,” in commemoration of + the murder which had given him the crown. + </p> + <p> + His first care was to recompense the nobles to whom he owed his position + by restoring to them the privileges of which they had been deprived by the + pseudo-Smerdis, namely, the right of free access to the king, as well as + the right of each individual to a funeral pyre; but the usurper had won + the affection of the people, and even the inhabitants of those countries + which had been longest subject to the Persian sway did not receive the new + sovereign favourably. Darius found himself, therefore, under the necessity + of conquering his dominions one after the other.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The history of the early part of the reign of Darius is + recorded in the great inscription which the king caused to + be cut in three languages on the rocks of Behistun. The + order of the events recorded in it is not always easy to + determine. I have finally adopted, with some modifications, + the arrangement of Marquart, which seems to me to give the + clearest “conspectus” of these confused wars. +</pre> + <p> + The Persian empire, like those of the Chaldæans and Medes, had consisted + hitherto of nothing but a fortuitous collection of provinces under + military rule, of vassal kingdoms, and of semi-independent cities and + tribes; there was no fixed division of authority, and no regular system of + government for the outlying provinces. The governors assigned by Cyrus and + Cambyses to rule the various provinces acquired by conquest, were actual + viceroys, possessing full control of an army, and in some cases of a fleet + as well, having at their disposal considerable revenues both in money and + in kind, and habituated, owing to their distance from the capital, to + settle pressing questions on their own responsibility, subject only to the + necessity of making a report to the sovereign when the affair was + concluded, or when the local resources were insufficient to bring it to a + successful issue. For such free administrators the temptation must have + been irresistible to break the last slender ties which bound them to the + empire, and to set themselves up as independent monarchs. The two + successive revolutions which had taken place in less than a year, + convinced such governors, and the nations over which they bore rule, that + the stately edifice erected by Cyrus and Cambyses was crumbling to pieces, + and that the moment was propitious for each of them to carve out of its + ruins a kingdom for himself; the news of the murder, rapidly propagated, + sowed the seeds of revolt in its course—in Susiana, at Babylon, in + Media, in Parthia, in Margiana, among the Sattagydes, in Asia Minor, and + even in Egypt itself*—which showed itself in some places in an open + and undisguised form, while in others it was contemptuously veiled under + the appearance of neutrality, or the pretence of waiting to see the issue + of events. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the <i>Behistun Inscription</i>, it is stated that + insurrections broke out in all these countries while Darius + was at Babylon; that is to say, while he was occupied in + besieging that city, as is evident from the order of the + events narrated. +</pre> + <p> + The first to break out into open rebellion were the neighbouring countries + of Elam and Chaldæa: the death of Smerdis took place towards the end of + September, and a fortnight later saw two rebel chiefs enthroned—a + certain Athrîna at Susa, and a Nadinta-bel at Babylon.* Athrîna, the son + of Umbadaranma, was a scion of the dynasty dispossessed by the successors + of Sargon in the preceding century, but nevertheless he met with but + lukewarm assistance from his own countrymen;** he was taken prisoner + before a month had passed, and sent to Darius, who slew him with his own + hand. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The latest known document of the pseudo-Smerdis is dated + the 1st of Tisri at Babylon, and the first of Nebuchadrezzar + III. are dated the 17th and 20th of the same month. The + revolt of Babylon, then, must be placed between the 1st and + 17th of Tisri; that is, either at the end of September or + the beginning of October, 521 B.C. + + ** The revolt cannot have lasted much more than six weeks, + for on the 26th of Athriyâdiya following, that is to say, at + the beginning of December, Darius had already joined issue + with the Babylonians on the banks of the Tigris. +</pre> + <p> + Babylon was not so easily mastered. Her chosen sovereign claimed to be the + son of Nabonidus, and had, on ascending the throne, assumed the + illustrious name of Nebuchadrezzar; he was not supported, moreover, by + only a few busybodies, but carried the whole population with him. The + Babylonians, who had at first welcomed Cyrus so warmly, and had fondly + imagined that they had made him one of themselves, as they had made so + many of their conquerors for centuries past, soon realised their mistake. + The differences of language, manners, spirit, and religion between + themselves and the Persians were too fundamental to allow of the + naturalisation of the new sovereign, and of the acceptance by the + Achæmenides of that fiction of a double personality to which + Tiglath-pileser III., Shalmaneser, and even Assur-bani-pal had submitted. + Popular fancy grew weary of Cyrus, as it had already grown weary in turn + of all the foreigners it had at first acclaimed—whether Elamite, + Kaldâ, or Assyrian—and by a national reaction the self-styled son of + Nabonidus enjoyed the benefit of a devotion proportionately as great as + the hatred which had been felt twenty years before for his pretended sire. + The situation might become serious if he were given time to consolidate + his power, for the loyalty of the ancient provinces of the Chaldæan empire + was wavering, and there was no security that they would not feel inclined + to follow the example of the capital as soon as they should receive news + of the sedition. Darius, therefore, led the bulk of his forces to Babylon + without a day’s more delay than was absolutely necessary, and the event + proved that he had good reason for such haste. Nebuchadrezzar III. had + taken advantage of the few weeks which had elapsed since his accession, to + garrison the same positions on the right bank of the Tigris, as Nabonidus + had endeavoured to defend against Cyrus at the northern end of the + fortifications erected by his ancestor. A well-equipped flotilla patrolled + the river, and his lines presented so formidable a front that Darius could + not venture on a direct attack. He arranged his troops in two divisions, + which he mounted partly on horses, partly on camels, and eluding the + vigilance of his adversary by attacking him simultaneously on many sides, + succeeded in gaining the opposite bank of the river. The Chaldæans, + striving in vain to drive him back into the stream, were at length + defeated on the 27th of Athriyâdiya, and they retired in good order on + Babylon. Six days later, on the 2nd of Anâmaka, they fought a second + battle at Zazanu, on the bank of the Euphrates, and were again totally + defeated. Nebuchadrezzar escaped with a handful of cavalry, and hastened + to shut himself up in his city. Darius soon followed him, but if he + cherished a hope that the Babylonians would open their gates to him + without further resistance, as they had done to Cyrus, he met with a + disappointment, for he was compelled to commence a regular siege and + suspend all other operations, and that, too, at a moment when the + provinces were breaking out into open insurrection on every hand.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The account given by Darius seems to imply that no + interval of time elapsed between the second defeat of + Nebuchadrezzar III. and the taking of Babylon, so that + several modern historians have rejected the idea of an + obstinate resistance. Herodotus, however, speaks of the long + siege the city sustained, and the discovery of tablets dated + in the first and even the second year of Nebuchadrezzar III. + shows that the siege was prolonged into the second year of + this usurper, at least until the month of Nisân (March- + April), 520 B.C. No evidence can be drawn from the tablets + dated in the reign of Darius, for the oldest yet discovered, + which is dated in the month Sebat (Jan.-Feb.), in the year + of his accession, and consequently prior to the second year + of Nebuchadrezzar, comes from Abu-habba. On the other hand, + the statement that all the revolts broke out while Darius + was “at Babylon” does not allow of the supposition that all + the events recorded before his departure for Media could + have been compressed into the space of three or four months. + It seems, therefore, more probable that the siege lasted + till 519 B.C., as it can well have done if credit be given + to the mention of “twenty-one months at least” by Herodotus; + perhaps the siege was brought to an end in the May of that + year, as calculated by Marquart. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0054" id="linkimage-0054"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/166.jpg" width="100%" + alt="166.jpg Darius Piercing a Rebel With his Lance Before A Group of Four Prisoners " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the impression of an intaglio + at St. Petersburg. +</pre> + <p> + The attempt of the Persian adventurer Martîya to stir up the Susians to + revolt in his rear failed, thanks to the favourable disposition of the + natives, who refused to recognise in him Ummanîsh, the heir of their + national princes. Media, however, yielded unfortunately to the + solicitations of a certain Fravartîsh, who had assumed the personality of + Khshatrita of the race of Cyaxares, and its revolt marked almost the + beginning of a total break-up of the empire. The memory of Astyages and + Cyaxares had not yet faded so completely as to cause the Median nobles to + relinquish the hope of reasserting the supremacy of Media; the opportunity + for accomplishing this aim now seemed all the more favourable, from the + fact that Darius had been obliged to leave this province almost + immediately after the assassination of the Usurper, and to take from it + all the troops that he could muster for the siege of Babylon. Several of + the nomadic tribes still remained faithful to him, but all the settled + inhabitants of Media ranged themselves under the banner of the pretender, + and the spirit of insurrection spread thereupon into Armenia and Assyria. + For one moment there was a fear lest it should extend to Asia Minor also, + where Orcetes, accustomed, in the absence of Cambyses, to act as an + autonomous sovereign, displayed little zeal in accommodating himself to + the new order of things. There was so much uncertainty as to the leanings + of the Persian guard of Orcetes, that Darius did not venture to degrade + the satrap officially, but despatched Bagseus to Sardes with precise + instructions, which enabled him to accomplish his mission by degrees, so + as not to risk a Lydian revolt. His first act was to show the guard a + rescript by which they were relieved from attendance on Orcetes, and + “thereupon they immediately laid down their spears.” Emboldened by their + ready obedience, Bagseus presented to the secretary a second letter, which + contained his instructions: “The great king commands those Persians who + are in Sardes to kill Orestes.” “Whereupon,” it is recorded, “they drew + their swords and slew him.” * + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The context of Herodotus indicates that the events + narrated took place shortly after the accession of Darius. + Further on Herodotus mentions, as contemporaneous with the + siege of Babylon, events which took place after the death of + Orcetes; it is probable, therefore, that the scene described + by Herodotus occurred in 520 B.C. at the latest. +</pre> + <p> + A revolt in Asia Minor was thus averted, at a time when civil war + continued to rage in the centre of Iran. The situation, however, continued + critical. Darius could not think of abandoning the siege of Babylon, and + of thus both losing the fruits of his victories and seeing Nebuchadrezzar + reappear in Assyria or Susiana. On the other hand, his army was a small + one, and he would incur great risks in detaching any of his military + chiefs for a campaign against the Mede with an insufficient force. He + decided, however, to adopt the latter course, and while he himself + presided over the blockade, he simultaneously despatched two columns—one + to Media, under the command of the Persian Vidarna, one of the seven; the + other to Armenia, under the Armenian Dâdarshîsh. Vidarna, encountered + Khshatrita near Marush, in the mountainous region of the old Namri, on the + 27th of Anâmaka, and gave him battle; but though he claimed the victory, + the result was so indecisive that he halted in Kambadênê, at the entrance + to the gorges of the Zagros mountains, and was there obliged to await + reinforcements before advancing further. Dâdarshîsh, on his side, gained + three victories over the Armenians—one near Zuzza on the 8th of + Thuravâhara, another at Tigra ten days later, and the third on the 2nd of + Thâigarshîsh, at a place not far from Uhyâma—but he also was + compelled to suspend operations and remain inactive pending the arrival of + fresh troops. Half the year was spent in inaction on either side, for the + rebels had not suffered less than their opponents, and, while endeavouring + to reorganise their forces, they opened negotiations with the provinces of + the north-east with the view of prevailing on them to join their cause. + Darius, still detained before Babylon, was unable to recommence + hostilities until the end of 520 B.C. He sent Vaumisa to replace + Dâdarshîsh as the head of the army in Armenia, and the new general + distinguished himself at the outset by winning a decisive victory on the + 15th of Anâmaka, near Izitush in Assyria; but the effect which he hoped to + secure from this success was neutralised almost immediately by grievous + defections. Sagartia, in the first place, rose in rebellion at the call of + a pretended descendant of Oyaxares, named Chitrantakhma; Hyrcania, the + province governed by Hystaspes, the father of Darius, followed suit and + took up the cause of Khshatrita, and soon after Margiana broke out into + revolt at the instigation of a certain Frâda. Even Persia itself deserted + Darius, and chose another king instead of a sovereign whom no one seemed + willing to acknowledge. Many of the mountain tribes could not yet resign + themselves to the belief that the male line of Cyrus had become extinct + with the death of Cambyses. The usurpation of Gaumâta and the accession of + Darius had not quenched their faith in the existence of Smerdis: if the + Magian were an impostor, it did not necessarily follow that Smerdis had + been assassinated, and when a certain Vahyazdâta rose up in the town of + Târavâ in the district of Yautiyâ, and announced himself as the younger + son of Cyrus, they received him with enthusiastic acclamations. A + preliminary success gained by Hystaspes at Vispauzatîsh, in Parthia, on + the 22nd of Viyakhna, 519 B.C., prevented the guerilla bands of Hyrcania + from joining forces with the Medes, and some days later the fall of + Babylon at length set Darius free to utilise his resources to the utmost. + The long resistance of Nebuchadrezzar furnished a fruitful theme for + legend: a fanciful story was soon substituted for the true account of the + memorable siege he had sustained. Half a century later, when his very name + was forgotten, the heroism of his people continued to be extolled beyond + measure. When Darius arrived before the ramparts he found the country a + desert, the banks of the canals cut through, and the gardens and + pleasure-houses destroyed. The crops had been gathered and the herds + driven within the walls of the city, while the garrison had reduced by a + massacre the number of non-combatants, the women having all been + strangled, with the exception of those who were needed to bake the bread. + At the end of twenty months the siege seemed no nearer to its close than + at the outset, and the besiegers were on the point of losing heart, when + at length Zopyrus, one of the seven, sacrificed himself for the success of + the blockading army. Slitting his nose and ears, and lacerating his back + with the lash of a whip, he made his way into the city as a deserter, and + persuaded the garrison to assign him a post of danger under pretence of + avenging the ill-treatment he had received from his former master. He + directed some successful sallies on points previously agreed upon, and + having thus lulled to rest any remaining feelings of distrust on the part + of the garrison, he treacherously opened to the Persians the two gates of + which he was in charge; three thousand Babylonians were impaled, the walls + were razed to the ground, and the survivors of the struggle were exiled + and replaced by strange colonists.* The only authentic fact about this + story is the length of the siege. Nebuchadrezzar was put to death, and + Darius, at length free to act, hastened to despatch one of his + lieutenants, the Persian Artavardiya, against Vahyazdâta, while he himself + marched upon the Medes with the main body of the royal army.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ctesias places the siege of Babylon forty years later, + under Xerxes I.; according to him, it was Megabysus, son of + Zopyrus, who betrayed the city. Polysenus asserts that the + stratagem of Zopyrus was adopted in imitation of a Sakian + who dwelt beyond the Oxus. Latin writers transferred the + story to Italy, and localised it at Gabii: but the Roman + hero, Sextus Tarquinius, did not carry his devotion to the + point of mutilating himself. + + ** <i>Beldstun Inscr</i>.: “Then I sent the army of the Persians + and Medes which was with me. One named Artavardiya, a + Persian, my servant, I made their general; the rest of the + Persian army went to Media with me.” + </pre> + <p> + The rebels had hitherto been confronted by the local militia, brave but + inexperienced troops, with whom they had been able to contend on a fairly + equal footing: the entry into the field of the veteran regiments of Cyrus + and Cambyses changed the aspect of affairs, and promptly brought the + campaign to a successful issue. Darius entered Media by the defiles of + Kerend, reinforced Vidarna in Kambadçnê, and crushed the enemy near the + town of Kundurush, on the 20th of Adukanîsh, 519 B.C. Khshatrita fled + towards the north with some few horsemen, doubtless hoping to reach the + recesses of Mount Elburz, and to continue there the struggle; but he was + captured at Bagâ and carried to Ecbatana. His horrible punishment was + proportionate to the fear he had inspired: his nose, ears, and tongue were + cut off, and his eyes gouged out, and in this mutilated condition he was + placed in chains at the gate of the palace, to demonstrate to his former + subjects how the Achæmenian’ king could punish an impostor. When the + people had laid this lesson sufficiently to heart, Khshatrita was impaled; + many of his principal adherents were ranged around him and suffered the + same fate, while the rest were decapitated as an example. Babylon and + Media being thus successfully vanquished, the possession of the empire was + assured to Darius, whatever might happen in other parts of his territory, + and henceforth the process of repressing disaffection went on unchecked. + Immediately after the decisive battle of Kundurush, Vaumisa accomplished + the pacification of Armenia by a victory won near Autiyâra, and + Artavardiya defeated Vahyazdâta for the first time at Eakhâ in Persia. + Vahyazdâta had committed the mistake of dividing his forces and sending a + portion of them to Arachosia. Vivâna, the governor of this province, twice + crushed the invaders, and almost at the same time the Persian Dâdardîsh of + Bactriana was triumphing over Frâda and winning Margiana back to + allegiance. For a moment it seemed as if the decisive issue of the + struggle might be prolonged for months, since it was announced that the + appearance of a new pseudo-Smerdis on the scene had been followed by the + advent of a second pseudo-Nebuchadrezzar in Chaldæa. Darius left only a + weak garrison at Babylon when he started to attack Khshatrita: a certain + Arakha, an Armenian by birth, presenting himself to the Babylonian people + as the son of Nabonidus, caused himself to be proclaimed king in December, + 519 B.C.; but the city was still suffering so severely from the miseries + of the long siege, that it was easy for the Mede Vindafrâ to reduce it + promptly to submission after a month or six weeks of semi-independence. + This was the last attempt at revolt. Chitran-takhma expiated his crimes by + being impaled, and Hystaspes routed the Hyrcanian battalions at + Patigrabana in Parthia: Artavardiya having defeated Vahyazdâta, near Mount + Paraga, on the 6th of Garmapada, 618 B.C., besieged him in his fortress of + Uvâdeshaya, and was not long in effecting his capture. The civil war came + thus to an end. + </p> + <p> + It had been severe, but it had brought into such prominence the qualities + of the sovereign that no one henceforth dared to dispute his possession of + the crown. A man of less energetic character and calm judgment would have + lost his head at the beginning of the struggle, when almost every + successive week brought him news of a fresh rebellion—in Susiana, + Babylon, Media, Armenia, Assyria, Margiana, Hyrcania, and even Persia + itself, not to speak of the intrigues in Asia Minor and Egypt; he would + have scattered his forces to meet the dangers on all sides at once, and + would assuredly have either succumbed in the struggle, or succeeded only + by chance after his fate had trembled in the balance for years. Darius, + however, from the very beginning knew how to single out the important + points upon which to deal such vigorous blows as would ensure him the + victory with the least possible delay. He saw that Babylon, with its + numerous population, its immense wealth and prestige, and its memory of + recent supremacy, was the real danger to his empire, and he never relaxed + his hold on it until it was subdued, leaving his generals to deal with the + other nations, the Medes included, and satisfied if each of them could but + hold his adversary in check without gaining any decided advantage over + him. The event justified his decision. When once Babylon had fallen, the + remaining rebels were no longer a source of fear; to defeat Khshatrita was + the work of a few weeks only, and the submission of the other provinces + followed as a natural consequence on the ruin of Media.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Mention of some new wars is made towards the end of the + inscription, but the text here is so mutilated that the + sense can no longer be easily determined. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0055" id="linkimage-0055"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/174.jpg" width="100%" + alt="174.jpg Rebels Brought to Darius by Ahura-mazd This Is The Scene Depicted on the Rock of Behistun. " /> + </div> + <p> + After consummating his victories, Darius caused an inscription in + commemoration of them to be carved on the rocks in the pass of Bagistana + [Behistun], one of the most frequented routes leading from the basin of + the Tigris to the tableland of Iran. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0056" id="linkimage-0056"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/175.jpg" width="100%" alt="175.jpg the Rocks of Behistun " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from Flandin and Coste. +</pre> + <p> + There his figure is still to be seen standing, with his foot resting on + the prostrate body of an enemy, and his hand raised in the attitude of one + addressing an audience, while nine figures march in file to meet him, + their arms tied behind their backs, and cords round their necks, + representing all the pretenders whom he had fought and put to death—Athrîna, + Nadinta-bel, Khshatrita, Vahyazdâta, Arakha, and Chitrantakhma; an + inscription, written in the three official languages of the court, + recounts at full length his mighty deeds. The drama did not, however, come + to a close with the punishment of Vahyazdâta, for though no tribe or + chieftain remained now in open revolt, many of those who had taken no + active share in the rebellion had, by their conduct during the crisis, + laid themselves open to grave suspicions, and it seemed but prudent to + place them under strict surveillance or to remove them from office + altogether. Orotes had been summarily despatched, and his execution did + not disturb the peace of Asia Minor; but Aryandes, to whose rule Cambyses + had entrusted the valley of the Nile, displayed no less marked symptoms of + disaffection, and deserved the same fate. Though he had not ventured to + usurp openly the title of king, he had arrogated to himself all the + functions and rights of royalty, and had manifested as great an + independence in his government as if he had been an actual Pharaoh. The + inhabitants of Gyrene did not approve of the eagerness displayed by their + tyrant Arkesilas III. to place himself under the Persian yoke: after first + expelling and then recalling him, they drove him away a second time, and + at length murdered him at Barca, whither he had fled for refuge. Pheretimô + came to Egypt to seek the help of Aryandes, just as Laarchos had formerly + implored the assistance of Amasis, and represented to him that her son had + fallen a victim to his devotion to his suzerain. It was a good opportunity + to put to ransom one of the wealthiest countries of Africa; so the + governor sent to the Cyrenaica all the men and vessels at his disposal. + Barca was the only city to offer any resistance, and the Persian troops + were detained for nine months motionless before its walls, and the city + then only succumbed through treachery. Some detachments forced their way + as far as the distant town of Euesperides,* and it is possible that + Aryandes dreamt for a moment of realising the designs which Cambyses had + formed against Carthage. Insufficiency of supplies stayed the advance of + his generals; but the riches of their ally, Cyrene, offered them a strong + temptation, and they were deliberating how they might make this wealth + their own before returning to Memphis, and were, perhaps, on the point of + risking the attempt, when they received orders to withdraw. The march + across the desert proved almost fatal to them. The Libyans of Marmarica, + attracted by the spoils with which the Persian troops were laden, harassed + them incessantly, and inflicted on them serious losses; they succeeded, + however, in arriving safely with their prisoners, among whom were the + survivors of the inhabitants of Barca. At this time the tide of fortune + was setting strongly in favour of Darius: Aryandes, anxious to propitiate + that monarch, despatched these wretched captives to Persia as a trophy of + his success, and Darius sent them into Bactriana, where they founded a new + Barca.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the town which later on under the Lagidæ received + the name of Berenice, and which is now called Benghazi. + + ** It is doubtless to these acts of personal authority on + the part of Aryandes that Darius alludes in the Behistun + Inscription, when he says, “While I was before Babylon, the + following provinces revolted against me—Persia and Susiana, + the Medes and Assyria, and the Egyptians...” + </pre> + <p> + But this tardy homage availed him nothing. Darius himself visited Egypt + and disembarrassed himself of ‘his troublesome subject by his summary + execution, inflicted, some said, because he had issued coins of a superior + fineness to those of the royal mint,* while, according to others, it was + because he had plundered Egypt and so ill-treated the Egyptians as to + incite them to rebellion. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It is not certain that Aryandes did actually strike any + coinage in his own name, and perhaps Herodotus has only + repeated a popular story current in Egypt in his days. If + this money actually existed, its coinage was but a pretext + employed by Darius; the true motive of the condemnation of + Aryandes was certainly an armed revolt, or a serious + presumption of revolutionary intentions. +</pre> + <p> + After the suppression of this rival, Darius set himself to win the + affection of his Egyptian province, or, at least, to render its servitude + bearable. With a country so devout and so impressed with its own + superiority over all other nations, the best means of accomplishing his + object was to show profound respect for its national gods and its past + glory. Darius, therefore, proceeded to shower favours on the priests, who + had been subject to persecution ever since the disastrous campaign in + Ethiopia. Cambyses had sent into exile in Elam the chief priest of Sais—that + Uza-harrîsnîti who had initiated him into the sacred rites; Darius gave + permission to this important personage to return to his native land, and + commissioned him to repair the damage inflicted by the madness of the son + of Cyrus. Uzaharrîsnîti, escorted back with honour to his native city, + re-established there the colleges of sacred scribes, and restored to the + temple of Nît the lands and revenues which had been confiscated. Greek + tradition soon improved upon the national account of this episode, and + asserted that Darius took an interest in the mysteries of Egyptian + theology, and studied the sacred books, and that on his arrival at Memphis + in 517 B.C., immediately after the death of an Apis, he took part publicly + in the general mourning, and promised a reward of a hundred talents of + gold to whosoever should discover the successor of the bull. According to + a popular story still current when Herodotus travelled in Egypt, the king + visited the temple of Pthah before leaving Memphis, and ordered his statue + to be erected there beside that of Sesostris. The priests refused to obey + this command, for, said they, “Darius has not equalled the deeds of + Sesostris: he has not conquered the Scythians, whom Sesostris overcame.” + Darius replied that “he hoped to accomplish as much as Sesostris had done, + if he lived as long as Sesostris,” and so conciliated the patriotic pride + of the priests. The Egyptians, grateful for his moderation, numbered him + among the legislators whose memory they revered, by the side of Menés, + Asykhis, Bocchoris, and Sabaco. + </p> + <p> + The whole empire was now obedient to the will of one man, but the ordeal + from which it had recently escaped showed how loosely the elements of it + were bound together, and with what facility they could be disintegrated. + The system of government in force hitherto was that introduced into + Assyria by Tiglath-pileser III., which had proved so eminently successful + in the time of Sargon and his descendants; Babylon and Ecbatana had + inherited it from Nineveh, and Persepolis had in turn adopted it from + Ecbatana and Babylon. It had always been open to objections, of which by + no means the least was the great amount of power and independence accorded + by it to the provincial governors; but this inconvenience had been little + felt when the empire was of moderate dimensions, and when no province + permanently annexed to the empire lay at any very great distance from the + capital for the time being. But this was no longer the case, now that + Persian rule extended over nearly the whole of Asia, from the Indus to the + Thracian Bosphorus, and over a portion of Africa also. It must have seemed + far from prudent to set governors invested with almost regal powers over + countries so distant that a decree despatched from the palace might take + several weeks to reach its destination. The heterogeneity of the elements + in each province was a guarantee of peace in the eyes of the sovereign, + and Darius carefully abstained from any attempt at unification: not only + did he allow vassal republics, and tributary kingdoms and nations to + subsist side by side, but he took care that each should preserve its own + local dynasty, language, writing, customs, religion, and peculiar + legislation, besides the right to coin money stamped with the name of its + chief or its civic symbol. The Greek cities of the coast maintained their + own peculiar constitutions which they had enjoyed under the Mernmadas; + Darius merely required that the chief authority among them should rest in + the hands of the aristocratic party, or in those of an elective or + hereditary tyrant whose personal interest secured his fidelity. The + Carians,* Lycians,** Pamphylians, and Cilicians*** continued under the + rule of their native princes, subject only to the usual obligations. of + the <i>corvée</i>, taxation, and military service as in past days; the + majority of the barbarous tribes which inhabited the Taurus and the + mountainous regions in the centre of Asia Minor were even exempted from + all definite taxes, and were merely required to respect the couriers, + caravans, and armies which passed through their territory. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus cites among the commanders of the Persian fleet + three Carian dynasts, Histiseus, Pigres, and Damasithymus, + besides the famous Artemisia of Halicarnassus. + + ** In Herodotus where a dynast named Kyberniskos, son of + Sika, is mentioned among the commanders of the fleet. The + received text of Herodotus needs correction, and we should + read Kybernis, son of Kossika, some of whose coins are still + in existence. + + *** The Cilician contingent in the fleet of Xerxes at + Salamis was commanded by Syennesis himself, and Cilicia + never had a satrap until the time of Cyrus the younger. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0057" id="linkimage-0057"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/181.jpg" height="622" width="1093" alt="181.jpg Map of the Archaemenian Strapies " /> + </div> + <p> + Native magistrates and kings still bore sway in Phoenicia* and Cyprus, and + the shêkhs of the desert preserved their authority over the marauding and + semi-nomadic tribes of Idumasa, Nabatsea, Moab, and Ammon, and the + wandering Bedâwin on the Euphrates and the Khabur. Egypt, under Darius, + remained what she had been under the Saitic and Ethiopian dynasties, a + feudal state governed by a Pharaoh, who, though a foreigner, was yet + reputed to be of the solar race; the land continued to be divided + unequally into diverse principalities, Thebes still preserving its + character as a theocracy under the guidance of the pallacide of Amon and + her priestly counsellors, while the other districts subsisted under + military chieftains. Our information concerning the organisation of the + central and eastern provinces is incomplete, but it is certain that here + also the same system prevailed. In the years of peace which succeeded the + troubled opening of his reign, that is, from 519 to 515 B.C.,** Darius + divided the whole empire into satrapies, whose number varied at different + periods of his reign from twenty to twenty-three, and even + twenty-eight.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Three kings, viz. the kings of Sidon, Tyre, and Arvad, + bore commands in the Phoenician fleet of Xerxes. + + ** Herodotus states that this dividing of the empire into + provinces took place immediately after the accession of + Darius, and this mistake is explained by the fact that he + ignores almost entirely the civil wars which filled the + earliest years of the reign. His enumeration of twenty + satrapies comprises India and omits Thrace, which enables us + to refer the drawing up of his list to a period before the + Scythian campaign, viz. before 514 B.C. Herodotus very + probably copied it from the work of Hecatseus of Miletus, + and consequently it reproduces a document contemporary with + Darius himself. + + *** The number twenty is, as has been remarked, that given + by Herodotus, and probably by Hecatæus of Miletus. The great + Behistun Inscription enumerates twenty-three countries, and + the Inscription of Nakhsh-î-Rustem gives twenty-eight. +</pre> + <p> + Persia proper was not included among these, for she had been the cradle of + the reigning house, and the instrument of conquest.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In the great Behistun Inscription Darius mentions Persia + first of all the countries in his possession. In the + Inscription E of Persepolis he omits it entirely, and in + that of Nakhsh-î-Rustem he does not include it in the + general catalogue. +</pre> + <p> + The Iranian table-land, and the parts of India or regions beyond the Oxus + which bordered on it, formed twelve important vice-royalties—Media, + Hyrcania, Parthia, Zaranka, Aria, Khorasmia, Bactriana, Sogdiana, + Gandaria, and the country of the Sakae—reaching from the plains of + Tartary almost to the borders of China, the country of the Thatagus in the + upper basin of the Elmend, Arachosia, and the land of Maka on the shores + of the Indian Ocean. Ten satrapies were reckoned in the west—Uvayâ, + Elam, in which lay Susa, one of the favourite residences of Darius; + Babirus (Babylon) and Chaldæa; Athurâ, the ancient kingdom of Assyria; + Arabayâ, stretching from the Khabur to the Litany, the Jordan, and the + Orontes; Egypt, the peoples of the sea, among whom were reckoned the + Phoenicians, Cilicians, and Cypriots, and the islanders of the Ægean; + Yaunâ, which comprised Lycia, Caria, and the Greek colonies along the + coast; Sparda, with Phrygia and Mysia; Armenia; and lastly, Katpatuka or + Cappadocia, which lay on both sides of the Halys from the Taurus to the + Black Sea. If each of these provinces had been governed, as formerly, by a + single individual, who thus became king in all but name and descent, the + empire would have run great risk of a speedy dissolution. Darius therefore + avoided concentrating the civil and military powers in the same hands. In + each province he installed three officials independent of each other, but + each in direct communication with himself—a satrap, a general, and a + secretary of state. The satraps were chosen from any class in the nation, + from among the poor as well as from among the wealthy, from foreigners as + well as from Persians;* but the most important satrapies were bestowed + only on persons allied by birth** or marriage with the Achæmenids,*** and, + by preference, on the legitimate descendants of the six noble houses. They + were not appointed for any prescribed period, but continued in office + during the king’s pleasure. They exercised absolute authority in all civil + matters, and maintained a court, a body-guard,**** palaces and extensive + parks, or <i>paradises</i>, where they indulged in the pleasures of the + chase; they controlled the incidence of taxation,^ administered justice, + and possessed the power of life and death. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus mentions a satrap chosen from among the Lydians, + Pactyas, and another satrap of Greek extraction, Xenagoras + of Halicarnassus. + + ** The most characteristic instance is that of Hystaspes, + who was satrap of Persia under Oambyses, and of Parthia and + Hyrcania under his own son. One of the brothers of Darius, + Artaphernes, was satrap of Sardes, and three of the king’s + sons, Achemenes, Ariabignes, and Masistes, were satraps of + Egypt, Ionia, and Bactriana respectively. + + *** To understand how well established was the custom of + bestowing satrapies on those only who were allied by + marriage to the royal house, it is sufficient to recall the + fact that, later on, under Xerxes I., when Pausanias, King + of Sparta, had thoughts of obtaining the position of satrap + in Greece, he asked for the hand of an Achæmenian princess. + + **** We know, for example, that Orcotes, satrap of Sardes + under Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius, had a body-guard of 1000 + Persians. + + ^ Thus, Artaphernes, satrap of Sardes, had a cadastral + survey made of the territory of the Ionians, and by the + results of this survey he regulated the imposition of taxes, + “which from that time up to the present day are exacted + according to his ordinance.” + </pre> + <p> + Attached to each satrap was a secretary of state, who ostensibly acted as + his chancellor, but whose real function was to exercise a secret + supervision over his conduct and report upon it to the imperial + ministers.* The Persian troops, native militia and auxiliary forces + quartered in the province, were placed under the orders, moreover, of a + general, who was usually hostile to the satrap and the secretary.** These + three officials counterbalanced each other, and held each other mutually + in check, so that a revolt was rendered very difficult, if not impossible. + All three were kept in constant communication with the court by relays of + regular couriers, who carried their despatches on horseback or on camels, + from one end of Asia to the other, in the space of a few weeks.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The rôle played by the secretary is clearly indicated by + the history of Orotes, satrap of Sardes. + + ** While Darius appoints his brother Artaphernes satrap of + Lydia, he entrusts the command of the army and the fleet to + Otanes, son of Sisamnes. Similarly several generals are met + with at the side of Artaphernes in the Ionic revolt. + + *** Xenophon compares their speed in travelling to the + flight of birds. A good example of the use of the camel for + the postal service is cited by Strabo, on the occasion of + the death of Philotas and the execution of Parmenion under + Alexander. +</pre> + <p> + The most celebrated of the post-roads was that which ran from Sardes to + Susa through Lydia and Phrygia, crossing the Halys, traversing Cappadocia + and Cilicia, and passing through Armenia and across the Euphrates, until + at length, after passing through Matiênê and the country of the Cossæans, + it reached Elam. This main route was divided into one hundred and eleven + stages, which were performed by couriers on horseback and partly in + ferry-boats, in eighty-four days. Other routes, of which we have no + particular information, led to Egypt, Media, Bactria, and India,* and by + their means the imperial officials in the capital were kept fully informed + of all that took place in the most distant parts of the empire. As an + extra precaution, the king sent out annually certain officers, called his + “eyes” or his “ears,” ** who appeared on the scene when they were least + expected, and investigated the financial or political situation, reformed + abuses in the administration, and reprimanded or even suspended the + government officials; they were accompanied by a body of troops to support + their decisions, whose presence invested their counsels with the strongest + sanction.*** An unfavourable report, a slight irregularity, a mere + suspicion, even, was sufficient to disqualify a satrap. Sometimes he was + deposed, often secretly condemned to death without a trial, and the + execution of the judgment was committed even to his own servants. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ctesias at the end of his work describes the route leading + from Ephesus to Bactriana and India. It is probable that the + route described by Isidorus of Charax in his <i>Stathma + Parthica</i> already existed in the times of the Achæmenids, + and was traversed by their postal couriers. + + ** Mention of the <i>Eye of the king</i> occurs in Herodotus, in + Æschylus, and in Plutarch, of the <i>Ear</i> in Xenophon; cf. + the Persian proverb, according to which “The king has many + eyes and many ears.” + + *** Xenophon affirms that these inspections were still held + in his day. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0058" id="linkimage-0058"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/186b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="186b.jpg Street Vender of Curios After the Painting By Gerome. " /> + </div> + <p> + A messenger would arrive unexpectedly, and remit to the guards an order + charging them to put their chief to death—an order which was + promptly executed at the mere sight of the royal decree. