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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative
+of Zuñi Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative of Zuñi Culture Growth.
+       Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1882-83,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1886, pages 467-522
+
+Author: Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+Release Date: November 28, 2005 [EBook #17170]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO POTTERY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Victoria Woosley and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION----BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    A STUDY
+
+                       of
+
+                 PUEBLO POTTERY
+
+
+               AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
+              ZUÑI CULTURE GROWTH.
+
+                       BY
+              FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  Habitations affected by environment                                  473
+    Rectangular forms developed from circular                          475
+    Flat and terraced roofs developed from sloping mesa-sites          477
+    Added stories developed from limitations of cliff-house sites      479
+    Communal pueblos developed from congregation of cliff-house tribes 480
+
+  Pottery affected by environment                                      482
+    Anticipated by basketry                                            483
+    Suggested by clay-lined basketry                                   485
+    Influenced by local minerals                                       493
+    Influenced by materials and methods used in burning                495
+
+  Evolution of forms                                                   497
+
+  Evolution of decoration                                              506
+
+  Decorative symbolism                                                 510
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  FIG.                                                               Page.
+  490.--A Navajo hut or hogan                                         473
+  491.--Perspective view of earliest or Round-house structures of
+        lava                                                          474
+  492.--Plan of same                                                  475
+  493.--Section of same                                               475
+  494.--Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive architecture      476
+  495.--Section illustrating evolution of flat roof and terrace       477
+  496.--Perspective view of a typical solitary-house                  478
+  497.--Plan of a typical solitary-house                              478
+  498.--Typical cliff-dwelling                                        479
+  499.--Typical terraced-pueblo--communal type                        480
+  500.--Ancient gourd-vessel encased in wicker                        483
+  501.--Havasupaí roasting-tray, with clay lining                     484
+  502.--Zuñi roasting-tray of earthenware                             485
+  503.--Havasupaí boiling-basket                                      486
+  504.--Sketch illustrating the first stage in manufacture of latter  486
+  505.--Sketch illustrating the second stage in manufacture of latter 486
+  506.--Sketch illustrating the third stage in manufacture of latter  486
+  507.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  508.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  509.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  510.--Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form."
+        (Shú k‘u tu lia tsí nan)                                      488
+  511.--Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form."
+        (Shú k‘u tu lia tsí nan)                                      488
+  512.--Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated          488
+  513.--Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated          488
+  514.--Diagonal parallel-line decoration. (Shú k‘ish pa tsí nan)     488
+  515.--Study of splints at neck of unfinished basket illustrating
+        evolution of latter                                           489
+  516.--Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware             490
+  517.--Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware             490
+  518.--Cooking pot of spirally built or corrugated ware, showing
+        conical projections near rim                                  490
+  519.--The same, illustrating modification of latter                 491
+  520.--Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for suspension      491
+  521.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing double handle        492
+  522.--The same, showing also plain bottom                           492
+  523.--Food trencher or bowl of impervious wicker-work               497
+  524.--Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls                     497
+  525.--Ancient bowl of corrugated ware, showing comparative
+        shallowness                                                   498
+  526.--Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels                    499
+  527.--Clay nucleus illustrating beginning of a vessel               499
+  528.--The same shaped to form the base of a vessel                  499
+  529.--The same as first placed in base-mold, showing beginning of
+        spiral building                                               500
+  530.--First form of vessel                                          500
+  531.--Secondary form in mold, showing origin of spheroidal type of
+        jar                                                           501
+  532.--Scrapers or trowels of gourd and earthen-ware for smoothing
+        pottery                                                       501
+  533.--Finished form of a vessel in mold, showing amount of
+        contraction in drying                                         501
+  534.--Profile of olla or modern water-jar                           502
+  535.--Base of same, showing circular indentation at bottom          502
+  536.--Section of same, showing central concavity and circular
+        depression                                                    502
+  537.--"Milkmaid's boss," or annular mat of wicker for supporting
+        round vessels on the head in carrying                         503
+  538.--Use of annular mat illustrated                                503
+  539.--Section of incipient vessel in convex-bottomed basket-mold    504
+  540.--Section of same as supported on annular mat and wad of soft
+        substance, for drying                                         504
+  541.--Modern base-mold as made from the bottom of water jar         504
+  542.--Example of Pueblo painted-ornamentation illustrating
+        decorative value of open spaces  506
+  543 and 544.--Amazonian basket-decorations, illustrating evolution
+        of the above characteristic 507
+  545.--Bowl, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim        510
+  546.--Water-jar, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim   510
+  547.--Conical or flat-bellied canteen                               512
+  548 and 549.--The same, compared with human mammary gland           513
+  550.--Double-lobed or hunter canteen (Me´ wi k‘i lik ton ne),
+        showing teat-like projections and open spaces of contiguous
+        lines                                                         514
+  551.--Native painting of deer, showing space-line from mouth to
+        heart                                                         515
+  552.--Native painting of sea serpent, showing space-line from mouth
+        to heart                                                      515
+  553.--The fret of basket decoration                                 516
+  554.--The fret of pottery decoration                                516
+  555.--Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery decoration             516
+  556.--Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar"                                 517
+  557.--Decoration of above compared with modern Moki rain symbol     517
+  558.--Zuñi prayer-meal bowl illustrating symbolism in form and
+        decoration                                                    518
+  559.--Native paintings of sacred butterfly                          519
+  560.--Native painting of sacred migratory "summer bird"             519
+  561.--Rectangular or Iroquois type of earthen vessel                519
+  562.--Kidney-shaped type of vessel of Nicaragua                     520
+  563.--Iroquois bark vessel, showing angles of juncture              520
+  564.--Porcupine quill decoration on bark vessel, for comparison
+        with Fig. 561                                                 521
+~~~
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+  A STUDY OF PUEBLO POTTERY AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
+              ZUÑI CULTURE-GROWTH.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+              BY FRANK H. CUSHING.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HABITATIONS AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.
+
+
+It is conceded that the peculiarities of a culture-status are due
+chiefly to the necessities encountered during its development. In this
+sense the Pueblo phase of life was, like the Egyptian, the product of
+a desert environment. Given that a tribe or stock of people is weak,
+they will be encroached upon by neighboring stronger tribes, and
+driven to new surroundings if not subdued. Such we may believe was the
+influence which led the ancestors of the Pueblo tribes to adopt an
+almost waterless area for their habitat.
+
+It is apparent at least that they entered the country wherein their
+remains occur while comparatively a rude people, and worked out there
+almost wholly their incipient civilization. Of this there is important
+linguistic evidence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 490.--A Navajo hut.]
+
+A Navajo hogan, or hut, is a beehive-shaped or conical structure (see
+Fig. 490) of sticks and turf or earth, sometimes even of stones
+chinked with mud. Yet its modern Zuñi name is _hám´ pon ne_, from _ha
+we_, dried brush, sprigs or leaves; and _pó an ne_, covering, shelter
+or roof (_po a_ to place over and _ne_ the nominal suffix); which,
+interpreted, signifies a "brush or leaf shelter." This leads to the
+inference that the temporary shelter with which the Zuñis were
+acquainted when they formulated the name here given, presumably in
+their earliest condition, was in shape like the Navajo hogan, but in
+_material_, of brush or like perishable substance.
+
+The archaic name for a building or walled inclosure is _hé sho ta_, a
+contraction of the now obsolete term, _hé sho ta pon ne_, from _hé
+sho_, gum, or resin-like; _shó tai e_, leaned or placed together
+convergingly; and _tá po an ne_, a roof of wood or a roof supported by
+wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 491.--Perspective view of earliest or Round-house
+structure of lava.]
+
+The meaning of all this would be obscure did not the oldest remains of
+the Pueblos occur in the almost inaccessible lava wastes bordering the
+southwestern deserts and intersecting them and were not the houses of
+these ruins built on the plan of shelters, round (see Figs. 491, 492,
+493), rather than rectangular. Furthermore, not only does the
+lava-rock of which their walls have been rudely constructed resemble
+natural asphaltum (_hé sho_) and possess a cleavage exactly like that
+of piñon-gum and allied substances (also _hé sho_), but some forms of
+lava are actually known as _á he sho_ or gum-rock. From these
+considerations inferring that the name _hé sho ta pon ne_ derivatively
+signifies something like "a gum-rock shelter with roof supports of
+wood," we may also infer that the Pueblos on their coming into the
+desert regions dispossessed earlier inhabitants or that they chose the
+lava-wastes the better to secure themselves from invasion; moreover
+that the oldest form of building known to them was therefore an
+inclosure of lava-stones, whence the application of the contraction
+_hé sho ta_, and its restriction to mean a walled inclosure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 492.--Plan of Pueblo structure of lava.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 493.--Section of Pueblo structure of lava.]
+
+
+RECTANGULAR FORMS DEVELOPED FROM CIRCULAR.
+
+It may be well in this connection to cite a theory entertained by Mr.
+Victor Mindeleff, of the Bureau of Ethnology, whose wide experience
+among the southwestern ruins entitles his judgment to high
+consideration. In his opinion the rectangular form of architecture,
+which succeeds the type under discussion, must have been evolved from
+the circular form by the bringing together, within a limited area, of
+many houses. This would result in causing the wall of one circular
+structure to encroach upon that of another, suggesting the partition
+instead of the double wall. This partition would naturally be built
+straight as a twofold measure of economy. Supposing three such houses
+to be contiguous to a central one, each separated from the latter by a
+straight wall, it may be seen that (as in the accompanying plan) the
+three sides of a square are already formed, suggesting the
+parallelogramic as a convenient style of sequent architecture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 494.--Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive
+architecture.]
+
+All this, I need scarcely add, agrees not only with my own
+observations in the field but with the kind of linguistic research
+above recorded. It would also apparently explain the occurrence of the
+circular semisubterranean _kí wi tsi we_, or estufas. These being
+sacred have retained the pristine form long after the adoption of a
+modified type of structure for ordinary or secular purposes, according
+to the well known law of survival in ceremonial appurtenances.
+
+In a majority of the lava ruins (for example those occurring near
+Prescott, Arizona), I have observed that the sloping sides rather than
+the level tops of _mesa_ headlands have been chosen by the ancients as
+building-sites. Here, the rude, square type of building prevails, not,
+however, to the entire exclusion of the circular type, which, is
+represented by loosely constructed walls, always on the _outskirts_ of
+the main ruins. The rectangular rooms are, as a rule, built row above
+row. Some of the houses in the upper rows give evidence of having
+overlapped others below. (See section, Fig. 495.)
+
+
+FLAT AND TERRACED ROOFS DEVELOPED FROM SLOPING MESA-SITES.
+
+We cannot fail to take notice of the indications which this brings
+before us.
+
+(1) It is quite probable that the overlapping resulted from an
+increase in the numbers of the ancient builders relative to available
+area, this, as in the first instance, leading to a further massing
+together of the houses. (2) It suggested the employment of rafters and
+the formation of the _flat_ roof, as a means of supplying a level
+entrance way and floor to rooms which, built above and to the rear of
+a first line of houses, yet extended partially over the latter. (3)
+This is I think the earliest form of the terrace.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 495.--Section illustrating evolution of flat roof
+and terrace]
+
+It is therefore not surprising that the flat roof of to-day is named
+_té k‘os kwïn ne_, from _te_, space, region, extension, _k‘os kwi e_,
+to cut off in the sense of closing or shutting in from one side, and
+_kwïn ne_, place of. Nor is it remarkable that no type of ruin in the
+Southwest _seems_ to connect these first terraced towns with the later
+not only terraced but also literally cellular buildings, which must be
+regarded nevertheless as developed from them. The reason for this will
+become evident on further examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 496.--Perspective view of a typical solitary
+house.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 497.--Plan of a typical solitary house.]