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0059" id="linkimage-0059"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/188.jpg" + alt="188.jpg Daric of Darius, Son Of Hystaspes " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher-Gudin, +from a specimen +in the Bibliothèque +Nationale. +</pre> + <p> + This reform in the method of government was displeasing to the Persian + nobles, whose liberty of action it was designed to curtail, and they took + their revenge in sneering at the obedience they could not refuse to + render. Cyrus, they said, had been a father, Cambyses a master, but Darius + was only a pedler greedy of gain. The chief reason for this division of + the empire into provinces was, indeed, fiscal rather than political: to + arrange the incidence of taxation in his province, to collect the revenue + in due time and forward the total amount to the imperial treasury, formed + the fundamental duty of a satrap, to which all others had to yield. Persia + proper was exempt from the payment of any fixed sum, its inhabitants being + merely required to offer presents to the king whenever he passed through + their districts. These semi-compulsory gifts were proportioned to the + fortunes of the individual contributors; they might consist merely of an + ox or a sheep, a little milk or cheese, some dates, a handful of flour, or + some vegetables. The other provinces, after being subjected to a careful + survey, were assessed partly in money, partly in kind, according to their + natural capacity or wealth. The smallest amount of revenue raised in any + province amounted to 170 talents of silver—the sum, for instance, + collected from Arachosia with its dependencies Gedrosia and Grandara; + while Egypt yielded a revenue of 700 talents, and the amount furnished by + Babylon, the wealthiest province of all, amounted to 1000 talents. The + total revenue of the empire reached the enormous sum of.£3,311,997, + estimated by weight of silver, which is equivalent to over £26,000,000 of + modern English money, if the greater value of silver in antiquity is taken + into consideration. In order to facilitate the collection of the revenue, + Darius issued the gold and silver coins which are named after him. On the + obverse side these darics are stamped with a figure of the sovereign, + armed with the bow or javelin. They were coined on the scale of 3000 gold + darics to one talent, each daric weighing normally.2788 oz. troy, and + being worth exactly 20 silver drachmae or Medic shekels; so that the + relative value of the two metals was approximately 1 to 13 1/2|. + </p> + <p> + The most ancient type of daric was thick and irregular in shape, and + rudely stamped, but of remarkable fineness, the amount of alloy being + never more than three per cent. The use of this coinage was nowhere + obligatory, and it only became general in the countries bordering on the + Mediterranean, where it met the requirements of international traffic and + political relations, and in the payment of the army and the navy. In the + interior, the medium of exchange used in wholesale and retail commercial + transactions continued to be metals estimated by weight, and the kings of + Persia themselves preferred to store their revenues in the shape of + bullion; as the metal was received at the royal treasury it was melted and + poured into clay moulds, and was minted into money only gradually, + according to the whim or necessity of the moment.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Arrian relates that Alexander found 50,000 talents’ weight + of silver in the treasury at Susa; other hoards quite as + rich were contained in the palaces of Persepolis and + Pasargadæ. +</pre> + <p> + Taxes in kind were levied even more largely than in money, but the exact + form they assumed in the different regions of the empire has not yet been + ascertained. The whole empire was divided into districts, which were + charged with the victualling of the army and the court, and Babylon alone + bore a third of the charges under this head. We learn elsewhere that Egypt + was bound to furnish corn for the 120,000 men of the army of occupation, + and that the fisheries of the Fayum yielded the king a yearly revenue of + 240 talents. The Medes furnished similarly 100,000 sheep, 4000 mules, and + 3000 horses; the Armenians, 30,000 foals; the Cilicians, 365 white horses, + one for each day in the year; the Babylonians, 500 youthful eunuchs; and + any city or town which produced or manufactured any valuable commodity was + bound to furnish a regular supply to the sovereign. Thus, Chalybon + provided wine; Libya and the Oases, salt; India, dogs, with whose support + four large villages in Babylonia were charged; the Æolian Assos, cheese; + and other places, in like manner, wool, wines, dyes, medicines, and + chemicals. These imperial taxes, though they seem to us somewhat heavy, + were not excessive, but taken by themselves they give us no idea of the + burdens which each province had to resign itself to bear. The state + provided no income for the satraps; their maintenance and that of their + suite were charged on the province, and they made ample exactions on the + natives. The province of Babylon was required to furnish its satrap daily + with an <i>ardeb</i> of silver; Egypt, India, Media, and Syria each + provided a no less generous allowance for its governor, and the poorest + provinces were not less heavily burdened. The satraps required almost as + much to satisfy their requirements as did the king; but for the most part + they fairly earned their income, and saved more to their subjects than + they extorted from them. They repressed brigandage, piracy, competition + between the various cities, and local wars; while quarrels, which formerly + would have been settled by an appeal to arms, were now composed before + their judgment-seats, and in case of need the rival factions were forcibly + compelled to submit to their decisions. They kept up the roads, and + afforded complete security to travellers by night and day; they protected + industries and agriculture, and, in accordance with the precepts of their + religious code, they accounted it an honourable task to break up waste + land or replant deserted sites. Darius himself did not disdain to send + congratulations to a satrap who had planted trees in Asia Minor, and laid + out one of those wooded parks in which the king delighted to refresh + himself after the fatigues of government, by the exercise of walking or in + the pleasures of the chase. In spite of its defects, the system of + government inaugurated by Darius secured real prosperity to his subjects, + and to himself a power far greater than that enjoyed by any of his + predecessors. It rendered revolts on the part of the provincial governors + extremely difficult, and enabled the court to draw up a regular budget and + provide for its expenses without any undue pressure on its subjects; in + one point only was it defective, but that point was a cardinal one, + namely, in the military organisation. Darius himself maintained, for his + personal protection, a bodyguard recruited from the Persians and the + Medes. It was divided into three corps, consisting respectively of 2000 + cavalry, 2000 infantry of noble birth, armed with lances whose shafts were + ornamented below with apples of gold or silver—whence their name of + <i>mêlophori</i>—and under them the 10,000 “immortals,” in ten + battalions, the first of which had its lances ornamented with golden + pomegranates. This guard formed the nucleus of the standing army, which + could be reinforced by the first and second grades of Persian and Median + feudal nobility at the first summons. Forces of varying strength + garrisoned the most important fortresses of the empire, such as Sardes, + Memphis, Elephantine, Daphnæ, Babylon, and many others, to hold the + restless natives in check. These were, indeed, the only regular troops on + which the king could always rely. Whenever a war broke out which demanded + no special effort, the satraps of the provinces directly involved summoned + the military contingents of the cities and vassal states under their + control, and by concerted action endeavoured to bring the affair to a + successful issue without the necessity of an appeal to the central + authority. If, on the contrary, troubles arose which threatened the + welfare of the whole empire, and the sovereign felt called upon to conduct + the campaign in person, he would mobilise his guard, and summon the + reserves from several provinces or even from all of them. Veritable hordes + of recruits then poured in, but these masses of troops, differing from + each other in their equipment and methods of fighting, in disposition and + in language, formed a herd of men rather than an army. They had no + cohesion or confidence in themselves, and their leaders, unaccustomed to + command such enormous numbers, suffered themselves to be led rather than + exercise authority as guides. Any good qualities the troops may have + possessed were neutralised by lack of unity in their methods of action, + and their actual faults exaggerated this defect, so that, in spite of + their splendid powers of endurance and their courage under every ordeal, + they ran the risk of finding themselves in a state of hopeless inferiority + when called upon to meet armies very much smaller, but composed of + homogenous elements, all animated with the same spirit and drilled in the + same school. + </p> + <p> + By continual conquests, the Persians were now reduced to only two outlets + for their energies, in two opposite directions—in the east towards + India, in the west towards Greece. Everywhere else their advance was + arrested by the sea or other obstacles almost as impassable to their + heavily armed battalions: to the north the empire was bounded by the Black + Sea, the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, and the Siberian steppes; to the + south, by the Indian Ocean, the sandy table-land of Arabia, and the + African deserts. At one moment, about 512 B.C., it is possible that they + pushed forward towards the east.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * India is not referred to in the Behistun Inscription, but + is mentioned in one of the Inscriptions of Persepolis, and + in that of Nakhsh-î-Rustem. The campaign in which it was + subjugated must be placed about 512 B.C. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkimage-0060" id="linkimage-0060"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/192.jpg" width="100%" alt="192.jpg Funeral Offerings. " /> + </div> + <p> + From the Iranian plateau they beheld from afar the immense plain of the + Hapta Hindu (or the Punjab). Darius invaded this territory, and made + himself master of extensive districts which he formed into a new satrapy, + that of India, but subsequently, renouncing all idea of pushing eastward + as far as the Granges, he turned his steps towards the southeast. A fleet, + constructed at Peukêla and placed under the command of a Greek admiral, + Scylax of Caryanda, descended the Indus by order of the king;* subjugating + the tribes who dwelt along the banks as he advanced, Scylax at length + reached the ocean, on which he ventured forth, undismayed by the tides, + and proceeded in a westerly direction, exploring, in less than thirty + months, the shores of Gedrosia and Arabia. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Scylax published an account of his voyage which was still + extant in the time of Aristotle. Hugo Berger questions the + authenticity of the circumnavigation of Arabia, as that of + the circumnavigation of Africa under Necho. +</pre> + <p> + Once on the threshold of India, the Persians saw open before them a + brilliant and lucrative career: the circumstances which prevented them + from following up this preliminary success are unknown—perhaps the + first developments of nascent Buddhism deterred them—but certain it + is that they arrested their steps when they had touched merely the + outskirts of the basin of the Indus, and retreated at once towards the + west. The conquest of Lydia, and subsequently of the Greek cities and + islands along the coast of the Ægean, had doubtless enriched the empire by + the acquisition of active subject populations, whose extraordinary + aptitude in the arts of peace as well as of war might offer incalculable + resources to a sovereign who should know how to render them tractable and + rule them wisely. Not only did they possess the elements of a navy as + enterprising and efficacious as that of the Phoenicians, but the + perfection of their equipment and their discipline on land rendered them + always superior to any Asiatic army, in whatever circumstances, unless + they were crushed by overwhelming numbers. Inquisitive, bold, and + restless, greedy of gain, and inured to the fatigues and dangers of + travel, the Greeks were to be encountered everywhere—in Asia Minor, + Egypt, Syria, Babylon, and even Persia itself; and it was a Greek, we must + remember, whom the great king commissioned to navigate the course of the + Indus and the waters of the Indian Ocean. At the same time, the very + ardour of their temperament, and their consequent pride, their impatience + of all regular control, their habitual proneness to civic strife, and to + sanguinary quarrels with the inhabitants of the neighbouring cities, + rendered them the most dangerous subjects imaginable to govern, and their + loyalty very uncertain. Moreover, their admission as vassals of the + Persian empire had not altered their relations with European Greece, and + commercial transactions between the opposite shores of the Ægean, + inter-marriages, the travels of voyagers, movements of mercenaries, and + political combinations, went on as freely and frequently under the satraps + of Sardes as under the Mermnadas. It was to Corinth, Sparta, and Athens + that the families banished by Cyrus after his conquest fled for refuge, + and every time a change of party raised a new tyrant to power in one of + the Æolian, Ionian, or Doric communities, the adherents of the deposed + ruler rushed in similar manner to seek shelter among their friends across + the sea, sure to repay their hospitality should occasion ever require it. + Plots and counterplots were formed between the two shores, without any one + paying much heed to the imperial authority of Persia, and the constant + support which the subject Greeks found among their free brethren was bound + before long to rouse the anger of the court at Susa. When Polycrates, + foreseeing the fall of Amasis, placed himself under the suzerainty of + Cambyses, the Corinthians and Spartans came to besiege him in Samos + without manifesting any respect for the great king. They failed in this + particular enterprise,* but later on, after Oroetes had been seized and + put to death, it was to the Spartans that the successor of Polycrates, + Maaandrios, applied for help to assert his claim to the possession of the + tyranny against Syloson, brother of Polycrates and a personal friend of + Darius.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The date of the death of Polycrates must be placed between + that of the conquest of Egypt and that of the revolt of + Gaumâta, either in 524 or 523 B.C. + + ** The reinstatement of Syloson may be placed in 516 B.C., + about the time when Darius was completing the reorganisation + of the empire and preparing to attack Greece. +</pre> + <p> + This constant intervention of the foreigner was in evident contradiction + to the spirit which had inspired the reorganisation of the empire. Just + when efforts were being made to strengthen the imperial power and ensure + more effective obedience from the provincials by the institution of + satrapies, it was impossible to put up with acts of unwarrantable + interference, which would endanger the prestige of the sovereign and the + authority of his officers. Conquest presented the one and only natural + means of escape from the difficulties of the present situation and of + preventing their recurrence; when satraps should rule over the European as + well as over the Asiatic coasts of the Ægean, all these turbulent Greeks + would be forced to live at peace with one another and in awe of the + sovereign, as far as their fickle nature would allow. It was not then, as + is still asserted, the mere caprice of a despot which brought upon the + Greek world the scourge of the Persian wars, but the imperious necessity + of security, which obliges well-organised empires to subjugate in turn all + the tribes and cities which cause constant trouble on its frontiers. + Darius, who was already ruler of a good third of the Hellenic world, from + Trebizond to Barca, saw no other means of keeping what he already + possessed, and of putting a stop to the incessant fomentation of rebellion + in his own territories, than to conquer the mother-country as he had + conquered the colonies, and to reduce to subjection the whole of European + Hellas. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="196 (8K)" src="images/196.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkBimage-0005" id="linkBimage-0005"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/197.jpg" width="100%" alt="197.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0006" id="linkBimage-0006"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/198.jpg" width="100%" alt="198.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <h2> + <i>THE LAST DAYS OF THE OLD EASTERN WORLD</i> + </h2> + <p> + <i>THE MEDIAN WAR—THE LAST NATIVE DYNASTIES OF EGYPT—THE + EASTERN WORLD ON THE EVE OP THE MACEDONIAN CONQUEST.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The Persians in 512 B.C.—European Greece and the dangers which + its independence presented to the safety of the empire—The + preliminaries of the Median wars: the Scythian expedition, the conquest of + Thrace and Macedonia—The Ionic revolt, the intervention of Athens + and the taking of Sardes; the battle of Lade—Mardonius in Thrace and + in Macedonia.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The Median wars—The expedition of Datis and Artaphernes: the + taking of Eretria, the battle of Marathon (490)—The revolt of Egypt + under Khabbisha; the death of Darius and the accession of Xerxes I.—The + revolt of Babylon under Shamasherïb—The invasion of Greece: + Artemision, Thermopylæ, the taking of Athens, Salamis—Platsæ and the + final retreat of the Persians: Mycalê—The war carried on by the + Athenians and the league of Delos: Inaros, the campaigns in Cyprus and + Egypt, the peace of Oallias—The death of Xerxes.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Artaxerxes I. (465-424): the revolt of Megabyzos—The palaces of + Pasargadæ. Persepolis, and Susa; Persian architecture and sculpture; court + life, the king and his harem—Revolutions in the palace—Xerxes + I., Sekudianos, Darius II.—Intervention in Greek affairs and the + convention of Miletus; the end of the peace of Gallias—Artaxerxes + II. (404-359) and Gyrus the Younger: the battle of Kunaxa and the retreat + of the ten thousand (401).</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Troubles in Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt—Amyrtxus and the + XXVIIIth Saite dynasty—The XXIXth Sebennytic dynasty—Nephorites + I, Hakoris, Psammutis, their alliances with Evagoras and with the states + of Continental Greece—The XXXth Mendesian dynasty—Nectanebo I, + Tachôs and the invasion of Syria, the revolt of Nectanebo II.—The + death of Artaxerxes II.—The accession of Ochus (359 B.C.), his + unfortunate wars in the Delta, the conquest of Egypt (342) and the + reconstitution of the empire.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>The Eastern world: Elam, Urartu, the Syrian kingdoms, the ancient + Semitic states decayed and decaying—Babylon in its decline—The + Jewish state and its miseries—Nehemiah, Ezra—Egypt in the eyes + of the Greeks: Sais, the Delta, the inhabitants of the marshes—Memphis, + its monuments, its population—Travels in Upper Egypt: the Fayum, + Khemmis, Thebes, Elephantine—The apparent vigour and actual + feebleness of Egypt.</i> + </p> + <p> + <i>Persia and its powerlessness to resist attack: the rise of Macedonia, + Philippi —Arses (337) and Darius Codomannos (336)—Alexander + the Great—The invasion of Asia—The battle of Granicus and the + conquest of the Asianic peninsula—Issus, the siege of Tyre and of + Gaza, the conquest of Egypt, the foundation of Alexandria—Arbela: + the conquest of Babylon, Susa, and Ecbatana—The death of Darius and + the last days of the old Eastern world.</i> + </p> + <p> + [Page 200 and 201 need to be rescanned DW] <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="linkB2HCH0001" id="linkB2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> <br /> <a name="linkBimage-0007" id="linkBimage-0007"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/199.jpg" width="100%" alt="199.jpg Page Image " /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II—THE LAST DAYS OF THE OLD EASTERN WORLD + </h2> + <p> + <i>The Median wars—The last native dynasties of Egypt—The + Eastern world on the eve of the Macedonian conquest.</i> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Drawn by Boudier, from one of the sarcophagi of Sidon, now + in the Museum of St. Irene. The vignette, which is by + Faucher-Gudin, represents the sitting cyno-cephalus of + Nectanebo I., now in the Egyptian Museum at the Vatican.] +</pre> + <p> + Darius appears to have formed this project of conquest immediately after + his first victories, when his initial attempts to institute satrapies had + taught him not only the condition and needs of Asia Minor, but of the + teaching the Scythians such a lesson as would prevent them from bearing + down upon his right flank during his march, or upon his rear while engaged + in a crucial struggle in the Hellenic peninsula. On the other hand, the + geographical information possessed by the Persians with regard to the + Danubian regions was of so vague a character, that Darius must have + believed the Scythians to have been nearer to his line of operations, and + their country less desolate than was really the case.* A flotilla, + commanded by Ariaramnes, satrap of Cappadocia, ventured across the Black + Sea in 515,** landed a few thousand men upon the opposite shore, and + brought back prisoners who furnished those in command with the information + they required.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The motives imputed to Darius by the ancients for making + this expedition are the desire of avenging the disasters of + the Scythian invasion, or of performing an exploit which + should render him as famous as his predecessors in the eyes + of posterity. + + ** The reconnaissance of Ariaramnes is intimately connected + with the expedition itself in Ctesias, and could have + preceded it by a few months only. If we take for the date of + the latter the year 514-513, the date given in the Table of + the Capitol, that of the former cannot be earlier than 515. + Ariaramnes was not satrap of Cappadocia, for Cappadocia + belonged then to the satrapy of Daskylion. + + *** The supplementary paragraphs of the Inscription of + Behistun speak of an expedition of Darius against the Sako, + which is supposed to have had as its objective either the + sea of Aral or the Tigris. Would it not be possible to + suppose that the sea mentioned is the Pontus Euxinus, and to + take the mutilated text of Behistun to be a description + either of the campaign beyond the Danube, or rather of the + preliminary <i>reconnaissance</i> of Ariaramnes a year before the + expedition itself? +</pre> + <p> + Darius, having learned what he could from these poor wretches, crossed the + Bosphorus in 514, with a body of troops which tradition computed at + 800,000, conquered the eastern coast of Thrace, and won his way in a + series of conflicts as far as the Ister. The Ionian sailors built for him + a bridge of boats, which he entrusted to their care, and he then started + forward into the steppes in search of the enemy. The Scythians refused a + pitched battle, but they burnt the pastures before him on every side, + filled up the wells, carried off the cattle, and then slowly retreated + into the interior, leaving Darius to face the vast extent of the steppes + and the terrors of famine. Later tradition stated that he wandered for two + months in these solitudes between the Ister and the Tanais; he had + constructed on the banks of this latter river a series of earthworks, the + remains of which were shown in the time of Herodotus, and had at length + returned to his point of departure with merely the loss of a few sick men. + The barbarians stole a march upon him, and advised the Greeks to destroy + the bridge, retire within their cities, and abandon the Persians to their + fate. The tyrant of the Ohersonnesus, Miltiades the Athenian, was inclined + to follow their advice; but Histiasus, the governor of Miletus, opposed + it, and eventually carried his point. Darius reached the southern bank + without difficulty, and returned to Asia.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ctesias limits the campaign beyond the Danube to a fifteen + days’ march; and Strabo places the crossing of the Danube + near the mouth of that river, at the island of Peukê, and + makes the expedition stop at the Dniester. Neither the line + of direction of the Persian advance nor their farthest point + reached is known. The eight forts which they were said to + have built, the ruins of which were shown on the banks of + the Oaros as late as the time of Herodotus, were probably + tumuli similar to those now met with on the Russian steppes, + the origin of which is ascribed by the people to persons + celebrated in their history or traditions. +</pre> + <p> + The Greek towns of Thrace thought themselves rid of him, and rose in + revolt; but he left 80,000 men in Europe who, at first under Megabyzos, + and then under Otanes, reduced them to subjection one after another, and + even obliged Amyntas I., the King of Macedonia, to become a tributary of + the empire. The expedition had not only failed to secure the submission of + the Scythians, but apparently provoked reprisals on their part, and + several of their bands penetrated ere long into the Chersonnesus. It + nevertheless was not without solid result, for it showed that Darius, even + if he could not succeed in subjugating the savage Danubian tribes, had but + little to fear from them; it also secured for him a fresh province, that + of Thrace, and, by the possession of Macedonia, brought his frontier into + contact with Northern Greece. The overland route, in any case the more + satisfactory of the two, was now in the hands of the invader. + </p> + <p> + Revolutions at Athens prevented him from setting out on his expedition as + soon as he had anticipated. Hippias had been overthrown in 510, and having + taken refuge at Sigoum, was seeking on all sides for some one to avenge + him against his fellow-citizens. The satrap of Sardes, Arta-phernes, + declined at first to listen to him, for he hoped that the Athenians + themselves would appeal to him, without his being obliged to have recourse + to their former tyrant. As a matter of fact, they sent him an embassy, and + begged his help against the Spartans. He promised it on condition that + they would yield the traditional homage of earth and water, and their + delegates complied with his demand, though on their return to Athens they + were disowned by the citizens (508). Artaphernes, disappointed in this + direction, now entered into communications with Hippias, and such close + relations soon existed between the two that the Athenians showed signs of + uneasiness. Two years later they again despatched fresh deputies to Sardes + to beg the satrap not to espouse the cause of their former ruler. For a + reply the satrap summoned them to recall the exiles, and, on their + refusing (506),* their city became thenceforward the ostensible objective + of the Persian army and fleet. The partisans of Hippias within the town + were both numerous and active; it was expected that they would rise and + hand over the city as soon as their chief should land on a point of + territory with a force sufficient to intimidate the opposing faction. + Athens in the hands of Hippias, would mean Athens in the hands of the + Persians, and Greece accessible to the Persian hordes at all times by the + shortest route. Darius therefore prepared to make the attempt, and in + order to guard against any mishap, he caused all the countries that he was + about to attack to be explored beforehand. Spies attached to his service + were sent to scour the coasts of the Peloponnesus and take note of all its + features, the state of its ports, the position of the islands and the + fortresses; and they penetrated as far as Italy, if we may believe the + story subsequently told to Herodotus.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus fixes the date at the time when the Athenians + first ostracised the principal partisans of the + Pisistratids, and amongst others Hipparchus, son of Charmes, + i.e. in 507-6. + + ** Herodotus said that Darius sent spies with the physician + Democedes of Crotona shortly before the Scythian expedition. +</pre> + <p> + While he thus studied the territory from a distance, he did not neglect + precautions nearer to hand, but ordered the Milesians to occupy in his + name the principal stations of the Ægean between Ionia and Attica. + Histiasus, whose loyalty had stood Darius in such good stead at the bridge + over the Danube, did not, however, appear to him equal to so delicate a + task: the king summoned him to Susa on some slight pretext, loaded him + with honours, and replaced him by his nephew Aristagoras. Aristagoras at + once attempted to justify the confidence placed in him by taking + possession of Naxos; but the surprise that he had prepared ended in + failure, discontent crept in among his men, and after a fruitless siege of + four months he was obliged to withdraw (499).* His failure changed the + tide of affairs. He was afraid that the Persians would regard it as a + crime, and this fear prompted him to risk everything to save his fortune + and his life. He retired from his office as tyrant, exhorted the + Milesians, who were henceforth free to do so, to make war on the + barbarians, and seduced from their allegiance the crews of the vessels + just returned from Naxos, and still lying in the mouths of the Meander; + the tyrants who commanded them were seized, some exiled, and some put to + death. The Æolians soon made common cause with their neighbours the + Ionians, and by the last days of autumn the whole of the Ægean littoral + was under arms (499).** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus attributes an unlikely act of treachery to + Megabates the Persian, who was commanding the Iranian + contingent attached to the Ionian troops. + + ** The Dorian cities took no part in the revolt—at least + Herodotus never mentions them among the confederates. The + three Ionian cities of Ephesus, Kolophon, and Lebedos also + seem to have remained aloof, and we know that the Ephesians + were not present at the battle of Ladê. +</pre> + <p> + From the outset Aristagoras realised that they would be promptly overcome + if Asiatic Hellas were not supported by Hellas in Europe. While the Lydian + satrap was demanding reinforcements from his sovereign, Aristagoras + therefore repaired to the Peloponnesus as a suppliant for help. Sparta, + embroiled in one of her periodical quarrels with Argos, gave him an + insolent refusal;* even Athens, where the revolution had for the moment + relieved her from the fear of the Pisistratidaa and the terrors of a + barbarian invasion, granted him merely twenty triremes—enough to + draw down reprisals on her immediately after their defeat, without + sensibly augmenting the rebels’ chances of success; to the Athenian + contingent Bretria added five vessels, and this comprised his whole force. + The leaders of the movement did not hesitate to assume the offensive with + these slender resources. As early as the spring of 498, before Artaphernes + had received reinforcements, they marched suddenly on Sardes. They burnt + the lower town, but, as on many previous occasions, the citadel held out; + after having encamped for several days at the foot of its rock, they + returned to Ephesus laden with the spoil.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Aristagoras had with him a map of the world engraved on a + bronze plate, which was probably a copy of the chart drawn + up by Hecatseus of Miletus. + + ** Herodotus says that the Ionians on their return suffered + a serious reverse near Ephesus. The author seems to have + adopted some Lydian or Persian tradition hostile to the + Ionians, for Charon of Lampsacus, who lived nearer to the + time of these events, mentions only the retreat, and hints + at no defeat. If the expedition had really ended in this + disaster, it is not at all likely that the revolt would have + attained the dimensions it did immediately afterwards. +</pre> + <p> + This indeed was a check to their hostilities, and such an abortive attempt + was calculated to convince them of their powerlessness against the foreign + rule. None the less, however, when it was generally known that they had + burnt the capital of Asia Minor, and had with impunity made the + representative of the great king feel in his palace the smoke of the + conflagration, the impression was such as actual victory could have + produced. The cities which had hitherto hesitated to join them, now + espoused their cause—the ports of the Troad and the Hellespont, + Lycia, the Carians, and Cyprus—and their triumph would possibly have + been secured had Greece beyond the Ægean followed the general movement and + joined the coalition. Sparta, however, persisted in her indifference, and + Athens took the opportunity of withdrawing from the struggle. The Asiatic + Greeks made as good a defence as they could, but their resources fell far + short of those of the enemy, and they could do no more than delay the + catastrophe and save their honour by their bravery. Cyprus was the first + to yield during the winter of 498-497. Its vessels, in conjunction with + those of the Ionians, dispersed the fleet of the Phoenicians off Salamis, + but the troops of their princes, still imbued with the old system of + military tactics, could not sustain the charge of the Persian battalions; + they gave way under the walls of Salamis, and their chief, Onesilus, was + killed in a final charge of his chariotry.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The movement in Cyprus must have begun in the winter of + 499-498, for Onesilus was already in the field when Darius + heard of the burning of Sardes; and as it lasted for a year, + it must have been quelled in the winter of 498-497. +</pre> + <p> + His death effected the ruin of the Ionian cause in Cyprus, which on the + continent suffered at the same time no less serious reverses. The towns of + the Hellespont and of Æolia succumbed one after another; Kymê and + Clazomenæ next opened their gates; the Carians were twice beaten, once + near the White Columns, and again near Labranda, and their victory at + Pedasos suspended merely for an instant the progress of the Persian arms, + so that towards the close of 497 the struggle was almost entirely + concentrated round Miletus. Aristagoras, seeing that his cause was now + desperate, agreed with his partisans that they should expatriate + themselves. He fell fighting against the Edonians of Thrace, attempting to + force the important town of Enneahodoi, near the mouth of the Strymon + (496);* but his defection had not discouraged any one, and Histiseus, who + had been sent to Sardes by the great king to negotiate the submission of + the rebels, failed in his errand. Even when blockaded on the land side, + Miletus could defy an attack so long as communication with the sea was not + cut off. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In Herodotus the town is not named, but a passage in + Thucydides shows that it was Enneahodoi, afterwards + Amphipolis, and that the death of Aristagoras took place + thirty-two years before the Athenian defeat at Drabeskos, + i.e. probably in 496. +</pre> + <p> + Darius therefore brought up the Phoenician fleet, reinforced it with the + Cypriot contingents, and despatched the united squadrons to the + Archipelago during the summer of 494. The confederates, even after the + disasters of the preceding years, still possessed 353 vessels, most of + them of 30 to 50 oars; they were, however, completely defeated near the + small island of Ladê, in the latter part of the summer, and Miletus, from + that moment cut off from the rest of the world, capitulated a few weeks + later. A small proportion of its inhabitants continued to dwell in the + ruined city, but the greater number were carried away to Ampê, at the + mouth of the Tigris, in the marshes of the Nâr-Marratum.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The year 497, i.e. three years before the capture of the + town, appears to be an unlikely date for the battle of Ladê: + Miletus must have fallen in the autumn or winter months + following the defeat. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0008" id="linkBimage-0008"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/209.jpg" alt="209.jpg a Cypriot Chariot " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from +the terra-cotta group in the +New York Museum. +</pre> + <p> + Caria was reconquered during the winter of 494-493, and by the early part + of 493, Chios, Lesbos, Tenedos, the cities of the Chersonnesus and of + Propontis—in short, all which yet held out—were reduced to + obedience. Artaphernes reorganised his vanquished states entirely in the + interest of Persia. He did not interfere with the constitutions of the + several republics, but he reinstated the tyrants. He regulated and + augmented the various tributes, prohibited private wars, and gave to the + satrap the right of disposing of all quarrels at his own tribunal. The + measures which he adopted had long after his day the force of law among + the Asiatic Greeks, and it was by them they regulated their relations with + the representatives of the great king. + </p> + <p> + If Darius had ever entertained doubts as to the necessity for occupying + European Greece to ensure the preservation of peace in her Asiatic + sister-country, the revolt of Ionia must have completely dissipated them. + It was a question whether the cities which had so obstinately defied him + for six long years, would ever resign themselves to servitude as long as + they saw the peoples of their race maintaining their independence on the + opposite shores of the Ægean, and while the misdeeds of which the + contingents of Eretria and Athens had been guilty during the rebellion + remained unpunished. A tradition, which sprang up soon after the event, + related that on hearing of the burning of Sardes, Darius had bent his bow + and let fly an arrow towards the sky, praying Zeus to avenge him on the + Athenians: and at the same time he had commanded one of his slaves to + repeat three times a day before him, at every meal, “Sire, remember the + Athenians!”* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The legend is clearly older than the time of Herodotus, + for in the <i>Persæ</i> of Eschylus the shade of Darius, when + coming out of his tomb, cries to the old men, “Remember + Athens and Greece!” + </pre> + <p> + As a matter of fact, the intermeddling of these strangers between the + sovereign and his subjects was at once a serious insult to the Achæmenids + and a cause of anxiety to the empire; to leave it unpunished would have + been an avowal of weakness or timidity, which would not fail to be quickly + punished in Syria, Egypt, Babylon, and on the Scythian frontiers, and + would ere long give rise to similar acts of revolt and interference. + Darius, therefore, resumed his projects, but with greater activity than + before, and with a resolute purpose to make a final reckoning with the + Greeks, whatever it might cost him. The influence of his nephew Mardonius + at first inclined him to adopt the overland route, and he sent him into + Thrace with a force of men and a fleet of galleys sufficient to overcome + all obstacles. Mardonius marched against the Greek colonies and native + tribes which had throw off the yoke during the Ionian war, and reduced + those who had still managed to preserve their independence. The Bryges + opposed him with such determination, that summer was drawing to its close + before he was able to continue his march. He succeeded, however, in laying + hands on Macedonia, and obliged its king, Alexander, to submit to the + conditions accepted by his father Amyntas; but at this juncture half of + his fleet was destroyed by a tempest in the vicinity of Mount Athos, and + the disaster, which took place just as winter was approaching, caused him + to suspend his operations (492). He was recalled on account of his + failure, and the command was transferred to Datis the Mede and to the + Persian Artaphernes. Darius, however, while tentatively using the land + routes through Greece for his expeditions, had left no stone unturned to + secure for himself that much-coveted sea-way which would carry him + straight into the heart of the enemy’s position, and he had opened + negotiations with the republics of Greece proper. Several of them had + consented to tender him earth and water, among them being Ægina,* and + besides this, the state of the various factions in Athens was such, that + he had every reason to believe that he could count on the support of a + large section of the population when the day came for him to disembark his + force on the shores of Attica. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus states that <i>all</i> the island-dwelling Greeks + submitted to the great king. But Herodotus himself says + later on that the people of Naxos, at all events, proved + refractory. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0009" id="linkBimage-0009"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/212a.jpg" + alt="212a.jpg Alexander I. Of Macedon " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0010" id="linkBimage-0010"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/212b.jpg" alt="212b.jpg a Phoenician Galley " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + He therefore decided to direct his next expedition against Athens itself, + and he employed the year 491 in concentrating his troops and triremes in + Cilicia, at a sufficient distance from the European coast to ensure their + safety from any sudden attack. In the spring of 490 the army recruited + from among the most warlike nations of the empire—the Persians, + Medes, and Sakse—went aboard the Phoenician fleet, while galleys + built on a special model were used as transports for the cavalry. The + entire convoy sailed safely out of the mouth of the Pyramos to the port of + Samos, coasting the shores of Asia Minor, and then passing through the + Cyclades, from Samos to Naxos, where they met with no opposition from the + inhabitants, headed for Delos, where Datis offered a sacrifice to Apollo, + whom he confounded with his god Mithra; finally they reached Eubæa, where + Eretria and Carystos vainly endeavoured to hold their own against them. + Eretria was reduced to ashes, as Sardes had been, and such of its citizens + as had not fled into the mountains at the enemy’s approach were sent into + exile among the Kissians in the township of Arderikka. Hippias meanwhile + had joined the Persians and had been taken into their confidence. While + awaiting the result of the intrigues of his partisans in Athens, he had + advised Datis to land on the eastern coast of Attica, in the neighbourhood + of Marathon, at the very place from whence his father Pisistratus had set + out forty years before to return to his country after his first exile. The + position was well chosen for the expected engagement. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0011" id="linkBimage-0011"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/214.jpg" width="100%" alt="214.jpg Map of Marathon " /> + </div> + <p> + The bay and the strand which bordered it afforded an excellent station for + the fleet, and the plain, in spite of its marshes and brushwood, was one + of those rare spots where cavalry might be called into play without + serious drawbacks. A few hours on foot would bring the bulk of the + infantry up to the Acropolis by a fairly good road, while by the same time + the fleet would be able to reach the roadstead of Phalerum. All had been + arranged beforehand for concerted action when the expected rising should + take place; but it never did take place, and instead of the friends whom + the Persians expected, an armed force presented itself, commanded by the + polemarch Callimachus and the ten strategi, among whom figured the famous + Miltiades. At the first news of the disembarkation of the enemy, the + republic had despatched the messenger Phidippides to Sparta to beg for + immediate assistance, and in the mean time had sent forward all her + able-bodied troops to meet the invaders. They comprised about 10,000 + hoplites, accompanied, as was customary, by nearly as many more light + infantry, who were shortly reinforced by 1000 Platæans. They encamped in + the valley of Avlona, around a small temple of Heracles, in a position + commanding the roads into the interior, and from whence they could watch + the enemy without exposing themselves to an unexpected attack. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0012" id="linkBimage-0012"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/215.jpg" width="100%" + alt="215.jpg the Battle-field of Marathon " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by M. Amédée Hauvette. +</pre> + <p> + The two armies watched each other for a fortnight, Datis expecting a + popular outbreak which would render an engagement unnecessary, Miltiades + waiting patiently till the Lacedaemonians had come up, or till some false + move on the part of his opponent gave him the opportunity of risking a + decisive action. What took place at the end of this time is uncertain. + Whether Datis grew tired of inaction, or whether he suddenly resolved to + send part of his forces by sea, so as to land on the neighbouring shore of + Athens, and Miltiades fell upon his rear when only half his men had got on + board the fleet, is not known. At any rate, Miltiades, with the Platæans + on his left, set his battalions in movement without warning, and charged + the enemy with a rush. The Persians and the Sakæ broke the centre of the + line, but the two wings, after having dispersed the assailants on their + front, wheeled round upon them and overcame them: 6000 barbarians were + left dead upon the field as against some 200 Athenians and Platæans, but + by dint of their valiant efforts the remainder managed to save the fleet + with a loss of only seven galleys. Datis anchored that evening off the + island of Ægilia, and at the same moment the victorious army perceived a + signal hoisted on the heights of Pentelicus apparently to attract his + attention; when he set sail the next morning and, instead of turning + eastwards, proceeded to double Cape Sunion, Miltiades had no longer any + doubt that treachery was at work, and returned to Athens by forced + marches. Datis, on entering the roads of Phalerum, found the shore + defended, and the army that he had left at Marathon encamped upon the + Cynosargê. He cruised about for a few hours in sight of the shore, and + finding no movement made to encourage him to land, he turned his vessels + about and set sail for Ionia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0013" id="linkBimage-0013"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:16%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/219.jpg" + alt="219.jpg Darius on the Stele of The Isthmus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + The material loss to the Persians was inconsiderable, for even the + Cyclades remained under their authority; Miltiades, who endeavoured to + retake them, met with a reverse before Paros, and the Athenians, + disappointed by his unsuccessful attempt, made no further efforts to + regain them. The moral effect of the victory on Greece and the empire was + extraordinary. Up till then the Median soldiers had been believed to be + the only invincible troops in the world; the sight of them alone excited + dread in the bravest hearts, and their name was received everywhere with + reverential awe. But now a handful of hoplites from one of the towns of + the continent, and that not the most renowned for its prowess, without + cavalry or bowmen, had rushed upon and overthrown the most terrible of all + Oriental battalions, the Persians and the Sakæ. Darius could not put up + with such an affront without incurring the risk of losing his prestige + with the people of Asia and Europe, who up till then had believed him + all-powerful, and of thus exposing himself to the possibility of + revolutions in recently subdued countries, such as Egypt, which had always + retained the memory of her past greatness. In the interest of his own + power, as well as to soothe his wounded pride, a renewed attack was + imperative, and this time it must be launched with such dash and vigour + that all resistance would be at once swept before it. Events had shown him + that the influence of the Pisistratidæ had not been strong enough to + secure for him the opening of the gates of Athens, and that the sea route + did not permit of his concentrating an adequate force of cavalry and + infantry on the field of battle; he therefore reverted to the project of + an expedition by the overland route, skirting the coasts of Thrace and + Macedonia. During three years he collected arms, provisions, horses, men, + and vessels, and was ready to commence hostilities in the spring of 487, + when affairs in Egypt prevented him. This country had undeniably prospered + under his suzerainty. It formed, with Cyrene and the coast of Libya, the + sixth of his satrapies, to which were attached the neighbouring Nubian + tribes of the southern frontier.* The Persian satrap, installed at the + White Wall in the ancient palace of the Pharaohs, was supported by an army + of 120,000 men, who occupied the three entrenched camps of the Saites—Daphnæ + and Marea on the confines of the Delta, and Elephantinê in the south.** + Outside these military stations, where the authority of the great king was + exercised in a direct manner, the ancient feudal organisation existed + intact. The temples retained their possessions and their vassals, and the + nobles within their principalities were as independent and as inclined to + insurrection as in past times. The annual tribute, the heaviest paid by + any province with the exception of Cossæa and Assyria, amounted only to + 700 talents of silver. To this sum must be added the farming of the + fishing in Lake Moeris, which, according to Herodotus,*** brought in one + talent a day during the six months of the high Nile, but, according to + Diodorus,**** during the whole year, as well as the 120,000 medimni of + wheat required for the army of occupation, and the obligation to furnish + the court of Susa with Libyan nitre and Nile water; the total of these + impositions was far from constituting a burden disproportionate to the + wealth of the Nile valley. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The Nubian tribes, who are called Ethiopians by Herodotus + and the cuneiform inscriptions, paid no regular tribute, but + were obliged to send annually two chænikes of pure gold, two + hundred pieces of ebony, twenty elephants’ tusks, and five + young slaves, all under the name of a free gift. + + ** Herodotus states that in his own time the Persians, like + the Saite Pharaohs, still had garrisons at Daphnæ and at + Elephantine. + + *** Herodotus says that the produce sank to the value of a + third of a talent a day during the six other months. + + **** Diodorus Siculus says that the revenue produced by the + fisheries in the Lake had been handed over by Moris to his + wife for the expenses of her toilet. +</pre> + <p> + Commerce brought in to it, in fact, at least as much money as the tribute + took out of it. Incorporated with an empire which extended over three + continents, Egypt had access to regions whither the products of her + industry and her soil had never yet been carried. The produce of Ethiopia + and the Sudan passed through her emporia on its way to attract customers + in the markets of Tyre, Sidon, Babylon, and Susa, and the isthmus of Suez + and Kosseir were the nearest ports through which Arabia and India could + reach the Mediterranean. Darius therefore resumed the work of Necho, and + beginning simultaneously at both extremities, he cut afresh the canal + between the Nile and the Gulf of Suez. Trilingual stelæ in Egyptian, + Persian, and Medic were placed at intervals along its banks, and set forth + to all comers the method of procedure by which the sovereign had brought + his work to a successful end. In a similar manner he utilised the Wadys + which wind between Koptos and the Red Sea, and by their means placed the + cities of the Said in communication with the “Ladders of Incense,” Punt + and the Sabæans.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Several of the inscriptions engraved on the rocks of the + Wady Hammamât show to what an extent the route was + frequented at certain times during the reign. They bear the + dates of the 26th, 27th, 28th, 30th, and 36th years of + Darius. The country of Saba (Sheba) is mentioned on one of + the stelæ of the isthmus. +</pre> + <p> + He extended his favour equally to the commerce which they carried on with + the interior of Africa; indeed, in order to ensure the safety of the + caravans in the desert regions nearest to the Nile, he skilfully fortified + the Great Oasis. He erected at Habît, Kushît, and other places, several of + those rectangular citadels with massive walls of unburnt brick, which + resisted every effort of the nomad tribes to break through them; and as + the temple at Habit, raised in former times by the Theban Pharaohs, had + become ruinous, he rebuilt it from its foundations. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0014" id="linkBimage-0014"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/220.jpg" width="100%" + alt="220.jpg Walls of the Fortress Of Ditsh-el-qalÂa " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving by Cailliaud. Dush is + the Kushît of the hieroglyphs, the Kysis of Græco-Roman + times, and is situated on the southern border of the Great + Oasis, about the latitude of Assuân. +</pre> + <p> + He was generous in his gifts to the gods, and even towns as obscure as + Edfu was then received from him grants of money and lands. The Egyptians + at first were full of gratitude for the favours shown them, but the news + of the defeat at Marathon, and the taxes with which the Susian court + burdened them in order to make provision for the new war with Greece, + aroused a deep-seated discontent, at all events amongst those who, living + in the Delta, had had their patriotism or their interests most affected by + the downfall of the Saite dynasty. It would appear that the priests of + Buto, whose oracles exercised an indisputable influence alike over Greeks + and natives, had energetically incited the people to revolt. The storm + broke in 486, and a certain Khabbisha, who perhaps belonged to the family + of Psammetichus, proclaimed himself king both at Sais and Memphis.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus does not give the name of the leader of the + rebellion, but says that it took place in the fourth year + after Marathon. A demotic contract in the Turin Museum bears + the date of the third month of the second season of the + thirty-fifth year of Darius I.: Khabbîsha’s rebellion + therefore broke out between June and September, 486. Stern + makes this prince to have been of Libyan origin. From the + form of his name, Révillout has supposed that he was an + Arab, and Birch was inclined to think that he was a Persian + satrap who made a similar attempt to that of Aryandes. But + nothing is really known of him or of his family previous to + his insurrection against Darius. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0015" id="linkBimage-0015"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/221.jpg" width="100%" + alt="221.jpg the Great Temple of Darius at HabÎt " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving by Cailliaud. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0016" id="linkBimage-0016"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:13%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/224.jpg" alt="224.jpg Xerxes " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + Darius did not believe the revolt to be of sufficient gravity to delay his + plans for any length of time. He hastily assembled a second army, and was + about to commence hostilities on the banks of the Nile simultaneously with + those on the Hellespont, when he died in 485, in the thirty-sixth year of + his reign. He was one of the great sovereigns of the ancient world—the + greatest without exception of those who had ruled over Persia. Cyrus and + Cambyses had been formidable warriors, and the kingdoms of the Bast had + fallen before their arms, but they were purely military sovereigns, and if + their successor had not possessed other abilities than theirs, their + empire would have shared the fate of that of the Medes and the Chaldæans; + it would have sunk to its former level as rapidly as it had risen, and the + splendour of its opening years would have soon faded from remembrance. + Darius was no less a general by instinct and training than they, as is + proved by the campaigns which procured him his crown; but, after having + conquered, he knew how to organise and build up a solid fabric out of the + materials which his predecessors had left in a state of chaos; if Persia + maintained her rule over the East for two entire centuries, it was due to + him and to him alone. The question of the succession, with its almost + inevitable popular outbreaks, had at once to be dealt with. Darius had had + several wives, and among them, the daughter of Gobryas, who had borne him + three children: Artabazanes, the eldest, had long been regarded as the + heir-presumptive, and had probably filled the office of regent during the + expedition in Scythia. But Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, who had already + been queen under Cambyses and Gaumâta, was indignant at the thought of her + sons bowing down before the child of a woman who was not of Achæmenian + race, and at the moment when affairs in Egypt augured ill for the future, + and when the old king, according to custom, had to appoint his successor, + she intreated him to choose Khshayarsha, the eldest of her children, who + had been borne to the purple, and in whose veins flowed the blood of + Cyrus. Darius acceded to her request, and on his death, a few months + after, Khshayarsha ascended the throne. His brothers offered no + opposition, and the Persian nobles did homage to their new king. + Khshayarsha, whom the Greeks called Xerxes, was at that time thirty-four + years of age. He was tall, vigorous, of an imposing figure and noble + countenance, and he had the reputation of being the handsomest man of his + time, but neither his intelligence nor disposition corresponded to his + outward appearance; he was at once violent and feeble, indolent, + narrow-minded, and sensual, and was easily swayed by his courtiers and + mistresses. The idea of a war had no attractions for him, and he was + inclined to shirk it. His uncle Artabanus exhorted him to follow his + inclination for peace, and he lent a favourable ear to his advice until + his cousin Mardonius remonstrated with him, and begged him not to leave + the disgrace of Marathon unpunished, or he would lower the respect + attached to the name of Persia throughout the world. He wished, at all + events, to bring Egyptian affairs to an issue before involving himself in + a serious European war. Khabbîsha had done his best to prepare a stormy + reception for him. During a period of two years Khabbîsha had worked at + the extension of the entrenchments along the coast and at the mouths of + the Nile, in order to repulse the attack that he foresaw would take place + simultaneously with that on land, but his precautions proved fruitless + when the decisive moment arrived, and he was completely crushed by the + superior numbers of Xerxes. + </p> + <p> + The nomes of the Delta which had taken a foremost part in the rising were + ruthlessly raided, the priests heavily fined, and the oracle of Buto + deprived of its possessions as a punishment for the encouragement freely + given to the rebels. Khabbîsha disappeared, and his fate is unknown. + Achæmenes, one of the king’s brothers, was made satrap, but, as on + previous occasions, the constitution of the country underwent no + modification. The temples retained their inherited domains, and the nomes + continued in the hands of their hereditary princes, without a suspicion + crossing the mind of Xerxes that his tolerance of the priestly + institutions and the local dynasties was responsible for the maintenance + of a body of chiefs ever in readiness for future insurrection (483).* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The only detailed information on this revolt furnished by + the Egyptian monuments is given in the Stele of Ptolemy, the + son of Lagos. An Apis, whose sarcophagus still exists, was + buried by Khabbîsha in the Serapoum in the second year of + his reign, which proves that he was in possession of + Memphis: the White Wall had perhaps been deprived of its + garrison in order to reinforce the army prepared against + Greece, and it was possibly thus that it fell into the hands + of Khabbîsha. +</pre> + <p> + Order was once more restored, but he was not yet entirely at liberty to + pursue his own plan of action. Classical tradition tells us, that on the + occasion of his first visit to Babylon he had offended the religious + prejudices of the Chaldæans by a sacrilegious curiosity. He had, in spite + of the entreaties of the priests, forced an entrance into the ancient + burial-place of Bel-Etana, and had beheld the body of the old hero + preserved in oil in a glass sarcophagus, which, however, was not quite + full of the liquid. A notice posted up beside it, threatened the king who + should violate the secret of the tomb with a cruel fate, unless he filled + the sarcophagus to the brim, and Xerxes had attempted to accomplish this + mysterious injunction, but all his efforts had failed. The example set by + Egypt and the change of sovereign are sufficient to account for the + behaviour of the Babylonians; they believed that the accession of a + comparatively young monarch, and the difficulties of the campaign on the + banks of the Nile, afforded them a favourable occasion for throwing off + the yoke. They elected as king a certain Shamasherib, whose antecedents + are unknown; but their independence was of short duration,* for Megabyzos, + son of Zopyrus, who governed the province by hereditary right, forced them + to disarm after a siege of a few months. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This Shamasherib is mentioned only on a contract dated + from his accession, which is preserved in the British + Museum. +</pre> + <p> + It would appear that Xerxes treated them with the greatest severity: he + pillaged the treasury and temple of Bel, appropriated the golden statue + which decorated the great inner hall of the ziggurât, and carried away + many of the people into captivity (581). Babylon never recovered this + final blow: the quarters of the town that had been pillaged remained + uninhabited and fell into ruins; commerce dwindled and industry flagged. + The counsellors of Xerxes had, no doubt, wished to give an object-lesson + to the province by their treatment of Babylon, and thus prevent the + possibility of a revolution taking place in Asia while its ruler was fully + engaged in a struggle with the Greeks. Meanwhile all preparations were + completed, and the contingents of the eastern and southern provinces + concentrated at Kritalla, in Cappadocia, merely awaited the signal to set + out. Xerxes gave the order to advance in the autumn of 481, crossed the + Halys and took up his quarters at Sardes, while his fleet prepared to + winter in the neighbouring ports of Phocæ and Kymê.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Diodorus, who probably follows Ephorus, is the only writer + who informs us of the place where the fleet was assembled. +</pre> + <p> + Gathered together in that little corner of the world, were forces such as + no king had ever before united under his command; they comprised 1200 + vessels of various build, and probably 120,000 combatants, besides the + rabble of servants, hucksters, and women which followed all the armies of + that period. The Greeks exaggerated the number of the force beyond all + probability. They estimated it variously at 800,000, at 3,000,000, and at + 5,283,220 men; 1,700,000 of whom were able-bodied foot-soldiers, and + 80,000 of them horsemen.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus records the epigram to the effect that 3,000,000 + men attacked Thermopylæ. Ctesias and Ephorus adopt the same + figures; Iso-crates is contented with 700,000 combatants and + 5,000,000 men in all. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0017" id="linkBimage-0017"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/227.jpg" width="100%" alt="227.jpg a Trireme in Motion " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin: the left portion is a free + reproduction of a photograph of the bas-relief of the + Acropolis; the right, of the picture of Pozzo. The two + partly overlap one another, and give both together the idea + of a trireme going at full speed. +</pre> + <p> + The troops which they could bring up to oppose these hordes were, indeed, + so slender in number, when reckoned severally, that all hope of success + seemed impossible. Xerxes once more summoned the Greeks to submit, and + most of the republics appeared inclined to comply; Athens and Sparta alone + refused, but from different motives. Athens knew that, after the burning + of Sardes and the victory of Marathon, they could hope for no pity, and + she was well aware that Persia had decreed her complete destruction; the + Athenians were familiar with the idea of a struggle in which their very + existence was at stake, and they counted on the navy with which + Themistocles had just provided them to enable them to emerge from the + affair with honour. Sparta was not threatened with the same fate, but she + was at that time the first military state in Greece, and the whole of the + Peloponnesus acknowledged her sway; in the event of her recognising the + suzerainty of the barbarians, the latter would not fail to require of her + the renunciation of her hegemony, and she would then be reduced to the + same rank as her former rivals, Tegea and Argos. Athens and Sparta + therefore united to repulse the common enemy, and the advantage that this + alliance afforded them was so patent that none of the other states + ventured to declare openly for the great king. Argos and Crete, the + boldest of them, announced that they would observe neutrality; the + remainder, Thessalians, Boeotians, and people of Corcyra, gave their + support to the national cause, but did so unwillingly. + </p> + <p> + Xerxes crossed the Hellespont in the spring of 480, by two bridges of + boats thrown across it between Abydos and Sestos; he then formed his force + into three columns, and made his way slowly along the coast, protected on + the left by the whole of his fleet from any possible attack by the + squadrons of the enemy. The Greeks had three lines of defence which they + could hold against him, the natural strength of which nearly compensated + them for the inferiority of their forces; these were Mount Olympus, Mount + OEta, and the isthmus of Corinth. The first, however, was untenable, owing + to the ill will of the Thessalians; as a precautionary measure 10,000 + hoplites were encamped upon it, but they evacuated the position as soon as + the enemy’s advance-guard came into sight. The natural barrier of OEta, + less formidable than that of Olympus, was flanked by the Euboean straits + on the extreme right, but the range was of such extent that it did not + require to be guarded with equal vigilance along its whole length. The + Spartans did not at first occupy it, for they intended to accumulate all + the Greek forces, both troops and vessels, around the isthmus. At that + point the neck of land was so narrow, and the sea so shut in, that the + numbers of the invading force proved a drawback to them, and the advantage + almost of necessity lay with that of the two adversaries who should be + best armed and best officered. This plan of the Spartans was a wise one, + but Athens, which was thereby sacrificed to the general good, refused to + adopt it, and as she alone furnished almost half the total number of + vessels, her decision had to be deferred to. A body of about 10,000 + hoplites was therefore posted in the pass of Thermopylæ under the command + of Leonidas, while a squadron of 271 vessels disposed themselves near the + promontory of Artemision, off the Euripus, and protected the right flank + of the pass against a diversion from the fleet. Meanwhile Xerxes had been + reinforced in the course of his march by the contingents from Macedonia, + and had received the homage of the cities of Thessaly; having reached the + defiles of the OEta and the Euboea, he began by attacking the Creeks + directly in front, both fleets and armies facing one another. Leonidas + succeeded in withstanding the assault on two successive days, and then the + inevitable took place. A detachment of Persians, guided by the natives of + the country, emerged by a path which had been left unguarded, and bore + down upon the Greeks in the rear; a certain number managed to escape, but + the bulk of the force, along with the 300 Spartans and their king, + succumbed after a desperate resistance. As for the fleet, it had borne + itself bravely, and had retained the ascendency throughout, in spite of + the superiority of the enemy’s numbers; on hearing the news of the + glorious death of Leonidas, they believed their task ended for the time + being, and retired with the Athenians in their wake, ready to sustain the + attack should they come again to close quarters. The victorious side had + suffered considerable losses in men and vessels, but they had forced the + passage, and Central Greece now lay at their mercy. Xerxes received the + submission of the Thebans, the Phocæans, the Locrians, the Dorians, and of + all who appealed to his clemency; then, having razed to the ground Platæa + and Thespisæ, the only two towns which refused to come to terms with him, + he penetrated into Attica by the gorges of the Cithssron. The population + had taken refuge in Salamis, Ægina, and Troezen. The few fanatics who + refused to desist in their defence of the Acropolis, soon perished behind + their ramparts; Xerxes destroyed the temple of Pallas by fire to avenge + the burning of Sardes, and then entrenched his troops on the approaches to + the isthmus, stationing his squadrons in the ports of Munychia, Phalerum, + and the Piræus, and suspended all hostilities while waiting to see what + policy the Greeks would pursue. It is possible that he hoped that a + certain number of them would intreat for mercy, and others being + encouraged by their example to submit, no further serious battle would + have to be fought. When he found that no such request was proffered, he + determined to take advantage of the superiority of his numbers, and, if + possible, destroy at one blow the whole of the Greek naval reserve; he + therefore gave orders to his admirals to assume the offensive. The Greek + fleet lay at anchor across the bay of Salamis. The left squadron of the + Persians, leaving Munychia in the middle of the night, made for the + promontory of Cynosura, landing some troops as it passed on the island of + Psyttalia, on which it was proposed to fall back in case of accident, + while the right division, sailing close to the coast of Attica, closed the + entrance to the straits in the direction of Eleusis; this double movement + was all but completed, when the Greeks were informed by fugitives of what + was taking place, and the engagement was inevitable. They accepted it + fearlessly. Xerxes, enthroned with his Immortals on the slopes of + Ægialeos, could, from his exalted position, see the Athenians attack his + left squadron: the rest of the allies followed them, and from afar these + words were borne upon the breeze: “Go, sons of Greece, deliver your + country, deliver your children, your wives, and the temples of the gods of + your fathers and the tombs of your ancestors. A single battle will decide + the fate of all you possess.” The Persians fought with their accustomed + bravery, “but before long their numberless vessels, packed closely + together in a restricted space, begin to hamper each other’s movements, + and their rams of brass collide; whole rows of oars are broken.” The Greek + vessels, lighter and easier to manoeuvre than those of the Phoenicians, + surround the latter and disable them in detail. “The surface of the sea is + hidden with floating wreckage and corpses; the shore and the rocks are + covered with the dead.” At length, towards evening, the energy of the + barbarians beginning to flag, they slowly fell back upon the Piræus, + closely followed by their adversaries, while Aristides bore down upon + Psyttalia with a handful of Athenians. “Like tunnies, like fish just + caught in a net, with blows from broken oars, with fragments of spars, + they fall upon the Persians, they tear them to pieces. The sea resounds + from afar with groans and cries of lamentation. Night at length unveils + her sombre face” and separates the combatants.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Æschylus gives the only contemporaneous account of the + battle, and the one which Herodotus and all the historians + after him have paraphrased, while they also added to it oral + traditions. +</pre> + <p> + The advantage lay that day with the Greeks, but hostilities might be + resumed on the morrow, and the resources of the Persians were so + considerable that their chances of victory were not yet exhausted. Xerxes + at first showed signs of wishing to continue the struggle; he repaired the + injured vessels and ordered a dyke to be constructed, which, by uniting + Salamis to the mainland, would enable him to oust the Athenians from their + last retreat. But he had never exhibited much zest for the war; the + inevitable fatigues and dangers of a campaign were irksome to his indolent + nature, and winter was approaching, which he would be obliged to spend far + from Susa, in the midst of a country wasted and trampled underfoot by two + great armies. Mardonius, guessing what was passing in his sovereign’s + mind, advised him to take advantage of the fine autumn weather to return + to Sardes; he proposed to take over from Xerxes the command of the army in + Greece, and to set to work to complete the conquest of the Peloponnesus. + He was probably glad to be rid of a sovereign whose luxurious habits were + a hindrance to his movements. Xerxes accepted his proposal with evident + satisfaction, and summarily despatching his vessels to the Hellespont to + guard the bridges, he set out on his return journey by the overland route. + </p> + <p> + At the time of his departure the issue of the struggle was as yet + unforeseen. Mardonius evacuated Attica, which was too poor and desolate a + country to support so large an army, and occupied comfortable winter + quarters in the rich plains of Thessaly, where he recruited his strength + for a supreme effort in the spring. He had with him about 60,000 men, + picked troops from all parts of Asia—Medes, Sakæ, Bactrians, and + Indians, besides the regiment of the Immortals and the Egyptian veterans + who had distinguished themselves by their bravery at Salamis; the heavy + hoplites of Thebes and of the Boeotian towns, the Thessalian cavalry, and + the battalions of Macedonia were also in readiness to join him as soon as + called on. The whole of these troops, relieved from the presence of the + useless multitude which had impeded its movements under Xerxes, and + commanded by a bold and active general, were anxious to distinguish + themselves, and the probabilities of their final success were great. The + confederates were aware of the fact, and although resolved to persevere to + the end, their maoeuvres betrayed an unfortunate indecision. Their fleet + followed the Persian squadron bound for the Hellespont for several days, + but on realising that the enemy were not planning a diversion against the + Peloponnesus, they put about and returned to their various ports. The + winter was passed in preparations on both sides. Xerxes, on his return to + Sardes, had got together a fleet of 200 triremes and an army of 60,000 + men, and had stationed them at Cape Mycale, opposite Samos, to be ready in + case of an Ionian revolt, or perhaps to bear down upon any given point in + the Peloponnesus when Mardonius had gained some initial advantage. The + Lacædemonians, on their part, seem to have endeavoured to assume the + defensive both by land and sea; while their foot-soldiers were assembling + in the neighbourhood of Corinth, their fleet sailed as far as Delos and + there anchored, as reluctant to venture beyond as if it had been a + question of proceeding to the Pillars of Hercules. Athens, which ran the + risk of falling into the enemy’s hands for the second time through these + hesitations, evinced such marked displeasure that Mardonius momentarily + attempted to take advantage of it. He submitted to the citizens, through + Alexander, King of Macedon, certain conditions, the leniency of which gave + uneasiness to the Spartans; the latter at once promised Athens all she + wanted, and on the strength of their oaths she at once broke off the + negotiations with the Persians. Mardonius immediately resolved on action: + he left his quarters in Thessaly in the early days of May, reached Attica + by a few quick marches, and spread his troops over the country before the + Peloponnesians were prepared to resist. The people again took refuge in + Salamis; the Persians occupied Athens afresh, and once more had recourse + to diplomacy. This time the Spartans were alarmed to good purpose; they + set out to the help of their ally, and from that moment Mardonius showed + no further consideration in his dealing with Athens. He devastated the + surrounding country, razed the city walls to the ground, and demolished + and burnt the remaining houses and temples; he then returned to Boeotia, + the plains of which were more suited to the movements of his squadrons, + and took up a position in an entrenched camp on the right bank of the + Asopos. The Greek army, under the command of Pausanias, King of Sparta, + subsequently followed him there, and at first stationed themselves on the + lower slopes of Mount Cithseron. Their force was composed of about 25,000 + hoplites, and about as many more light troops, and was scarcely inferior + in numbers to the enemy, but it had no cavalry of any kind. Several days + passed in skirmishing without definite results, Mardonius fearing to let + his Asiatic troops attack the heights held by the heavy Greek infantry, + and Pausanias alarmed lest his men should be crushed by the Thessalian and + Persian horse if he ventured down into the plains. Want of water at length + obliged the Greeks to move slightly westwards, their right wing descending + as far as the spring of Gargaphia, and their left to the bank of the + Asopos. But this position facing east, exposed them so seriously to the + attacks of the light Asiatic horse, that after enduring it for ten days + they raised their camp and fell back in the night on Platæa. Unaccustomed + to manouvre together, they were unable to preserve their distances; when + day dawned, their lines, instead of presenting a continuous front, were + distributed into three unequal bodies occupying various parts of the + plain. Mardonius unhesitatingly seized his opportunity. He crossed the + Asopos, ordered the Thebans to attack the Athenians, and with the bulk of + his Asiatic troops charged the Spartan contingents. Here, as at Marathon, + the superiority of equipment soon gave the Greeks the advantage: Mardonius + was killed while leading the charge of the Persian guard, and, as is + almost always the case among Orientals, his death decided the issue of the + battle. The Immortals were cut to pieces round his dead body, while the + rest took flight and sought refuge in their camp. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0019" id="linkBimage-0019"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/238.jpg" width="100%" alt="238.jpg Map " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0020" id="linkBimage-0020"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/239.jpg" height="743" width="1089" alt="239.jpg the Battle-field of Plataea " /> + </div> + <p> + Almost simultaneously the Athenians succeeded in routing the Boeotians. + They took the entrenchments by assault, gained possession of an immense + quantity of spoil, and massacred many of the defenders, but they could not + prevent Artabazus from retiring in perfect order with 40,000 of his best + troops protected by his cavalry. He retired successively from Thessaly, + Macedonia, and Thrace, reached Asia after suffering severe losses, and + European Greece was freed for ever from the presence of the barbarians. + While her fate was being decided at Platsæ, that of Asiatic Greece was + being fought out on the coast of Ionia. The entreaties of the Samians had + at length encouraged Leotychidas and Xanthippus to take the initiative. + The Persian generals, who were not expecting this aggressive movement, had + distributed the greater part of their vessels throughout the Ionian ports, + and had merely a small squadron left at their disposal at Mycale. + Surprised by the unexpected appearance of the enemy, they were compelled + to land, were routed, and their vessels burnt (479). This constituted the + signal for a general revolt: Samos, Chios, and Lesbos affiliated + themselves to the Hellenic confederation, and the cities of the littoral, + which Sparta would have been powerless to protect for want of a fleet, + concluded an alliance with Athens, whose naval superiority had been + demonstrated by recent events. The towns of the Hellespont threw off the + yoke as soon as the triremes of the confederates appeared within their + waters, and Sestos, the only one of them prevented by its Persian garrison + from yielding to the Athenians, succumbed, after a long siege, during the + winter of 479-478. The campaign of 478 completed the deliverance of the + Greeks. A squadron commanded by Pausanias roused the islands of the Carian + coast and Cyprus itself, without encountering any opposition, and then + steering northwards drove the Persians from Byzantium. The following + winter the conduct of operations passed out of the hands of Sparta into + those of Athens—from the greatest military to the greatest naval + power in Greece; and the latter, on assuming command, at once took steps + to procure the means which would enable her to carry, out her task + thoroughly. She brought about the formation of a permanent league between + the Asiatic Greeks and those of the islands. Each city joining it + preserved a complete autonomy as far as its internal affairs were + concerned, but pledged itself to abide by the advice of Athens in + everything connected with the war against the Persian empire, and + contributed a certain quota of vessels, men, and money, calculated + according to its resources, for the furtherance of the national cause. The + centre of the confederation was fixed at Delos; the treasure held in + common was there deposited under the guardianship of the god, and the + delegates from the confederate states met there every year at the solemn + festivals, Athens to audit the accounts of her administration, and the + allies to discuss the interests of the league and to decide on the + measures to be taken against the common enemy. + </p> + <p> + Oriental empires maintain their existence only on condition of being + always on the alert and always victorious. They can neither restrict + themselves within definite limits nor remain upon the defensive, for from + the day when they desist from extending their area their ruin becomes + inevitable; they must maintain their career of conquest, or they must + cease to exist. This very activity which saves them from downfall depends, + like the control of affairs, entirely on the ruling sovereign; when he + chances to be too indolent or too incapable of government, he retards + progress by his inertness or misdirects it through his want of skill, and + the fate of the people is made thus to depend entirely on the natural + disposition of the prince, since none of his subjects possesses sufficient + authority to correct the mistakes of his master. Having conquered Asia, + the Persian race, finding itself hemmed in by insurmountable obstacles—the + sea, the African and Arabian deserts, the mountains of Turkestan and the + Caucasus, and the steppes of Siberia—had only two outlets for its + energy, Greece and India. Darius had led his army against the Greeks, and, + in spite of the resistance he had encountered from them, he had gained + ground, and was on the point of striking a crucial blow, when death cut + short his career. The impetus that he had given to the militant policy was + so great that Xerxes was at first carried away by it; but he was naturally + averse to war, without individual energy and destitute of military genius, + so that he allowed himself to be beaten where, had he possessed anything + of the instincts of a commander, he would have been able to crush his + adversary with the sheer weight of his ships and battalions. Even after + Salamis, even after Platæa and Mycale, the resources of Hellas, split up + as it was into fifty different republics, could hardly bear comparison + with those of all Asia concentrated in the hands of one man: Xerxes must + have triumphed in the end had he persevered in his undertaking, and + utilised the inexhaustible amount of fresh material with which his empire + could have furnished him. But to do that he would have had to take a + serious view of his duties as a sovereign, as Cyrus and Darius had done, + whereas he appears to have made use of his power merely for the + satisfaction of his luxurious tastes and his capricious affections. During + the winter following his return, and while he was reposing at Sardes after + the fatigues of his campaign in Greece, he fell in love with the wife of + Masistes, one of his brothers, and as she refused to entertain his suit, + he endeavoured to win her by marrying his son Darius to her daughter + Artayntas. He was still amusing himself with this ignoble intrigue during + the year which witnessed the disasters of Platæa and Mycale, when he was + vaguely entertaining the idea of personally conducting a fresh army beyond + the Ægean: but the marriage of his son having taken place, he returned to + Susa in the autumn, accompanied by the entire court, and from + thenceforward he remained shut up in the heart of his empire. After his + departure the war lost its general character, and deteriorated into a + series of local skirmishes between the satraps in the vicinity of the + Mediterranean and the members of the league of Delos. The Phoenician fleet + played the principal part in the naval operations, but the central and + eastern Asiatics—Bactrians, Indians, Parthians, Arians, Arachosians, + Armenians, and the people from Susa and Babylon—scarcely took any + part in the struggle. The Athenians at the outset assumed the offensive + under the intelligent direction of Cimon. They expelled the Persian + garrisons from Eion and Thrace in 476. They placed successively under + their own hegemony all the Greek communities of the Asianic littoral. + Towards 466, they destroyed a fleet anchored within the Gulf of Pamphylia, + close to the mouth of the Eurymedon, and, as at Mycale, they landed and + dispersed the force destined to act in concert with the squadron. Sailing + from thence to Cyprus, they destroyed a second Phoenician fleet of eighty + vessels, and returned to the Piraeus laden with booty. Such exploits were + not devoid of glory and profit for the time being, but they had no + permanent results. All these naval expeditions were indeed successful, and + the islands and towns of the Ægean, and even those of the Black Sea and + the southern coasts of Asia Minor, succeeded without difficulty in freeing + themselves from the Persian yoke under the protection of the Athenian + triremes; but their influence did not penetrate further inland than a few + miles from the shore, beyond which distance they ran the risk of being cut + off from their vessels, and the barbarians of the interior—Lydians, + Phrygians, Mysians, Pamphylians, and even most of the Lycians and Carians—remained + subject to the rule of the satraps. The territory thus liberated formed + but a narrow border along the coast of the peninsula; a border rent and + interrupted at intervals, constantly in peril of seizure by the enemy, and + demanding considerable efforts every year for its defence. Athens was in + danger of exhausting her resources in the performance of this ungrateful + task, unless she could succeed in fomenting some revolution in the vast + possessions of her adversary which should endanger the existence of his + empire, or which, at any rate, should occupy the Persian soldiery in + constantly recurring hostilities against the rebellious provinces. If none + of the countries in the centre of Asia Minor would respond to their call, + and if the interests of their commercial rivals, the Phoenicians, were so + far opposed to their own as to compel them to maintain the conflict to the + very end, Egypt, at any rate, always proud of her past glory and impatient + of servitude, was ever seeking to rid herself of the foreign yoke and + recover her independent existence under, the authority of her Pharaohs. It + was not easy to come to terms with her and give her efficient help from + Athens itself; but Cyprus, with its semi-Greek population hostile to the + Achæmenids, could, if they were to take possession of it, form an + admirable base of operations in that corner of the Mediterranean. The + Athenians were aware of this from the outset, and, after their victory at + the mouth of the Eurymedon, a year never elapsed without their despatching + a more or less numerous fleet into Cypriot waters; by so doing they + protected the Ægean from the piracy of the Phoenicians, and at the same + time, in the event of any movement arising on the banks of the Nile, they + were close enough to the Delta to be promptly informed of it, and to + interfere to their own advantage before any repressive measures could be + taken. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0021" id="linkBimage-0021"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:12%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/247.jpg" alt="247.jpg Artaxerxes " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + The field of hostilities having shifted, and Greece having now set herself + to attempt the dismemberment of the Persian empire, we may well ask what + has become of Xerxes. The little energy and intelligence he had possessed + at the outset were absorbed by a life of luxury and debauchery. Weary of + his hopeless pursuit of the wife of Masistes, he transferred his + attentions to the Artayntas whom he had given in marriage to his son + Darius, and succeeded in seducing her. The vanity of this unfortunate + woman at length excited the jealously of the queen. Amestris believed + herself threatened by the ascendency of this mistress; she therefore sent + for the girl’s mother, whom she believed guilty of instigating the + intrigue, and, having cut off her breasts, ears, nose, lips, and torn out + her tongue, she sent her back, thus mutilated, to her family. Masistes, + wishing to avenge her, set out for Bactriana, of which district he was + satrap: he could easily have incited the province to rebel, for its losses + in troops during the wars in Europe had been severe, and a secret + discontent was widespread; but Xerxes, warned in time, despatched horsemen + in pursuit, who overtook and killed him. The incapacity of the king, and + the slackness with which he held the reins of government’, were soon so + apparent as to produce intrigues at court: Artabanus, the chief captain of + the guards, was emboldened by the state of affairs to attempt to + substitute his own rule for that of the Achæmenids, and one night he + assassinated Xerxes. His method of procedure was never exactly known, and + several accounts of it were soon afterwards current. One of them related + that he had as his accomplice the eunuch Aspamithres. Having committed the + crime, both of them rushed to the chamber of Artaxerxes,* one of the sons + of the sovereign, but still a child; they accused Darius, the heir to the + throne, of the murder, and having obtained an order to seize him, they + dragged him before his brother and stabbed him, while he loudly protested + his innocence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Artaxerxes is the form commonly adopted by the Greek + historians and by the moderns who follow them, but Ctcsias + and others after him prefer Artoxerxes. The original form of + the Persian name was Artakhshathra. +</pre> + <p> + Other tales related that Artabanus had taken advantage of the free access + to the palace which his position allowed him, to conceal himself one night + within it, in company with his seven sons. Having murdered Xerxes, he + convinced Artaxerxes of the guilt of his brother, and conducting him to + the latter’s chamber, where he was found asleep, Artabanus stabbed him on + the spot, on the pretence that he was only feigning slumber.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Of the two principal accounts, the first is as old as + Ctesias, who was followed in general outline by Ephorus, of + whose account Diodorus Siculus preserves a summary + compilation; the second was circulated by Dinon, and has + come down to us through the abbreviation of Pompeius Trogus. + The remains of a third account are met with in Aristotle. + Ælian knew a fourth in which the murder was ascribed to the + son of Xerxes himself. +</pre> + <p> + The murderer at first became the virtual sovereign, and he exercised his + authority so openly that later chronographers inserted his name in the + list of the Achæmenids, between that of his victim and his <i>protégé</i>; + but at the end of six months, when he was planning the murder of the young + prince, he was betrayed by Megabyzos and slain, together with his + accomplices. His sons, fearing a similar fate, escaped into the country + with some of the troops. They perished in a skirmish, sword in hand; but + their prompt defeat, though it helped to establish the new king upon his + throne, did not ensure peace, for the most turbulent provinces at the two + extremes of the empire, Bactriana on the northeast and Egypt in the + south-west, at once rose in arms. The Bactrians were led by Hystaspes, one + of the sons of Xerxes, who, being older than Artaxerxes, claimed the + throne; his pretensions were not supported by the neighbouring provinces, + and two bloody battles soon sealed his fate (462).* The chastisement of + Egypt proved a harder task. Since the downfall of the Saites, the eastern + nomes of the Delta had always constituted a single fief, which the Greeks + called the kingdom of Libya. Lords of Marea and of the fertile districts + extending between the Canopic arm of the Nile, the mountains, and the sea, + its princes probably exercised suzerainty over several of the Libyan + tribes of Marmarica. Inaros, son of Psammetichus,** who was then the + ruling sovereign, defied the Persians openly. The inhabitants of the + Delta, oppressed by the tax-gatherers of Achæmenes,*** welcomed him with + open arms, and he took possession of the country between the two branches + of the Nile, probably aided by the Cyrenians; the Nile valley itself and + Memphis, closely guarded by the Persian garrisons, did not, however, range + themselves on his side. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The date 462 is approximate, and is inferred from the fact + that the war in Bactriana is mentioned in Ctesias between + the war against the sons of Artabanus which must have + occupied a part of 463, and the Egyptian rebellion which + broke out about 462, as Diodorus Siculus points out, + doubtless following Ephorus. + + ** The name of the father of Inaros is given us by the + contemporary testimony of Thucydides. + + *** Achomenes is the form given by Herodotus and by Diodorus + Siculus, who make him the son of Darius I., appointed + governor of Egypt after the repression of the revolt of + Khabbîsha. Ctesias calls him Achæmenides, and says that he + was the son of Xerxes. +</pre> + <p> + Meanwhile the satrap, fearing that the troops at his disposal were + insufficient, had gone to beg assistance of his nephew. Artaxerxes had + assembled an army and a fleet, and, in the first moment of enthusiasm, had + intended to assume the command in person; but, by the advice of his + counsellors, he was with little difficulty dissuaded from carrying this + whim into effect, and he delegated the conduct of affairs to Achæmenes. + The latter at first repulsed the Libyans (460), and would probably have + soon driven them back into their deserts, had not the Athenians interfered + in the fray. They gave orders to their fleet at Cyprus to support the + insurgents by every means in their power, and their appearance on the + scene about the autumn of 469 changed the course of affairs. Achæmenes was + overcome at Papremis, and his army almost completely exterminated. Inaros + struck him down with his own hand in the struggle; but the same evening he + caused the body to be recovered, and sent it to the court of Susa, though + whether out of bravado, or from respect to the Achæmenian race, it is + impossible to say.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Diodorus Siculus says in so many words that the Athenians + took part in the battle of Papremis; Thucydides and + Herodotus do not speak of their being there, and several + modern historians take this silence as a proof that their + squadron arrived after the battle had been fought. +</pre> + <p> + His good fortune did not yet forsake him. Some days afterwards, the + Athenian squadron of Charitimides came up by chance with the Phoenician + fleet, which was sailing to the help of the Persians, and had not yet + received the news of the disaster which had befallen them at Papremis. The + Greeks sunk thirty of the enemy’s vessels and took twenty more, and, after + this success, the allies believed that they had merely to show themselves + to bring about a general rising of the fellahîn, and effect the expulsion + of the Persians from the whole of Egypt. They sailed up the river and + forced Memphis after a few days’ siege; but the garrison of the White Wall + refused to surrender, and the allies were obliged to lay siege to it in + the ordinary manner (459):* in the issue this proved their ruin. + Artaxerxes raised a fresh force in Cilicia, and while completing his + preparations, attempted to bring about a diversion in Greece. The strength + of Pharaoh did not so much depend on his Libyan and Egyptian hordes, as on + the little body of hoplites and the crews of the Athenian squadron; and if + the withdrawal of the latter could be effected, the repulse of the others + would be a certainty. Persian agents were therefore employed to beg the + Spartans to invade Attica; but the remembrance of Salamis and Platæa was + as yet too fresh to permit of the Lacedæmonians allying themselves with + the common enemy, and their virtue on this occasion was proof against the + darics of the Orientals.** The Egyptian army was placed in the field early + in the year 456, under the leadership of Megabyzos, the satrap of Syria: + it numbered, so it was said, some 300,000 men, and it was supported by 300 + Phoenician vessels commanded by Artabazos.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The date of 459-8 for the arrival of the Athenians is + concluded from the passage of Thucydides, who gives an + account of the end of the war after the cruise of Tolmides + in 455, in the sixth year of its course. + + ** Megabyzos opened these negotiations, and his presence at + Sparta during the winter of 457-6 is noticed. + + *** Ctesias here introduces the Persian admiral Horiscos, + but Diodorus places Artabazos and Megabyzos side by side, as + was the case later on in the war in Cyprus, one at the head + of the fleet, the other of the army; it is probable that the + historian from whom Diodorus copied, viz. Ephorus, + recognised the same division of leadership in the Egyptian + campaign. +</pre> + <p> + The allies raised the blockade of the White Wall as soon as he entered the + Delta, and hastened to attack him; but they had lost their opportunity. + Defeated in a desperate encounter, in which Charitimides was killed and + Inaros wounded in the thigh, they barricaded themselves within the large + island of Prosopitis, about the first fortnight in January of the year + 455, and there sustained a regular siege for the space of eighteen months. + At the end of that time Megabyzos succeeded in turning an arm of the + river, which left their fleet high and dry, and, rather than allow it to + fall into his hands, they burned their vessels, whereupon he gave orders + to make the final assault. The bulk of the Athenian auxiliaries perished + in that day’s attack, the remainder withdrew with Inaros into the + fortified town of Byblos, where Megabyzos, unwilling to prolong a struggle + with a desperate enemy, permitted them to capitulate on honourable terms. + Some of them escaped and returned to Cyrene, from whence they took ship to + their own country; but the main body, to the number of 6000, were carried + away to Susa by Megabyzos in order to receive the confirmation of the + treaty which he had concluded. As a crowning stroke of misfortune, a + reinforcement of fifty Athenian triremes, which at this juncture entered + the Mendesian mouth of the Nile, was surrounded by the Phoenician fleet, + and more than half of them destroyed. The fall of Prosopitis brought the + rebellion to an end.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The accounts of these events given by Ctesias and + Thucydides are complementary, and, in spite of their + brevity, together form a whole which must be sufficiently + near the truth. That of Ephorus, preserved in Diodorus, is + derived from an author who shows partiality to the + Athenians, and who passes by everything not to their honour, + while he seeks to throw the blame for the final disaster on + the cowardice of the Egyptians. The summary of Aristodemus + comes directly from that of Thucydides. +</pre> + <p> + The nomes of the Delta were restored to order, and, as was often customary + in Oriental kingdoms, the vanquished petty princes or their children were + reinvested in their hereditary fiefs; even Libya was not taken from the + family of Inaros, but was given to his son Thannyras and a certain + Psammetichus. A few bands of fugitives, however, took refuge in the + marshes of the littoral, in the place where the Saites in former times had + sought a safe retreat, and they there proclaimed king a certain Amyrtgeus, + who was possibly connected with the line of Amasis, and successfully + defied the repeated attempts of the Persians to dislodge them. + </p> + <p> + The Greek league had risked the best of its forces in this rash + undertaking, and had failed in its enterprise. It had cost the allies so + dearly in men and galleys, that if the Persians had at once assumed the + offensive, most of the Asiatic cities would have found themselves in a + most critical situation; and Athens, then launched in a quarrel with the + states of the Peloponnesus, would have experienced the greatest difficulty + in succouring them. The feebleness of Artaxerxes, however, and possibly + the intrigues at court and troubles in various other parts of the empire, + prevented the satraps from pursuing their advantage, and when at length + they meditated taking action, the opportunity had gone by. They + nevertheless attempted to regain the ascendency over Cyprus; Artabazos + with a Sidonian fleet cruised about the island, Megabyzos assembled troops + in Cilicia, and the petty kings of Greek origin raised a cry of alarm. + Athens, which had just concluded a truce with the Peloponnesians, at once + sent two hundred vessels to their assistance under the command of Oimon + (449). Cimon acted as though he were about to reopen the campaign in Egypt + and despatched sixty of his triremes to King Amyrtceus, while he himself + took Marion and blockaded Kition with the rest of his forces. The siege + dragged on; he was perhaps about to abandon it, when he took to his bed + and died. Those who succeeded him in the command were obliged to raise the + blockade for want of provisions, but as they returned and were passing + Salamis, they fell in with the Phoenician vessels which had just been + landing the Cilician troops, and defeated them; they then disembarked, + and, as at Mycale and Eurymedon, they gained a second victory in the open + field, after which they joined the squadron which had been sent to Egypt, + and sailed for Athens with the dead body of their chief. They had once + more averted the danger of an attack on the Ægean, but that was all. The + Athenian statesmen had for some time past realised that it was impossible + for them to sustain a double conflict, and fight the battles of Greece + against the common enemy, while half of the cities whose safety was + secured by their heroic devotion were harassing them on the continent, but + the influence of Cimon had up till now encouraged them to persist; on the + death of Cimon, they gave up the attempt, and Callias, one of their + leaders, repaired in state to Susa for the purpose of opening + negotiations. The peace which was concluded on the occasion of this + embassy might at first sight appear advantageous to their side. The + Persian king, without actually admitting his reverses, accepted their + immediate consequences. He recognised the independence of the Asiatic + Creeks, of those at least who belonged to the league of Delos, and he + promised that his armies on land should never advance further than three + days’ march from the Ægean littoral. On the seas, he forbade his squadrons + to enter Hellenic waters from the Chelidonian to the Cyanæan rocks—that + is, from the eastern point of Lycia to the opening of the Black Sea: this + prohibition did not apply to the merchant vessels of the contracting + parties, and they received permission to traffic freely in each other’s + waters—the Phoenicians in Greece, and the Greeks in Phonicia, + Cilicia, and Egypt. And yet, when we consider the matter, Athens and + Hellas were, of the two, the greater losers by this convention, which + appeared to imply their superiority. Not only did they acknowledge + indirectly that they felt themselves unequal to the task of overthrowing + the empire, but they laid down their arms before they had accomplished the + comparatively restricted task which they had set themselves to perform, + that of freeing all the Greeks from the Iranian yoke: their Egyptian + compatriots still remained Persian tributaries, in company with the cities + of Cyrenaïca, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, and, above all, that island of + Cyprus in which they had gained some of their most signal triumphs. The + Persians, relieved from a war which for a quarter of a century had + consumed their battalions and squadrons, drained their finances, and + excited their subjects to revolt, were now free to regain their former + wealth and perhaps their vigour, could they only find generals to command + their troops and guide their politics. Artaxerxes was incapable of + directing this revival, and his inveterate weakness exposed him + perpetually to the plotting of his satraps or to the intrigues of the + women of his harem. The example of Artabanus, followed by that of + Hystaspes, had shown how easy it was for an ambitious man to get rid + secretly of a monarch or a prince and seriously endanger the crown. The + members of the families who had placed Darius on the throne, possessed by + hereditary right, or something little short of it, the wealthiest and most + populous provinces—Babylonia, Syria, Lydia, Phrygia, and the + countries of the Halys—and they were practically kings in all but + name, in spite of the <i>surveillance</i> which the general and the + secretary were supposed to exercise over their actions. Besides this, the + indifference and incapacity of the ruling sovereigns had already tended to + destroy the order of the administrative system so ably devised by Darius: + the satrap had, as a rule, absorbed the functions of a general within his + own province, and the secretary was too insignificant a personage to + retain authority and independence unless he received the constant support + of the sovereign. The latter, a tool in the hands of women and eunuchs, + usually felt himself powerless to deal with his great vassals. His + toleration went to all lengths if he could thereby avoid a revolt; when + this was inevitable, and the rebels were vanquished, he still continued to + conciliate them, and in most cases their fiefs and rights were preserved + or restored to them, the monarch knowing that he could rid himself of them + treacherously by poison or the dagger in the case of their proving + themselves too troublesome. Megabyzos by his turbulence was a thorn in the + side of Artaxerxes during the half of his reign. He had ended his campaign + in Egypt by engaging to preserve the lives of Inaros and the 6000 Greeks + who had capitulated at Byblos, and, in spite of the anger of the king, he + succeeded in keeping his word for five years, but at the end of that time + the demands of Amestris prevailed. She succeeded in obtaining from him + some fifty Greeks whom she beheaded, besides Inaros himself, whom she + impaled to avenge Achæmenes. Megabyzos, who had not recovered from the + losses he had sustained in his last campaign against Cimon, at first + concealed his anger, but he asked permission to visit his Syrian province, + and no sooner did he reach it, than he resorted to hostilities. He + defeated in succession Usiris and Menostates, the two generals despatched + against him, and when force failed to overcome his obstinate resistance, + the government condescended to treat with him, and swore to forget the + past if he would consent to lay down arms. To this he agreed, and + reappeared at court; but once there, his confidence nearly proved fatal to + him. Having been invited to take part in a hunt, he pierced with his + javelin a lion which threatened to attack the king: Artaxerxes called to + mind an ancient law which punished by death any intervention of that kind, + and he ordered that the culprit should be beheaded. Megabyzos with + difficulty escaped this punishment through the entreaties of Amestris and + of his wife Amytis; but he was deprived of his fiefs, and sent to Kyrta, + on the shores of the Persian Gulf. After five years this exile became + unbearable; he therefore spread the report that he was attacked by + leprosy, and he returned home without any one venturing to hinder him, + from fear of defiling themselves by contact with his person. Amestris and + Amytis brought about his reconciliation with his sovereign; and + thenceforward he regulated his conduct so successfully that the past was + completely forgotten, and when he died, at the age of seventy-six years, + Artaxerxes deeply regretted his loss.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These events are known to us only through Ctesias. Their + date is uncertain, but there is no doubt that they occurred + after Cimon’s campaign in Cyprus and the conclusion of the + peace of Callias. +</pre> + <p> + Peace having been signed with Athens, and the revolt of Megabyzos being at + an end, Artaxerxes was free to enjoy himself without further care for the + future, and to pass his time between his various capitals and palaces. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0022" id="linkBimage-0022"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/258.jpg" width="100%" + alt="258.jpg View of the Achaemenian Ruins Of Istakhr " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving of Flandin and Coste. +</pre> + <p> + His choice lay between Susa and Persepolis, between Ecbatana and Babylon, + according as the heat of the summer or the cold of the winter induced him + to pass from the plains to the mountains, or from the latter to the + plains. During his visits to Babylon he occupied one of the old Chaldæan + palaces, but at Ecbatana he possessed merely the ancient residence of the + Median kings, and the seraglio built or restored by Xerxes in the fashion + of the times: at Susa and in Persia proper, the royal buildings were + entirely the work of the Achæmenids, mostly that of Darius and Xerxes. The + memory of Cyrus and of the kings to whom primitive Persia owed her + organisation in the obscure century preceding her career of conquest, was + piously preserved in the rude buildings of Pasargadæ, which was regarded + as a sacred city, whither the sovereigns repaired for coronation as soon + as their predecessors had expired. But its lonely position and simple + appointments no longer suited their luxurious and effeminate habits, and + Darius had in consequence fixed his residence a few miles to the south of + it, near to the village, which after its development became the immense + royal city of Persepolis. He there erected buildings more suited to the + splendour of his court, and found the place so much to his taste during + his lifetime, that he was unwilling to leave it after death. He therefore + caused his tomb to be cut in the steep limestone cliff which borders the + plain about half a mile to the north-west of the town. It is an opening in + the form of a Greek cross, the upper part of which contains a bas-relief + in which the king, standing in front of the altar, implores the help of + Ahura-mazdâ poised with extended wings above him; the platform on which + the king stands is supported by two rows of caryatides in low relief, + whose features and dress are characteristic of Persian vassals, while + other personages, in groups of three on either side, are shown in the + attitude of prayer. Below, in the transverse arms of the cross, is carved + a flat portico with four columns, in the centre of which is the entrance + to the funeral vault. Within the latter, in receptacles hollowed out of + the rock, Darius and eight of his family were successively laid. + </p> + <p> + Xerxes caused a tomb in every way similar to be cut for himself near that + of Darius, and in the course of years others were added close by.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The tomb of Darius alone bears an inscription. Darius III. + was also buried there by command of Alexander. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0023" id="linkBimage-0023"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/260.jpg" width="100%" alt="260.jpg the Tomb of Darius " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from the heliogravure by Marcel + Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + Both the tombs and the palace are built in that eclectic style which + characterises the Achæmenian period of Iranian art. The main features are + borrowed from the architecture of those nations which were vassals or + neighbours of the empire—Babylonia, Egypt, and Greece; but these + various elements have been combined and modified in such a manner as to + form a rich and harmonious whole. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0024" id="linkBimage-0024"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/261.jpg" width="100%" + alt="261.jpg the Hill of The Royal Achaemenian Tombs At Nakush-i-rustem " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the engraving of Flandin and Coste. +</pre> + <p> + The core of the walls was of burnt bricks, similar to those employed in + the Euphrates valley, but these were covered with a facing of enamelled + tiles, disposed as a skirting or a frieze, on which figured those + wonderful processions of archers, and the lions which now adorn the + Louvre, while the pilasters at the angles, the columns, pillars, + window-frames, and staircases were of fine white limestone or of hard + bluish-grey marble. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0025" id="linkBimage-0025"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/262.jpg" width="100%" + alt="262.jpg One of the Capitals from Susa " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph taken in the Louvre by + Faucher-Gudin. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0026" id="linkBimage-0026"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/262b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="262b.jpg Freize of Archers at Suza " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0027" id="linkBimage-0027"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/263.jpg" height="744" width="1076" alt="263.jpg General Ruins of Persipolis " /> + </div> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0030" id="linkBimage-0030"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:25%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/269.jpg" + alt="269.jpg the King on his Throne " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher-Gudin, +from Plandin +and Coste. +</pre> + <p> + The doorways are high and narrow; the moulding which frames them is formed + of three Ionic fillets, each projecting beyond the other, surmounted by a + coved Egyptian lintel springing from a row of alternate eggs and disks. + The framing of the doors is bare, but the embrasures are covered with + bas-reliefs representing various scenes in which the king is portrayed + fulfilling his royal functions—engaged in struggles with evil genii + which have the form of lions or fabulous animals, occupied in hunting, + granting audiences, or making an entrance in state, shaded by an umbrella + which is borne by a eunuch behind him. The columns employed in this style + of architecture constitute its most original feature. The base of them + usually consists of two mouldings, resting either on a square pedestal or + on a cylindrical drum, widening out below into a bell-like curve, and + sometimes ornamented with several rows of inverted leaves. The shafts, + which have forty-eight perpendicular ribs cut on their outer surface, are + perhaps rather tall in proportion to their thickness. They terminate in a + group of large leaves, an evident imitation of the Egyptian palm-leaf + capital, from which spring a sort of rectangular fluted die or abacus, + flanked on either side with four rows of volutes curved in opposite + directions, generally two at the base and two at the summit. The heads and + shoulders of two bulls, placed back to back, project above the volutes, + and take the place of the usual abacus of the capital. The dimensions of + these columns, their gracefulness, and the distance at which they were + placed from one another, prove that they supported not a stone architrave, + but enormous beams of wood, which were inserted between the napes of the + bulls’ necks, and upon which the joists of the roof were superimposed. The + palace of Persepolis, built by Darius after he had crushed the revolts + which took place at the outset of his reign, was situated at the foot of a + chain of rugged mountains which skirt the plain on its eastern side, and + was raised on an irregularly shaped platform or terrace, which was + terminated by a wall of enormous polygonal blocks of masonry. The terrace + was reached by a double flight of steps, the lateral walls of which are + covered with bas-reliefs, representing processions of satellites, slaves, + and tributaries, hunting scenes, fantastic episodes of battle, and lions + fighting with and devouring bulls. The area of the raised platform was not + of uniform level, and was laid out in gardens, in the midst of which rose + the pavilions that served as dwelling-places. The reception-rooms were + placed near the top of the flight of steps, and the more important of them + had been built under the two preceding kings. Those nearest to the edge of + the platform were the propylæ of Xerxes—gigantic entrances whose + gateways were guarded on either side by winged bulls of Assyrian type; + beyond these was the <i>apadana</i>, or hall of honour, where the + sovereign presided in state at the ordinary court ceremonies. To the east + of the <i>apadana</i>, and almost in the centre of the raised terrace, + rose the Hall of a Hundred Columns, erected by Darius, and used only on + special occasions. Artaxerxes I. seems to have had a particular affection + for Susa. It had found favour with his predecessors, and they had so + frequently resided there, even after the building of Persepolis, that it + had continued to be regarded as the real capital of the empire by other + nations, whereas the Persian sovereigns themselves had sought to make it + rather an impregnable retreat than a luxurious residence. Artaxerxes built + there an <i>apadana</i> on a vaster scale than any hitherto designed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0028" id="linkBimage-0028"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/267.jpg" width="100%" + alt="267.jpg the Propylaea of Xerxes I. At Persepolis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the heliogravure of Marcel Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + It comprised three colonnades, which, taken together, formed a rectangle + measuring 300 feet by 250 feet on the two sides, the area being + approximately that of the courtyard of the Louvre. The central colonnade, + which was the largest of the three, was enclosed by walls on three sides, + but was open to the south. Immense festoons of drapery hung from the + wooden entablature, and curtains, suspended from rods between the first + row of columns, afforded protection from the sun and from the curiosity of + the vulgar. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0029" id="linkBimage-0029"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/268.jpg" width="100%" + alt="268.jpg Bas-relief of the Staircase Leading to The Apadana of Xerxes " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from Marcel Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + At the hour appointed for the ceremonies, the great king took his seat in + solitary grandeur on the gilded throne of the Achæmenids; at the extreme + end of the colonnade his eunuchs, nobles, and guards ranged themselves in + silence on either side, each in the place which etiquette assigned to him. + Meanwhile the foreign ambassadors who had been honoured by an invitation + to the audience—Greeks from Thebes, Sparta, or Athens; Sakae from + the regions of the north; Indians, Arabs, nomad chiefs from mysterious + Ethiopia-ascended in procession the flights of steps which led from the + town to the palace, bearing the presents destined for its royal master. + </p> + <p> + Having reached the terrace, the curtains of the <i>apadana</i> were + suddenly parted, and in the distance, through a vista of columns, they + perceived a motionless figure, resplendent with gold and purple, before + whom they fell prostrate with their faces to the earth. The heralds were + the bearers of their greetings, and brought back to them a gracious or + haughty reply, as the case may be. When they rose from the ground, the + curtains had closed, the kingly vision was eclipsed, and the escort which + had accompanied them into the palace conducted them back to the town, + dazzled with the momentary glimpse of the spectacle vouchsafed to them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0031" id="linkBimage-0031"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/270.jpg" width="100%" + alt="270.jpg a View of the Apadana Of Susa, Restored " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from the restoration by Marcel Dieulafoy. +</pre> + <p> + The Achæemenian monarchs were not regarded as gods or as sons of gods, + like the Egyptian Pharaohs, and the Persian religion forbade their ever + becoming so, but the person of the king was hedged round with such + ceremonial respect as in other Oriental nations was paid only to the gods: + this was but natural, for was he not a despot, who with a word or gesture + could abase the noblest of his subjects, and determine the well-being or + misery of his people? His dress differed from that of his nobles only by + the purple dye of its material and the richness of the gold embroideries + with which it was adorned, but he was distinguished from all others by the + peculiar felt cap, or <i>kidaris</i>, which he wore, and the + blue-and-white band which encircled it like a crown; the king is never + represented without his long sceptre with pommelled handle, whether he be + sitting or standing, and wherever he went he was attended by his umbrella- + and fan-bearers. The prescriptions of court etiquette were such as to + convince his subjects and persuade himself that he was sprung from a + nobler race than that of any of his magnates, and that he was outside the + pale of ordinary humanity. The greater part of his time was passed in + privacy, where he was attended only by the eunuchs appointed to receive + his orders; and these orders, once issued, were irrevocable, as was also + the king’s word, however much he might desire to recall a promise once + made. His meals were, as a rule, served to him alone; he might not walk on + foot beyond the precincts of the palace, and he never showed himself in + public except on horseback or in his chariot, surrounded by his servants + and his guards. The male members of the royal family and those belonging + to the six noble houses enjoyed the privilege of approaching the king at + any hour of the day or night, provided he was not in the company of one of + his wives. These privileged persons formed his council, which he convoked + on important occasions, but all ordinary business was transacted by means + of the scribes and inferior officials, on whom devolved the charge of the + various departments of the government. A vigorous ruler, such as Darius + had proved himself, certainly trusted no one but himself to read the + reports sent in by the satraps, the secretaries, and the generals, or to + dictate the answers required by each; but Xerxes and Artaxerxes delegated + the heaviest part of such business to their ministers, and they themselves + only fulfilled such state functions as it was impossible to shirk—the + public administration of justice, receptions of ambassadors or victorious + generals, distributions of awards, annual sacrifices, and state banquets: + they were even obliged, in accordance with an ancient and inviolable + tradition, once a year to set aside their usual sober habits and drink to + excess on the day of the feast of Mithra. Occasionally they would break + through their normal routine of life to conduct in person some expedition + of small importance, directed against one of the semi-independent tribes + of Iran, such as the Cadusians, but their most glorious and frequent + exploits were confined to the chase. They delighted to hunt the bull, the + wild boar, the deer, the wild ass, and the hare, as the Pharaohs or + Assyrian kings of old had done; and they would track the lion to his lair + and engage him single-handed; in fact, they held a strict monopoly in such + conflicts, a law which punished with death any huntsman who had the + impertinence to interpose between the monarch and his prey being only + abolished by Artaxerxes. A crowd of menials, slaves, great nobles, and + priests filled the palace; grooms, stool-bearers, umbrella- and + fan-carriers, <i>havasses</i>, “Immortals,” bakers, perfumers, soldiers, + and artisans formed a retinue so numerous as to require a thousand + bullocks, asses, and stags to be butchered every day for its maintenance; + and when the king made a journey in full state, this enormous train looked + like an army on the march. The women of the royal harem lived in seclusion + in a separate wing of the palace, or in isolated buildings erected in the + centre of the gardens. The legitimate wives of the sovereign were selected + from the ladies of the royal house, the sisters or cousins of the king, + and from the six princely Persian families; but their number were never + very large, usually three or four at most.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Cambyses had had three wives, including his two sisters + Atossa and Roxana. Darius had four wives—two daughters of + Cyrus, Atossa and Artystônê, Parmys daughter of Srnerdis, + and a daughter of Otanes. +</pre> + <p> + The concubines, on the other hand, were chosen from all classes of + society, and were counted by hundreds. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0032" id="linkBimage-0032"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/273.jpg" width="100%" + alt="273.jpg Processional Display of Tribute Brought to The King of Persia " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from plates in Flandin and Coste. +</pre> + <p> + They sang or played on musical instruments at the state banquets of the + court, they accompanied their master to the battle-field or the chase, and + probably performed the various inferior domestic duties in the interior of + the harem, such as spinning, weaving, making perfumes, and attending to + the confectionery and cooking. Each of the king’s wives had her own + separate suite of apartments and special attendants, and occupied a much + higher position than a mere concubine; but only one was actually queen and + had the right to wear the crown, and this position belonged of right to a + princess of Achæ-menian race. Thus Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, was queen + successively to Cambyses, Gaumâta, and Darius; Amestris to Xerxes; and + Damaspia to Artaxerxes. Besides the influence naturally exerted by the + queen over the mind of her husband, she often acquired boundless authority + in the empire, in spite of her secluded life.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Thus Atossa induced Darius to designate Xerxes as his + heir-apparent. +</pre> + <p> + Her power was still further increased when she became a widow, if the new + king happened to be one of her own sons. In such circumstances she + retained the external attributes of royalty, sitting at the royal table + whenever the king deigned to dine in the women’s apartments, and + everywhere taking precedence of the young queen; she was attended by her + own body of eunuchs, of whom, as well as of her private revenues, she had + absolute control. Those whom the queen-mother took under her protection + escaped punishment, even though they richly deserved it, but the object of + her hatred was doomed to perish in the end, either by poison treacherously + administered, or by some horrible form of torture, being impaled, + suffocated in ashes, tortured in the trough, or flayed alive. Artaxerxes + reigned for forty-two years, spending his time between the pleasures of + the chase and the harem; no serious trouble disturbed his repose after his + suppression of the revolt under Megabyzos, but on his death in 424 B.C. + there was a renewal of the intrigues and ambitious passions which had + stained with bloodshed the opening years of his reign. The legitimate + heir, Xerxes II., was assassinated, after a reign of forty-five days, by + Secudianus (Sogdianus), one of his illegitimate brothers, and the <i>cortège</i> + which was escorting the bodies of his parents conveyed his also to the + royal burying-place at Persepolis. Meanwhile Secudianus became suspicious + of another of his brothers, named Ochus, whom Artaxerxes had caused to + marry Parysatis, one of the daughters of Xerxes, and whom he had set over + the important province of Hyrcania. Ochus received repeated summonses to + appear in his brother’s presence to pay him homage, and at last obeyed the + mandate, but arrived at the head of an army. The Persian nobility rose at + his approach, and one by one the chief persons of the state declared + themselves in his favour: first Arbarius, commander of the cavalry; then + Arxanes, the satrap of Egypt; and lastly, the eunuch Artoxares, the ruler + of Armenia. These three all combined in urging Ochus to assume the <i>Edaris</i> + publicly, which he, with feigned reluctance, consented to do, and + proceeded, at the suggestion of Parysatis, to open negotiations with + Secudianus, offering to divide the regal power with him. Secudianus + accepted the offer, against the advice of his minister Menostanes, and + gave himself up into the hands of the rebels. He was immediately seized + and cast into the ashes, where he perished miserably, after a reign of six + months and fifteen days. + </p> + <p> + On ascending the throne, Ochus assumed the name of Darius. His + confidential advisers were three eunuchs, who ruled the empire in his name—Artoxares, + who had taken such a prominent part in the campaign which won him the + crown, Artibarzanes, and Athôos; but the guiding spirit of his government + was, in reality, his wife, the detestable Parysatis. She had already borne + him two children before she became queen; a daughter, Amestris, and a son, + Arsaces, who afterwards became king under the name of Artaxerxes. Soon + after the accession of her husband, she bore him a second son, whom she + named Cyrus, in memory of the founder of the empire, and a daughter, + Artostê; several other children were born subsequently, making thirteen in + all, but these all died in childhood, except one named Oxendras. Violent, + false, jealous, and passionately fond of the exercise of power, Parysatis + hesitated at no crime to rid herself of those who thwarted her schemes, + even though they might be members of her own family; and, not content with + putting them out of the way, she delighted in making them taste her hatred + to the full, by subjecting them to the most skilfully graduated + refinements of torture; she deservedly left behind her the reputation of + being one of the most cruel of all the cruel queens, whose memory was a + terror not only to the harems of Persia, but to the whole of the Eastern + world. The numerous revolts which broke out soon after her husband’s + accession, furnished occasions for the revelation of her perfidious + cleverness. All the malcontents of the reign of Artaxerxes, those who had + been implicated in the murder of Xerxes II., or who had sided with + Secudianus, had rallied round a younger brother of Darius, named Arsites, + and one of them, Artyphios, son of Megabyzos, took the field in Asia + Minor. Being supported by a large contingent of Greek mercenaries, he won + two successive victories at the opening of the campaign, but was + subsequently defeated, though his forces still remained formidable. But + Persian gold accomplished what Persian bravery had failed to achieve, and + prevailed over the mercenaries so successfully that all deserted him with + the exception of three Milesians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0033" id="linkBimage-0033"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:15%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/276.jpg" alt="276.jpg Darius II. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + Artyphios and Arsites, thus discouraged, committed the imprudence of + capitulating on condition of receiving a promise that their lives should + be spared, and that they should be well treated; but Parysatis persuaded + her husband to break his plighted word, and they perished in the ashes. + Their miserable fate did not discourage the satrap of Lydia, Pissuthnes, + who was of Achæmenian race: he entered the lists in 418 B.C., with the + help of the Athenians. The relations between the Persian empire and Greece + had continued fairly satisfactory since the peace of 449 B.C., and the few + outbreaks which had taken place had not led to any widespread disturbance. + The Athenians, absorbed in their quarrel with Sparta, preferred to close + their eyes to all side issues, lest the Persians should declare war + against them, and the satraps of Asia Minor, fully alive to the situation, + did not hesitate to take advantage of any pretext for recovering a part of + the territory they coveted: it was thus that they had seized Colophon + about 430 B.C., and so secured once more a port on the Ægean. Darius + despatched to oppose Pissuthnes a man of noble birth, named Tissaphernes, + giving him plenary power throughout the whole of the peninsula, and + Tissaphernes endeavoured to obtain by treachery the success he would with + difficulty have won on the field of battle: he corrupted by his darics + Lycon, the commander of the Athenian contingent, and Pissuthnes, suddenly + abandoned by his best auxiliaries, was forced to surrender at discretion. + He also was suffocated in the ashes, and Darius bestowed his office on + Tissaphernes. + </p> + <p> + But the punishment of Pissuthnes did not put an end to the troubles: his + son Amorges roused Caria to revolt, and with the title of king maintained + his independence for some years longer. While these incidents were taking + place, the news of the disasters in Sicily reached the East: as soon as it + was known in Susa that Athens had lost at Syracuse the best part of her + fleet and the choicest of her citizens, the moment was deemed favourable + to violate the treaty and regain control of the whole of Asia Minor. Two + noteworthy men were at that time set over the western satrapies, + Tissaphernes ruling at Sardes, and Tiribazus over Hellespontine Phrygia. + These satraps opened negotiations with Sparta at the beginning of 412 + B.C., and concluded a treaty with her at Miletus itself, by the terms of + which the Peloponnesians recognised the suzerainty of Darius over all the + territory once held by his ancestors in Asia, including the cities since + incorporated into the Athenian league. They hoped shortly to be strong + enough to snatch from him what they now ceded, and to set free once more + the Greeks whom they thus condemned to servitude after half a century of + independence, but their expectations were frustrated. The towns along the + coast fell one after another into the power of Tissaphernes, Amorges was + taken prisoner in lassos, and at the beginning of 411 B.C. there remained + to the Athenians in Ionia and Caria merely the two ports of Halicarnassus + and Notium, and the three islands of Cos, Samos, and Lesbos: from that + time the power of the great king increased from year to year, and weighed + heavily on the destinies of Greece. Meanwhile Darius II. was growing old, + and intrigues with regard to the succession were set on foot. Two of his + sons put forward claims to the throne: Arsaces had seniority in his + favour, but had been born when his father was still a mere satrap; Cyrus, + on the contrary, had been born in the purple, and his mother Parysatis was + passionately devoted to him.* Thanks to her manouvres, he was practically + created viceroy of Asia Minor in 407 B.C., with such abundant resources of + men and money at his disposal, that he was virtually an independent + sovereign. While he was consolidating his power in the west, his mother + endeavoured to secure his accession to the throne by intriguing at the + court of the aged king; if her plans failed, Cyrus was prepared to risk + everything by an appeal to arms. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Cyrus was certainly not more than seventeen years old in + 407 B.C., evening admitting that he was born immediately + after his father’s accession in 424-3 B.C. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0034" id="linkBimage-0034"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:13%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/279.jpg" alt="279.jpg Cyrus the Younger " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + He realised that the Greeks would prove powerful auxiliaries in such a + contingency; and as soon as he had set up his court at Sardes, he planned + how best to conciliate their favour, or at least to win over those whose + support was likely to be most valuable. Athens, as a maritime power, was + not in a position to support him in an enterprise which especially + required the co-operation of a considerable force of heavily armed + infantry. He therefore deliberately espoused the cause of the + Peloponnesians, and the support he gave them was not without its influence + on the issue of the struggle: the terrible day of Ægos Potamos was a day + of triumph for him as much as for the Lacedaemonians (405 B.C.). + </p> + <p> + His intimacy with Lysander, however, his constant enlistments of mercenary + troops, and his secret dealings with the neighbouring provinces, had + already aroused suspicion, and the satraps placed under his orders, + especially Tissaphernes, accused him to the king of treason. Darius + summoned him to Susa to explain his conduct (405 B.C.), and he arrived + just in time to be present at his father’s death (404), but too late to + obtain his designation as heir to the throne through the intervention of + his mother, Parysatis; Arsaces inherited the crown, and assumed the name + of Artaxerxes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0035" id="linkBimage-0035"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/280.jpg" alt="280.jpg Artaxerxes Mnemon " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a coin in the Cabinet des +Médailles. This coin, which was struck at Mallos, in +Cilicia, bears as a counter-mark the figure of a bull and +the name of the city of Issus. +</pre> + <p> + Cyrus entered the temple of Pasargadae surreptitiously during the + coronation ceremony, with the intention of killing his brother at the foot + of the altar; but Tissaphernes, warned by one of the priests, denounced + him, and he would have been put to death on the spot, had not his mother + thrown her arms around him and prevented the executioner from fulfilling + his office. Having with difficulty obtained pardon and been sent back to + his province, he collected thirty thousand Greeks and a hundred thousand + native troops, and, hastily leaving Sardes (401 B.C.), he crossed Asia + Minor, Northern Syria, and Mesopotamia, encountered the royal army at + Cunaxa, to the north of Babylon, and rashly met his end at the very moment + of victory. He was a brave, active, and generous prince, endowed with all + the virtues requisite to make a good Oriental monarch, and he had, + moreover, learnt, through contact with the Greeks, to recognise the weak + points of his own nation, and was fully determined to remedy them: his + death, perhaps, was an irreparable misfortune for his country. Had he + survived and supplanted the feeble Artaxerxes, it is quite possible that + he might have confirmed and strengthened the power of Persia, or, at + least, temporarily have arrested its decline. Having lost their leader, + his Asiatic followers at once dispersed; but the mercenaries did not lose + heart, and, crossing Asia and Armenia, gained at length the shores of the + Black Sea. Up to that time the Greeks had looked upon Persia as a compact + state, which they were sufficiently powerful to conquer by sea and hold in + check by land, but which they could not, without imprudence, venture to + attack within its own frontiers. The experience of the Ten Thousand was a + proof to them that a handful of men, deprived of their proper generals, + without guides, money, or provisions, might successfully oppose the + overwhelming forces of the great king, and escape from his clutches + without any serious difficulty. National discords prevented them from at + once utilising the experience they thus acquired, but the lesson was not + lost upon the court of Susa. The success of Lysander had been ensured by + Persian subsidies, and now Sparta hesitated to fulfil the conditions of + the treaty of Miletus; the Lacedæmonians demanded liberty once more for + the former allies of Athens, fostered the war in Asia in order to enforce + their claims, and their king Agesilaus, penetrating to the very heart of + Phrygia, would have pressed still further forward in the tracks of the Ten + Thousand, had not an opportune diversion been created in his rear by the + bribery of the Persians. Athens once more flew to arms: her fleet, in + conjunction with the Phoenicians, took possession of Cythera; the Long + Walls were rebuilt at the expense of the great king, and Sparta, recalled + by these reverses to a realisation of her position, wisely abandoned her + inclination for distant enterprises. Asia Minor was reconquered, and + Persia passed from the position of a national enemy to that of the friend + and arbiter of Greece; but she did so by force of circumstances only, and + not from having merited in any way the supremacy she attained. Her + military energy, indeed, was far from being exhausted; but poor + Artaxerxes, bewildered by the rivalries between his mother and his wives, + did not know how to make the most of the immense resources still at his + disposal, and he met with repeated checks as soon as he came face to face + with a nation and leaders who refused to stoop to treachery. He had no + sooner recovered possession of the Ægean littoral than Egypt was snatched + from his grasp by a new Pharaoh who had arisen in the Nile valley. The + peace had not been seriously disturbed in Egypt during the forty years + which had elapsed since the defeat of Inarus. Satrap had peaceably + succeeded satrap in the fortress of Memphis; the exhaustion of Libya had + pre-vented any movement on the part of Thannyras; the aged Amyrtæus had + passed from the scene, and his son, Pausiris, bent his neck submissively + to the Persian yoke. More than once, however, unexpected outbursts had + shown that the fires of rebellion were still smouldering. A Psammetichus, + who reigned about 445 B.C. in a corner of the Delta, had dared to send + corn and presents to the Athenians, then at war with Artaxerxes I., and + the second year of Darius II. had been troubled by a sanguinary sedition, + which, however, was easily suppressed by the governor then in power; + finally, about 410 B.C., a king of Egypt had, not without some show of + evidence, laid himself open to the charge of sending a piratical + expedition into Phoenician waters, an Arab king having contributed to the + enterprise.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The revolt mentioned by Ctesias has nothing to do with the + insurrection of the satrap of Egypt which is here referred + to, the date of which is furnished by the Syncellus. +</pre> + <p> + It was easy to see, moreover, from periodical revolts—such as that + of Megabyzos in Syria, those of Artyphios and Arsites, of Pissuthnes and + Amorges in Asia Minor—with what impunity the wrath of the great king + could be defied: it was not to be wondered at, therefore, that, about 405 + B.C., an enemy should appear in the heart of the Delta in the person of a + grandson and namesake of Amyrtæus. He did not at first rouse the whole + country to revolt, for Egyptian troops were still numbered in the army of + Artaxerxes at the battle of Cunaxa in 401 B.C.; but he succeeded in + establishing a regular native government, and struggled so resolutely + against the foreign domination that the historians of the sacred colleges + inscribed his name on the list of the Pharaohs. He is there made to + represent a whole dynasty, the XXVIIIth which lasted six years, coincident + with the six years of his reign. It was due to a Mendesian dynasty, + however, whose founder was Nephorites, that Egypt obtained its entire + freedom, and was raised once more to the rank of a nation. This dynasty + from the very outset adopted the policy which had proved so successful in + the case of the Saites three centuries previously, and employed it with + similar success. Egypt had always been in the position of a besieged + fortress, which needed, for its complete security, that its first lines of + defence should be well in advance of its citadel: she must either possess + Syria or win her as an ally, if she desired to be protected against all + chance of sudden invasion. Nephorites and his successors, therefore, + formed alliances beyond the isthmus, and even on the other side of the + Mediterranean, with Cyprus, Caria, and Greece, in one case to purchase + support, and in another to re-establish the ancient supremacy exercised by + the Theban Pharaohs.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is, at any rate, the idea given of him by Egyptian + tradition in the time of the Ptolemies, as results from a + passage in the <i>Demotic Rhapsody</i>, where his reign is + mentioned. +</pre> + <p> + Every revolt against the Persians, every quarrel among the satraps, helped + forward their cause, since they compelled the great king to suspend his + attacks against Egypt altogether or to prosecute them at wide intervals: + the Egyptians therefore fomented such quarrels, or even, at need, provoked + them, and played their game so well that for a long time they had to + oppose only a fraction of the Persian forces. Like the Saite Pharaohs + before them, they were aware how little reliance could be placed on native + troops, and they recruited their armies at great expense from the European + Greeks. This occurred at the time when mercenary forces were taking the + place of native levies throughout Hellas, and war was developing into a + lucrative trade for those who understood how to conduct it: adventurers, + greedy for booty, flocked to the standards of the generals who enjoyed the + best reputation for kindness or ability, and the generals themselves sold + their services to the highest bidder. The Persian kings took large + advantage of this arrangement to procure troops: the Pharaohs imitated + their example, and in the years which followed, the most experienced + captains, Iphicrates, Chabrias, and Timotheus, passed from one camp to + another, as often against the will as with the consent of their + fatherland. The power of Sparta was at her zenith when Nephorites ascended + the throne, and she was just preparing for her expedition to Phrygia. The + Pharaoh concluded an alliance with the Lacedomonians, and in 396 B.C. sent + to Agesilaus a fleet laden with arms, corn, and supplies, which, however, + was intercepted by Conon, who was at that moment cruising in the direction + of Rhodes in command of the Persian squadron. This misadventure and the + abrupt retreat of the Spartans from Asia Minor cooled the good will of the + Egyptian king towards his allies. Thinking that they had abandoned him, + and that he was threatened with an imminent attack on the shore of the + Delta, he assembled, probably at Pelusium, the forces he had apparently + intended for a distant enterprise. + </p> + <p> + Matters took longer to come to a crisis than he had expected. The retreat + of Agesilaus had not pacified the Ægean satrapies; after the disturbance + created by Cyrus the Younger, the greater number of the native tribes—Mysians, + Pisidians, people of Pontus and Paphlagonia—had shaken off the + Persian yoke, and it was a matter of no small difficulty to reduce them + once more to subjection. Their incessant turbulence gave Egypt time to + breathe and to organise new combinations. Cyprus entered readily into her + designs. Since the subjugation of that island in 445 B.C., the Greek + cities had suffered terrible oppression at the hands of the great king. + Artaxerxes I., despairing of reducing them to obedience, depended + exclusively for support on the Phoenician inhabitants of the island, who, + through his favour, regained so much vigour that in the space of less than + two generations they had recovered most of the ground lost during the + preceding centuries: Semitic rulers replaced the Achaean tyrants at + Salamis, and in most of the other cities, and Citium became what it had + been before the rise of Salamis, the principal commercial centre in the + island. Evagoras, a descendant of the ancient kings, endeavoured to + retrieve the Grecian cause: after driving out of Salamis Abdemon, its + Tyrian ruler, he took possession of all the other towns except Citium and + Amathus. This is not the place to recount the brilliant part played by + Evagoras, in conjunction with Conon, during the campaigns against the + Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. The activity he then displayed and the + ambitious designs he revealed soon drew upon him the dislike of the + Persian governors and their sovereign; and from 391 B.C. he was at open + war with Persia. He would have been unable, single-handed, to maintain the + struggle for any length of time, but Egypt and Greece were at his back, + ready to support him with money or arms. Hakoris had succeeded Nephorites + I. in 393 B.C.,* and had repulsed an attack of Artaxerxes between 390 and + 386.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The length of the reign of Nephorites I. is fixed at six + years by the lists of Manetho; the last-known date of his + reign is that of his fourth year, on a mummy-bandage + preserved in the Louvre. + + ** This war is alluded to by several ancient authors in + passages which have been brought together and explained by + Judeah; but unfortunately the detailed history of the + events is not known. +</pre> + <p> + He was not unduly exalted by his success, and had immediately taken wise + precautions in view of a second invasion. After safeguarding his western + frontier by concluding a treaty with the Libyans of Barca, he entered into + an alliance with Evagoras and the Athenians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0036" id="linkBimage-0036"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:27%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/287.jpg" alt="287.jpg Hakoris " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from Lepsius. +</pre> + <p> + He sent lavish gifts of corn to the Cypriots, as well as munitions of war, + ships, and money while Athens sent them several thousand men under the + command of Chabrias; not only did an expedition despatched against them + under Autophradates fail miserably, but Evagoras seized successively + Citium and Amathus, and, actually venturing across the sea, took Tyre by + assault and devastated Phoenicia and Cilicia. The princes of Asia Minor + were already preparing for revolt, and one of them, Hecatomnus of Caria, + had openly joined the allies, when Sparta suddenly opened negotiations + with Persia: Antalcidas presented himself at Susa to pay homage before the + throne of the great king. The treaty of Miletus had brought the efforts of + Athens to naught, and sold the Asiatic Greeks to their oppressors: the + peace obtained by Antalcidas effaced the results of Salamis and Platsæ, + and laid European Greece prostrate at the feet of her previously + vanquished foes. An order issuing from the centre of Persia commanded the + cities of Greece to suspend hostilities and respect each other’s + liberties; the issuing of such an order was equivalent to treating them as + vassals whose quarrels it is the function of the suzerain to repress, but + they nevertheless complied with the command (387 B.C.), Artaxerxes, + relieved from anxiety for the moment, as to affairs on the Ægean, was now + free to send his best generals into the rebel countries, and such was the + course his ministers recommended. Evagoras was naturally the first to be + attacked. Cyprus was, in fact, an outpost of Egypt; commanding as she did + the approach by sea, she was in a position to cut the communications of + any army, which, issuing from Palestine, should march upon the Delta. + Artaxerxes assembled three hundred thousand foot-soldiers and three + hundred triremes under the command of Tiribazus, and directed the whole + force against the island. At first the Cypriot cruisers intercepted the + convoys which were bringing provisions for this large force, and by so + doing reduced the invaders to such straits that sedition broke out in + their camp; but Evagoras was defeated at sea off the promontory of Citium, + and his squadron destroyed. He was not in any way discouraged by this + misfortune, but leaving his son, Pnytagoras, to hold the barbarian forces + in check, he hastened to implore the help of the Pharaoh (385 B.C.). But + Hakoris was too much occupied with securing his own immediate safety to + risk anything in so desperate an enterprise. Evagoras was able to bring + back merely an insufficient subsidy; he shut himself up in Salamis, and + there maintained the conflict for some years longer. Meanwhile Hakoris, + realising that the submission of Cyprus would oppose his flank to attack, + tried to effect a diversion in Asia Minor, and by entering into alliance + with the Pisidians, then in open insurrection, he procured for it a + respite, of which he himself took advantage to prepare for the decisive + struggle. The peace effected by Antalcidas had left most of the mercenary + soldiers of Greece without employment. Hakoris hired twenty thousand of + them, and the Phoenician admirals, still occupied in blockading the ports + of Cyprus, failed to intercept the vessels which brought him these + reinforcements. It was fortunate for Egypt that they did so, for the + Pharaoh died in 381 B.C., and his successors, Psamuthis IL, Mutis, and + Nephorites IL, each occupied the throne for a very short time, and the + whole country was in confusion for rather more than two years (381-379 + B.c.) during the settlement of the succession.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Hakoris reigned thirteen years, from 393 to 381 B.C. The + reigns of the three succeeding kings occupied only two years + and four months between them, from the end of 381 to the + beginning of 378. Muthes or Mutis, who is not mentioned in + all the lists of Manetho, seems to have his counterpart in + the <i>Demotic Rhapsody</i>. Wiedemann has inverted the order + usually adopted, and proposed the following series: + Nephorites I., Muthes, Psamuthis, Hakoris, Nephorites II. + The discovery at Karnak of a small temple where Psamuthis + mentions Hakoris as his predecessor shows that on this point + at least Manetho was well informed. +</pre> + <p> + The turbulent disposition of the great feudatory nobles, which had so + frequently brought trouble upon previous Pharaohs during the Assyrian + wars, was no less dangerous in this last century of Egyptian independence; + it caused the fall of the Mendesian dynasty in the very face of the enemy, + and the prince of Sebennytos, Nakht-har-habît, Nectanebo I., was raised to + the throne by the military faction. According to a tradition current in + Ptolemaic times, this sovereign was a son of Nephorites I., who had been + kept out of his heritage by the jealousy of the gods; whatever his origin, + the people had no cause to repent of having accepted him as their king. He + began his reign by suppressing the slender subsidies which Evagoras had + continued to receive from his predecessors, and this measure, if not + generous, was at least politic. For Cyprus was now virtually in the power + of the Persians, and the blockade of a few thousand men in Salamis did not + draught away a sufficiently large proportion of their effective force to + be of any service to Egypt: the money which had hitherto been devoted to + the Cypriots was henceforth reserved for the direct defence of the Nile + valley. Evagoras obtained unexpectedly favourable conditions: Artaxerxes + conceded to him his title of king and the possession of his city (383 + B.C.), and turned his whole attention to Nectanebo, the last of his + enemies who still held out. + </p> + <p> + Nectanebo had spared no pains in preparing effectively to receive his foe. + He chose as his coadjutor the Athenian Chabrias, whose capacity as a + general had been manifested by recent events, and the latter accepted this + office although he had received no instructions from his government to do + so, and had transformed the Delta into an entrenched camp. He had + fortified the most vulnerable points along the coast, had built towers at + each of the mouths of the river to guard the entrance, and had selected + the sites for his garrison fortresses so judiciously that they were kept + up long after his time to protect the country. Two of them are mentioned + by name: one, situated below Pelusium, called the Castle of Chabrias; the + other, not far from Lake Mareotis, which was known as his township.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Both are mentioned by Strabo; the exact sites of these two + places are not yet identified. Diodorus Siculus, describing + the defensive preparations of Egypt, does not state + expressly that they were the work of Chabrias, but this fact + seems to result from a general consideration of the context. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0037" id="linkBimage-0037"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/291.jpg" alt="291.jpg Pharnabazus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + The Persian generals endeavoured to make their means of attack + proportionate to the defences of the enemy. Acre was the only port in + Southern Syria large enough to form the rendezvous for a fleet, where it + might be secure from storms and surprises of the enemy. This was chosen as + the Persian headquarters, and formed the base of their operations. During + three years they there accumulated supplies of food and military stores, + Phoenician and Creek vessels, and both foreign and native troops. The + rivalries between the military commanders, Tithraustes, Datâmes, and + Abrocomas, and the intrigues of the court, had on several occasions + threatened the ruin of the enterprise, but Pharnabazus, who from the + outset had held supreme command, succeeded in ridding himself of his + rivals, and in the spring of 374 B.C. was at length ready for the advance. + The expedition consisted of two hundred thousand Asiatic troops, and + twenty thousand Greeks, three hundred triremes, two hundred galleys of + thirty oars, and numerous transports. Superiority of numbers was on the + side of the Persians, and that just at the moment when Nectanebo lost his + most experienced general. Artaxerxes had remonstrated with the Athenians + for permitting one of their generals to serve in Egypt, in spite of their + professed friendship for himself, and, besides insisting on his recall, + had requested for himself the services of the celebrated Iphicrates. The + Athenians complied with his demand, and while summoning Chabrias to return + to Athens, despatched Iphicrates to Syria, where he was placed in command + of the mercenary troops. Pharnabazus ordered a general advance in May, 374 + B.C.,* but when he arrived before Pelusium, he perceived that he was not + in a position to take the town by storm; not only had the fortifications + been doubled, but the banks of the canals had been cut and the approaches + inundated. Iphicrates advised him not to persevere in attempting a regular + siege: he contended that it would be more profitable to detach an + expeditionary force towards some less well-protected point on the coast, + and there to make a breach in the system of defence which protected the + enemies’ front. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * As Kenrick justly observes, “the Persian and Athenian + generals committed the same mistake which led to the defeat + of Saint Louis and the capture of his army in 1249 A.D., and + which Bonaparte avoided in his campaign of 1798.” Anyhow, it + seems that the fault must be laid on Pharnabazus alone, and + that Iphicrates was entirely blameless. +</pre> + <p> + Three thousand men were despatched with all secrecy to the mouth of the + Mendesian branch of the Nile, and there disembarked unexpectedly before + the forts which guarded the entrance. The garrison, having imprudently + made a sortie in face of the enemy, was put to rout, and pursued so hotly + that victors and vanquished entered pell-mell within the walls. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0038" id="linkBimage-0038"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:32%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/293.jpg" alt="293.jpg Artaxerxes II. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from +a silver stater in the +<i>Cabinet des Médailles</i>. +</pre> + <p> + After this success victory was certain, if the Persians pursued their + advantage promptly and pushed forward straight into the heart of the + Delta; the moment was the more propitious for such a movement, since + Nectanebo had drained Memphis of troops to protect his frontier. + Iphicrates, having obtained this information from one of the prisoners, + advised Pharnabazus to proceed up the Nile with the fleet, and take the + capital by storm before the enemy should have time to garrison it afresh; + the Persian general, however, considered the plan too hazardous, and + preferred to wait until the entire army should have joined him. Iphicrates + offered to risk the adventure with his body of auxiliary troops only, but + was suspected of harbouring some ambitious design, and was refused + permission to advance. Meanwhile these delays had given the Egyptians time + to recover from their first alarm; they boldly took the offensive, + surrounded the position held by Pharnabazus, and were victorious in + several skirmishes. Summer advanced, the Nile rose more rapidly than + usual, and soon the water encroached upon the land; the invaders were + obliged to beat a retreat before it, and fall back towards Syria. + Iphicrates, disgusted at the ineptitude and suspicion of his Asiatic + colleagues, returned secretly to Greece: the remains of the army were soon + after disbanded, and Egypt once more breathed freely. The check received + by the Persian arms, however, was not sufficiently notorious to shake that + species of supremacy which Artaxerxes had exercised in Greece since the + peace of 387. Sparta, Thebes, and Athens vied with each other in obtaining + an alliance with him as keenly as if he had been successful before + Pelusium. Antalcidas reappeared at Susa in 372 B.C. to procure a fresh act + of intervention; Pelopidas and Ismenias, in 367, begged for a rescript + similar to that of Antalcidas; and finally Athens sent a solemn embassy to + entreat for a subsidy. It seemed as if the great king had become a kind of + supreme arbiter for Greece, and that all the states hitherto leagued + against him now came in turn to submit their mutual differences for his + decision. But this arbiter who thus imposed his will on states beyond the + borders of his empire was never fully master within his own domains. Of + gentle nature and pliant disposition, inclined to clemency rather than to + severity, and, moreover, so lacking in judgment as a general that he had + almost succumbed to an attack by the Cadusians on the only occasion that + he had, in a whim of the moment, undertaken the command of an army in + person, Artaxerxes busied himself with greater zeal in religious reforms + than in military projects. He introduced the rites of Mithra and Anâhita + into the established religion of the state, but he had not the energy + necessary to curb the ambitions of his provincial governors. Asia Minor, + whose revolts followed closely on those of Egypt, rose in rebellion + against him immediately after the campaign on the Nile, Ariobarzanes + heading the rebellion in Phrygia, Datâmes and Aspis that in Cilicia and + Cappadocia, and both defying his power for several years. When at length + they succumbed through treachery, the satraps of the Mediterranean + district, from the Hellespont to the isthmus of Suez, formed a coalition + and simultaneously took the field: the break-up of the empire would have + been complete had not Persian darics been lavishly employed once more in + the affair. Meanwhile Nectanebo had died in 361,* and had been succeeded + by Tachôs.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The lists of Manetho assign ten or eighteen years to his + reign. A sarcophagus in Vienna bears the date of his + fifteenth year, and the great inscription of Edfu speaks of + gifts he made to the temple in this town in the eighteenth + year of his reign. The reading eighteen is therefore + preferable to the reading ten in the lists of Manetho; if + the very obscure text of the <i>Demotic Rhapsody</i> really + applies the number nine or ten to the length of the reign, + this reckoning must be explained by some mystic calculations + of the priests of the Ptolemaic epoch. + + ** The name of this king, written by the Greeks Teôs or + Tachôs, in accordance with the pronunciation of different + Egyptian dialects, has been discovered in hieroglyphic + writing on the external wall of the temple of Khonsu at + Karnak. +</pre> + <p> + The new Pharaoh deemed the occasion opportune to make a diversion against + Persia and to further secure his own safety: he therefore offered his + support to the satraps, who sent Eheomitres as a delegate to discuss the + terms of an offensive and defensive alliance. Having inherited from + Nectanebo a large fleet and a full treasury, Tachôs entrusted to the + ambassador 500 talents of silver, and gave him fifty ships, with which he + cruised along the coast of Asia Minor towards Leukê. His accomplices were + awaiting him there, rejoicing at the success of his mission, but he + himself had no confidence in the final issue of the struggle, and merely + sought how he might enter once more into favour with the Persian court; he + therefore secured his safety by betraying his associates. He handed over + the subsidies and the Egyptian squadron to Orontes, the satrap of + Daskylium, and then seizing the insurgent chiefs sent them in chains to + Susa. These acts of treachery changed the complexion of affairs; the + league suddenly dissolved after the imprisonment of its leaders, and + Arta-xerxes re-established his authority over Asia Minor. + </p> + <p> + Egypt became once more the principal object of attack, and by the irony of + fate Pharaoh had himself contributed to enrich the coffers and reinforce + the fleet of his foes. In spite of this mischance, however, circumstances + were so much in his favour that he ventured to consider whether it would + not be more advantageous to forestall the foe by attacking him, rather + than passively to await an onslaught behind his own lines. He had sought + the friendship of Athens,* and, though it had not been granted in explicit + terms, the republic had, nevertheless, permitted Ghabrias to resume his + former post at his side. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The memory of this embassy has been preserved for us by a + decree of the Athenian assembly, unfortunately much + mutilated, which has been assigned to various dates between + 362 and 358 B.C. M. Paul Foucart has shown that the date of + the decree must be referred to one of three archon-ships— + the archonship of Callimedes, 360-59; that of Eucharistus, + 359-8; or that of Cephisodotus, 358-7^ Without entering into + a discussion of the other evidence on the subject, it seems + to me probable that the embassy may be most conveniently + assigned to the archonship of Callimedes, towards the end of + 360 B.C., at the moment when Chabrias had just arrived in + Egypt, and was certain to endeavour to secure the help of + Athens for the king he served. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0039" id="linkBimage-0039"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/296.jpg" alt="296.jpg Datames III. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + Chabrias exhorted him to execute his project, and as he had not sufficient + money to defray the expenses of a long campaign outside his own borders, + the Athenian general instructed him how he might procure the necessary + funds. He suggested to him that, as the Egyptian priests were wealthy, the + sums of money annually assigned to them for the sacrifices and maintenance + of the temples would be better employed in the service of the state, and + counselled him to reduce or even to suppress most of the sacerdotal + colleges. The priests secured their own safety by abandoning their + personal property, and the king graciously deigned to accept their gifts, + and then declared to them that in future, as long as the struggle against + Persia continued, he should exact from them nine-tenths of their sacred + revenues. This tax would have sufficed for all requirements if it had been + possible to collect it in full, but there is no doubt that very soon the + priests must have discovered means of avoiding part of the payment, for it + was necessary to resort to other expedients. Chabrias advised that the + poll and house taxes should be increased; that one obol should be exacted + for each “ardeb” of corn sold, and a tithe levied on the produce of all + ship-building yards, manufactories, and manual industries. Money now + poured into the treasury, but a difficulty arose which demanded immediate + solution. Egypt possessed very little specie, and the natives still + employed barter in the ordinary transactions of life, while the foreign + mercenaries refused to accept payment in kind or uncoined metal; they + demanded good money as the price of their services. Orders were issued to + the natives to hand over to the royal exchequer all the gold and silver in + their possession, whether wrought or in ingots, the state guaranteeing + gradual repayment through the nomarchs from the future product of the + poll-tax, and the bullion so obtained was converted into specie for the + payment of the auxiliary troops. These measures, though winning some + unpopularity for Tachôs, enabled him to raise eighty thousand native + troops and ten thousand Greeks, to equip a fleet of two hundred vessels, + and to engage the best generals of the period. His eagerness to secure the + latter, however, was injurious to his cause. Having already engaged + Chabrias and obtained the good will of Athens, he desired also to gain the + help of Agesilaus and the favourable opinion of the Lacedaemonians. Though + now eighty years old, Agesilaus was still under the influence of cupidity + and vanity; the promise of being placed in supreme command enticed him, + and he set sail with one thousand hoplites. A disappointment awaited him + at the moment of his disembarkation: Tachôs gave him command of the + mercenary troops only, reserving for himself the general direction of + operations, and placing the whole fleet under the orders of Chabrias. The + aged hero, having vented his indignation by indulging a more than ordinary + display of Spartan rudeness, allowed himself to be appeased by abundant + presents, and assumed the post assigned to him. But soon after a more + serious subject of disagreement arose between him and his ally; Agesilaus + was disposed to think that Tachôs should remain quietly on the banks of + the Nile, and leave to his generals the task of conducting the campaign. + The ease with which mercenary leaders passed from one camp to the other, + according to the fancy of the moment, was not calculated to inspire the + Egyptian Pharaoh with confidence: he refused to comply with the wishes of + Agesilaus, and, entrusting the regency to one of his relatives, proceeded + to invade Syria. He found the Persians unprepared: they shut themselves up + in their strongholds, and the Pharaoh confided to his cousin Nectanebo, + son of the regent, the task of dislodging them. The war dragged on for + some time; discontent crept in among the native levies, and brought + treachery in its train. The fiscal measures which had been adopted had + exasperated the priests and the common people; complaints, at first only + muttered in fear, found bold expression as soon as the expeditionary force + had crossed the frontier. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0040" id="linkBimage-0040"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:24%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/299.jpg" alt="299.jpb Nectanebo I " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher- +Gudin, from Lepsius. +</pre> + <p> + The regent secretly encouraged the malcontents, and wrote to his son + warning him of what was going on, and advised him to seize the crown. + Nectanebo could easily have won over the Egyptian troops to his cause, but + their support would have proved useless as long as the Greeks did not + pronounce in his favour, and Chabrias refused to break his oaths. + Agesilaus, however, was not troubled by the same scruples. His vanity had + been sorely wounded by the Pharaoh: after being denied the position which + was, he fancied, his by right, his short stature, his ill-health, and + native coarseness had exposed him to the unseemly mockery of the + courtiers. Tachôs, considering his ability had been over-estimated, + applied to him, it is said, the fable of the mountain bringing forth a + mouse; to which he had replied, “When opportunity offers, I will prove to + him that I am the lion.” When Tachôs requested him to bring the rebels to + order, he answered ironically that he was there to help the Egyptians, not + to attack them; and before giving his support to either of the rival + claimants, he should consult the Ephors. The Ephors enjoined him to act in + accordance with the welfare of his country, and he thereupon took the side + of Nectanebo, despite the remonstrances of Chabrias. Tachôs, deserted by + his veterans, fled to Sidon, and thence to Susa, where Artaxerxes received + him hospitably and without reproaching him (359 B.C.); but the news of his + fall was not received on the banks of the Nile with as much rejoicing as + he had anticipated. The people had no faith in any revolution in which the + Greeks whom they detested took the chief part, and the feudal lords + refused to acknowledge a sovereign whom they had not themselves chosen; + they elected one of their number—the prince of Mendes—to + oppose Nectanebo. The latter was obliged to abandon the possessions won by + his predecessor, and return with his army to Egypt: he there encountered + the forces of his enemy, which, though as yet undisciplined, were both + numerous and courageous. Agesilaus counselled an immediate attack before + these troops had time to become experienced in tactics, but he no longer + stood well at court; the prince of Mendes had endeavoured to corrupt him, + and, though he had shown unexpected loyalty, many, nevertheless, suspected + his good faith. Nectanebo set up his headquarters at Tanis, where he was + shortly blockaded by his adversary. It is well known how skilfully the + Egyptians handled the pick-axe, and how rapidly they could construct walls + of great strength; the circle of entrenchments was already near + completion, and provisions were beginning to fail, when Agesilaus received + permission to attempt a sortie. He broke through the besieging lines under + cover of the night, and some days later won a decisive victory (359 B.C.). + Nectanebo would now have gladly kept the Spartan general at his side, for + he was expecting a Persian attack; but Agesilaus, who had had enough of + Egypt and its intrigues, deserted his cause, and shortly afterwards died + of exhaustion on the coast near Cyrene. The anticipated Persian invasion + followed shortly after, but it was conducted without energy or decision. + Artaxerxes had entrusted the conduct of the expedition to Tachôs, + doubtless promising to reinstate him in his former power as satrap or + vassal king of Egypt, but Tachôs died before he could even assume his + post,* and the discords which rent the family of the Persian king + prevented the generals who replaced him from taking any effective action. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ælian narrates, probably following Dinon, that Tachôs died + of dysentery due to over-indulgence at dinner. +</pre> + <p> + The aged Artaxerxes had had, it was reported, one hundred and fifteen sons + by the different women in his harem, but only three of those by his queen + Statira were now living—Darius, Ariaspes, and Ochus. Darius, the + eldest of the three, had been formally recognised as heir-apparent—perhaps + at the time of the disastrous war against the Cadusians* —but the + younger brother, Ochus, who secretly aspired to the throne, had managed to + inspire him with anxiety with regard to the succession, and incited him to + put the aged king out of the way. Contemporary historians, ill informed as + to the intrigues in the palace, whose effects they noted without any + attempt to explore their intricacies, invented several stories to account + for the conduct of the young prince. Some assigned as the reason of his + conspiracy a romantic love-affair. They said that Cyrus the Younger had + had an Ionian mistress named Aspasia, who, after the fatal battle of + Cunaxa, had been taken into the harem of the conqueror, and had captivated + him by her beauty. Darius conceived a violent passion for this damsel, and + his father was at first inclined to give her up to him, but afterwards, + repenting of his complaisance, consecrated her to the service of Mithra, a + cult which imposed on her the obligation of perpetual chastity. Darius, + exasperated by this treatment, began to contemplate measures of vengeance, + but, being betrayed by his brother Ochus, was put to death with his whole + family.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Pompeius Trogus asserts that such co-regencies were + contrary to Persian law; we have seen above that, on the + contrary, they were obligatory when the sovereign was + setting out on a campaign. + + ** This is the version of the story given by Dinon and + accepted by Pompoius Trogus. A chronological calculation + easily demonstrates its unlikelihood. It follows from the + evidence given by Justin himself that Artaxerxes died of + grief soon after the execution of his son; but, on the other + hand, that the battle of Cunaxa took place in 400 B.C.: + Aspasia must then have been fifty or sixty years old when + Darius fell in love with her. +</pre> + <p> + By the removal of this first obstacle the crafty prince found himself only + one step nearer success, for his brother Ariaspes was acknowledged as + heir-apparent: Ochus therefore persuaded him that their father, convinced + of the complicity of Ariaspes in the plot imputed to Darius, intended to + put him to an ignominious death, and so worked upon him that he committed + suicide to escape the executioner. A bastard named Arsames, who might + possibly have aspired to the crown, was assassinated by Ochus. This last + blow was too much for Artaxerxes, and he died of grief after a reign of + forty-six years (358 B.C.).* Ochus, who immediately assumed the name of + Artaxerxes, began his reign by the customary massacre: he put to death all + the princes of the royal family,** and having thus rid himself of all the + rival claimants to the supreme power, he hastened on preparations for the + war with Egypt which had been interrupted by his father’s death and his + own accession. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the length attributed by Plutarch to this reign, + and which is generally accepted. It was narrated in after- + days that the king kept the fact of his father’s death + hidden for ten months, but it is impossible to tell how much + truth there is in this statement, which was accepted by + Dinon. + + ** According to the author followed by Pompeius Trogus, the + princesses themselves were involved in this massacre. This + is certainly an exaggeration, for we shall shortly see that + Darius III., the last king of Persia, was accounted to be + the grandson of Darius II.; the massacre can only have + involved the direct heirs of Artaxerxes. +</pre> + <p> + The necessity for restoring Persian dominion on the banks of the Nile was + then more urgent than at any previous time. During the half-century which + had elapsed since the recovery of her independence, Egypt had been a + perpetual source of serious embarrassment to the great king. The + contemporaries of Amyrtseus, whether Greeks or barbarians, had at first + thought that his revolt was nothing more than a local rising, like many a + previous one which had lasted but a short time and had been promptly + suppressed. But when it was perceived that the native dynasties had taken + a hold upon the country, and had carried on a successful contest with + Persia, in spite of the immense disproportion in their respective + resources; when not only the bravest soldiers of Asia, but the best + generals of Greece, had miserably failed in their attacks on the frontier + of the Delta, Phoenicia and Syria began to think whether what was possible + in Africa might not also be possible in Asia. From that time forward, + whenever a satrap or vassal prince meditated revolt, it was to Egypt that + he turned as a natural ally, and from Egypt he sought the means to carry + out his project; however needy the Pharaoh of that day might be, he was + always able to procure for such a suitor sufficient money, munitions of + war, ships, and men to enable him to make war against the empire. The + attempt made by Ochus failed, as all previous attempts had done: the two + adventurers who commanded the forces of Nectanebo, the Athenian Diophantes + and Lamius of Sparta, inflicted a disastrous defeat on the imperial + troops, and forced them to beat a hasty retreat. This defeat was all the + more serious in its consequences because of the magnitude of the efforts + which had been made: the king himself was in command of the troops, and + had been obliged to turn his back precipitately on the foe. The Syrian + provinces, which had been in an unsettled condition ever since the + invasion under Tachôs, flew to arms; nine petty kings of Cyprus, including + Evagoras II., nephew of the famous prince of that name, refused to pay + tribute, and Artabazus roused Asia Minor to rebellion. The Phoenicians + still hesitated; but the insolence of their satrap, the rapacity of the + generals who had been repulsed from Egypt, and the lack of discipline in + the Persian army forced them to a decision. In a convention summoned at + Tripoli, the representatives of the Phoenician cities conferred on Tennes, + King of Sidon, the perilous honour of conducting the operations of the + confederate army, and his first act was to destroy the royal villa in the + Lebanon, and his next to burn the provisions which had been accumulated in + various ports in view of the Egyptian war (351-350 B.C.). + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0041" id="linkBimage-0041"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:18%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/305.jpg" + alt="305.jpg Evagoras Ii. Of Salamis " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + Ochus imagined at the outset that his generals would soon suppress these + rebellions, and, in fact, Idrieus, tyrant of Caria, supported by eight + thousand mercenaries under the Athenian Phocion, overcame the petty + tyrants of Cyprus without much difficulty; but in Asia Minor, Artabazus, + supported by Athens and Thebes, held at bay the generals sent to oppose + him, and Tennes won a signal victory in Syria. He turned for support to + Egypt, and Nectanebo, as might be expected, put Greek troops at his + disposal to the number of four thousand, commanded by one of his best + generals, Mentor of Ehodes: Belesys, the satrap of Syria, and Mazseus, + satrap of Cilicia, suffered a total defeat. Ochus, exasperated at their + want of success, called out every available soldier, three hundred + thousand Asiatics and ten thousand Greeks; the Sidonians, on their side, + dug a triple trench round their city, raised their ramparts, and set fire + to their ships, to demonstrate their intention of holding out to the end. + Unfortunately, their king, Tennes, was not a man of firm resolution. + Hitherto he had lived a life of self-indulgence, surrounded by the women + of his harem, whom he had purchased at great cost in Ionia and Greece, and + had made it the chief object of his ambition to surpass in magnificence + the most ostentatious princes of Cyprus, especially Nicocles of Salamis, + son of Evagoras. The approach of Ochus confused his scanty wits; he + endeavoured to wipe out his treachery towards his suzerain by the betrayal + of his own subjects. He secretly despatched his confidential minister, a + certain Thessalion, to the Persian camp, promising to betray Sidon to the + Persian king, and to act as his guide into Egypt on condition of having + his life preserved and his royal rank guaranteed to him. Ochus had already + agreed to these conditions, when an impulse of vanity on his part nearly + ruined the whole arrangement. Thessalion, not unreasonably doubting the + king’s good faith, had demanded that he should swear by his right hand to + fulfil to the letter all the clauses of the treaty; whereupon Ochus, whose + dignity was offended by this insistence, gave orders for the execution of + the ambassador. But as the latter was being dragged away, he cried out + that the king could do as he liked, but that if he disdained the help of + Tennes, he would fail in his attacks both upon Phonicia and Egypt. These + words produced a sudden reaction, and Thessalion obtained all that he + demanded. When the Persians had arrived within a few days’ march of Sidon, + Tennes proclaimed that a general assembly of the Phoenician deputies was + to be held, and under pretext of escorting the hundred leading men of his + city to the appointed place of meeting, led them into the enemy’s camp, + where they were promptly despatched by the javelins of the soldiery. The + Sidonians, deserted by their king, were determined to carry on the + struggle, in the expectation of receiving succour from Egypt; but the + Persian darics had already found their way into the hands of the mercenary + troops, and the general whom Nectanebo had lent them, declared that his + men considered the position desperate, and that he should surrender the + city at the first summons. The Sidonians thereupon found themselves + reduced to the necessity of imploring the mercy of the conqueror, and five + hundred of them set out to meet him as suppliants, carrying olive branches + in their hands. Bub Ochus was the most cruel monarch who had ever reigned + in Persia—the only one, perhaps, who was really bloodthirsty by + nature; he refused to listen to the entreaties of the suppliants, and, + like the preceding hundred delegates, they were all slain. The remaining + citizens, perceiving that they could not hope for pardon, barricaded + themselves in their houses, to which they set fire with their own hands; + forty thousand persons perished in the flames, and so great was the luxury + in the appointments of the private houses, that large sums were paid for + the right to dig for the gold and silver ornaments buried in the ruins. + The destruction of the city was almost as complete as in the days of + Esarhaddon. When Sidon had thus met her fate, the Persians had no further + reason for sparing its king, Tennes, and he was delivered to the + executioner; whereupon the other Phoenician kings, terrified by his fate, + opened their gates without a struggle. + </p> + <p> + Once more the treachery of a few traitors had disconcerted the plans of + the Pharaoh, and delivered the outposts of Egypt into the hands of the + enemy: but Ochus renewed his preparations with marvellous tenacity, and + resolved to neglect nothing which might contribute to his final success. + His victories had confirmed the cities of the empire in their loyalty, and + they vied with one another in endeavouring to win oblivion for their + former hesitation by their present zeal: “What city, or what nation of + Asia did not send embassies to the sovereign? what wealth did they not + lavish on him, whether the natural products of the soil, or the rare and + precious productions of art? Did he not receive a quantity of tapestry and + woven hangings, some of purple, some of diverse colours, others of pure + white? many gilded pavilions, completely furnished, and containing an + abundant supply of linen and sumptuous beds? chased silver, wrought gold, + cups and bowls, enriched with precious stones, or valuable for the + perfection and richness of their work? He also received untold supplies of + barbarian and Grecian weapons, and still larger numbers of draught cattle + and of sacrificial victims, bushels of preserved fruits, bales and sacks + full of parchments or books, and all kinds of useful articles? So great + was the quantity of salted meats which poured in from all sides, that from + a distance the piles might readily be mistaken for rows of hillocks or + high mounds.” The land-force was divided into three corps, each under a + barbarian and a Greek general. It advanced along the sea coast, following + the ancient route pursued by the armies of the Pharaohs, and as it skirted + the marshes of Sirbonis, some detachments, having imprudently ventured + over the treacherous soil, perished to a man. When the main force arrived + in safety before Pelusium, it found Nectanebo awaiting it behind his + ramparts and marshes. He had fewer men than his adversary, his force + numbering only six thousand Egyptians, twenty thousand Libyans, and the + same number of Greeks; but the remembrance of the successes won by himself + and his predecessors with inferior numbers inspired him with confidence in + the issue of the struggle. His fleet could not have ventured to meet in + battle the combined squadrons of Cyprus and Phoenicia, but, on the other + hand, he had a sufficient number of flat-bottomed boats to prevent any + adversary from entering the mouths of the Nile. The weak points along his + Mediterranean seaboard and eastern frontier were covered by strongholds, + fortifications, and entrenched camps: in short, his plans were + sufficiently well laid to ensure success in a defensive war, if the rash + ardour of his Greek mercenaries had not defeated his plans. Five thousand + of these troops were in occupation of Pelusium, under command of + Philophrôn. Some companies of Thebans, who were serving under Lacrates in + the Persian army, crossed a deep canal which separated them from the city, + and provoked the garrison to risk an encounter in the open field. + Philophrôn, instead of treating their challenge with indifference, + accepted it, and engaged in a combat which lasted till nightfall. On the + following day, Lacrates, having drawn off the waters of the canal and + thrown a dyke across it, led his entire force up to the glacis of the + fortifications, dug some trenches, and brought up a line of + battering-rams. He would soon have effected a breach, but the Egyptians + understood how to use the spade as well as the lance, and while the outer + wall was crumbling, they improvised behind it a second wall, crowned with + wooden turrets. Nectanebo, who had come up with thirty thousand native, + five thousand Greek troops, and half the Libyan contingent, observed the + vicissitudes of the siege from a short distance, and by his presence alone + opposed the advance of the bulk of the Persian army. Weeks passed by, the + time of the inundation was approaching, and it seemed as if this policy of + delay would have its accustomed success, when an unforeseen incident + decided in a moment the fate of Egypt. Among the officers of Ochus was a + certain Nicostratus of Argos, who on account of his prodigious strength + was often compared to Heracles, and who out of vanity dressed himself up + in the traditional costume of that hero, the lion’s skin and the club. + Having imbibed, doubtless, the ideas formerly propounded by Iphicrates, + Nicostratus forced some peasants, whose wives and children he had seized + as hostages, to act as his guides, and made his way up one of the canals + which traverse the marshes of Menzaleh: there he disembarked his men in + the rear of Nectanebo, and took up a very strong position on the border of + the cultivated land. This enterprise, undertaken with a very insufficient + force, was an extremely rash one; if the Egyptian generals had contented + themselves with harassing Nicostratus without venturing on engaging him in + a pitched battle, they would speedily have forced him to re-embark or to + lay down his arms. Unfortunately, however, five thousand mercenaries, who + formed the garrison of one of the neighbouring towns, hastened to attack + him under the command of Clinias of Cos, and suffered a severe defeat. As + a result, the gates of the town were thrown open to the enemy, and if the + Persians, encouraged by the success of this forlorn hope, had followed it + up boldly, Nectanebo would have run the risk of being cut off from his + troops which were around Pelusium, and of being subsequently crushed. He + thought it wiser to retreat towards the apex of the Delta, but this very + act of prudence exposed him to one of those accidental misfortunes which + are wont to occur in armies formed of very diverse elements. While he was + concentrating his reserves at Memphis, the troops of the first line + thought that, by leaving them exposed to the assaults of the great king, + he was deliberately sacrificing them. Pelusium capitulated to Lacrates; + Mentor of Ehodes pushed forward and seized Bubastis, and the other cities + in the eastern portion of the Delta, fearing to bring upon themselves the + fate of Sidon, opened their gates to the Persians after a mere show of + resistance. The forces which had collected at Memphis thereupon disbanded, + and Nectanebo, ruined by these successive disasters, collected his + treasures and fled to Ethiopia. The successful issue of the rash + enterprise of Nicostratus had overthrown the empire of the Pharaohs, and + re-established the Persian empire in its integrity (342 B.C.).* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The complete history of this war is related by Diodorus + Siculus, who generally follows the narrative of Theopompus. + The chronology is still sufficiently uncertain to leave some + doubt as to the exact date of each event; I have followed + that arrangement which seems to accord best with the general + history of the period. The following table may be drawn up + of the last Egyptian dynasties as far as they can be + restored at present:— +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0042" id="linkBimage-0042"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/312.jpg" width="100%" + alt="312.jpg Table of the Last Egyptian Dynasties " /> + </div> + <p> + Egypt had prospered under the strong rule of its last native Pharaohs. + Every one of them, from Amyrtous down to Nectanebo, had done his best to + efface all traces of the Persian invasions and restore to the country the + appearance which it had presented before the days of its servitude; even + kings like Psamutis and Tachôs, whose reign had been of the briefest, had, + like those who ruled for longer periods, constructed or beautified the + monuments of the country. The Thebaid was in this respect a special field + of their labours. The island of Philæ, exposed to the ceaseless attacks of + the Ethiopians, had been reduced to little more than a pile of ruins. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0043" id="linkBimage-0043"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/313.jpg" width="100%" + alt="313.jpg Small Temple of Nectanebo, at the Southern Extremity of Philae " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + Nectanebo II. erected a magnificent gate there, afterwards incorporated + into the first pylon of the temple built by the Ptolemies, and one at + least of the buildings that still remain, the charming rectangular kiosk, + the pillars of which, with their Hathor capitals, rise above the southern + extremity of the island and mark the spot at which the Ethiopian pilgrims + first set foot on the sacred territory of the bountiful Isis. Nectanebo I. + restored the sanctuaries of Nekhabît at El-Kab, and of Horus at Edfu, in + which latter place he has left an admirable naos which delights the modern + traveller by its severe proportions and simplicity of ornament, while + Nectanebo II. repaired the ancient temple of Mînu at Coptos; in short, + without giving a detailed list of what was accomplished by each of these + later Pharaohs, it may be said that there are few important sites in the + valley of the Nile where some striking evidence of their activity may not + still be discovered even after the lapse of so many centuries. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0044" id="linkBimage-0044"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/314.jpg" width="100%" + alt="314.jpg Naos of Nectanebo in the Temple at Edfu " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + It will be sufficient to mention Thebes, Memphis, Sebennytos, Bubastis, + Pahabît, Patumu, and Tanis. Nor did the Theban oases, including that of + Amon himself, escape their zeal, for the few Europeans who have visited + them in modern times have observed their cartouches there. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0045" id="linkBimage-0045"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/315.jpg" width="100%" + alt="315.jpg Great Gate of Nectanebo at Karnak " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Beato. +</pre> + <p> + Moreover, in spite of the brief space of time within which they were + carried out, the majority of these works betray no signs of haste or + slipshod execution; the craftsmen employed on them seem to have preserved + in their full integrity all the artistic traditions of earlier times, and + were capable of producing masterpieces which will bear comparison with + those of the golden age. The Eastern gate, erected at Karnak in the time + of Nectanebo II., is in no way inferior either in purity of proportion or + in the beauty of its carvings to what remains of the gates of Amenôthes + III. + </p> + <p> + The sarcophagus of Nectanebo I. is carved and decorated with a perfection + of skill which had never been surpassed in any age, and elsewhere, on all + the monuments which bear the name of this monarch the hieroglyphics have + been designed and carved with as much care as though each one of them had + been a precious cameo.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The sarcophagus was for a long time preserved near the + mosque of Ibn-Tulun, and was credited with peculiar virtues + by the superstitious inhabitants of Cairo. +</pre> + <p> + The basalt torso of Nectanebo II., which attracts so much admiration in + the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris for accuracy of proportion and + delicacy of modelling, deserves to rank with the finest statues of the + ancient empire. The men’s heads are veritable portraits, in which such + details as a peculiar conformation of the skull, prominent cheekbones, + deep-set eyes, sunken cheeks, or the modelling of the chin, have all been + observed and reproduced with a fidelity and keenness of observation which + we fail to find in such works of the earlier artists as have come down to + us. These later sculptors display the same regard for truth in their + treatment of animals, and their dog-headed divinities; their dogs, lions, + and sphinxes will safely bear comparison with the most lifelike + presentments of these creatures to be found among the remains of the + Memphite or Theban eras. Egypt was thus in the full tide of material + prosperity when it again fell under the Persian yoke, and might have + become a source of inexhaustible wealth to Ochus had he known how to + secure acceptance of his rule, as Darius, son of Hystaspes, had done in + the days of Amasis. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0047" id="linkBimage-0047"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/317.jpg" width="100%" + alt="317.jpg One of the Lions in The Vatican " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photograph by Flinders Pétrie. +</pre> + <p> + The violence of his temperament, however, impelled him to a course of + pitiless oppression, and his favourite minister, the eunuch Bagoas, seems + to have done his best to stimulate his master’s natural cruelty. In the + days when they felt themselves securely protected from his anger by their + Libyan and Greek troops, the fellahîn had freely indulged in lampoons at + the expense of their Persian suzerain; they had compared him to Typhon on + account of his barbarity, and had nicknamed him “the Ass,” this animal + being in their eyes a type of everything that is vile. On his arrival at + Memphis, Ochus gave orders that an ass should be installed in the temple + of Phtah, and have divine honours paid to it; he next had the bull Apis + slaughtered and served up at a set banquet which he gave to his friends on + taking possession of the White Wall. The sacred goat of Mendes suffered + the same fate as the Apis, and doubtless none of the other sacred animals + were spared. Bagoas looted the temples in the most systematic way, + despatched the sacred books to Persia, razed the walls of the cities to + the ground, and put every avowed partisan of the native dynasty to the + sword. After these punitive measures had been carried out, Ochus disbanded + his mercenaries and returned to Babylon, leaving Pherendates in charge of + the reconquered province.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It seems that a part of the atrocities committed by Ochus + and Bagoas soon came to be referred to the time of the + “Impure” and to that of Cambyses. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0046" id="linkBimage-0046"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/316.jpg" + alt="316.jpg Fragment of a Naos Of the Time Of Nectanebo Ii. In the Bologna Museum " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Flinders Pétrie. +</pre> + <p> + The downfall of Egypt struck terror into the rebellious satraps who were + in arms elsewhere. Artabazus, who had kept Asia Minor in a ferment ever + since the time of Artaxerxes II., gave up the struggle of his own accord + and took refuge in Macedonia. The petty kings of the cities on the shores + of the Hellespont and the Ægean submitted themselves in order to regain + favour, or if, like Hermias of Atarnasa, the friend of Aristotle, they + still resisted, they were taken prisoners and condemned to death. The + success of Ochus was a reality, but there was still much to be done before + things were restored to the footing they had occupied before the crisis. + We know enough of the course of events in the western provinces to realise + the pitch of weakness to which the imbecility of Darius II. and his son + Artaxerxes II. had reduced the empire of Darius and Xerxes, but it is + quite certain that the disastrous effects of their misgovernment were not + confined to the shores of the Mediterranean, but were felt no less acutely + in the eastern and central regions of the empire. There, as on the Greek + frontiers, the system built up at the cost of so much ingenuity by Darius + was gradually being broken down with each year that passed, and the + central government could no longer make its power felt at the extremities + of the empire save at irregular intervals, when its mandates were not + intercepted or nullified in transmission. The functions of the “Eyes” and + “Ears” of the king had degenerated into a mere meaningless formality, and + were, more often than not, dispensed with altogether. The line of + demarcation between the military and civil power had been obliterated: not + only had the originally independent offices of satrap, general, and + secretary ceased to exist in each separate province, but, in many + instances, the satrap, after usurping the functions of his two colleagues, + contrived to extend his jurisdiction till it included several provinces, + thus establishing himself as a kind of viceroy. Absorbed in disputes among + themselves, or in conspiracies against the Achsemenian dynasty, these + officials had no time to look after the well-being of the districts under + their control, and the various tribes and cities took advantage of this to + break the ties of vassalage. To take Asia Minor alone, some of the petty + kings of Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and certain districts of Cappadocia or the + mountainous parts of Phrygia still paid their tribute intermittently, and + only when compelled to do so; others, however, such as the Pisidians, + Lycaonians, a part of the Lycians, and some races of Mount Taurus, no + longer dreamed of doing so. The three satrapies on the shores of the + Caspian, which a hundred years before had wedged themselves in between + that sea and the Euxine, were now dissolved, all trace of them being lost + in a confused medley of kingdoms and small states, some of which were + ready enough to acknowledge the supremacy of Persia, while others, such as + the Gordiseans, Taochi, Chalybes, Colchi, Mosynoki, and Tibarenians, + obeyed no rule but their own. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0048" id="linkBimage-0048"> + <!-- IMG --></a> <a href="images/320.jpg">ENLARGE TO FULL SIZE</a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="320th (163K) Map of the Persian Empire" src="images/320th.jpg" + width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> [Click on the Map to enlarge it to full size.] + </p> + <p> + All along the Caspian, the Cadusians and Amardians, on either side of the + chain of mountains bordering the Iranian plateau, defied all the efforts + made to subdue them.* India and the Sakse had developed from the condition + of subjects into that of friendly allies, and the savage hordes of + Gedrosia and the Paropamisus refused to recognise any authority at all.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * They appear in the history of every epoch as the + irreconcilable foes of the great king, enemies against whom + even the most peacefully disposed sovereigns were compelled + to take the field in person. + + ** The Sakæ fought at Arbela, but only as allies of the + Persians. The Indians who are mentioned with them came from + the neighbourhood of Cabul; most of the races who had + formerly figured in Darius’ satrapy of India had become + independent by the time Alexander penetrated into the basin + of the Indus. +</pre> + <p> + The whole empire needed to be reconquered and reorganised bit by bit if it + was to exercise that influence in the world to which its immense size + entitled it, and the question arose whether the elements of which it + consisted would lend themselves to any permanent reorganisation or + readjustment. + </p> + <p> + The races of the ancient Eastern world, or, at any rate, that portion of + them which helped to make its history, either existed no longer or had + sunk into their dotage. They had worn each other out in the centuries of + their prime, Chaldæans and Assyrians fighting against Cossæans or + Elamites, Egyptians against Ethiopians and against Hittites, Urartians, + Armæans, the peoples of Lebanon and of Damascus, the Phoenicians, + Canaanites and Jews, until at last, with impoverished blood and flagging + energies, they were thrown into conflict with younger and more vigorous + nations. The Medes had swept away all that still remained of Assyria and + Urartu; the Persians had overthrown the Medes, the Lydians, and the + Chaldæans, till Egypt alone remained and was struck down by them in her + turn. What had become of these conquered nations during the period of + nearly two hundred years that the Achæmenians had ruled over them? First, + as regards Elam, one of the oldest and formerly the most powerful of them + all. She had been rent into two halves, each of them destined to have a + different fate. In the mountains, the Uxians, Mardians, Elymasans, and + Cossæans—tribes who had formerly been the backbone of the nation—had + relapsed into a semi-barbarous condition, or rather, while the rest of the + world had progressed in civilization and refinement, they had remained in + a state of stagnation, adhering obstinately to the customs of their palmy + days: just as they had harried the Chaldæans or Assyrians in the olden + times, so now they harried the Persians; then, taking refuge in their + rocky fastnesses, they lived on the proceeds of their forays, successfully + resisting all attempts made to dislodge them. The people of the plains, on + the other hand, kept in check from the outset by the presence of the court + at Susa, not only promptly resigned themselves to their fate, but even + took pleasure in it, and came to look upon themselves as in some sort the + masters of Asia. Was it not to their country, to the very spot occupied by + the palace of their king, that, for nearly two hundred years, satraps, + vassal kings, the legates of foreign races, ambassadors of Greek republics—in + a word, all the great ones of this world—came every year to render + homage, and had not the treasures which these visitors brought with them + been expended, in part at any rate, on their country? The memory of their + former prosperity paled before the splendours of their new destiny, and + the glory of their ancestors suffered eclipse. The names of the national + kings, the story of their Chaldæan and Syrian conquests, the trophies of + their victories over the great generals of Nineveh, the horrors of their + latest discords and of the final catastrophe were all forgotten; even the + documents which might have helped to recall them lay buried in the heart + of the mound which served as a foundation for the palace of the + Achgernenides. Beyond the vague consciousness of a splendid past, the + memory of the common people was a blank, and when questioned by strangers + they could tell them nothing save legends of the gods or the exploits of + mythical heroes; and from them the Greeks borrowed their Memnon, that son + of Tithonus and Eôs who rushed to the aid of Priam with his band of + Ethiopians, and whose prowess had failed to retard by a single day the + downfall of Troy. Further northwards, the Urartians and peoples of ancient + Naîri, less favoured by fortune, lost ground with each successive + generation, yielding to the steady pressure of the Armenians. In the time + of Herodotus they were still in possession of the upper basins of the + Euphrates and Araxus, and, in conjunction with the Matieni and Saspires, + formed a satrapy—the eighteenth—the boundaries of which + coincided pretty closely with those of the kingdom ruled over by the last + kings of Van in the days of Assur-bani-pal; the Armenians, on their side, + constituted the thirteenth satrapy, between Mount Taurus and the Lower + Arsanias. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0049" id="linkBimage-0049"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/325.jpg" width="100%" + alt="325.jpg Coins of the Satraps With Aramaean Inscriptions " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from coins in the <i>Cabinet des + Médailles</i> +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0050" id="linkBimage-0050"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:34%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/326.jpg" alt="326.jpg a Lycian Tomb " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, +from a woodcut in Bonndorff. +</pre> + <p> + The whole face of their country had undergone a profound change since that + time: the Urartians, driven northwards, became intermingled with the + tribes on the slopes of the Caucasus, while the Armenians, carried along + towards the east, as though by some resistless current, were now scaling + the mountainous bulwark of Ararat, and slowly but surely encroaching on + the lower plains of the Araxes. These political changes had been almost + completed by the time of Ochus, and Urartu had disappeared from the scene, + but an Armenia now flourished in the very region where Urartu had once + ruled, and its princes, who were related to the family of the Achæmenides, + wielded an authority little short of regal under the modest name of + satraps. Thanks to their influence, the religions and customs of Iran were + introduced into the eastern borders of Asia Minor. They made their way + into the valleys of the Iris and the Halys, into Cappadocia and the + country round Mount Taurus, and thither they brought with them the + official script of the empire, the Persian and Aramaean cuneiform which + was employed in public documents, in inscriptions, and on coins. The + centre of the peninsula remained very much the same as it had been in the + period of the Phrygian supremacy, but further westward Hellenic influences + gradually made themselves felt. + </p> + <p> + The arts of Greece, its manners, religious ideals, and modes of thought, + were slowly displacing civilisations of the Asianic type, and even in + places like Lycia, where the language successfully withstood the Greek + invasion, the life of the nations, and especially of their rulers, became + so deeply impregnated with Hellenism as to differ but little from that in + the cities on the Ionic, Æolian, or Doric seaboard. The Lycians still + adhered to the ancient forms which characterised their funerary + architecture, but it was to Greek sculptors, or pupils from the Grecian + schools, that they entrusted the decoration of the sides of their + sarcophagi and of their tombs. + </p> + <p> + Their kings minted coins many of which are reckoned among the masterpieces + of antique engraving; and if we pass from Lycia to the petty states of + Caria, we come upon one of the greatest triumphs of Greek art—that + huge mausoleum in which the inconsolable Artemisia enclosed the ashes and + erected the statue of her husband. The Asia Minor of Egyptian times, with + its old-world dynasties, its old-world names, and old-world races, had + come to be nothing more than an historic memory; even that martial world, + in which the Assyrian conquerors fought so many battles from the Euphrates + to the Black Sea, was now no more, and its neighbours and enemies of + former days had, for the most part, disappeared from the land of the + living. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0053" id="linkBimage-0053"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/328.jpg" width="100%" + alt="328.jpg Lycian Sarcophagus Decorated With Greek Carvings " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a photogravure published by + Hamdy-Beg and Th. Reinach. +</pre> + <p> + The Lotanu were gone, the Khâti were gone, and gone, too, were Carchemish, + Arpad, and Qodshu, much of th§ir domain having been swallowed up again by + the desert for want of hands to water and till it; even Assyria itself + seemed but a shadow half shrouded in the mists of oblivion. Sangara, + Nisibis, Resaina, and Edessa still showed some signs of vigour, but on + quitting the slopes of the Masios and proceeding southwards, piles of + ruins alone marked the sites of those wealthy cities through which the + Ninevite monarchs had passed in their journeyings towards Syria. Here wide + tracts of arid and treeless country were now to be seen covered with + aromatic herbage, where the Scenite Arabs were wont to pursue the lion, + wild ass, ostrich, bustard, antelope, and gazelle; a few abandoned forts, + such as Korsortê, Anatho, and Is (Hit) marked the halting-places of armies + on the banks of the Euphrates. In the region of the Tigris, the + descendants of Assyrian captives who, like the Jews, had been set free by + Cyrus, had rebuilt Assur, and had there grown wealthy by husbandry and + commerce,* but in the district of the Zab solitude reigned supreme.** + Calah and Nineveh were alike deserted, and though their ruins still + littered the sites where they had stood, their names were unknown in the + neighbouring villages. Xenophon, relying on his guides, calls the former + place Larissa, the second Mespila.*** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This seems to be indicated by a mutilated passage in the + <i>Cylinder of Gyrus</i>, where Assur is mentioned in the list of + towns and countries whose inhabitants were sent back to + their homes by Cyrus after the capture of Babylon. Xenophon + calls it Esense, this being, possibly, a translation of the + name given to it by its inhabitants. Nothing could be more + natural than for exiles to call the villages founded by them + on their return “new.” The town seems to have been a large + and wealthy one. + + ** Xenophon calls this country Media, a desert region which + the Ten Thousand took six days to cross. + + *** The name Larissa is, possibly, a corruption of some name + similar to that of the city of Larsam in Chaldæa; Mespila + may be a generic term. [Mespila is Muspula, “the low ground” + at the foot of Kouyunjik; Larissa probably Al Resen or + Res-eni, between Kouyunjik and Nebi Yunus.