+
+The modern name for house is _k‘iá kwïn ne_, from _k‘iá we_, water,
+and _kwin ne_, place of, literally "watering place;" which is evidence
+that the first properly so called houses known to the Pueblos were
+solitary and built near springs, pools, streams, or well-places. The
+universal occurrence of the vestiges of single houses throughout the
+less forbidding tracts of the Pueblo country (see Figs. 496 and 497)
+leads to this inference and to the supposition that the necessity for
+protection being at last overcome, the denizens of the lava-fields,
+where planting was well-nigh impossible, descended, building wherever
+conditions favored the horticulture which gradually came to be their
+chief means of support. As irrigation was not known until long
+afterwards, arable areas were limited, hence they were compelled to
+divide into families or small clans, each occupying a single house.
+The traces of these solitary farm-houses show that they were at first
+single-storied. The name of an upper room indicates how the idea of
+the second or third story was developed, as it is _ósh ten u thlan_,
+from _ósh ten_, a shallow cave, or rock-shelter, and _ú thla nai e_,
+placed around, embracing, inclusive of. This goes to show that it was
+not until after the building of the first small farm-houses (which
+gave the name to houses) that the caves or rock-shelters of the
+cliffs were occupied. If predatory border-tribes, tempted by the
+food-stores of the horticultural farm-house builders, made incursions
+on the latter, they would find them, scattered as they were, an easy
+prey.
+
+
+ADDED STORIES FOR CLIFF DWELLINGS DEVELOPED FROM LIMITATIONS OF
+CLIFF-HOUSE SITES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 498.--A typical cliff-dwelling.]
+
+This condition of things would drive the people to seek security in
+the neighboring cliffs of fertile canons, where not only might they
+build their dwelling places in the numerous rock-shelters, but they
+could also cultivate their crops in comparative safety along the
+limited tracts which these eyries overlooked. The narrow foothold
+afforded by many of these elevated cliff-shelves or shelters would
+force the fugitives to construct house over house; that is, build a
+second or upper story around the roof of the cavern. What more
+natural than that this upper room should take a name most descriptive
+of its situation--as that portion built around the cavern-shelter or
+_ósh ten_--or that, when the intervention of peace made return to the
+abandoned farms of the plains or a change of condition possible, the
+idea of the second story should be carried along and the name first
+applied to it survive, even to the present day? That the upper story
+took its name from the rock-shelter may be further illustrated. The
+word _ósh ten_ comes from _ó sho nan te_, the condition of being
+dusky, dank, or mildewy; clearly descriptive of a cavern, but not of
+the most open, best lighted, and driest room in a Pueblo house.
+
+To continue, we may see how the necessity for protection would drive
+the petty clans more and more to the cliffs, how the latter at every
+available point would ultimately come to be occupied, and thus how the
+"_Cliff-dwelling_" (see Fig. 498), was confined to no one section but
+was as universal as the farm-house type of architecture itself, so
+widespread, in fact, that it has been heretofore regarded as the
+monument of a great, now extinct _race_ of people!
+
+
+COMMUNAL PUEBLOS DEVELOPED FROM CONGREGATION OF CLIFF-HOUSE TRIBES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 499.--Typical terraced communal pueblo.]
+
+We may see, finally, how at last the cañons proved too limited and in
+other ways undesirable for occupation, the result of which was the
+confederation of the scattered cliff-dwelling clans, and the
+construction, first on the overhanging cliff-tops, then on _mesas_,
+and farther and farther away, of great, many-storied towns, any one of
+which was named, in consequence of the bringing together in it of many
+houses and clans, _thlu él lon ne_, from _thlu a_, many springing up,
+and _él lon a_, that which stands, or those which stand; in other
+words, "many built standing together." This cannot be regarded as
+referring to the simple fact that a village is necessarily composed of
+many houses standing together. The name for any other village than a
+communal pueblo is _tí na kwïn ne_, from _tí na_--many sitting around,
+and _kwïn ne_, place of. This term is applied by the Zuñis to all
+villages save their own and those of ourselves, which latter they
+regard as Pueblos, in their acceptation of the above native word.
+
+Here, then, in strict accordance with, the teachings of myth,
+folk-lore and tradition, I have used the linguistic argument as
+briefest and most convincing in indicating the probable sequence of
+architectural types in the evolution of the Pueblo; from the brush
+lodge, of which only the name survives, to the recent and present
+terraced, many-storied, communal structures, which we may find
+throughout New Mexico, Arizona, and contiguous parts of the
+neighboring Territories.[1]
+
+   [1] See for confirmation the last Annual Report to the
+   Archæological Institute of America, by Adolph F. Bandelier, one
+   of the most indefatigable explorers and careful students of early
+   Spanish history in America.
+
+
+
+
+POTTERY AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.
+
+
+There is no other section of the United States where the potter's art
+was so extensively practiced, or where it reached such a degree of
+perfection, as within the limits of these ancient Pueblo regions. To
+this statement not even the prolific valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries form an exception.
+
+On examining a large and varied collection of this pottery, one would
+naturally regard it either as the product of four distinct peoples or
+as belonging to four different eras, with an inclination to the
+chronologic division.
+
+When we see the reasonable probability that the architecture, the
+primeval arts and industries, and the culture of the Pueblos are
+mainly indigenous to the desert and semi-desert regions of North
+America, we are in the way towards an understanding of the origin and
+remarkable degree of development in the ceramic art.
+
+In these regions water not only occurs in small quantities, but is
+obtainable only at points separated by great distances, hence to the
+Pueblos the first necessity of life is the transportation and
+preservation of water. The skins and paunches of animals could be used
+in the effort to meet this want with but small success, as the heat
+and aridity of the atmosphere would in a short time render water thus
+kept unfit for use, and the membranes once empty would be liable to
+destruction by drying. So far as language indicates the character of
+the earliest water vessels which to any extent met the requirements of
+the Zuñi ancestry, they were tubes of wood or sections of canes. The
+latter, in ritualistic recitation, are said to have been the
+receptacles that the creation-priests filled with the sacred water
+from the ocean of the cave-wombs of earth, whence men and creatures
+were born, and the name for one of these cane water vessels is _shó
+tom me_, from _shó e_, cane or canes, and _tóm me_, a wooden tube.
+Yet, although in the extreme western borders of the deserts, which
+were probably the first penetrated by the Pueblos, the cane grows to
+great size and in abundance along the two rivers of that country, its
+use, if ever extensive, must have speedily given way to the use of
+gourds, which grew luxuriantly at these places and were of better
+shapes and of larger capacity. The name of the gourd as a vessel is
+_shoṕ tom me_, from _shó e_, canes, _pó pon nai e_, bladder-shaped,
+and _tóm me_, a wooden tube; a seeming derivation (with the exception
+of the interpolated sound significant of form) from _shó tom me_. The
+gourd itself is called _mó thlâ â_, "hard fruit." The inference is
+that when used as a vessel, and called _shoṕĭ tom me_, it must have
+been named after an older form of vessel, instead of after the plant
+or fruit which produced it.
+
+While the gourd was large and convenient in form, it was difficult of
+transportation owing to its fragility. To overcome this it was encased
+in a coarse sort of wicker-work, composed of fibrous yucca leaves or
+of flexible splints. Of this we have evidence in a series of
+gourd-vessels among the Zuñis, into which the sacred water is said to
+have been transferred from the tubes, and a pair of which one of the
+priests, who came east with me two years ago, brought from New Mexico
+to Boston in his hands--so precious were they considered as
+relics--for the purpose of replenishing them with water from the
+Atlantic. These vessels are encased rudely but strongly in a meshing
+of splints (see Fig. 500), and while I do not positively claim that
+they have been piously preserved since the time of the universal use
+of gourds as water-vessels by the ancestry of this people, they are
+nevertheless of considerable antiquity. Their origin is attributed to
+the priest-gods, and they show that it must have once been a common
+practice to encase gourds, as above described, in osiery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 500.--Gourd vessel enclosed in wicker.]
+
+
+POTTERY ANTICIPATED BY BASKETRY.
+
+This crude beginning of the wicker-art in connection with
+water-vessels points toward the development of the wonderful
+water-tight basketry of the southwest, explaining, too, the
+resemblance of many of its typical forms to the shapes of
+gourd-vessels. Were we uncertain of this, we might again turn to
+language, which designates the impervious wicker water-receptacle of
+whatever outline as _tóm ma_, an evident derivation from the
+restricted use of the word _tóm me_ in connection with gourd or cane
+vessels, since a basket of any other kind is called _tsí ì le_.
+
+It is readily conceivable that water-tight osiery, once known, however
+difficult of manufacture, would displace the general use of
+gourd-vessels. While the growth of the gourd was restricted to limited
+areas, the materials for basketry were everywhere at hand. Not only
+so, but basket-vessels were far stronger and more durable, hence more
+readily transported full of water, to any distance. By virtue of their
+rough surfaces, any leakage in such vessels was instantly stopped by a
+daubing of pitch or mineral asphaltum, coated externally with sand or
+coarse clay to harden it and overcome its adhesiveness.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 501.--Havasupai clay-lined roasting-tray.]
+
+We may conclude, then, that so long as the Pueblo ancestry were
+semi-nomadic, basketry supplied the place of pottery, as it still does
+for the less advanced tribes of the Southwest, except in cookery.
+Possibly for a time basketry of this kind served in place of pottery
+even for cookery, as with one of the above-mentioned tribes, the _Ha
+va su paí_ or Coçoninos, of Cataract Cañon, Arizona. These people,
+until recently, were cut off from the rest of the world by their
+almost impenetrable cañon, nearly half a mile in depth at the point
+where they inhabit it. For example, when I visited them in 1881, they
+still hafted sharpened bits of iron, like celts, in wood. They had not
+yet forgotten how to boil food in water-tight basketry, by means of
+hot stones, and continued to roast seeds, crickets, and bits of meat
+in wicker-trays, coated inside with gritty clay. (See Fig. 501.) The
+method of preparing and using these roasting-trays has an important
+bearing on several questions to which reference will be made further
+on. A round basket-tray, either loosely or closely woven, is evenly
+coated inside with clay, into which has been kneaded a very large
+proportion of sand, to prevent contraction and consequent cracking
+from drying. This lining of clay is pressed, while still soft, into
+the basket as closely as possible with the hands and then allowed to
+dry. The tray is thus made ready for use. The seeds or other
+substances to be parched are placed inside of it, together with a
+quantity of glowing wood-coals. The operator, quickly squatting,
+grasps the tray at opposite edges, and, by a rapid spiral motion up
+and down, succeeds in keeping the coals and seeds constantly shifting
+places and turning over as they dance after one another around and
+around the tray, meanwhile blowing or puffing, the embers with every
+breath to keep them free from ashes and glowing at their hottest.
+
+That this clay lining should grow hard from continual heating, and in
+some instances separate from its matrix of osiers, is apparent. The
+clay form thus detached would itself be a perfect roasting-vessel.
+
+
+POTTERY SUGGESTED BY CLAY-LINED BASKETRY.