—Ed.] +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0051" id="linkBimage-0051"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:23%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/327b.jpg" alt="327b.jpg Statue of Mausolus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher- +Gudin, from a +photograph of the +original in the +British Museum. +</pre> + <p> + Already there were historians who took the ziggurât at Nineveh to be the + burial-place of Sardanapalus. They declared that Cyrus had pulled it down + in order to strengthen his camp during the siege of the town, and that + formerly it had borne an epitaph afterwards put into verse by the poet + Choerilus of Iassus: “I reigned, and so long as I beheld the light of the + sun, I ate, I drank, I loved, well knowing how brief is the life of man, + and to how many vicissitudes it is liable.” Many writers, remembering the + Assyrian monument at Anchialê in Cilicia, were inclined to place the + king’s tomb there. It was surmounted by the statue of a man—according + to one account, with his hands crossed upon his breast, according to + another, in the act of snapping his fingers—and bore the following + inscription in Chaldaic letters: “I, Sardanapalus, son of Anakyndaraxes, + founded Anchialê and Tarsus in one day, but now am dead.” Thus ten + centuries of conquests and massacre had passed away like a vapour, leaving + nothing but a meagre residue of old men’s tales and moral axioms. + </p> + <p> + In one respect only does the civilisation of the Euphrates seem to have + fairly held its own. Cossæa, though it had lost its independence, had lost + but little of its wealth; its former rebellions had done it no great + injury, and its ancient cities were still left standing, though shorn of + their early splendour. Uru, it is true, numbered but few citizens round + its tottering sanctuaries, but Uruk maintained a school of theologians and + astronomers no less famous throughout the East than those of Borsippa. The + swamps, however, which surrounded it possessed few attractions, and Greek + travellers rarely ventured thither. They generally stopped at Babylon, or + if they ventured off the beaten track, it was only to visit the monuments + of Nebuchadrezzar, or the tombs of the early kings in its immediate + neighbourhood. Babylon was, indeed, one of the capitals of the empire—nay, + for more than half a century, during the closing years of Artaxerxes I., + in the reign of Darius II., and in the early days of Artaxerxes IL, it had + been the real capital; even under Ochus, the court spent the winter months + there, and resorted thither in quest of those resources of industry and + commerce which Susa lacked. The material benefits due to the presence of + the sovereign seem to have reconciled the city to its subject condition; + there had been no seditious movement there since the ill-starred rising of + Shamasherîb, which Xerxes had quelled with ruthless severity. The Greek + mercenaries or traders who visited it, though prepared for its huge size + by general report, could not repress a feeling of astonishment as they + approached it. First of all there was the triple wall of Nebuchadrezzar, + with its moats, its rows of towers, and its colossal gateways. Unlike the + Greek cities, it had been laid out according to a regular plan, and formed + a perfect square, inside which the streets crossed one another at right + angles, some parallel to the Euphrates, others at right angles to it; + every one of the latter terminated in a brazen gate opening through the + masonry of the quay, and giving access to the river. The passengers who + crowded the streets included representatives of all the Asiatic races, the + native Babylonians being recognisable by their graceful dress, consisting + of a linen tunic falling to the feet, a fringed shawl, round cap, and + heavy staff terminating in a knob. From this ever-changing background + stood out many novel features calculated to stimulate Greek curiosity, + such as the sick persons exposed at street-corners in order that they + might beg the passers-by to prescribe for them, the prostitution of her + votaries within the courts of the goddess Mylitta, and the disposal of + marriageable girls by auction: Herodotus, however, regretted that this + latter custom had fallen into abeyance. And yet to the attentive eye of a + close observer even Babylon must have furnished many unmistakable symptoms + of decay. The huge boundary wall enclosed too large an area for the + population sheltered behind it; whole quarters were crumbling into heaps + of ruins, and the flower and vegetable gardens were steadily encroaching + on spaces formerly covered with houses. Public buildings had suffered + quite as much as private dwellings from the Persian wars. Xerxes had + despoiled the temples, and no restoration had been attempted since his + time. The ziggurât of Bel lay half buried already beneath piles of + rubbish; the golden statues which had once stood within its chambers had + disappeared, and the priests no longer carried on their astronomical + observations on its platform.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus merely mentions that Xerxes had despoiled the + temple; Strabo tells us that Alexander wished to restore it, + but that it was in such a state of dilapidation that it + would have taken ten thousand men two months merely to + remove the rubbish. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0052" id="linkBimage-0052"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/327a.jpg" + alt="327a.jpg Coin of a Lycian King " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Faucher-Gudin, from a silver stater in the <i>Cabinet + des Médailles.</i> The king in question was named Deneveles, + and is only known by the coins bearing his superscription. + He flourished about 395 B.C. +</pre> + <p> + The palaces of the ancient kings were falling to pieces from lack of + repairs, though the famous hanging gardens in the citadel were still shown + to strangers. The guides, of course, gave them out to be a device of + Semiramis, but the well-informed knew that they had been constructed by + Nebuchadrezzar for one of his wives the daughter of Oyaxares, who pined + for the verdure of her native mountains. “They were square in shape, each + side being four hundred feet long; one approached them by steps leading to + terraces placed one above the other, the arrangement of the whole, + resembling that of an amphitheatre. Each terrace rested on pillars which, + gradually increasing in size, supported the weight of the soil and its + produce. The loftiest pillar attained a height of fifty feet; it reached + to the upper part of the garden, its capital being on a level with the + balustrades of the boundary wall. The terraces were covered with a layer + of soil of sufficient depth for the roots of the largest trees; plants of + all kinds that delight the eye by their shape or beauty were grown there. + One of the columns was hollowed from top to bottom; it contained hydraulic + engines which pumped up quantities of water, no part of the mechanism + being visible from the outside.” Many travellers were content to note down + only such marvels as they considered likely to make their narratives more + amusing, but others took pains to collect information of a more solid + character, and before they had carried their researches very far, were at + once astounded and delighted with the glimpses they obtained of Chaldæan + genius. No doubt, they exaggerated when they went so far as to maintain + that all their learning came to them originally from Babylon, and that the + most famous scholars of Greece, Pherecydes of Scyros, Democritus of + Abdera, and Pythagoras,* owed the rudiments of philosophy, mathematics, + physics, and astrology to the school of the <i>Magi</i>. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The story which asserts that Pythagoras served under + Nergilos, King of Assyria, is probably based on some + similarity of names: thus among the Greek kings of Cyprus, + and in the time of Assur-bani-pal, we find one whose name + would recall that of Pythagoras, if the accuracy of the + reading were beyond question. +</pre> + <p> + Yet it is not surprising that they should have believed this to be the + case, when increasing familiarity with the priestly seminaries revealed to + them the existence of those libraries of clay tablets in which, side by + side with theoretic treatises dating from two thousand years back and + more, were to be found examples of applied mechanics, observations, + reckonings, and novel solutions of problems, which generations of scribes + had accumulated in the course of centuries. The Greek astronomers took + full advantage of these documents, but it was their astrologers and + soothsayers who were specially indebted to them. The latter acknowledged + their own inferiority the moment they came into contact with their + Euphratean colleagues, and endeavoured to make good their deficiencies by + taking lessons from the latter or persuading them to migrate to Greece. A + hundred years later saw the Babylonian Berosus opening at Cos a public + school of divination by the stars. From thenceforward “Chaldæan” came to + be synonymous with “astrologer” or “sorcerer,” and Chaldæan magic became + supreme throughout the world at the very moment when Chaldæa itself was in + its death-throes. + </p> + <p> + Nor was its unquestioned supremacy in the black art the sole legacy that + Chaldæa bequeathed to the coming generations: its language survived, and + reigned for centuries afterwards in the regions subjugated by its arms. + The cultivated tongue employed by the scribes of Nineve and Babylon in the + palmy days of their race, had long become a sort of literary dialect, used + in writings of a lofty character and understood by a select few, but + unintelligible to the common people. The populace in town or country + talked an Aramaic jargon, clumsier and more prolix than Assyrian, but + easier to understand. We know how successfully the Aramæans had managed to + push their way along the Euphrates and into Syria towards the close of the + Hittite supremacy: their successive encroachments had been favoured, first + by the Assyrian, later by the Chaldæan conquests, and now they had become + sole possessors of the ancient Naharaîna, the plains of Cilicia, the basin + of the Orontes, and the country round Damascus; but the true home of the + Aramæans was in Syria rather than in the districts of the Lower Euphrates. + Even in the time of the Sargonids their alphabet had made so much headway + that at Nineveh itself and at Calah it had come into everyday use; when + Chaldæan supremacy gave way to that of the Persians, its triumph—in + the western provinces, at any rate—was complete, and it became the + recognised vehicle of the royal decrees: we come upon it in every + direction, on the coins issued by the satraps of Asia Minor, on the seals + of local governors or dynasts, on inscriptions or stelæ in Egypt, in the + letters of the scribes, and in the rescripts of the great king. From Nisib + to Baphia, between the Tigris and the Mediterranean, it gradually + supplanted most of the other dialects—Semitic or otherwise—which + had hitherto prevailed. Phoenician held its ground in the seaports, but + Hebrew gave way before it, and ended by being restricted to religious + purposes, as a literary and liturgical language. It was in the + neighbourhood of Babylon itself that the Judæan exiles had, during the + Captivity, adopted the Aramaic language, and their return to Canaan failed + to restore either the purity of their own language or the dignity and + independence of their religious life. Their colony at Jerusalem possessed + few resources; the wealthier Hebrews had, for the most part, remained in + Chaldæa, leaving the privilege of repopulating the holy city to those of + their brethren who were less plenteously endowed with this world’s goods. + These latter soon learned to their cost that Zion was not the ideal city + whose “gates shall be open continually; they shall not be shut day nor + night; that men may bring unto thee the wealth of the nations;” far from + “sucking the milk of nations and the breast of kings,” * their fields + produced barely sufficient to satisfy the more pressing needs of daily + life. “Ye have sown much, and bring in little,” as Jahveh declared to them + “ye eat, but ye have not enough; ye drink, but ye are not filled with + drink; ye clothe you, but there is none warm; and he that earneth wages + earneth wages to put it into a bag with holes.” ** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * An anonymous prophet in Isa. lx. 11-16. + + ** Hagg. i. 6. +</pre> + <p> + They quickly relinquished the work of restoration, finding themselves + forgotten by all—their Babylonian brethren included—in the + midst of the great events which were then agitating the world, the + preparations for the conquest of Egypt, the usurpation of the + pseudo-Smerdis, the accession of Darius, the Babylonian and Median + insurrections. Possibly they believed that the Achæmenides had had their + day, and that a new Chaldæan empire, with a second Nebuchadrezzar at its + head, was about to regain the ascendency. It would seem that the downfall + of Nadintav-bel inspired them with new faith in the future and encouraged + them to complete their task: in the second year of Darius, two prophets, + Haggai and Zechariah, arose in their midst and lifted up their voices. + </p> + <p> + Zerubbabel, a prince of the royal line, governed Judah in the Persian + interest, and with him was associated the high priest Joshua, who looked + after the spiritual interests of the community: the reproaches of the two + prophets aroused the people from their inaction, and induced them to + resume their interrupted building operations. Darius, duly informed of + what was going on by the governor of Syria, gave orders that they were not + to be interfered with, and four years later the building of the temple was + completed.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Ezra iv.-vi.; the account given by Josephus of the two + expeditions of Zerubbabel seems to have been borrowed partly + from the canonical book, partly from the Apocryphal writing + known as the <i>1st Book of Esdras</i>. +</pre> + <p> + For nearly a century after this the little Jewish republic remained + quiescent. It had slowly developed until it had gradually won back a + portion of the former territories of Benjamin and Judah, but its expansion + southwards was checked by the Idumæans, to whom Nebuchadrezzar had years + before handed over Hebron and Acrabattenê (Akrabbim) as a reward for the + services they had rendered. + </p> + <p> + On the north its neighbours were the descendants of those Aramaean exiles + whom Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon, kings of Assyria, had, on + various occasions, installed around Samaria in Mount Ephraim. At first + these people paid no reverence to the “God of the land,” so that Jahveh, + in order to punish them, sent lions, which spread carnage in their ranks. + Then the King of Assyria allotted them an Israelitish priest from among + his prisoners, who taught them “the law” of Jahveh, and appointed other + priests chosen from the people, and showed them how to offer up sacrifices + on the ancient high places.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Kings xvii. 24-40. There do not seem to have been the + continual disputes between the inhabitants of Judaea and + Samaria before the return of Nehemiah, which the compilers + of the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah seem to have believed. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0054" id="linkBimage-0054"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:33%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/337.jpg" + alt="337.jpg Chaldean Seal With Aramaic Inscription " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Faucher- +Gudin, from a +photogravure +published in +Menant. +</pre> + <p> + Thus another Israel began to rise up again, and, at first, the new Judah + seems to have been on tolerably friendly terms with it: the two + communities traded and intermarried with one another, the Samaritans took + part in the religious ceremonies, and certain of their leaders occupied a + court in the temple at Jerusalem. The alliance, however, proved dangerous + to the purity of the faith, for the proselytes, while they adopted Jahveh + and gave Him that supreme place in their devotions which was due to “the + God of the land,” had by no means entirely forsworn their national + superstitions, and Adrammelek, Nergal, Tartak, Anammelek, and other + deities still found worshippers among them. Judah, which in the days of + its independence had so often turned aside after the gods of Canaan and + Moab, was in danger of being led away by the idolatrous practices of its + new neighbours; intermarriage with the daughters of Moab and Ammon, of + Philistia and Samaria, was producing a gradual degeneracy: the national + language was giving way before the Aramaean; unless some one could be + found to stem the tide of decadence and help the people to remount the + slope which they were descending, the fate of Judah was certain. A prophet—the + last of those whose predictions have survived to our time—stood + forth amid the general laxity and called the people to account for their + transgressions, in the name of the Eternal, but his single voice, which + seemed but a feeble echo of the great prophets of former ages, did not + meet with a favourable hearing. Salvation came at length from the Jews + outside Judah, the naturalised citizens of Babylon, a well-informed and + wealthy body, occupying high places in the administration of the empire, + and sometimes in the favour of the sovereign also, yet possessed by an + ardent zeal for the religion of their fathers and a steadfast faith in the + vitality of their race. One of these, a certain Nehemiah, was employed as + cupbearer to Artaxerxes II. He was visited at Susa by some men of Judah + whose business had brought them to that city and inquired of them how + matters fared in Jerusalem. Hanani, one of his visitors, replied that “the + remnant that are left of the captivity there in the province are in great + affliction and reproach: the wall of Jerusalem also is broken down, and + the gates thereof are burned with fire.” Nehemiah took advantage of a + moment when the king seemed in a jovial mood to describe the wretched + state of his native land in moving terms: he obtained leave to quit Susa + and authority to administer the city in which his fathers had dwelt.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Nehemiah i., ii. +</pre> + <p> + This took place in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, about 385 B.C. + Nehemiah at once made his way to Jerusalem with such escort as befitted + his dignity, and the news of his mission, and, apparently, the sentiments + of rigid orthodoxy professed by him from the beginning, provoked the + resentment of the neighbouring potentates against him: Sanballat the + Horonite, Tobiah the Ammonite, chief of the Samaritans, and Geshem the + Bedâwin did their best to thwart him in the execution of his plans. He + baffled their intrigues by his promptitude in rebuilding the walls, and + when once he had rendered himself safe from any sudden attack, he + proceeded with the reforms which he deemed urgent. His tenure of office + lasted twelve years—from 384 to 373 B.C.—and during the whole + of that time he refused to accept any of the dues to which he was + entitled, and which his predecessors had received without scruple. Ever + since their return from exile, the common people had been impoverished and + paralysed by usury. The poor had been compelled to mortgage their fields + and their vineyards in order to pay the king’s taxes; then, when their + land was gone, they had pledged their sons and their daughters; the + moneyed classes of the new Israel thus absorbed the property of their + poorer brethren, and reduced the latter to slavery. Nehemiah called the + usurers before him and severely rebuking them for their covetousness, bade + them surrender the interest and capital of existing debts, and restore the + properties which had fallen into their hands owing to their shameful abuse + of wealth, and release all those of their co-religionists whom they had + enslaved in default of payment of their debts.* His high place in the + royal favour doubtless had its effect on those whose cupidity suffered + from his zeal, and prevented external enemies from too openly interfering + in the affairs of the community: by the time he returned to the court, in + 372 B.C., after an absence of twelve years, Jerusalem and its environs had + to some extent regained the material prosperity of former days. The part + played by Nehemiah was, however, mainly political, and the religious + problem remained in very much the same state as before. The high priests, + who alone possessed the power of solving it, had fallen in with the + current that was carrying away the people, and—latterly, at any rate—had + become disqualified through intermarriage with aliens: what was wanted was + a scribe deeply versed in sacred things to direct them in the right way, + and such a man could be found only in Babylonia, the one country in which + the study of the ancient traditions still flourished. A certain Ezra, son + of Seraiah, presented himself in 369 B.C., and, as he was a man of some + standing, Artaxerxes not only authorised him to go himself, but to take + with him a whole company of priests and Lévites and families formerly + attached to the service of the temple.** The books containing the Law of + God and the history of His people had, since the beginning of the + captivity, undergone alterations which had profoundly modified their text + and changed their spirit. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Neh. v. + + ** Neh. xiii. 6: “in the two and thirtieth year of + Artaxerxes, King of Babylon, I went unto the king.” + </pre> + <p> + This work of revision, begun under the influence of Ezekiel, and perhaps + by his own followers, had, since his time, been carried on without + interruption, and by mingling the juridical texts with narratives of the + early ages collected from different sources, a lengthy work had been + produced, very similar in composition and wording to the five Books of + Moses and the Book of Joshua as we now possess them.* It was this version + of the Revelation of Jahveh that Ezra brought with him from Babylon in + order to instruct the people of Judah, and the first impressions received + by him at the end of his journey convinced him that his task would be no + light one, for the number of mixed marriages had been so great as to + demoralise not only the common people, but even the priests and leading + nobles as well. Nevertheless, at a general assembly** of the people he + succeeded in persuading them to consent to the repudiation of alien wives. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This is the priestly revision presupposed by recent + critics; here again, in order to keep within the prescribed + limits of space, I have been compelled to omit much that I + should have liked to add in regard to the nature of this + work and the spirit in which it was carried out. + + ** Ezra, vii.-xi., where the dates given do not form part of + the work as written by Ezra, but have been introduced later + by the editor of the book as it now stands. +</pre> + <p> + But this preliminary success would have led to nothing unless he could + secure formal recognition of the rigorous code of which he had constituted + himself the champion, and protracted negotiations were necessary before he + could claim a victory on this point as well as on the other. At length, + about 367 B.C., more than a year after his arrival, he gained his point, + and the covenant between Jahveh and His people was sealed with ceremonies + modelled on those which had attended the promulgation of Deuteronomy in + the time of Josiah. On the first day of the seventh month, a little before + the autumn festival, the people assembled at Jerusalem in “the broad place + which was before the water gate.” Ezra mounted a wooden pulpit, and the + chief among the priests sat beside him. He “opened the book in the sight + of all the people... and... all the people stood up: and Ezra blessed the + Lord, the great God. And all the people answered ‘Amen, amen!’ with the + lifting up of their hands; and they bowed their heads and worshipped the + Lord with their faces to the ground.” Then began the reading of the sacred + text. As each clause was read, the Lévites stationed here and there among + the people interpreted and explained its provisions in the vulgar tongue, + so as to make their meaning clear to all. The prolix enumeration of sins + and their expiation, and threats expressed in certain chapters, produced + among the crowd the same effect of nervous terror as had once before been + called forth by the precepts and maledictions of Deuteronomy. The people + burst into tears, and so vehement were their manifestations of despair, + that all the efforts of Ezra and his colleagues were needed to calm them. + Ezra took advantage of this state of fervour to demand the immediate + application of the divine ordinances. And first of all, it was “found + written in the law, how that the Lord had commanded by Moses that the + children of Israel should dwell in booths.” For, seven days Jerusalem was + decked with leaves; tabernacles of olive, myrtle, and palm branches rose + up on all sides, on the roofs of houses, in courtyards, in the courts of + the temple, at the gates of the city. Then, on the 27th day of the same + month, the people put on mourning in order to confess their own sins and + the sins of their fathers. Finally, to crown the whole, Ezra and his + followers required the assembly to swear a solemn oath that they would + respect “the law of Moses,” and regulate their conduct by it.* After the + first enthusiasm was passed, a reaction speedily set in. Many even among + the priests thought that Ezra had gone too far in forbidding marriage with + strangers, and that the increase of the tithes and sacrifices would lay + too heavy a burden on the nation. The Gentile women reappeared, the + Sabbath was no longer observed either by the Israelites or aliens; + Eliashîb, son of the high priest Joiakim, did not even deprive Tobiah the + Ammonite of the chamber in the temple which he had formerly prepared for + him, and things were almost imperceptibly drifting back into the same + state as before the reformation, when Nehemiah returned from Susa towards + the close of the reign of Artaxerxes. He lost no time in re-establishing + respect for the law, and from henceforward opposition, if it did not + entirely die out, ceased to manifest itself in Jerusalem.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Neh. viii., ix., with an interpolation in ver. 9 of chap, + viii., inserted in order to identify Nehemiah with the + representative of the Persian government. + + ** Neh. xiii. +</pre> + <p> + Elsewhere, however, among the Samaritans, Indumæans, and Philistines, it + continued as keen as ever, and the Jews themselves were imprudent enough + to take part in the political revolutions that were happening around them + in their corner of the empire. Their traditions tell how they were mixed + up in the rising of the Phoenician cities against Ochus, and suffered the + penalty; when Sidon capitulated, they were punished with the other rebels, + the more recalcitrant among them being deported into Hyrcania. + </p> + <p> + Assyria was nothing more than a name, Babylon and Phoenicia were growing + weaker every day; the Jews, absorbed in questions of religious ethics, + were deficient in material power, and had not as yet attained sufficient + moral authority to exercise an influence over the eastern world: the Egypt + indestructible had alone escaped the general shipwreck, and seemed fated + to survive her rivals for a long time. Of all these ancient nations it was + she who appealed most strongly to the imagination of the Greeks: Greek + traders, mercenaries, scholars, and even tourists wandered freely within + her borders, and accounts of the strange and marvellous things to be found + there were published far and wide in the writings of Hecataeus of Miletus, + Herodotus of Halicarnassus, and Hellanicus of Lesbos. As a rule, they + entered the country from the west, as European tourists and merchants + still do; but Eakôtis, the first port at which they touched, was a mere + village, and its rocky Pharos had no claim to distinction beyond the fact + that it had been mentioned by Homer. From hence they followed the channel + of the Canopic arm, and as they gradually ascended, they had pointed out + to them Anthylla, Arkandrupolis, and Gyna> copolis, townships dependent on + Naucratis, lying along the banks, or situated some distance off on one of + the minor canals; then Naucratis itself, still a flourishing place, in + spite of the rebellions in the Delta and the suppressive measures of the + Persians. All this region seemed to them to be merely an extension of + Greece under the African sky: to their minds the real Egypt began at Sais, + a few miles further eastwards. Sais was full in memories of the XXVIth + dynasty; there they had pointed out to them the tombs of the Pharaohs in + the enclosure of Nit, the audience hall in which Psammetichus II. received + the deputation of the Eleians, the prison where the unfortunate Apries had + languished after his defeat. The gateways of the temple of Nit seemed + colossal to eyes accustomed to the modest dimensions of most Greek + sanctuaries; these were, moreover, the first great monuments that the + strangers had seen since they landed, and the novelty of their appearance + had a good deal to do with the keenness of the impression produced. The + goddess showed herself in hospitable guise to the visitors; she welcomed + them all, Greek or Persian, at her festivals, and initiated them into + several of her minor rites, without demanding from them anything beyond + tolerance on certain points of doctrine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0055" id="linkBimage-0055"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/346b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="346.jpg Fountain and School of the Mother Of Little Mohamad " /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="346b-text (9K)" src="images/346b-text.jpg" height="95" + width="531" /> + </div> + <p> + Her dual attributes as wielder of the bow and shuttle had inspired the + Greeks with the belief that she was identical with that one of their own + goddesses who most nearly combined in her person this complex mingling of + war and industry: in her they Fountain and School of the Mother of Little + Mohammed worshipped the prototype of their own Pallas. On the evening of + the 17th day of Thoth, Herodotus saw the natives, rich and poor, placing + on the fronts of their dwellings large flat lamps filled with a mixture of + salt and oil which they kept alight all night in honour of Osiris and of + the dead.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * In my opinion it is not the festivals of Athyr that are + here referred to, but those of the month of Thoth, when, as + the inscriptions show, it was the practice to <i>light the new + fire</i>, according to the ritual, after first extinguishing + the fire of the previous year, not only in the temple of the + god, but in all the houses of the city. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0056" id="linkBimage-0056"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:32%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/348.jpg" + alt="348.jpg Modern Mohammedan Shekhs Tombs " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph by Gautier. +</pre> + <p> + He made his way into the dwelling of the ineffable god, and there, + unobserved among the crowd, he witnessed scenes from the divine life + represented by the priests on the lake by the light of torches, episodes + of his passion, mourning, and resurrection. The priests did not disclose + their subtler mysteries before barbarian eyes, nor did they teach the + inner meaning of their dogmas, but the little they did allow him to + discern filled the traveller with respect and wonder, recalling sometimes + by their resemblance to them the mysteries in which he was accustomed to + take part in his own country. Then, as now, but little attention was paid + to the towns in the centre and east of the Delta; travellers endeavoured + to visit one or two of them as types, and collected as much information as + they could about the remainder. Herodotus and his rivals attached little + importance to those details of landscape which possess so much attraction + for the modern tourist. They bestowed no more than a careless glance on + the chapels scattered up and down the country like the Mohammedan shrines + at the present day, and the waters extending on all sides beneath the + acacias and palm trees during the inundation, or the fellahin trotting + along on their little asses beside the pools, did not strike them as being + of sufficient interest to deserve passing mention in an account of their + travels. + </p> + <p> + They passed by the most picturesque villages with indifference, and it was + only when they reached some great city, or came upon some exceptionally + fine temple or eccentric deity, that their curiosity was aroused. Mendes + worshipped its patron god in the form of a live ram,* and bestowed on all + members of the same species some share of the veneration it lavished on + the divine animal. The inhabitants of Atarbêkhis,** on the island of + Prosopitis, gave themselves up to the worship of the bull. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus says that both the goats and the god were named + Mendes in Egyptian, but he is here confusing ordinary goats + with the special goat which was supposed to contain the soul + of Osiris. It was the latter that the Egyptians named after + the god himself, Baînibdîduît, i.e. <i>the soul of the master + of the city of Diduît</i>. + + ** The old explanation of this name as the <i>City of Hathor</i> + has been rightly rejected as inconsistent with one of the + elementary rules of hieroglyphic grammar. The name, when + properly divided into its three constituent parts, means + literally <i>the Castle of horus the Sparrow-hawk, or Hat-har- + baki</i> +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0057" id="linkBimage-0057"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:38%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/349.jpg" + alt="349.jpg Part of the Inundation in a Palm Grove " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Gautier. +</pre> + <p> + When one of these animals died in the neighbourhood they buried it, + leaving one horn above the earth in order to mark the spot, and once every + year the boats of Atarbêkhis made a tour round the island to collect the + skeletons or decaying bodies, in order that they might be interred in a + common burying-place. + </p> + <p> + The people of Busiris patronised a savage type of religion. During the + festival of Isis they gave themselves up to fierce conflicts, their + fanatical fury even infecting strangers who chanced to be present. The + Carians also had hit upon a means of outdoing the extravagance of the + natives themselves: like the Shiite Mohammedans of the present day at the + festival of the Hassanên, they slashed their faces with knives amidst + shrieks and yells. At Paprêmis a pitched battle formed part of the + religious observances: it took place, however, under certain special + conditions. On the evening of the festival of Anhurît, as the sun went + down, a number of priests performed a hasty sacrifice in the temple, while + the remainder of the local priesthood stationed themselves at the gate + armed with heavy cudgels. When the ceremony was over, the celebrants + placed the statue of the god on a four-wheeled car as though about to take + it away to some other locality, but their colleagues at the gate opposed + its departure and barred the way. It was at this juncture that the + faithful intervened; they burst in the door and set upon the priests with + staves, the latter offering a stout resistance. The cudgels were heavy, + the arms that wielded them lusty, and the fight lasted a long time, yet no + one was ever killed in the fray—at least, so the priests averred—and + I am at a loss to understand why Herodotus, who was not a native of + Paprêmis, should have been so unkind as to doubt their testimony.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * The god whom the Greeks identified with their Ares was + Anhurît, as is proved by one of the Leyden Papyri. So, too, + in modern times at Cairo, it used to be affirmed that no + Mohammedan who submitted to the dôseh was ever seriously + injured by the hoofs of the horse which trampled over the + bodies extended on the ground. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0058" id="linkBimage-0058"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:39%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/350.jpg" + alt="350.jpg Ephemeral Hovels of Clay Or Dried Bricks " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Haussoullier. +</pre> + <p> + It is nearly always in connection with some temple or religious festival + that he refers to the towns of the Delta, and, indeed, in most of the + minor cities of Egypt, just as in those of modern Italy there is little to + interest visitors except the religious monuments or ceremonies. Herodotus + went to Tanis or Mendes as we go to Orvieto or Loretto, to admire the + buildings or pay our devotions at a famous shrine. More often than not the + place was nothing in itself, consisting merely of a fortified enclosure, a + few commonplace houses occupied by the wealthy inhabitants or by + government officials, and on mounds of ancient <i>debris</i>, the + accumulation of centuries, a number of ephemeral hovels built of clay, or + dried bricks, divided into irregular blocks by winding alleys. The whole + local interest was centred in the sanctuary and its inmates, human and + divine. The traveller made his way in as best he could, went into + ecstasies over the objects that were shown to him, and as soon as he had + duly gone the rounds, set out for the next place on his list, deeming + himself lucky if he happened to arrive during one of the annual fairs, + such as that of Bubastis, for instance. Bands of pilgrims flocked in from + all parts of Egypt; the river craft were overflowing with men and women, + who converted the journey into one long carnival. Every time the vessel + put in to land, the women rushed on shore, amid the din of castanets and + flutes, and ran hither and thither challenging the women of the place with + abuse to dance against them with uplifted garments. To the foreigners + there was little to distinguish the festival of Bastît from many other + Egyptian ceremonies of the kind; it consisted of a solemn procession, + accompanied by the singing of hymns and playing of harps, dancing and + sacrifices, but for weeks before and after it the town was transformed + into one vast pleasure-ground. The people of Bubastis took a certain pride + in declaring that more wine was drunk in it during a single day than + during the rest of the whole year. Butô enjoyed exceptional popularity + among the Greeks in Egypt. Its patron goddess, the Isis who took refuge + amid the pools in a moving thicket of reeds and lotus, in order that she + might protect her son Horus from the jealousy of Typhon, reminded them of + the story of Latona and the cycle of the Delian legends; they, visited her + in crowds, and her oracle became to most of them what that of Delos was to + their brethren in Europe. At Butô they found a great temple, similar to + all Egyptian temples, a shrine in which the statues of the goddess + continued her mysterious existence, and, in the midst of the sacred lake, + the little island of Khemmis, which was said to float hither and thither + upon the waters. Herodotus did not venture to deny this absolutely, but + states that he had never seen it change its position or even stir: perhaps + his incredulity may have been quickened by the fact that this miracle had + already been inquired into by Hecatasus of Miletus, an author who was his + pet aversion. The priests of Butô declared that their prophets had + foretold everything that had happened for a long time past, and for each + event they had a version which redounded to the credit of their goddess: + she had shown Pheron how he might recover his sight, had foretold how long + the reign of Mykerinos would last, had informed Psammetichus that he would + be saved by men of brass rising out of the sea, and had revealed to + Cambyses that he should die in a town named Ecbatana. Her priests had + taken an active part in the revolt of Khabbîsha against Darius, and had + lost a goodly portion of their treasure and endowments for their pains. + They still retained their prestige, however, in spite of the underhand + rivalry of the oracle of Zeus Ammon. The notaries of the Libyan deity + could bring forward miracles even more marvellous than those credited to + the Egyptian Latona, and in the case of many of the revolutions which had + taken place on the banks of the Nile, a version of the legend in his + honour was circulated side by side with the legends of Butô. The latter + city lay on the very outskirts of one of those regions which excited the + greatest curiosity among travellers, the almost inaccessible Bucolicum, + where, it was said, no rebel ever failed to find a safe refuge from his + alien pursuers. The Egyptians of the marshes were a very courageous race, + but savage, poor, and ill fed. They drank nothing but beer, and obtained + their oil not from the olive, but from the castor-oil plant,* and having + no corn, lived on the seeds or roots of the lotus, or even on the stalks + of the papyrus, which they roasted or boiled. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * It seems, moreover, that this custom was not confined to + the Delta; Herodotus, in contrasting the custom of Bucolicum + with that of the rest of Egypt, was evidently thinking of + Sais, Memphis, and other great cities in which he had + resided, where foreign olive oil obtained from Greece or + Syria was generally used. +</pre> + <p> + Fish was their staple article of food, and this they obtained in + considerable quantity from Lake Menzaleh, the lagoons along the coast, and + the canals or pools left by the inundation. But little was known of their + villages or monuments, and probably they were not worth the trouble of a + visit after those of the cities of the plain: endless stories were told of + feats of brigandage and of the mysterious hiding-places which these + localities offered to every outlaw, one of the most celebrated being the + isle of Elbô, where the blind Anysis defied the power of Ethiopia for + thirty years, and in which the first Amyrtasus found refuge. With the + exception of a few merchants or adventurers who visited them with an eye + to gain, most travellers coming from or returning to Asia avoided their + territory, and followed the military road along the Pelusiac arm of the + Nile from Pehisium to Daphno or Zalu, and from Daphnæ or Zalu to Bubastis. + A little below Kerkasoron, near the apex of the Delta, the pyramids stood + out on the horizon, looking insignificant at first, but afterwards so + lofty that, during the period of inundation, when the whole valley, from + the mountains of Arabia to those of Libya, was nothing but one vast river, + a vessel seemed to sail in their shadow for a long time before it reached + their base. The traveller passed Heliopolis on his left with its temple of + the Sun, next the supposed sources of the Northern Nile, the quarries of + the Red Mountain, and then entering at length the Nile itself, after a + journey of some hours, came to anchor by the quays of Memphis. + </p> + <p> + To the Greeks of that time, Memphis was very much what Cairo is to us, + viz. the typical Oriental city, the quintessence and chief representative + of ancient Egypt. In spite of the disasters which had overwhelmed it + during the last few centuries, it was still a very beautiful city, ranking + with Babylon as one of the largest in the world. Its religious festivals, + especially those in honour of Apis, attracted numberless pilgrims to it at + certain seasons of the year, and hosts of foreigners, recruited from every + imaginable race of the old continent, resorted to it for purposes of + trade. Most of the nationalities who frequented it had a special quarter, + which was named after them; the Phoenicians occupied the <i>Tyrian Camp</i>, + the Greeks and Carians the <i>Hellenic Wall and Carian Wall</i>, and there + were Oaromemphites or Hellenomemphites side by side with the native + inhabitants. A Persian garrison was stationed within the White Wall, ready + to execute the satrap’s orders in the event of rebellion, and could have + held out for a long time even after the rest of the country had fallen + into the hands of the insurgents. Animals which one would scarcely have + expected to find in the streets of a capital, such as cows, sheep, and + goats, wandered about unheeded in the most crowded thoroughfares; for the + common people, instead of living apart from their beasts, as the Greeks + did, stabled them in their own houses. Nor was this the only custom which + must have seemed strange in the eyes of a newly arrived visitor, for the + Egyptians might almost have been said to make a point of doing everything + differently from other nation’s. The baker, seen at the kneading-trough + inside his shop, worked the dough with his foot; on the other hand, the + mason used no trowel in applying his mortar, and the poorer classes + scraped up handfuls of mud mixed with dung when they had occasion to + repair the walls of their hovels. In Greece, even the very poorest retired + to their houses and ate with closed doors; the Egyptians felt no + repugnance at eating and drinking in the open air, declaring that + unbecoming and improper acts should be performed in secret, but seemly + acts in public. The first blind alley they came to, a recess between two + hovels, the doorstep of a house or temple, any of these seemed to them a + perfectly natural place to dine in. Their bill of fare was not a sumptuous + one. A sort of flat pancake somewhat bitter in taste, and made—not + of corn or barley—but of spelt, a little oil, an onion or a leek, + with an occasional scrap of meat or poultry, washed down by a jug of beer + or wine; there was nothing here to tempt the foreigner, and, besides, it + would not have been thought right for him to invite himself. A Greek who + lived on the flesh of the cow was looked upon as unclean in the highest + degree; no Egyptian would have thought of using the same pot or knife with + him, or of kissing him on the mouth by way of greeting. Moreover, Egyptian + etiquette did not tolerate the same familiarities as the Greek: two + friends on catching sight of one another paused before they met, bowed, + then clasped one another round the knees or pretended to do so. Young + people gave way to an old man, or, if seated, rose to let him pass. The + traveller recalled the fact that the Spartans behaved in the same way, and + approved this mark of deference; but nothing in his home-life had prepared + him for the sight of respectable women coming and going as they pleased, + without escort and unveiled, carrying burdens on their shoulders (whereas + the men carried them on their heads), going to market, keeping stalls or + shops, while their husbands or fathers stayed comfortably at home, wove + cloth, kneaded the potter’s clay or turned the wheel, and worked at their + trades; no wonder that they were ready to believe that the man was the + slave, and the wife the mistress of the family. Some historians traced the + origin of these customs back to Osiris, others only as far as Sesostris: + Sesostris was the last resource of Greek historians when they got into + difficulties. The city was crowded with monuments; there was the temple of + the Phoenician Astarte, in which priests of Syrian descent had celebrated + the mysteries of the great goddess ever since the days of the XVIIIth + dynasty; then there was the temple of Râ, the temple of Amon, the temple + of Tamu, the temple of Bastît, and the temple of Isis.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This list is taken mainly from one of the mutilated + letters found on the back of the <i>Sallier Papyrus</i>. The + Phoenician Astarte, called a foreign Aphrodite by Herodotus, + was regarded by the Egyptians as a counterpart of Bastît, + lady of Onkhtoui. +</pre> + <p> + The temple of Phtah, as yet intact, provided the visitor with a spectacle + scarcely less admirable than that offered by the temple of the Theban Amon + at Karnak. The kings had modified the original plan as each thought best, + one adding obelisks or colossal statues, another a pylon, a third a + pillared hall. Completed in this way by the labours of a score of + dynasties, it formed, as it were, a microcosm of Egyptian history, in + which each image, inscription and statue, aroused the attention of the + curious. They naturally desired to learn who were the strangely dressed + races shown struggling in a battle scene, the name of the king who had + conquered them, and the reasons which had led him to construct this or + that part of a monument, and there were plenty of busybodies ready to + satisfy, as far as they could, the curiosity of visitors. Interpreters + were at hand who bartered such information as they possessed, and the + modern traveller who has had occasion to employ the services of a dragoman + will have no difficulty in estimating the value of intelligence thus + hawked about in ancient times. Priests of the lower class, doorkeepers and + sacristans were trained to act as <i>ciceroni</i>, and knew the main + outlines of the history of the temple in which they lived. Menés planned + it, Moeris added the northern propylæ, Ehampsinitus those on the west, + Psammetichus the south, Asychis those on the east, the most noteworthy of + them all. A native of Memphis, born at the foot of the pyramids, had been + familiar with the names of Menés and Cheops from childhood; he was + consequently apt to attribute to them everything of importance achieved by + the Pharaohs of the old days. Menés had built the temple, Menés had + founded the city, Menés had created the soil on which the city stood, and + preserved it from floods by his dykes. The thoughtful traveller would + assent, for had he not himself observed the action of the mud; a day’s + journey from the coast one could not let down a plummet without drawing it + up covered with a blackish slime, a clear proof that the Nile continued to + gain upon the sea. Menés, at all events, had really existed; but as to + Asychis, Moris, Proteus, Pheron, and most of the characters glibly + enumerated by Herodotus, it would be labour lost to search for their names + among the inscriptions; they are mere puppets of popular romance, some of + their names, such as Pirâui or Pruti, being nothing more than epithets + employed by the story-tellers to indicate in general terms the heroes of + their tales. We can understand how strangers, placed at the mercy of their + dragoman, were misled by this, and tempted to transform each title into a + man, taking Pruti and Pirâui to be Pharaoh Proteus and Pharaoh Pheron, + each of them celebrated for his fabulous exploits. The guides told + Herodotus, and Herodotus retails to us, as sober historical facts, the + remedy employed by this unhistorical Pheron in order to recover his sight; + the adventures of Paris and Helen at the court of Proteus,* and the droll + tricks played by a thief at the expense of the simple Ehampsinitus. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Some dragomans identified the Helen of the Homeric legend + with the “foreign Aphrodite” who had a temple in the Tyrian + quarter at Memphis, and who was really a Semitic divinity. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0059" id="linkBimage-0059"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/359.jpg" width="100%" + alt="359.jpg the Step Pyramid Seen from The Grove Op Palm Trees to the North of Saqqarah " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Haussoullier. +</pre> + <p> + The excursions made by the Greek traveller in the environs of Memphis were + very similar to those taken by modern visitors to Cairo: on the opposite + bank of the Nile there was Heliopolis with its temple of Râ, then there + were the quarries of Turah, which had been worked from time immemorial, + yet never exhausted, and from which the monuments he had been admiring, + and the very Pyramids themselves had been taken stone by stone.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * These are “the quarries in the Arabian Mountain,” + mentioned by Herodotus without indication of the local name. +</pre> + <p> + The Sphinx probably lay hidden beneath the sand, and the nearest Pyramids, + those at Saqqarah, were held in small esteem by visitors;* they were told + as they passed by that the step Pyramid was the most ancient of all, + having been erected by Uenephes, one of the kings of the first dynasty, + and they asked no further questions. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus does not mention it, nor does any other writer + of the Greek period. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0060" id="linkBimage-0060"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:40%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/362a.jpg" + alt="362a.jpg Long Strings of Laden Vessels " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, +from a photograph +by Gautier. +</pre> + <p> + Their whole curiosity was reserved for the three giants at Gizeh and their + inmates, Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos, and the fair Nitokris with the rosy + cheeks. Through all the country round, at Heliopolis, and even in the + Fayum itself, they heard the same names that had been dinned into their + ears at Memphis; the whole of the monuments were made to fit into a single + cycle of popular history, and what they learned at one place completed, or + seemed to complete, what they had learned at another. + </p> + <p> + I cannot tell whether many of them cared to stray much beyond Lake Moris: + the repressive measures of Ochus had, as it would appear, interrupted for + a time the regular trade which, ever since the Saite kings of the XXVIth + dynasty, had been carried on by the Greeks with the Oases, by way of + Abydos. A stranger who ventured as far as the Thebaid would have found + himself in the same plight as a European of the last century who undertook + to reach the first cataract. Their point of departure—Memphis or + Cairo—was very much the same; their destinations—Elephantine + and Assuan—differed but little. They employed the same means of + transport, for, excepting the cut of the sails, the modern dahabeah is an + exact counterpart of the pleasure and passenger boats shown on the + monuments. Lastly, they set out at the same time of year, in November or + December, after the floods had subsided. The same length of time was + required for the trip; it took a month to reach Assuan from Cairo if the + wind-were favourable, and if only such stoppages were made as were + strictly necessary for taking in fresh provisions. Pococke, having left + Cairo on the 6th of December, 1737, about midday, was at Akhmîm by the + 17th. He set sail again on the 18th, stayed at Thebes from the 13th of + January, 1738, till the 17th, and finally moored at Assuan on the evening + of January 20th, making in all forty-five days, fourteen of which were + spent at various stopping-places. If the diary of a Greek excursionist or + tourist had come down to us, we should probably find in it entries of a + very similar kind.* The departure from Memphis would take place in + November or December; ten or twelve days later the traveller would find + himself at Panopolis;** from Panopolis to Elephantine, stopping at Coptos + and Thebes, would take about a month, allowing time for a stay at Thebes, + and returning to Memphis in February or March. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Herodotus fixes twenty days for the voyage from Sais to + Elephantine. This period of time must be probably correct, + since at the present day dahabeahs constantly run from Cairo + to the second cataract and back in two months, including + stoppages of ten days to a fortnight for seeing the + monuments. The twenty days of Herodotus represent the + minimum duration of the voyage, without taking into account + the stoppages and accidents which often delay sailing + vessels on the Nile. Nine days, which Herodotus gives as the + time for reaching Thebes, is not sufficient, if the voyage + is undertaken in the usual way, stopping every evening for + the night; but it would be possible if the navigation were + uninterrupted day and night. This is now rarely done, but it + might have been frequent in ancient times, especially in the + service of the State. + + ** It would seem clear that Herodotus stopped at Panopolis + and had communications with the people of the town. + [Panopolis or Khemmis is the present Ekhmîm.—Tr.] +</pre> + <p> + The greater part of the time was employed in getting from one point to + another, and the necessity of taking advantage of a favourable wind in + going up the river, often obliged the travellers to neglect more than one + interesting locality. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0061" id="linkBimage-0061"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:47%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/362b.jpg" + alt="362b.jpg the Vast Sheet of Water in The Midday Heat " /> + </div> + <p> + The Greek was not so keenly alive to the picturesqueness of the scenes + through which he passed as the modern visitor, and in the account of his + travels he took no note of the long lines of laden boats going up or down + stream, nor of the vast sheet of water glowing in the midday sun, nor of + the mountains honeycombed with tombs and quarries, at the foot of which he + would be sailing day after day. What interested him above all things was + information with regard to the sources of the immense river itself, and + the reasons for its periodic inundation, and, according to the mental + attitude impressed on him by his education, he accepted the mythological + solution offered by the natives, or he sought for a more natural one in + the physical lore of his own <i>savants</i>: thus he was told that the + Nile took its rise at Elephantine, between the two rocks called Krôphi and + Môphi, and in showing them to him his informant would add that + Psammetichus I. had attempted to sound the depth of the river at this + point, but had failed to fathom it. At the few places where the pilot of + the barque put in to port, the population showed themselves unfriendly, + and refused to hold any communication with the Greeks. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0062" id="linkBimage-0062"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figright" style="width:38%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/363.jpg" + alt="363.jpg the Mountains Honeycombed With Tombs And Quarries " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, from +a photograph by Gautier. +</pre> + <p> + The interpreters, who were almost all natives of the Delta, were not + always familiar with the people and customs of the Said, and felt almost + as completely foreign at Thebes as did their employers. Their office was + confined to translating the information furnished by the inhabitants when + the latter were sufficiently civilised to hold communication with the + travellers. What most astonished Herodotus at Panopolis was the temple and + the games held in honour, so he believed, of Perseus, the son of Danaë. + These exercises terminated in an attempt to climb a regular “greasy pole” + fixed in the ground, and strengthened right and left by three rows of + stays attached to the mast at different heights; as for Perseus, he was + the ithyphallic god of the locality, Mînu himself, one of whose epithets—Pehresu, + the runner—was confounded by the Greek ear with the name of the + hero. The dragomans, enlarging on this mistaken identity, imagined that + the town was the birthplace of Danaos and Lyncseus; that Perseus, + returning from Libya with the head of Medusa, had gone out of his way to + visit the cradle of his family, and that he had instituted the games in + remembrance of his stay there. Thebes had become the ghost of its former + self; the Persian governors had neglected the city, and its princesses and + their ministers were so impoverished that they were unable to keep up its + temples and palaces. Herodotus scarcely mentions it, and we can hardly + wonder at it: he had visited the still flourishing Memphis, where the + temples were cared for and were filled with worshippers. What had Thebes + to show him in the way of marvels which he had not already seen, and that, + too, in a better state of preservation? His Theban ciceroni also told him + the same stories that he had heard in Lower Egypt, and he states that + their information agreed in the main with that which he had received at + Memphis and Heliopolis, which made it unnecessary to repeat it at length. + Two or three things only appeared to him worthy of mention. His admiration + was first roused by the 360 statues of the high priests of Amon which had + already excited the wonder of his rival Hecataeus; he noted that all these + personages were, without exception, represented as mere men, each the son + of another man, and he took the opportunity of ridiculing the vanity of + his compatriots, who did not hesitate to inscribe the name of a god at the + head of their genealogies, removed by some score of generations only from + their own. On the other hand, the temple servitors related to him how two + Theban priestesses, carried off by the Phoenicians and sold, one in Libya + and the other in Greece, had set up the first oracles known in those two + countries: Herodotus thereupon remembered the story he had heard in Epirus + of two black doves which had flown away from Thebes, one towards the Oasis + of Ammon, the other in the direction of Dodona; the latter had alighted on + an old beech tree, and in a human voice had requested that a temple + consecrated to Zeus should be founded on the spot.* + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * This indicates a confusion in the minds of the Egyptian + dragomans with the two brooding birds of Osiris, Isis and + Nephthys, considered as <i>Zarait</i>, that is to say, as two + birds of a different species, according to the different + traditions either vultures, rooks, or doves. +</pre> + <p> + Herodotus is quite overcome with joy at the thought that Greek divination + could thus be directly traced to that of Egypt, for like most of his + contemporaries, he felt that the Hellenic cult was ennobled by the fact of + its being derived from the Egyptian. The traveller on the Nile had to turn + homewards on reaching Elephantine, as that was the station of the last + Persian garrison. Nubia lay immediately beyond the cataract, and the + Ethiopians at times crossed the frontier and carried their raids as far as + Thebes. Elephantine, like Assuan at the present day, was the centre of a + flourishing trade. Here might be seen Kushites from Napata or Meroë, + negroes from the Upper Nile and the Bahr el-Ghazal, and Ammonians, from + all of whom the curious visitor might glean information while frequenting + the bazaars. The cataract was navigable all the year round, and the + natives in its vicinity enjoyed the privilege of piloting freight boats + through its difficult channel. It took four days to pass through it, + instead of the three, or even two, which suffice at the present day. Above + it, the Nile spread out and resembled a lake dotted over with islands, + several of which, such as Phike and Biggeh, contained celebrated temples, + which were as much frequented by the Ethiopians as by the Egyptians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0063" id="linkBimage-0063"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:17%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/367.jpg" alt="367.jpg Darius Iii. " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by +Faucher- +Gudin +</pre> + <p> + Correctly speaking, it was not Egypt herself that the Greeks saw, but her + external artistic aspect and the outward setting of Egyptian civilisation. + The vastness of her monuments, the splendour of her tombs, the pomp of her + ceremonies, the dignity and variety of her religious formulas, attracted + their curiosity and commanded their respect: the wisdom of the Egyptians + had passed into a proverb with them, as it had with the Hebrews. But if + they had penetrated behind the scenes, they would have been obliged to + acknowledge that beneath this attractive exterior there was hopeless + decay. As with all creatures when they have passed their prime, Egypt had + begun to grow old, and was daily losing her elasticity and energy. Her + spirit had sunk into a torpor, she had become unresponsive to her + environment, and could no longer adapt herself to the form she had so + easily acquired in her youth: it was as much as she could do to occupy + fully the narrower limits to which she had been reduced, and to maintain + those limits unbroken. The instinct which made her shrink from the + intrusion of foreign customs and ideas, or even mere contact with nations + of recent growth, was not the mere outcome of vanity. She realised that + she maintained her integrity only by relying on the residue of her former + solidarity and on the force of custom. The slightest disturbance of the + equilibrium established among her members, instead of strengthening her, + would have robbed her of the vigour she still possessed, and brought about + her dissolution. + </p> + <p> + She owed whatever activity she possessed to impulses imparted to her by + the play of her ancient mechanism—a mechanism so stable in its + action, and so ingeniously constructed, that it had still a reserve of + power within it sufficient to keep the whole in motion for centuries, + provided there was no attempt to introduce new wheels among the old. She + had never been singularly distinguished for her military qualities; not + that she was cowardly, and shrank from facing death, but because she + lacked energy and enthusiasm for warlike enterprise. The tactics and + armaments by which she had won her victories up to her prime, had at + length become fetters which she was no longer inclined to shake off, and + even if she was still able to breed a military caste, she was no longer + able to produce armies fit to win battles without the aid of mercenaries. + In order to be successful in the field, she had to associate with her own + troops recruits from other countries—Libyans, Asiatics, and Greeks, + who served to turn the scale. The Egyptians themselves formed a compact + body in this case, and bearing down upon the enemy already engaged by the + mercenaries, broke through his ranks by their sheer weight, or, if they + could not accomplish this, they stood their ground bravely, taking to + flight only when the vacancies in their ranks showed them that further + resistance was impossible. The machinery of government, like the + organisation of their armies, had become antiquated and degenerate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0064" id="linkBimage-0064"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="figleft" style="width:44%;"> + <img width="100%" src="images/368.jpg" + alt="368.jpg an Elephant Armed for War " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Drawn by Boudier, from a little terra-cotta +group from Myrrhina now in the Louvre. This +object dates from the time of the kings of +Pergamos, and the soldier round whom the +elephant winds his trunk in order to dash +him to the ground is a Gaul of Asia Minor. +</pre> + <p> + The nobility were as turbulent as in former times, and the royal authority + was as powerless now as of old to assert itself in the absence of external + help, or when treason was afoot among the troops. Religion alone + maintained its ascendency, and began to assume to itself the loyalty once + given to the Pharaoh, and the devotion previously consecrated to the + fatherland. The fellahîn had never fully realised the degradation involved + in serving a stranger, and what they detested in the Persian king was not + exactly the fact that he was a Persian. Their national pride, indeed, + always prompted them to devise some means of connecting the foreign + monarch with their own solar line, and to transform an Achæmenian king + into a legitimate Pharaoh. That which was especially odious to them in a + Cambyses or an Ochus was the disdain which such sovereigns displayed for + their religion, and the persecution to which they subjected the immortals. + They accustomed themselves without serious repining to have no longer one + of their own race upon the throne, and to behold their cities administered + by Asiatics, but they could not understand why the foreigner preferred his + own gods, and would not admit Amon, Phtah, Horus, and Râ to the rank of + supreme deities. Ochus had, by his treatment of the Apis and the other + divine animals, put it out of his power ever to win their good will. His + brutality had made an irreconcilable enemy of that state which alone gave + signs of vitality among the nations of the decaying East. This was all the + more to be regretted, since the Persian empire, in spite of the accession + of power which it had just manifested, was far from having regained the + energy which had animated it, not perhaps in the time of Darius, but at + all events under the first Xerxes. The army and the wealth of the country + were doubtless still intact—an army and a revenue which, in spite of + all losses, were still the largest in the world—but the valour of + the troops was not proportionate to their number. The former prowess of + the Persians, Medians, Bactrians, and other tribes of Iran showed no + degeneracy: these nations still produced the same race of brave and hardy + foot-soldiers, the same active and intrepid horsemen; but for a century + past there had not been the improvements either in the armament of the + troops or in the tactics of the generals which were necessary to bring + them up to the standard of excellence of the Greek army. The Persian king + placed great faith in extraordinary military machines. He believed in the + efficacy of chariots armed with scythes; besides this, his relations with + India had shown him what use his Oriental neighbours made of elephants, + and having determined to employ these animals, he had collected a whole + corps of them, from which he. hoped great things. In spite of the addition + of these novel recruits, it was not on the Asiatic contingents that he + chiefly relied in the event of war, but on the mercenaries who’ were hired + at great expense, and who formed the chief support of his power. From the + time of Artaxerxes II. onwards, it was the Greek hoplites and peltasts who + had always decided the issue of the Persian battles. The expeditions both + by land and sea had been under the conduct of Athenian or Spartan generals—Conon, + Chabrias, Iphi-crates, Agesilas, Timotheus, and their pupils; and again + also it was to the Greeks—to the Rhodian Mentor and to, Memnon—that + Ochus had owed his successes. The older nations—Egypt, Syria, + Chaldæa, and Elam—had all had their day of supremacy; they had + declined in the course of centuries, and Assyria had for a short time + united them under her rule. On the downfall of Assyria, the Iranians had + succeeded to her heritage, and they had built up a single empire + comprising all the states which had preceded them in Western Asia; but + decadence had fallen upon them also, and when they had been masters for + scarcely two short centuries, they were in their turn threatened with + destruction. Their rule continued to be universal, not by reason of its + inherent vigour, but on account of the weakness of their subjects and + neighbours, and a determined attack on any of the frontiers of the empire + would doubtless have resulted in its overthrow. + </p> + <p> + Greece herself was too demoralised to cause Darius any grave anxiety. Not + only had she renounced all intention of attacking the great king in his + own domain, as in the days of the Athenian hegemony, when she could impose + her own conditions of peace, but her perpetual discords had yielded her an + easy prey to Persia, and were likely to do so more and more. The Greek + cities chose the great king as the arbiter in their quarrels; they vied + with each other in obtaining his good will, his subsidies in men and + vessels, and his darics: they armed or disarmed at his command, and the + day seemed at hand when they would become a normal dependency of Persia, + little short of a regular satrapy like Asiatic Hellas. One chance of + escape from such a fate remained to them—if one or other of them, or + some neighbouring state, could acquire such an ascendency as to make it + possible to unite what forces remained to them under one rule. Macedonia + in particular, having hitherto kept aloof from the general stream of + politics, had at this juncture begun to shake off its lethargy, and had + entered with energy into the Hellenic concert under the auspices of its + king, Philip. Bagoas recognised the danger which threatened his people in + the person of this ambitious sovereign, and did not hesitate to give + substantial support to the adversaries of the Macedonian prince; + Chersobleptes of Thrace and the town of Perinthus receiving from him such + succour as enabled them to repulse Philip successfully (340). + Unfortunately, while Bagoas was endeavouring to avert danger in this + quarter, his rivals at court endeavoured to prejudice the mind of the king + against him, and their intrigues were so successful that he found himself + ere long condemned to the alternative of murdering his sovereign or + perishing himself. He therefore poisoned Ochus, to avoid being + assassinated or put to the torture, and placed on the throne Arses, the + youngest of the king’s sons, while he caused the remaining royal children + to be put to death (336).* Egypt hailed this tragic end as a mark of the + vengeance of the gods whom Ochus had outraged. A report was spread that + the eunuch was an Egyptian, that he had taken part in the murder of the + Apis under fear of death, but that when he was sure of his own safety he + had avenged the sacrilege. As soon as the poison had taken effect, it was + said he ate a portion of the dead body and threw the remainder to the + cats: he then collected the bones and made them into whistles and + knife-handles.** + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + * Plutarch calls the successor of Ochus Oarses, which + recalls the name which Dinon gives to Artaxerxes II. + Diodorus says that Bagoas destroyed the whole family of + Ochus, but he is mistaken. Arrian mentions a son of Ochus + about 330, and several other members of the royal Achæmenian + race are known to have been living in the time of Alexander. + + ** The body of the enemy thrown to the cats to be devoured + is a detail added by the popular imagination, which crops up + again in the Tale of Satni Khâmois. +</pre> + <p> + Ochus had astonished his contemporaries by the rapidity with which he had + re-established the integrity of the empire; they were pleased to compare + him with the heroes of his race, with Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius. But to + exalt him to such a level said little for their moral or intellectual + perceptions, since in spite of his victories he was merely a despot of the + ordinary type; his tenacity degenerated into brutal obstinacy, his + severity into cruelty, and if he obtained successes, they were due rather + to his generals and his ministers than to his own ability. His son Arses + was at first content to be a docile instrument in the hands of Bagoas; but + when the desire for independence came to him with the habitual exercise of + power, and he began to chafe at his bonds, the eunuch sacrificed him to + his own personal safety, and took his life as he had done that of his + father in the preceding year (336). So many murders following each other + in rapid succession had considerably reduced the Achsemenian family, and + Bagoas for a moment was puzzled where to find a king: he at length decided + in favour of Codomannos, who according to some was a great-grandson of + Darius II., but according to others was not of the royal line, but had in + his youth been employed as a courier. He had distinguished himself in the + hostilities against the Casduians, and had been nominated satrap of + Armenia by Ochus as a reward for his bravery. He assumed at his accession + the name of Darius; brave, generous, clement, and possessed with an ardent + desire to do right, he was in every way the superior of his immediate + predecessors, and he deserved to have reigned at a time when the empire + was less threatened. Bagoas soon perceived that his new protégé, whose + conduct he had reckoned on directing as he pleased, intended to govern for + himself, and he therefore attempted to get rid of him; Bagoas was, + however, betrayed by his accomplices, and compelled to drink the poison + which he had prepared for Darius. These revolutions had distracted the + attention of the court of Susa from the events which were taking place on + the shores of the Ægean, and Philip had taken advantage of them to carry + into effect the designs against Persia which he had been long meditating. + After having been victorious against the Greeks, he had despatched an army + of ten thousand men into Asia under the command of Parmenion and Attains + (336). We may ask if it were not he who formed the project of universal + conquest which was so soon to be associated with the name of his son + Alexander. He was for the moment content to excite revolt among the cities + of the Ægean littoral, and restore to them that liberty of which they had + been deprived for nearly a century. He himself followed as soon as these + lost children of Greece had established themselves firmly in Asia. The + story of his assassination on the eve of his departure is well known + (336), and of the difficulties which compelled Alexander to suspend the + execution of the plans which his father had made. Darius attempted to make + use of the respite thus afforded him by fortune; he adopted the usual + policy of liberally bribing one part of Greece to take up arms against + Macedonia—a method which was at first successful. While Alexander + was occupied in the destruction of Thebes, the Rhodian general Memnon, to + whom had been entrusted the defence of Asia Minor, forced the invaders to + entrench themselves in the Troad. If the Persian fleet had made its + appearance in good time, and had kept an active watch over the straits, + the advance-guard of the Macedonians would have succumbed to the enemy + before the main body of the troops had succeeded in joining them in Asia, + and it was easy to foretell what would have been the fate of an enterprise + inaugurated by such a disaster. Persia, however, had not yet learnt to + seize the crucial moment for action: her vessels were still arming when + the enemy made their appearance on the European shore of Hellespont, and + Alexander had ample time to embark and disembark the whole of his army + without having to draw his sword from the scabbard. He was accompanied by + about thirty thousand foot soldiers and four thousand five hundred horse; + the finest troops commanded by the best generals of the time—Parmenion, + his two sons Nikanor and Philotas, Crater, Clitos, Antigonus, and others + whose names are familiar to us all; a larger force than Memnon and his + subordinates were able to bring up to oppose him, at all events at the + opening of the campaign, during the preliminary operations which + determined the success of the enterprise. + </p> + <p> + The first years of the campaign seem like a review of the countries and + nations which in bygone times had played the chief part in Oriental history. + An engagement at the fords of the Granicus, only a few days after the + crossing of the Hellespont, placed Asia Minor at the mercy of the invader + (334). Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia tendered their submission, Miletus + and Halicarnassus being the only towns to offer any resistance. In the + spring of 333, Phrygia followed the general movement, in company with + Cappadocia and Cilicia; these represented the Hittite and Asianic world, + the last representatives of which thus escaped from the influences of the + East and passed under the Hellenic supremacy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0065" id="linkBimage-0065"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/376.jpg" width="100%" + alt="376.jpg the Battlefield of Issus " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph by Lortet. +</pre> + <p> + At the foot of the Amanus, Alexander came into conflict not only with the + generals of Darius, but with the great king himself. The Amanus, and the + part of the Taurus which borders on the Euphrates valley, had always + constituted the line of demarcation between the domain of the races of the + Asianic peninsula and that of the Semitic peoples. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0066" id="linkBimage-0066"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/376b.jpg" width="100%" + alt="376b.jpg a Bas-relief on A Sidonian Sarcophagus " /> + </div> + <p> + A second battle near the Issus, at the entrance to the Cilician gates, + cleared the ground, and gave the conqueror time to receive the homage of + the maritime provinces. Both Northern and Coele-Syria submitted to him + from Samosata to Damascus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0067" id="linkBimage-0067"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/379.jpg" width="100%" + alt="379.jpg the Isthmus of Tyre at The Present Day " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a sketch by Lortet. +</pre> + <p> + The less important towns of Phonicia, such as Arvad, Byblos, Sidon, and + those of Cyprus, followed their example; but Tyre closed its gates, and + trusted to its insular position for the preservation of its independence, + as it had done of old in the time of Sennacherib and of Nebuchadrezzar. It + was not so much a scrupulous feeling of loyalty which emboldened her to + take this step, as a keen realisation of what her conquest by the + Macedonian would entail. It was entirely-owing to Persia that she had not + succumbed in all parts of the Eastern Mediterranean in that struggle with + Greece which had now lasted for centuries: Persia had not only arrested + the progress of Hellenic colonisation in Cyprus, but had given a fresh + impulse to that of Tyre, and Phoenician influence had regained its + ascendency over a considerable part of the island. The surrender of Tyre, + therefore, would be equivalent to a Greek victory, and would bring about + the decay of the city; hence its inhabitants preferred hostilities, and + they were prolonged in desperation over a period of seven months. At the + end of that time Alexander succeeded in reducing the place by constructing + a dyke or causeway, by means of which he brought his machines of war up to + the foot of the ramparts, and filled in the channel which separated the + town from the mainland; the island thus became a peninsula, and Tyre + henceforth was reduced to the rank of an ordinary town, still able to + maintain her commercial activity, but having lost her power as an + independent state (332). Phoenicia being thus brought into subjection, + Judæa and Samaria yielded to the conqueror without striking a blow, though + the fortress of Gaza followed the example set by Tyre, and for the space + of two months blocked the way to the Delta. Egypt revolted at the approach + of her liberator, and the rising was so unanimous as to dismay the satrap + Mazakes, who capitulated at the first summons. Alexander passed the winter + on the banks of the Nile. Finding that the ancient capitals of the country—Thebes, + Sais, and even Memphis itself—occupied positions which were no + longer suited to the exigencies of the times, he founded opposite to the + island of Pharos, in the township of Eakotis, a city to which he gave his + own name. The rapid growth of the prosperity of Alexandria showed how + happy the founder had been in the choice of its site: in less than half a + century from the date of its foundation, it had eclipsed all the other + capitals of the Eastern Mediterranean, and had become the centre of + African Hellenism. While its construction was in progress, Alexander, + having had opportunities of studying the peculiarities and characteristics + of the Egyptians, had decided to perform the one act which would + conciliate the good feeling of the natives, and secure for him their + fidelity during his wars in the East: he selected from among their gods + the one who was also revered by the Greeks, Zeus-Amnion, and repaired to + the Oasis that he might be adopted by the deity. As a son of the god, he + became a legitimate Pharaoh, an Egyptian like themselves, and on returning + to Memphis he no longer hesitated to adopt the <i>pschent</i> crown with + the accompanying ancient rites. He returned to Asia early in the year 331, + and crossed the Euphrates. Darius had attempted to wrest Asia Minor from + his grasp, but Antigonus, the governor of Phrygia, had dispersed the + troops despatched for this purpose in 332, and Alexander was able to push + forward fearlessly into those regions beyond the Euphrates, where the Ten + Thousand had pursued their victorious march before him. He crossed the + Tigris about the 20th of September, and a week later fell in with his + rival in the very heart of Assyria, not far from, the village of + Gaugamela, where he took up a position which had been previously studied, + and was particularly suited for the evolutions of cavalry. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linkBimage-0068" id="linkBimage-0068"> + <!-- IMG --></a> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img src="images/382.jpg" width="100%" + alt="382.jpg the Battle of Arbela, from The Mosaic Of Herculanum " /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Drawn by Boudier, from a photograph. +</pre> + <p> + At the Granicus and near Issus, the Greek element had played an important + part among the forces which contested the field; on this occasion, + however, the great king was accompanied by merely two or three thousand + mercenaries, while, on the other hand, the whole of Asia seemed to have + roused herself for a last effort, and brought forward her most valiant + troops to oppose the disciplined ranks of the Macedonians. Persians, + Susians, Medes, Armenians, Iranians from Bactriana, Sakae, and Indians + were all in readiness to do their best, and were accompanied by every + instrument of military warfare employed in Oriental tactics; chariots + armed with scythes, the last descendants of the chariotry which had + dominated all the battle-fields from the time of the XVIIIth Theban + dynasty down to the latest Sargonids, and, employed side by side with + these relics of a bygone day, were Indian elephants, now for the first + time brought into use against European battalions. These picked troops + sold their lives dearly, but the perfection of the Macedonian arms, and, + above all, the superiority of the tactics employed by their generals, + carried the day; the evening of the 30th of September found Darius in + flight, and the Achæmenian empire crushed by the furious charges of + Alexander’s squadrons. Babylon fell into their hands a few days later, + followed by Susa, and in the spring of 330, Ecbatana; and shortly after + Darius met his end on the way to Media, assassinated by the last of his + generals. + </p> + <p> + With his death, Persia sank back into the obscurity from which Cyrus had + raised her rather more than two centuries previously. With the exception + of the Medes, none of the nations which had exercised the hegemony of the + East before her time, not even Assyria, had had at their disposal such a + wealth of resources and had left behind them so few traces of their power. + A dozen or so of palaces, as many tombs, a few scattered altars and stelæ, + remains of epics preserved by the Greeks, fragments of religious books, + often remodelled, and issuing in the Avesta—when we have reckoned up + all that remains to us of her, what do we find to compare in interest and + in extent with the monuments and wealth of writings bequeathed to us by + Egypt and Chaldæa? The Iranians received Oriental civilisation at a time + when the latter was in its decline, and caught the spirit of decadence in + their contact with it. In succeeding to the patrimony of the nations they + conquered, they also inherited their weakness; in a few years they had + lost all the vigour of their youth, and were barely able to maintain the + integrity of the empire they had founded. Moreover, the great peoples to + whom they succeeded, although lacking the vigour necessary for the + continuance of their independent existence, had not yet sunk so low as to + acquiesce in their own decay, and resign themselves to allowing their + national life to be absorbed is that of another power: they believed that + they would emerge from the crisis, as they had done from so many others, + with fresh strength, and, as soon as an occasion presented itself, they + renewed the war against their Iranian suzerain. Prom, the first to the + latest of the sovereigns bearing the name of Darius, the history of the + Achæmenids in an almost uninterrupted series of internal wars and + provincial revolts. The Greeks of Ionia, the Egyptians, Chaldæans, + Syrians, and the tribes of Asia Minor, all rose one after another, + sometimes alone, sometimes in concert; some carrying on hostilities for + not more than two or three years; others, like Egypt, maintaining them for + more than half a century. They were not discouraged by the reprisals which + followed each of these rebellions; they again had recourse to arms as soon + as there seemed the least chance of success, and they renewed the struggle + till from sheer exhaustion the sword fell from their hand. Persia was worn + out by this perpetual warfare, in which at the same time each of her + rivals expended the last relics of their vitality, and when Macedonia + entered on the scene, both lords and vassals were reduced to such a state + of prostration, that it was easy to foretell their approaching end. The + old Oriental world was in its death-throes; but before it passed away, the + successful audacity of Alexander had summoned Greece to succeed to its + inheritance. + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <div class="fig" style="width:80%;"> + <img alt="385 (9K)" src="images/385.jpg" width="100%" /> + </div> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History Of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, +Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 9 (of 12), by G. 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