+
+This would suggest the agency of gradual heat in rendering clay fit
+for use in cookery and preferable to any previous makeshift. The
+modern Zuñi name for a parching-pan, which is a shallow bowl of
+black-ware, is _thlé mon ne_, the name for a basket-tray being _thlä´
+lin ne_. The latter name signifies a shallow vessel of twigs, or _thlá
+we_; the former etymologically interpreted, although of earthenware,
+is a hemispherical vessel of the same kind and _material_. All this
+would indicate that the _thlä´ lin ne_, coated with clay for roasting,
+had given birth to the _thlé mon ne_, or parching-pan of earthenware.
+(See Fig. 502.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 502.--Zuñi earthenware roasting tray.]
+
+Among the Havasupaí, still surviving as a sort of bucket, is the
+basket-pot or boiling-basket, for use with hot stones, which form I
+have also found in some of the cave deposits throughout the ancient
+Zuñi country. These vessels (see Fig. 503) were bottle-shaped and
+provided near the rims of their rather narrow mouths with a sort of
+cord or strap-handle, attached to two loops or eyes (Fig. 503 _a_)
+woven into the basket, to facilitate handling when the vessel was
+filled with hot water. In the manufacture of one of these vessels,
+which are good examples of the helix or spirally-coiled type of
+basket, the beginning was made at the center of the bottom. A small
+wisp of fine, flexible grass stems or osiers softened in water was
+first spirally wrapped a little at one end with a flat, limber splint
+of tough wood, usually willow (see Fig. 504). This wrapped portion was
+then wound upon itself; the outer coil thus formed (see Fig. 505)
+being firmly fastened as it progressed to the one already made by
+passing the splint wrapping of the wisp each time it was wound around
+the latter through some strands of the contiguous inner coil, with the
+aid of a bodkin. (See Fig. 506.) The bottom was rounded upward and the
+sides were made by coiling the wisp higher and higher, first outward,
+to produce the bulge of the vessel, then inward, to form the tapering
+upper part and neck, into which, the two little twigs or splint
+loop-eyes were firmly woven. (See again Fig. 503 _a_.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 503.--Havasupaí boiling-basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 504. FIG. 505. FIG. 506.
+               Sketches illustrating manufacture of
+               spirally-coiled basketry.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 507.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 508.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 509.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+These and especially kindred forms of basket-vessels were often quite
+elaborately ornamented, either by the insertion at proper points of
+dyed wrapping-splints, singly, in pairs, or in sets, or by the
+alternate painting of pairs, sets, or series of stitches. Thus were
+produced angular devices, like serrated bands, diagonal or zigzag
+lines, chevrons, even terraces and frets. (See Figs. 507, 508, 509.)
+There can be no doubt that these styles and ways of decoration were
+developed, along with the weaving of baskets, simply by elaborating on
+suggestions of the lines and figures unavoidably produced in
+wicker-work of any kind when strands of different colors happened to
+be employed together. Even slight discolorations in occasional splints
+would result in such suggestions, for the stitches would here show,
+there disappear. The probability of this view of the accidental origin
+of basket-ornamentation may be enhanced by a consideration of the
+etymology of a few Zuñi decorative terms, more of which might be given
+did space admit. A terraced lozenge (see Figs. 510, 511), instead of
+being named after the abstract word _a wi thlui ap í pä tchi na_,
+which signifies a double terrace or two terraces joined together at
+the base, is designated _shu k‘u tu li a tsi´ nan_, from _shu e_,
+splints or fibers; _k‘u tsu_, a double fold, space, or stitch (see
+Figs. 512, 513); _li a_, an interpolation referring to form; and _tsi´
+nan_, mark; in other words, the "double splint-stitch-form mark."
+Likewise, a pattern, composed principally of a series of diagonal or
+oblique parallel lines _en masse_ (see Fig. 514), is called _shu´
+k‘ish pa tsí nan_, from _shú e_, splints; _k‘i´sh pai e_, tapering
+(_k‘ish pon ne_, neck or smaller part of anything); and _tsí nan_,
+mark; that is, "tapering" or "neck-splint mark." Curiously enough, in
+a bottle-shaped basket as it approaches completion the splints of the
+tapering part or neck all lean spirally side by side of one another
+(see Fig. 515), and a term descriptive of this has come to be used as
+that applied to lines resembling it, instead of a derivative from _ä´s
+sël lai e_, signifying an oblique or leaning line. Where splints
+variously arranged, or stitches, have given names to decorations--applied
+even to painted and embroidered designs--it is not difficult for us to
+see that these same combinations, at first unintentional, must have
+suggested the forms to which they gave names as decorations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 510. FIG. 511.
+               Terraced lozenge decoration, or
+               "double-splint-stitch-forms."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 512. FIG. 513.
+               Double-splint-stitch.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 514.--Diagonal parallel-line decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 515.--Splints at neck of unfinished basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 516. FIG. 517.
+               Examples of indented decoration on corrugated ware.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 518.--Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing
+               conical projections near rim.
+
+_Pueblo coiled pottery developed from basketry._--Seizing the
+suggestion afforded by the rude tray-molded parching-bowls,
+particularly after it was discovered that if well burned they resisted
+the effects of water as well as of heat, the ancient potter would
+naturally attempt in time to reproduce the boiling-basket in clay. She
+would find that to accomplish this she could not use as a mold the
+inside of the boiling-basket, as she had the inside of the tray,
+because its neck was smaller than its body. Nor could she form the
+vase by plastering the clay outside of the vessel, not only for the
+same reason, but also because the clay in drying would contract so
+much that it would crack or scale off. Naturally, then, she pursued
+the process she was accustomed to in the manufacture of the
+basket-bottle. That is, she formed a thin rope of soft clay, which,
+like the wisp of the basket, she coiled around and around a center to
+form the bottom, then spirally upon itself, now widening the diameter
+of each coil more and more, then contracting as she progressed upward
+until the desired height and form were attained. As the clay was
+adhesive, each coil was attached to the one already formed by
+pinching or pressing together the connecting edges at short intervals
+as the winding went on. This produced corrugations or indentations
+marvelously resembling the stitches of basket-work. Hence accidentally
+the vessel thus built up appeared so similar to the basket which had
+served as its model that evidently it did not seem complete until this
+feature had been heightened by art. At any rate, the majority of
+specimens belonging to this type of pottery--especially those of the
+older periods during which it was predominant--are distinguished by an
+indented or incised decoration exactly reproducing the zigzags,
+serrations, chevrons, terraces, and other characteristic devices of
+water-tight basketry. (Compare Figs. 516, 517 with Figs. 507, 508.)
+Evidently with a like intention two little cone-like projections were
+attached to the neck near the rim of the vessel (see Fig. 518) which
+may hence be regarded as survivals of the loops whereby it has been
+seen the ends of the strap-handle were attached to the boiling-basket.
+(See again Fig. 503, _a_.) Although varied in later times to form
+scrolls, rosettes, and other ornate figures (see Fig. 519), they
+continued ever after quite faithful features of the spiral type of
+pot, and may even sometimes be seen on the cooking-vessels of modern
+Zuñi. To add yet another link to this chain of connection between the
+coiled boiling-basket and the spirally-built cooking-pot, the names of
+the two kinds of vessels may be given. The boiling-basket was known as
+_wó li a k‘ia ni tu li a tom me_, the corrugated cooking pot as _wo li
+a k‘ia te´ ni tu li a ton ne_, the former signifying "coiled
+cooking-basket," the latter "coiled earthenware cooking-basket."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 519--Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing
+               modified projections near rim.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 520.--Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for
+               suspension.]
+
+Other very important types of vessels were made in a similar way. I
+refer especially to canteens and water-bottles. The water-bottle of
+wicker differed little from the boiling-basket. It was generally
+rounder-bodied, longer and narrower necked, and provided at one side
+near the shoulders or rim with two loops of hair or strong fiber,
+usually braided. (See Fig. 520.) The ends of the burden-strap passed
+through these loops made suspension of the vessel easy, or when the
+latter was used simply as a receptacle, the pair of loops served as a
+handle. Sometimes these basket-bottles were strengthened at the bottom
+with rawhide or buckskin, stuck on with gum. When, in the evolution of
+the pitcher, this type of basket was reproduced in clay, not only was
+the general form preserved, but also the details above described. That
+is, without reference to usefulness--in fact at no small expense of
+trouble--the handles were almost always made double (see Fig. 521);
+indeed, often braided, although of clay. Frequently, especially as
+time went on, the bottoms were left plain, as if to simulate the
+smooth skin-bottoming of the basket-bottles. (See Fig. 522.) At first
+it seems odd that with all these points of similarity the two kinds of
+water-vessel should have totally dissimilar names; the basket-bottle
+being known as the _k‘iá pu k‘ia tom me_, from _k‘iá pu kĭa_, "for
+carrying or placing water in," and _tóm me_; the handled earthen
+receptacle, as the _í mush ton ne_. Yet when we consider that the
+latter was designed not for transporting water, for which it was less
+suited than the former, but for holding it, for which it was even
+preferable, the discrepancy is explained, since the name _í mush ton
+ne_ is from _i´ mu_, to sit, and _tóm me_, a tube. This indicates,
+too, why the basket-bottle was not displaced by the earthen bottle.
+While the former continued in use for bringing water from a distance,
+the latter was employed for storing it. As the fragile earthen vessels
+were much more readily made and less liable to become tainted, they
+were exclusively used as receptacles, removing the necessity of the
+tedious manufacture of a large number of the basket-bottles. Again, as
+the pitcher was thus used exclusively as a receptacle, to be set aside
+in household or camp, the name _í´ mush ton ne_ sufficed without the
+interpolation _te_--"earthenware"--to distinguish it as of _terra
+cotta_, instead of osiery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 521.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing
+               double handle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 522.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing
+               plain bottom.]
+
+
+
+POTTERY INFLUENCED BY LOCAL MINERALS.
+
+Before discussing the origin of other forms, it may be well to
+consider briefly some influences, more or less local, which, in
+addition to the general effect of gourd-forms in suggesting
+basket-types and of the latter in shaping earthenware, had
+considerable bearing on the development of ceramic art in the
+Southwest, pushing it to higher degrees of perfection and diversity in
+some parts than in others.
+
+Perhaps first in importance among these influences was the mineral
+character of a locality. Where clay occurred of a fine tough texture,
+easily mined and manipulated, the work in _terra cotta_ became
+proportionately more elaborate in variety and finer in quality. There
+are to be found about the sites of some ancient pueblos, potsherds
+incredibly abundant and indicating great advancement in decorative
+art, while near others, architecturally similar, even where evidence
+of ethnic connection is not wanting, only coarse, crudely-molded, and
+painted fragments are discoverable, and these in limited quantity.
+
+An example in point is the ruined pueblo of _A´ wat u i_ or
+_Aguatóbi_, as it was known to the Spaniards at the time of the
+conquest, when it was the leading "city of the Province of Tusayan,"
+now Moki. Over the entire extent of this ruin, and to a considerable
+distance around it, fragments of the greatest variety in color, shape,
+size, and finish of ware occur in abundance. In the immediate
+neighborhood, however, are extensive, readily accessible formations
+producing several kinds of clay and nearly all the color minerals
+used in the Pueblo potter's art. Yet at the greatest ruin on the upper
+Colorado Chiquito (in an arm of the valley of which river _A´ wat ú i_
+itself occurs), where the fallen walls betoken equal advancement in
+the status of the ancient builders and indicate by their vast extent
+many times the population of _A´ wat u i_, the potsherds are coarse,
+irregular in curvature, badly decayed, and exceptionally scarce. In
+the immediate neighborhood of this ruin, I need not add, clay is of
+rare occurrence and poor in quality.
+
+A more reliable example is furnished by the farming pueblos of Zuñi.
+At _Hé sho ta tsí nan_ or Ojo del Pescado, fifteen miles east of Zuñi,
+clays of several varieties and color minerals are abundant. The finest
+pottery of the tribe is made there in great quantity, while,
+notwithstanding the facilities for transportation which the Zuñis now
+possess, at the opposite farming town of _K‘iáp kwai na kwin_, or Los
+Ojos Calientes, where clay is scarce and of poor texture, the pottery,
+although somewhat abundant, is of miserable quality and of bad shape.
+
+In quality of art quite as much as in that of material this local
+influence was great. In the neighborhood of ruined pueblos which occur
+near mineral deposits furnishing a great variety of pigment-material,
+the decoration of the ceramic remains is so surprisingly and
+universally elaborate, beautiful, and varied as to lead the observer
+to regard the people who dwelt there as different from the people who
+had inhabited towns about the sites of which the sherds show not only
+meager skill and less profuse decorative variety, but almost typical
+dissimilarity. Yet tradition and analogy, even history in rare
+instances, may declare that the inhabitants of both sections were of
+common derivation, if not closely related and contemporaneous.
+Probably, at no one point in the Southwest was ceramic decoration
+carried to a higher degree of development than at _A´ wat u i_, yet
+the Oraibes, by descent the modern representatives of the _A´ wat u i
+ans_ are the poorest potters and painters among the Mokis. Near their
+pueblo the clay and other mineral deposits mentioned as abundant at
+_A´ wat u i_ are meager and inaccessible. Still, it may be urged that
+time may have introduced other than natural causes for change; this
+could not be said of another example pertaining to one period and a
+single tribe. I refer again to the Zuñis. The manufactures of Pescado
+probably surpass in decorative excellence all other modern Pueblo
+pottery, while both in their lack of variety and in delicacy of
+execution of their painted patterns the fictiles of Ojo Caliente are
+so inferior and diverse from the other Zuñi work that the future
+archæologist will have need to beware, or (judging alone from the
+ceramic remains which he finds at the two pueblos) he will attribute
+them at least to distinct periods, perhaps to diverse peoples.
+
+
+POTTERY INFLUENCED BY MATERIALS AND METHODS USED IN BURNING.
+
+Other influences, to a less extent local, had no inconsiderable effect
+on primitive Pueblo pottery: materials employed and methods resorted
+to in burning.
+
+Only one kind of fuel, except for a single class of vessels, is now
+used in pottery-firing; namely, dried cakes or slabs of sheep-dung.
+Anciently, several varieties, such as extremely dry sage-brush or
+grease-wood, piñon and other resinous woods, dung of herbivora when
+obtainable, charcoal, and also bituminous or cannel-coal were
+employed. The principal agent seems, however, to have been dead-wood
+or spunk, pulverized and moistened with some adhesive mixture so that
+flat cakes could be formed of it. I infer this not alone from Zuñi
+tradition, which is not ample, but from the fact that the sheep-dung
+now used is called, in the condition of fuel, _kú ne a_, while its
+name in the abstract or as sheep-dung simply is _má he_. Dry-rot wood
+or spunk is known as _kú me_. In the shape of flat cakes it would be
+termed _kú mo we_ or _kú me a_, whence I doubt not the modern word _kú
+ne a_ is derived.
+
+Of methods, four were in vogue. The simplest and worst consisted in
+burying the vessel to be burned under hot ashes and building a fire
+around it, or inverting it over a bed of embers and encircling it with
+a blazing fire of brush-wood, as is still the practice of the
+Maricopas and other sedentary tribes of the Gila. The most common was
+building a little cone or dome of fuel over the articles to be baked
+and firing; the most perfect was to dig or construct under ground a
+little cist or kiln, line it evenly with fuel, leaving a central space
+for the green ware, and slowly fire the whole mass.
+
+Irrespective of the kind of fuel used, the baking by ash-burial made
+the ware gray, cloudy, or dingy, and not very durable. Pottery burned
+with sage or grease-wood was firm, light gray unless of ocherous clay,
+less cloudy than if ash-baked, yet mottled. Turf and dung, although
+easily managed, did not thoroughly harden the pottery, but burned it
+very evenly; dead wood or spunk-cakes baked as evenly as any of the
+materials thus far mentioned, and more thoroughly than the others.
+Resinous or pitchy woods, while they produced a much higher degree of
+heat, could be used only when color was unimportant, as they still are
+used to some extent in the firing of black-ware or cooking pots. The
+latter, while still hot from a preliminary burning, if coated
+externally with the mucilaginous juice of green cactus, internally
+with piñon gum or pitch, and fired a second or even a third time with
+resinous wood-fuel, are rendered absolutely fire-proof, semi-glazed
+with a black gloss inside, and wonderfully durable. Tradition
+represents that by far the most perfect fuel was found to be cannel
+coal, and that, where abundant, accessible, and of an extremely
+bituminous quality, it was much used. The traces of little pit-kilns
+filled with, cinders of mineral coal about many of the ruins in the
+northwestern portion of the Pueblo region, coupled with the
+semi-fusion and well-preserved condition of most of the ancient jars
+found associated with them, certainly give support to this tradition.
+Happily I have additional confirmation. When, two years ago, I was
+engaged in making ethnologic collections at Moki for the United States
+National Museum, some Indians of the _Te wa_ pueblo brought me a
+quantity of pottery. It had been made with the purpose of deceiving
+me, in careful imitation of ancient types, and was certainly equal to
+the latter in lightness and the condition of the burning. I paid these
+enterprising Indians as good a price as they had been accustomed to
+getting for genuine ancient specimens, but told them that, being a
+Zuñi, I was almost one of themselves, hence they could not deceive me,
+and asked them how they had so cleverly succeeded in burning the ware.
+They laughingly replied that they had simply dug some bituminous coal
+(_u á ko_) and used it in little pits. When I further asked them why
+they did not burn their household utensils thus, they said it was too
+uncertain; representing that the pots did not like to be burned in the
+_u á ko_, probably because it was so hot, hence they broke more
+frequently than if fired in the common way with dried sheep-dung;
+furthermore the latter was less troublesome, requiring only to be dug
+from the corrals near at hand and dried to make it ready for use.
+
+This partially explains why the art of water-tight basket-making has
+here gradually declined since the Spanish conquest, as the ceramic
+industry has increased with the introduction of the sheep, which
+furnishes fuel for the burning, and the horse, before unknown, has
+facilitated transportation, whereby trade for this class of basketry
+with the distant nomadic tribes who still make it is rendered easy.
+Withal, however, the quality of pottery has not improved, but has
+deteriorated; as sheep-dung is but an inferior fuel for firing.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION OF FORMS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 523.--Food trencher of wicker-work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 524.--Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls]
+
+Bearing these statements in mind, the discussion of the evolution as
+well as of the distribution of form, and later of the evolution of
+decoration, in pottery will become easier. By lingering steps there
+was early developed a method of building up vessels by a process
+differing in part from the spiral. As the parching-bowl had been
+evolved from the roasting-tray, so, we may infer, the food-bowl was
+suggested by the hemispherical food-trencher of wicker-work. (See Fig.
+523.) Yet, curiously enough, the inside of the latter seems not at
+first to have been used in molding the food-bowl, as, it will be
+remembered, the tray had been in forming the parching-pan. On the
+contrary, the clay was coiled around and around the _outside_ of the
+bottom of an inverted basket bowl (see Fig. 524), instead of being
+pressed evenly into it. As with the cooking pot, so with this; as the
+coiling progressed it was corrugated, not so much, however from
+necessity, as from habit. In consequence of the difficulty experienced
+in removing these bowl-forms from the bottoms of the baskets--which
+had to be done while they were still plastic, to keep them from
+cracking--they were made very shallow. Hence the specimens found among
+the older ruins and graves are not only corrugated outside, but are
+also very wide in proportion to their height. (See Fig. 525.) As time
+went on it was found that bowls might be made deeper, and yet readily
+be taken off from the basket bottoms, if slightly moistened outside
+and pressed evenly all around, or, better still, scraped; for, being
+plastic, this proceeding caused them to grow thinner, consequently
+larger, thereby to loosen from the basket over which they had been
+molded. As a result of this scraping, however, the corrugated surface
+was destroyed, nor could it easily be restored. Therefore bowls when
+made deep were, as a rule, smooth on the outside as well as on the
+interior surface. When by a perfectly natural sequence of events--as
+will be shown further on--ornamentation by painting came to be applied
+first to the plain interiors of the bowls, the smooth outer surface
+was found preferable to the corrugated surface, not only because it
+took paint more readily, but also because the bowl, when painted
+outside as well as inside, formed a far handsomer utensil for
+household use than if simply decorated by the older methods. As a
+consequence, we find that, while the larger vessels continued to be
+corrugated and indented, the smoothed and painted bowl came into
+general use. Associated later on with this secondary type of bowls
+occurred the larger vessels plain at the bottoms, still corrugated at
+the sides. Nor is this surprising, as the bowl, molded on the basket
+bottom and there smoothed, could be afterward built up by the spiral
+process. When in time the huge hemispherical canteens or water
+carriers of earthen-ware replaced the basket bottles, so also the
+water jar or _olla_ replaced the handled sitter or pitcher, since it
+could be made larger to receive more copious supplies of water than
+the strength of the frail handles on the pitchers would warrant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 525.--Ancient bowl of corrugated ware.]
+
+The water jar, like the food-bowl, is a conspicuous household article;
+for which reason the Zuñi woman expends all her ability to render them
+handsome. Judging by this, the desire to decorate the water-vessel
+with paint, like its constant companion the food-bowl, would early
+lead to the attempt to make its surface smooth. This would need to be
+effected while the article was still soft; which necessity probably
+led to the discovery that ajar of the corrugated or simply coiled type
+may be smoothed while still plastic without danger of distortion, no
+matter what its size, if supported at the bottom in a basket or other
+mold so that it may be shifted or turned about without direct
+handling. (See Fig. 526.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 526.--Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 527.--Clay nucleus for a vessel.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 528.--Clay nucleus shaped to form the base of a
+               vessel.]
+
+After this discovery was made, the molding of large vessels was no
+longer accomplished by the spiral method exclusively. A lump of clay,
+hollowed out (see Fig. 527), was shaped how rudely so ever on the
+bottom of the basket or in the hand (see Fig. 528), then placed inside
+of a hemispherical basket-bowl and stroked until pressed outward to
+conform with the shape, and to project a little above the edges of its
+temporary mold, whence it was built up spirally (see Fig. 529) until
+the desired form had been attained, after which it was smoothed by
+scraping (see Fig. 530).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 529.--Clay nucleus in base-mold, with beginning
+               of spiral building.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 530.--First form of vessel.]
+
+The necks and apertures of these earliest forms of the water jar were
+made very small in proportion to their other dimensions, presumably on
+account of the necessity of often carrying them full of water over
+steep and rough _mesa_ paths, coupled perhaps with the imitation of
+other forms. To render them as light as possible they were also made
+very thin. One of the consequences of all this was that when large
+they could not be stroked inside, as the shoulders or uttermost upper
+peripheries of the vessel could not be reached with the hand or
+scraper through the small openings. The effect of the pressure exerted
+in smoothing them on the outside, therefore, naturally caused the
+upper parts to sink down, generating the spheroidal shape of the jar.
+(see Fig. 531), one of the most beautiful types of the olla ever known
+to the Pueblos. At Zuñi, wishing to have an ancient jar of this form
+which I had seen, reproduced, I showed a drawing of it to a woman
+expert in the manufacture of pottery. Without any instructions from me
+beyond a mere statement of my wishes, she proceeded at once to
+sprinkle the inside of a basket-bowl with sand, managing the clay in
+a way above described and continuing the vessel-shaping upward by
+spiral building. She did not at first make the shoulders low or
+sloping, but rounded or arched them upward and outward (see again Fig.
+529). At this I remonstrated, but she gave no heed other than to
+ejaculate "_wá na ni, àná!_" which meant "just wait, will you!" When
+she had finished the rim, she easily caused the shoulders to sink,
+simply by stroking them--more where uneven than elsewhere--with a wet
+scraper of gourd (see Fig. 532, _a_) until she had exactly reproduced
+the form of the drawing. She then set the vessel aside _in_ the
+basket. Within two days it shrank by drying at the rate of about one
+inch in twelve, leaving the basket far too large. (See Fig. 533.) It
+could hence be removed without the slightest difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 531.--Secondary form, in the mold.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 532.--Scrapers of gourd and earthenware for
+               smoothing pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 533.--Finished form of vessel in mold, showing
+               amount of contraction in drying.]
+
+The sand had prevented contact with the basket which would have caused
+the clay vessel to crack as the latter was very thin. This process
+exists in full force to-day with the Oraibes in the modeling of
+convex-bottomed vessels, and the Zuñis thus make their large bowls and
+huge drum-jars.
+
+Upon the bottoms of many jars of these forms, I have observed the
+impressions of the wicker bowls in which they had been molded--not
+entirely to be removed, it seems, by the most assiduous smoothing
+before burning; for, however smooth any exceptional specimen may
+appear, a squeeze in plaster will still reveal traces of these
+impressions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 534.--Profile of olla, or modern water-jug.]
+
+A characteristic of these older forms of the water-jar is that they
+are invariably flat or round-bottomed, while more recent and all
+modern types of the olla (see Fig. 534) are concave or hollowed at the
+base (see Fig. 535) to facilitate balancing on the head. Outside of
+this concavity and entirely surrounding it (Fig. 536, _a_) is often to
+be observed an indentation (see Fig. 536, _b_) usually slight although
+sometimes pronounced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 535.--Base of olla.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 536.--Section of olla.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 537.--Annular mat of wicker, or "milkmaid's boss."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 538.--Use of annular mat illustrated.]
+
+This has no use, but there is of course a reason for its occurrence
+which, if investigated, may throw light on the origin of the modern
+type of the olla itself. The older or round-bottomed jars were
+balanced on the head in carrying, by means of a wicker-work ring, a
+kind of "milk-maid's boss." (See Fig. 537.) These annular mats are
+still found among the ruins and cave-deposits, and continue in use
+with the modern Pueblos for supporting convex-bottom cooking pots on
+the floor as well as for facilitating the balancing of large
+food-bowls on the head. (See Fig. 538.) Obviously the latter dishes
+have never been hollowed as the ollas have been, because, since they
+were used as eating-bowls, the food could be removed from a plain
+bottom more easily than from a convex surface, which would result from
+the hollowing underneath. Supposing that a water-jar chanced to be
+modeled in one of the convex-bottom bread-baskets (see Fig. 539), it
+would become necessary, on account of the thickness of these wicker
+bowls, to remove the form from the mold before it dried. By absorption
+it would dry so rapidly that it would crack, especially in contracting
+against the convexity in the center of the basket-bottom. (See Fig.
+539, _a_.) In order that this form might be supported in an upright
+position until dry, it would naturally be placed on one of the
+wicker-rings. Moreover, that the bottom might not sink down or fall
+out, a wad of some soft substance would be placed within the ring.
+(See Fig. 540, _a_.) As a consequence the weight of the plastic vessel
+would press the still soft bottom against the central wad, (Fig. 540,
+_a_) and the wicker ring (Fig. 540, _c_) sufficiently to cause the
+rounding upward of the cavity (Fig. 540, _b_) first made by the
+convex-bottom of the basket-mold, as well as form the encircling
+indentation (Fig. 540, _c_). Thus by accident, probably, only possibly
+by intention, was evolved the most useful and distinctive feature of
+the modern water-jar or olla, the _concave bottom_. This, once
+produced, would be held to be peculiarly convenient, dispensing with
+the use of a troublesome auxiliary. Its reproduction would present
+grave difficulties unless the bottom of the first vessel, thickly
+coated with sand to prevent cracking, was employed as a mold, instead
+of the absorbent convex-centered basket-bowl.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 539.--Section of incipient vessel in basket-mold.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 540.--Section of vessel supported for drying.]
+
+I infer this because, to-day, a Zuñi woman is quite at a loss how to
+hollow the bottom of a water-jar if she does not possess a form or
+mold made from the base of some previously broken jar of the same
+type. She therefore, carefully preserves these precious bottoms of her
+broken ollas, even cementing together fractured ones, when not too
+badly shivered, with a mixture of pitch or mineral asphaltum and sand.
+I have seen as many as a dozen or more of these molds (see Fig. 541)
+in a single store room.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 541.--Base-mold (bottom of water-jar).]
+
+As the practice of molding all new vessels of this class in the
+bottoms of older ones was general--I might say invariable--any
+peculiarities of form in the originals must have been communicated to
+those ensuing; from the latter to others, and so on, though in less
+and less degree, to the present time. This theory is but tentative,
+yet it would also explain, on the score of association, why the Pueblo
+women slightly prefer the jars showing the indentation in question to
+more regular ones. With the change from elevated cliff or _mesa_
+habitations to more accessible ones, the Pueblo Indians were enabled
+to enlarge the apertures of their water-jars, since not only did the
+concave bases of the latter make the balancing of them more secure,
+but the trails over which they had to be carried from watering place
+to habitation were less rugged. A natural result of this enlargement
+of the openings, which admitted access with the scraper to the
+interior peripheries of the thin-walled jars, was the rounding upward
+of their shoulders, making them taller in proportion to their
+diameters. This modification of form in the water-jar, taken in
+connection with the fact that thus changed, it displaced the daily use
+of the canteen, explains the totally dissimilar names which were
+applied to the two types. The older, or spheroidal olla, was known as
+the _k‘iáp ton ne_, from _k‘ia pu_, to place or carry water in, and
+_tóm me_; while the newer _olla_ is called _k‘iá wih na k‘ia té èle_,
+from _k‘iá wih na ki‘a na ki‘a_, for bringing of water: _té_,
+earthen-ware, and _ë´ le_ or _ë´l lai e_, to stand or standing. The
+latter term, _té è le_, is generic, being applied to nearly all _terra
+cotta_ vessels which are taller than they are broad. _Té_, earthen
+ware, is derived from _t’eh´_, the root also of _té ne a_, to resound,
+to sound hollow; while _é le_, from _ë´l le_ or _ël´ lai ê_, to stand,
+is obviously applied in significance of comparative height as well as
+of function.
+
+Thus I have thrown together a few conjectures and suggestions relative
+to the origin of the Southwestern pottery and the evolution of its
+principal forms.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION OF DECORATION
+
+
+I might go on, appealing to language to account for nearly every
+variety of pottery found existing as a _type_ throughout the region
+referred to; but a subject inseparably connected with this, throwing
+light on it in many ways, and possessing in itself great interest,
+claims treatment on the few remaining pages of this essay. I refer to
+the evolution and significance or symbolism of Pueblo ceramic
+decorations.
+
+Before proceeding with this, however, I must acknowledge that I am as
+much indebted to the teachings of Mr. E.B. Tylor, in his remarkable
+works on Man's Early History and Primitive Culture, to Lubbock, Daniel
+Wilson, Evans, and others, for the direction or _impetus_ of these
+inquiries, as I am to my own observations and experiments for its
+development.
+
+The line of gradual development in ceramic decorations, especially of
+the symbolic element, treated as a subject, is wider in its
+applicability to the study of primitive man, because more clearly
+illustrative of the growth of culture. I regret, therefore, that it
+must here be dealt with only in a most cursory manner. Large
+collections for illustration would be essential to a fuller treatment,
+even were space unlimited.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 542.--Example of Pueblo painted ornamentation.]
+
+Decoratively, Pueblo pottery is characterized by two marked features:
+angular designs predominate and ornamental effect depends as much on
+the open or undecorated space as on the painted lines and areas in the
+devices. (See Fig. 542.) While this is true of recent and modern
+wares, it is more and more notably the case with other specimens in a
+ratio increasing in proportion to their antiquity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 543. & FIG. 544.--Amazonian basket decorations.]
+
+We cannot explain these characteristics, and the conventional aspect
+of the higher and symbolic Pueblo ceramic decorations which grew out
+of them, in a better way than to suppose them, like the forms of this
+pottery, to be the survivals of the influence of basketry. (See, for
+comparison, Figs. 543, 544.) I shall be pardoned, therefore, for
+elaborating suggestions already made in this direction, in the
+paragraphs which treated of the ornamentation of spiral ware, and of
+the derivation of basket decorations from stitch- and splint-suggested
+figures. All students of early man understand his tendency to
+reproduce habitual forms in accustomed association. This feeling,
+exaggerated with savages by a belief in the actual relationship of
+resemblance, is shown in the reproduction of the decorations of basket
+vessels on the clay vessels made from them or in imitation of them.
+
+In entire conformity with this, the succession in the methods of the
+ornamentation of Pueblo pottery seems to have been first by incision
+or indentation; then by relief; afterward by painting in black on a
+natural or light surface; finally, by painting in color on a white or
+colored surface.
+
+As before suggested, the patterns on the coiled, regularly indented
+pottery (which came to be first known to the world as a type, the
+"corrugated," through the earlier explorations and reports of Mr.
+William H. Holmes) were produced simply by emphasized indentation,
+more rarely by incision, and were almost invariably angular,
+reproducing exactly the designs on wicker work. Even in comparatively
+recent examples of the corrugated ware this is true; for, once
+connected with a type, a style of decoration, both seem to have been
+ever after inseparable, with at most but slight modification of the
+latter. One of these modifications, in both method and effect, was in
+the adoption of the raised or relief style of ornamentation found,
+with rare exceptions in the Southwest, only on corrugated ware, and on
+the class which in modern times has replaced it there, vessels used in
+cookery. Although never universal, this style deserves passing
+attention as the outgrowth of an effort to attain the effect of
+contrast produced by dyed or painted splints on wicked work before the
+use of paint was known in connection with pottery. The same kind of
+investigation indicates that the Pueblos largely owed their textile
+industries and designs, as well as their potter's art, to the
+necessity which gave rise to the making of water-tight basketry. The
+terms connected with the rudimentary processes of weaving and
+embroidery, and the principal patterns of both (on, for example,
+blankets, kirtles, sacred girdles, and women's belts), are mostly
+susceptible of interpretation, like the terms in pottery, as having a
+meaning connected with the processes of basket plaiting and painting.
+This renders the conventional character of Pueblo textile ornaments
+easy of comprehension, as well, as the very early, if not the
+earliest, origin of loom-weaving among our Indians in the desert
+regions of America.
+
+Henceforward, then, we have only to consider decoration by painting.
+The probability is that this began as soon as the smooth surface in
+pottery was generally made; evidence of which seemingly exists; as
+eating bowls are, even to the present day, decorated principally on
+the interior; not, as may be supposed, because the exterior is more
+hidden from view, but because, as we have seen on a former page, bowls
+were made plain inside before the corrugated type formed on basket
+bottoms had been displaced by the smoothed type; and were naturally
+first decorated there with paint. It must be constantly borne in mind
+that a style of decoration once coupled with a kind of ware, or even a
+portion of a vessel, retained its association permanently.
+
+It must have been early observed that clay of one kind, applied even
+thinly to the exterior of a vessel of another kind, produced, when
+burned, a different color. With the discovery that clays of different
+kinds burned in a variety of colors, to some extent irrespective of
+the methods and the materials used in firing, there must likewise have
+been hinted, we may safely conclude, the efficacy of clay washes as
+paint, and of paint as a decorative agent.
+
+Among the ceramic remains from the oldest pueblo sites of the
+Southwest, pottery occurs, mostly in four varieties: the corrugated or
+spiral; the plain, yet rough gray; white decorated with geometric
+figures in black; and red, either plain or decorated with geometric
+devices in black and white. The gray or dingy brown, rough variety,
+resulted when a corrugated or coiled jar had been simply smoothed with
+the fingers and scraper before it was fired. A step in advance, easily
+and soon taken, was the additional smoothing of the vessel by slightly
+wetting and rubbing its outer surface. Even this was productive only
+of a moderately smooth surface, since, as learned by the Indian
+potters long before, in their experience with the clay-plastered
+parching-tray, it was necessary to mix the clay of vessels with a
+tempering of sand, crushed potsherds, or the like, to prevent it from
+cracking while drying; this, of course, no amount of rubbing would
+remove. Hence, by another easy step, clay unmixed with a
+grit-tempering, made into a thin paste with water, and thickly applied
+to the half-dried jar with a dab or brash of soft fiber, gave a
+beautifully smooth surface, especially if polished afterward by
+rubbing with water-worn pebbles. The vessel thus prepared, when
+burned, assumed invariably a creamy, pure white, red-brown or, other
+color, according to the quality or kind of the clay used in making the
+paste with which it had been smoothed or washed.
+
+Thus was achieved the art of producing at will fictiles of different
+colors, with which simple suggestion painting also became easy. Black,
+aside from clay paste, was almost the first pigment discovered; quite
+likely because the mineral blacks from iron ores, coal, and the
+various rocks used universally among Indians for staining splints,
+etc., would be the earliest tried, and then adopted, as they remained
+unchanged by firing. Thus it came about, as evidenced by the sequence
+of early remains in the Southwest, that the white and black varieties
+of pottery were the first made, then the red and black, and later the
+red with white and black decoration. Take, as an example, the latter.
+Of course it was a simple mode to employ the red (ocherous) clay for
+the wash, the blue clay (which burned white) for the white pigment in
+making lines, and any of the black minerals above mentioned for other
+marking.
+
+In these earliest kinds of painted pottery the angular decorations of
+the corrugated ware or of basketry were repeated, or at the farthest
+only elaborated, although on some specimens the suggestions of the
+curved ornament already occurred. These resulted, I may not fear to
+claim, from carelessness or awkwardness in drawing, for instance, the
+corners of acute angles, which, "cutting across-lot" would, it may be
+seen, produce the wavy or meandering line from the zigzag, the
+ellipsoid from the rectangle, and so on.
+
+Precisely in accordance with this theory were the studies of my
+preceptor, the lamented Prof. Charles Fred. Hartt. In a paper "On
+Evolution in Ornament," published in several periodicals, among them
+the Popular Science Monthly of January, 1875, this gifted naturalist
+illustrated his studies by actual examples found on decorated burial
+urns from Marajó Island. I must take the liberty of suggesting,
+however, that upon some antecedent kind of vessel, the eyes of the
+Amazonian Islanders may have been, to give Professor Hartt's idea,
+"trained to take physiological and æsthetic delight in regularly
+recurring lines and dots"; not on the pottery itself, as he seemed to
+think, for decoration was old in basketry and the textiles when
+pottery was first made.
+
+
+
+
+DECORATIVE SYMBOLISM.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 545.--Food-bowl.  FIG. 546.--Water-jar.
+               (Showing open or joined space in line near rim.)]
+
+On every class of food- and water-vessels, in collections of both
+ancient and modern Pueblo pottery (except, it is important to note, on
+pitchers and some sacred receptacles), it may be observed as a
+singular, yet almost constant feature, that encircling lines, often
+even ornamental zones, are left open or not as it were closed at the
+ends. (See Figs. 545, _a_, 546, _a_.) This is clearly a conventional
+quality and seemingly of intentional significance. An explanation must
+be sought in various directions, and once found will be useful in
+guiding to an understanding of the symbolic element in Pueblo ceramic
+art. I asked the Indian women, when I saw them making these little
+spaces with great care, why they took so much pains to leave them
+open. They replied that to close them was _a´k ta ni_, "fearful!"--that
+this little space through the line or zone on a vessel was the "exit
+trail of life or being", _o´ ne yäthl kwái na_, and this was all. How
+it came to be first left open and why regarded as the "exit trail,"
+they could not tell. If one studies the mythology of this people and
+their ways of thinking, then watches them closely, he will, however,
+get other clews. When a woman has made a vessel, dried, polished, and
+painted it, she will tell you with an air of relief that it is a "Made
+Being." Her statement is confirmed as a sort of article of faith, when
+you observe that as she places the vessel in the kiln, she also places
+in and beside it food. Evidently she vaguely gives something about the
+vessel a personal existence. The question arises how did these people
+come to regard food-receptacles or water-receptacles as possessed of
+or accompanied by conscious existences. I have found that the Zuñi
+argues actual and essential relationship from similarity in the
+appearance, function, or other attributes of even generically diverse
+things.[2]
+
+   [2] I would refer those, who may wish to find this characteristic
+   more fully set forth, to the introductory pages of my essay on
+   Zuñi Fetiches, published in the second volume of Contributions to
+   North American Ethnology by the Bureau of Ethnology; also to a
+   paper read before the American Academy of Sciences on the
+   Relations to one another of the Zuñi Mythologic and Sociologic
+   Systems, published, I regret to say, without my revision, in the
+   Popular Science Monthly, for July, 1882.
+
+I here allude to this mental bias because it has both influenced the
+decoration of pottery and has been itself influenced by it. In the
+first place, the noise made by a pot when struck or when simmering on
+the fire is supposed to be the voice of its associated being. The
+clang of a pot when it breaks or suddenly cracks in burning is the cry
+of this being as it escapes or separates from the vessel. That it has
+departed is argued from the fact that the vase when cracked or
+fragmentary never resounds as it did when whole. This vague existence
+never cries out violently unprovoked; but it is supposed to acquire
+the power of doing so by imitation; hence, no one sings, whistles, or
+makes other strange or musical sounds resembling those of earthenware
+under the circumstances above described during the smoothing,
+polishing, painting, or other processes of finishing. The being thus
+incited, they think, would surely strive to come out, and would break
+the vessel in so doing. In this we find a partial explanation of the
+native belief that a pot is accompanied by a conscious existence. The
+rest of the solution of this problem in belief is involved in the
+native philosophy and worship of water. Water contains the source of
+continued life. The vessel holds the water; the source of life
+_accompanies_ the water, hence its dwelling place is in the vessel
+with the water. Finally, the vessel is supposed to contain the
+treasured source, irrespective of the water--as do wells and springs,
+or even the places where they have been. If the encircling lines
+inside of the eating bowl, _outside_ of the water jar, were closed,
+there would be no exit trail for this invisible source of life or for
+its influence or breath. Yet, why, it maybe asked, must the source of
+life or its influence be provided with a trail by which to pass out
+from the vessel? In reply to this I will submit two considerations. It
+has been stated that on the earliest Southwestern potteries decoration
+was effected by incised or raised ornamentation. Any one who has often
+attempted to make vessels according to primitive methods as I have has
+found how difficult it is to smoothly join a line incised around a
+still soft clay pot, and that this difficulty is even greater when the
+ornamental band is laid on in relief. It would be a natural outgrowth
+of this predicament to leave the ends unjoined, which indeed the
+savage often did. When paint instead of incision or relief came to be
+the decorative agent, the lines or bands would be left unjoined in
+imitation. As those acquainted with Tylor's "Early History" will
+realize, and myth of observation like the above would come to be
+assigned in after ages. This may or may not be true of the case in
+question; for, as before observed, some classes of sacred receptacles,
+as well as the most ancient painted bowls, are not characterized by
+the unjoined lines. Whether true or not, it is an insufficient
+solution of the problem.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 547.--Conical or flat-bellied canteen.]
+
+It is natural for the Pueblo to consider water as the prime source of
+life, or as accompanied by it, for without the presence of living
+water very few things grow in his desert land. During many a drought
+chronicled in his oral annals, plants, animals, and men have died as
+of a contagious scourge. Naturally, therefore, he has come to regard
+water as the milk of adults, to speak of it as such, and as the
+all-sufficient nourishment which the earth (in his conception of it as
+the mother of men) yields. In the times when his was a race of cliff
+and mesa dwellers, the most common vessel appertaining to his daily
+life was the flat-bellied canteen or water-carrier. (See Fig. 547.)
+This was suspended by a band across the forehead, so as to hang
+against the back, thus leaving the hands as well as the feet free for
+assistance in climbing. It now survives only for use on long journeys
+or at camps distant from water. The original suggestion of its form
+seems to have been that of the human mammary gland, or perhaps its
+peculiar form may have suggested a relationship between the two.
+(Compare Figs. 548, 549.) At any rate, its name in Zuñi is _me´ he ton
+ne_, while _me´ ha na_ is the name of the human mammary gland. _Me´ he
+ton ne_ is from _me´ ha na_, mamma, _e´ ton nai e_, containing within,
+and _to´m me_. From _me´ ha na_ comes _wo´ ha na_, hanging or placed
+against anything, obviously because the mammaries hang or are placed
+against the breast; or, possibly, _mé ha na_ may be derived from _wó
+ha na_ by a reversal of reasoning, which view does not affect the
+argument in question. It is probable that the _me´ he ton_ was at
+first left open at the apex (Fig. 549._a_) instead of at the top (Fig.
+549._b_); but, being found liable to leak when furnished with the
+aperture so low, this was closed. A surviving superstition inclines me
+to this view. When a Zuñi woman has completed the _me´ he ton_ nearly
+to the apex, by the coiling-process, and before she has inserted the
+nozzle (Fig. 549._b_), she prepares a little wedge of clay, and, as
+she closes the apex with it, she turns her eyes away. If you ask her
+why she does this, she will tell you that it is _a´k ta ni_ (fearful)
+to look at the vessel while closing it at this point; that, if she
+look at it during this operation, she will be liable to become barren;
+or that, if children be born to her, they will die during infancy; or
+that she maybe stricken with blindness; or those who drink from the
+vessel will be afflicted with disease and wasting away! My impression
+is that, reasoning from analogy (which with these people means actual
+relationship or connection, it will be remembered), the Zuñi woman
+supposes that by closing the apex of this _artificial_ mamma she
+closes the exit-way for the "source of life;" further, that the woman
+who closes this exit-way knowingly (in her own sight, that is)
+voluntarily closes the exit-way for the source of life in her _own_
+mammæ; further still, that for this reason the privilege of bearing
+infants may be taken away from her, or at any rate (experience showing
+the fallacy of this philosophy) she deserves the loss of the sense
+(sight) which enabled her to "_knowingly_" close the exit-way of the
+source of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 548.  FIG. 549.
+               Conical canteen compared with human mammary gland.]
+
+By that tenacity of conservative reasoning which is a marked mental
+characteristic of the sedentary Pueblo, other types of the canteen, of
+later origin, not only retained the name-root of this primeval form,
+but also its attributed functions. For example, the _me´ wi k‘i lik
+ton ne_ (See Fig. 550) is named thus from _me we_, mammaries, _i kí
+lïk toì e´_, joined together by a neck, and _to´m me_.
+
+Now, when closing the ends (Fig. 550, _c_, _c_) of this curious vessel
+in molding it, the women are as careful to turn the eyes away as in
+closing the apex of the older form. As the resemblance of either of
+the ends of this vessel to the mamma is not striking, they place on
+either side of the nozzle a pair of little conical projections,
+resembling the teats, and so called. (Fig. 550, _b_.) There are four
+of these, instead of, as we might reasonably expect, two. The reason
+for this seems to be that the _me´ wi k’i lik ton ne_ is the canteen
+designed for use by the hunter in preference to all other vessels,
+because it may be easily wrapped in a blanket and tied to the back.
+Other forms would not do, as the hunter must have the free use not
+only of his hands but also of his head, that he may turn quickly this
+way or that in looking for or watching game. The proper nourishment of
+the hunter is the game he kills; hence, the source of his life, like
+that of the young of this game, is symbolized in the canteen by the
+mammaries, not of human beings, but of game-animals. A feature in
+these canteens dependent upon all this brings us nearer to an
+understanding of the question under discussion. When ornamental bands
+are painted around either end of the neck of one of them (Fig. 550,
+_b_), they are interrupted at the little projections (Fig. 550, _b,_).
+Indeed, I have observed specimens on which these lines, if placed
+farther out, were interrupted at the top (Fig. 550, _a a_) opposite
+the little projections. So, by analogy, it would seem the Pueblos came
+to regard paint, like clay, a barrier to the exit of the source of
+life. This idea of the source of life once associated with the canteen
+would readily become connected with the water-jar, which, if not the
+offspring of the canteen, at least usurped its place in the household
+economy of these people. From the water-jar it would pass naturally to
+drinking-vessels and eating-bowls, explaining the absence of the
+interrupted lines on the oldest of these and their constant occurrence
+on recent and modern examples; for the painted lines being left open
+at the apexes, or near the projections on the canteens, they should
+also be unjoined on other vessels with which the same ideas were
+associated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 550.--Double lobed or hunter canteen.]
+
+So, also, it will be observed that in paintings of animals there is
+not only a line drawn from the mouth to the plainly depicted heart,
+but a little space is left down the center or either side of this
+line (see Figs. 551, 552), which is called the _o ne yäthl kwa´ to
+na_, or the "entrance trail" (of the source or breath of life).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 551.--Painting of deer.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 552.--Painting of sea-serpent.]
+
+By this long and involved examination of _one_ element in the
+symbolism of Pueblo ceramic decoration, we gain some idea how many
+others not quite so striking, yet equally curious, grew up; how, also,
+they might be explained. Their investigation, however, would be
+attended with such intricate studies, involving so many subjects not
+at sight related to the one in hand, that I must hasten to present two
+other points.
+
+Much wonder has been expressed that the Pueblos, so advanced in
+pottery decoration, have not attempted more representations of natural
+objects. There is less ground for this wonder than at first appears.
+It should be remembered that the original angular models which the
+Pueblo had, out of which to develop his art, bequeathed to him an
+extremely conventional conception of things. This, added to his
+peculiar way of interpreting relationship and personifying phenomena
+and even functions, has resulted in making his depictions obscure. In
+point of fact, in the decoration of certain classes of his pottery he
+has attempted the reproduction of almost everything and of every
+phenomenon in nature held as sacred or mysterious by him. On certain
+other classes he has developed, imitatively, many typical decorations
+which now have no special symbolism, but which once had definite
+significance; and, finally, he has sometimes relegated definite
+meanings to designs which at first had no significance, except as
+decorative agents, after ward using them according to this
+interpretation in his attempts to delineate natural objects, their
+phenomena, and functions. I will illustrate by examples, the last
+point first.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 553.--The fret of basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 554.--The fret of pottery decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 555.--Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery
+               decoration.]
+
+Going back to basketry, we find already the fully developed fret. (See
+Fig. 553.) I doubt not that from this was evolved, in accordance with
+Professor Hartt's theory, the scroll or volute as it appears later on
+pottery. (See Figs. 554, 555.) To both of these designs, and
+modifications of them ages later, the Pueblo has attached meanings.
+Those who have visited the Southwest and ridden over the wide, barren
+plains, during late autumn or early spring, have been astonished to
+find traced on the sand by no visible agency, perfect concentric
+circles and scrolls or volutes yards long and as regular as though
+drawn by a skilled artist. The circles are made by the wind driving
+partly broken weed-stalks around and around their places of
+attachment, until the fibers by which they are anchored sever and the
+stalks are blown away. The volutes are formed by the stems of red-top
+grass and of a round-topped variety of the _chenopodium_, drifted
+onward by the whirlwind yet around and around their bushy adhesive
+tops. The Pueblos, observing these marks, especially that they are
+abundant after a wind storm, have wondered at their similarity to the
+painted scrolls on the pottery of their ancestors. Even to-day they
+believe the sand marks to be the tracks of the whirlwind, which is a
+God in their mythology of such distinctive personality that the
+circling eagle is supposed to be related to him. They have naturally,
+therefore, explained the analogy above noted by the inference that
+their ancestors, in painting the volute, had intended to symbolize the
+whirlwind by representing his tracks. Thenceforward the scroll was
+drawn on certain classes of pottery to represent the whirlwind,
+modifications of it (for instance, by the color-sign belonging to any
+one of the "six regions") to signify other personified winds. So,
+also, the semicircle is classed as emblematic of the rainbow (_a´ mi
+to lan ne_); the obtuse angle, as of the sky (_a´ po yan ne_); the
+zigzag line as lightning (_wi´ lo lo an ne_); terraces as the sky
+horizons (_a´wi thlui a we_), and modifications of the latter as the
+mythic "ancient sacred place of the spaces" (_Te´ thlä shi na kwïn_),
+and so on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 556.--Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar."]
+
+By combining several of these elementary symbols in a single device,
+sometimes a mythic idea was beautifully expressed. Take, as an
+example, the rain totem adopted by the late Lewis H. Morgan as a title
+illumination, from Maj. J.W. Powell, who received it from the Moki.
+Pueblos of Arizona as a token of his induction into the rain gens of
+that people. (See Fig. 557, _a_.) An earlier and simpler form of this
+occurs on a very ancient "sacred medicine jar" which I found in the
+Southwest. (See Fig. 556.) By reference to an enlarged drawing of the
+chief decoration of this jar (see Fig. 557), it may be seen that the
+sky, _a_, the ancient place of the spaces (region of the sky gods),
+_b_, the cloud lines, _c_, and the falling rain, _d_, are combined and
+depicted to symbolize the storm, which was the objective of the
+exhortations, rituals, and ceremonials to which the jar was an
+appurtenance.
+
+[Illustration:     _a._ Modern Moki rain symbol.
+                   _b._ Enlarged decoration of "medicine-jar."
+               FIG. 557.--Decoration of ancient medicine-jar compared
+               with rain symbol of modern Moki totem.]
+
+Thus, upon all sacred vessels, from the drums of the esoteric medicine
+societies of the priesthood and all vases pertaining to them to the
+keramic appurtenances of the sacred dance or _Kâ´ kâ_, all decorations
+were intentionally emblematic. Of this numerous class of vessels, I
+will choose but one for illustration--the prayer-meal-bowl of the _Kâ´
+kâ_. In this, both form and ornamentation are significant. (See Fig.
+558.) In explaining how the form of this vessel is held to be symbolic
+I will quote a passage from the "creation myth" as I rendered it in an
+article on the origin of corn, belonging to a series on "Zuñi
+Breadstuff," published this year in the "Millstone" of Indianapolis,
+Indiana. "Is not the bowl the emblem of the earth, our mother? For
+from her we draw both food and drink, as a babe draws nourishment from
+the breast of its mother; and round, as is the rim of a bowl, so is
+the horizon, terraced with mountains whence rise the clouds." This
+alludes to a medicine bowl, not to one of the handled kind, but I will
+apply it as far as it goes to the latter. The two terraces on either
+side of the handle (Fig. 558, _a a_) are in representation of the
+"ancient sacred place of the spaces," the handle being the line of the
+sky, and sometimes painted with the rainbow figure. Now the
+decorations are a trifle more complex. We may readily perceive that
+they represent tadpoles (Fig. 558, _b b_), dragonflies (Fig: 558, _c
+c_), with also the frog or toad (Fig. 558); all this is of easy
+interpretation. As the tadpole frequents the pools of spring time he
+has been adopted as the symbol of spring rains; the dragon-fly hovers
+over pools in summer, hence typifies the rains of summer; and the
+frog, maturing in them later, symbolizes the rains of the later
+seasons; for all these pools are due to rain fall. When, sometimes,
+the figure of the sacred butterfly (see Fig. 559, _a b_) replaces that
+of the dragon-fly, or alternates with it, it symbolizes the
+beneficence of summer; since, by a reverse order of reasoning, the
+Zuñis think that the butterflies and migratory birds (see Fig. 560)
+_bring_ the warm season from the "Land of everlasting summer."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 558.--Zuñi prayer-meal-bowl.]
+
+Upon vessels of special function, like these we have just noticed,
+peculiar figures may be regarded as emblematic; on other classes, no
+matter how evidently conventional and expressive decorations may seem,
+excepting always, totemic designs, it is wise to use great caution in
+their interpretation as intentional and not merely imitative.
+
+A general examination, even of the most modern of Pueblo pottery,
+shows us that certain types of decoration have once been confined to
+certain types of vessels, all which has its due signification but an
+examination of which would properly form the subject of another essay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 559.--Paintings of sacred butterfly.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 560.--Painting of "summer-bird."]
+
+Happily, a work collateral to the one which I have here merely begun,
+will, I have reason to hope, be carried to a high degree of perfection
+in the forthcoming monographs on the exhaustless ceramic collections
+of the United States National Museum by Mr. William H. Holmes. This
+author and artist will approach his task from a standpoint differing
+from mine, reaching thereby, it may be, conclusions at variance with
+the foregoing; but by means of his wealth of material and illustration
+students will have opportunity of passing a judgment upon the merits
+of not only his work, but of my own.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 561.--Rectangular type of earthen vessel.]
+
+In conclusion, let me very briefly refer to two distinctive American
+types of pottery, unconnected with the Southwestern, which,
+considered in conjunction with those of the latter region, seem to
+me to indicate that the ceramic art has had independent centers of
+origin in America. For the sake of convenience, I may name these types
+the rectangular (see Fig. 561) or Iroquois, and the bisymmetrical or
+kidney-shaped (see Fig. 562), of Nicaragua. The one is almost constant
+in the lake regions of the United States, the other equally constant
+in sections of Central America. In collections gathered from any tribe
+of our Algonquin or Iroquois Indians, one may observe vessels of the
+tough birch- or linden-bark, some of which are spherical or
+hemispherical. To produce this form of utensil from a single piece of
+bark, it is necessary to cut pieces out of the margin and fold it.
+Each fold, when stitched together in the shaping of the vessel, forms
+a corner at the upper part. (See Fig. 563.) These corners and the
+borders which they form are decorated with short lines and
+combinations of lines, composed of coarse embroideries with dyed
+porcupine quills. (See Fig. 564) May not the bark vessel have given
+rise to the rectangular type of pottery and its quill ornamentation to
+the incised straight-line decorations? (Compare Fig. 561.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 562.--Kidney-shaped vessel, Nicaragua.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 563.--Iroquois bark-vessel.]
+
+So, too, in the unsymmetrical urns of Central and Isthmean America,
+which are characterized by the location of the aperture at the upper
+part of one of the extremities and by streak-like decorations, we
+have a decided suggestion of the animal paunch or bladder and of the
+visible veins on its surface when distended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 564.--Porcupine quill decoration.]
+
+If these conjectures be accepted as approximately correct, even in
+tendency, we may hope by a patient study of the ceramic remains of a
+people, no matter where situated, to discover what was the type of
+their pre-ceramic vessels, and thereby we might also learn whether, at
+the time of the origin of the potter's art or during its development,
+they had, like the Pueblos, been indigenous to the areas in which they
+were found, or whether they had, like some of the Central Americans,
+(to make a concrete example and judge it by this method) apparently
+immigrated in part from desert North America, in part from the
+wilderness of an equatorial region in South America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Awatui pottery                                                     493
+
+Basketry anticipated pottery                                   483-485
+Basketry cooking utensils                                      484-486
+Basketry copied in pottery                                         449
+Basketry declined, Manufacture of watertight                       496
+Boiling basket                                                     485
+Burning influence pottery, Materials and methods used in      495, 496
+
+Cane tubes to carry water                                          482
+Cliff-dwellings                                           478, 479-480
+Coal used in pottery firing, Mineral                           495-496
+Coiled pottery, how made                                           500
+Communal Pueblos                                              480, 481
+
+Environments affecting habitations                                 473
+Environments affecting pottery                                     482
+
+Flat and terraced roofs                                            477
+Form evolved in pottery from basketry                              497
+Fuel used in pottery firing                                        495
+
+Gourd vessels to carry water                                  482, 483
+
+Habitations affected by environment                                473
+Hogan, or hut, Navajo                                              473
+Houses built near water, Pueblo                                    477
+
+Lava inclosure earliest form of Navajo hut                         475
+Linguistic indications as to habitations                           474
+Linguistic indications as to primitive water vessels               482
+
+Mindeleff, Victor, on development of rectangular architecture      475
+Minerals influencing pottery                                       493
+Mode of making pottery vessels                                 499-500
+Moki pottery                                                       493
+
+Navajo hogan, or hut                                               473
+
+Ojo Caliente pottery                                               491
+Ollas                                                         498, 500
+Ornament, Ceramic                                                  488
+Ornamentation of coiled basketry                                   487
+
+Pescado pottery                                                    494
+Pottery affected by environment                                    482
+Pottery anticipated by basketry                                483-485
+Pottery declined in quality with introduction of domestic animals  496
+Pottery developed from basketry                                    485
+Pueblo primitive habitations                                       475
+Pueblos, Communal                                             480, 481
+
+Rectangular forms developed from circular in architecture          475
+Roasting tray                                                      484
+
+Stories added in cliff-buildings                                   479
+
+Tusayan, Province of                                               493
+
+Water important to Pueblos, Transportation and preservation of     482
+Wicker cover for gourd vessels                                     483
+
+Zuñi priests' journey to the Atlantic                              483
+Zuñi skill on water jars                                      498, 500
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as
+Illustrative of Zuñi Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative
+of Zuñi Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative of Zuñi Culture Growth.
+       Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1882-83,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1886, pages 467-522
+
+Author: Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+Release Date: November 28, 2005 [EBook #17170]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO POTTERY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Victoria Woosley and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION----BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    A STUDY
+
+                       of
+
+                 PUEBLO POTTERY
+
+
+               AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
+              ZUÑI CULTURE GROWTH.
+
+                       BY
+              FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  Habitations affected by environment                                  473
+    Rectangular forms developed from circular                          475
+    Flat and terraced roofs developed from sloping mesa-sites          477
+    Added stories developed from limitations of cliff-house sites      479
+    Communal pueblos developed from congregation of cliff-house tribes 480
+
+  Pottery affected by environment                                      482
+    Anticipated by basketry                                            483
+    Suggested by clay-lined basketry                                   485
+    Influenced by local minerals                                       493
+    Influenced by materials and methods used in burning                495
+
+  Evolution of forms                                                   497
+
+  Evolution of decoration                                              506
+
+  Decorative symbolism                                                 510
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  FIG.                                                               Page.
+  490.--A Navajo hut or hogan                                         473
+  491.--Perspective view of earliest or Round-house structures of
+        lava                                                          474
+  492.--Plan of same                                                  475
+  493.--Section of same                                               475
+  494.--Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive architecture      476
+  495.--Section illustrating evolution of flat roof and terrace       477
+  496.--Perspective view of a typical solitary-house                  478
+  497.--Plan of a typical solitary-house                              478
+  498.--Typical cliff-dwelling                                        479
+  499.--Typical terraced-pueblo--communal type                        480
+  500.--Ancient gourd-vessel encased in wicker                        483
+  501.--Havasupaí roasting-tray, with clay lining                     484
+  502.--Zuñi roasting-tray of earthenware                             485
+  503.--Havasupaí boiling-basket                                      486
+  504.--Sketch illustrating the first stage in manufacture of latter  486
+  505.--Sketch illustrating the second stage in manufacture of latter 486
+  506.--Sketch illustrating the third stage in manufacture of latter  486
+  507.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  508.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  509.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  510.--Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form."
+        (Shú k'u tu lia tsí nan)                                      488
+  511.--Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form."
+        (Shú k'u tu lia tsí nan)                                      488
+  512.--Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated          488
+  513.--Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated          488
+  514.--Diagonal parallel-line decoration. (Shú k'ish pa tsí nan)     488
+  515.--Study of splints at neck of unfinished basket illustrating
+        evolution of latter                                           489
+  516.--Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware             490
+  517.--Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware             490
+  518.--Cooking pot of spirally built or corrugated ware, showing
+        conical projections near rim                                  490
+  519.--The same, illustrating modification of latter                 491
+  520.--Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for suspension      491
+  521.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing double handle        492
+  522.--The same, showing also plain bottom                           492
+  523.--Food trencher or bowl of impervious wicker-work               497
+  524.--Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls                     497
+  525.--Ancient bowl of corrugated ware, showing comparative
+        shallowness                                                   498
+  526.--Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels                    499
+  527.--Clay nucleus illustrating beginning of a vessel               499
+  528.--The same shaped to form the base of a vessel                  499
+  529.--The same as first placed in base-mold, showing beginning of
+        spiral building                                               500
+  530.--First form of vessel                                          500
+  531.--Secondary form in mold, showing origin of spheroidal type of
+        jar                                                           501
+  532.--Scrapers or trowels of gourd and earthen-ware for smoothing
+        pottery                                                       501
+  533.--Finished form of a vessel in mold, showing amount of
+        contraction in drying                                         501
+  534.--Profile of olla or modern water-jar                           502
+  535.--Base of same, showing circular indentation at bottom          502
+  536.--Section of same, showing central concavity and circular
+        depression                                                    502
+  537.--"Milkmaid's boss," or annular mat of wicker for supporting
+        round vessels on the head in carrying                         503
+  538.--Use of annular mat illustrated                                503
+  539.--Section of incipient vessel in convex-bottomed basket-mold    504
+  540.--Section of same as supported on annular mat and wad of soft
+        substance, for drying                                         504
+  541.--Modern base-mold as made from the bottom of water jar         504
+  542.--Example of Pueblo painted-ornamentation illustrating
+        decorative value of open spaces  506
+  543 and 544.--Amazonian basket-decorations, illustrating evolution
+        of the above characteristic 507
+  545.--Bowl, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim        510
+  546.--Water-jar, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim   510
+  547.--Conical or flat-bellied canteen                               512
+  548 and 549.--The same, compared with human mammary gland           513
+  550.--Double-lobed or hunter canteen (Me´ wi k'i lik ton ne),
+        showing teat-like projections and open spaces of contiguous
+        lines                                                         514
+  551.--Native painting of deer, showing space-line from mouth to
+        heart                                                         515
+  552.--Native painting of sea serpent, showing space-line from mouth
+        to heart                                                      515
+  553.--The fret of basket decoration                                 516
+  554.--The fret of pottery decoration                                516
+  555.--Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery decoration             516
+  556.--Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar"                                 517
+  557.--Decoration of above compared with modern Moki rain symbol     517
+  558.--Zuñi prayer-meal bowl illustrating symbolism in form and
+        decoration                                                    518
+  559.--Native paintings of sacred butterfly                          519
+  560.--Native painting of sacred migratory "summer bird"             519
+  561.--Rectangular or Iroquois type of earthen vessel                519
+  562.--Kidney-shaped type of vessel of Nicaragua                     520
+  563.--Iroquois bark vessel, showing angles of juncture              520
+  564.--Porcupine quill decoration on bark vessel, for comparison
+        with Fig. 561                                                 521
+~~~
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+  A STUDY OF PUEBLO POTTERY AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
+              ZUÑI CULTURE-GROWTH.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+              BY FRANK H. CUSHING.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HABITATIONS AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.
+
+
+It is conceded that the peculiarities of a culture-status are due
+chiefly to the necessities encountered during its development. In this
+sense the Pueblo phase of life was, like the Egyptian, the product of
+a desert environment. Given that a tribe or stock of people is weak,
+they will be encroached upon by neighboring stronger tribes, and
+driven to new surroundings if not subdued. Such we may believe was the
+influence which led the ancestors of the Pueblo tribes to adopt an
+almost waterless area for their habitat.
+
+It is apparent at least that they entered the country wherein their
+remains occur while comparatively a rude people, and worked out there
+almost wholly their incipient civilization. Of this there is important
+linguistic evidence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 490.--A Navajo hut.]
+
+A Navajo hogan, or hut, is a beehive-shaped or conical structure (see
+Fig. 490) of sticks and turf or earth, sometimes even of stones
+chinked with mud. Yet its modern Zuñi name is _hám´ pon ne_, from _ha
+we_, dried brush, sprigs or leaves; and _pó an ne_, covering, shelter
+or roof (_po a_ to place over and _ne_ the nominal suffix); which,
+interpreted, signifies a "brush or leaf shelter." This leads to the
+inference that the temporary shelter with which the Zuñis were
+acquainted when they formulated the name here given, presumably in
+their earliest condition, was in shape like the Navajo hogan, but in
+_material_, of brush or like perishable substance.
+
+The archaic name for a building or walled inclosure is _hé sho ta_, a
+contraction of the now obsolete term, _hé sho ta pon ne_, from _hé
+sho_, gum, or resin-like; _shó tai e_, leaned or placed together
+convergingly; and _tá po an ne_, a roof of wood or a roof supported by
+wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 491.--Perspective view of earliest or Round-house
+structure of lava.]
+
+The meaning of all this would be obscure did not the oldest remains of
+the Pueblos occur in the almost inaccessible lava wastes bordering the
+southwestern deserts and intersecting them and were not the houses of
+these ruins built on the plan of shelters, round (see Figs. 491, 492,
+493), rather than rectangular. Furthermore, not only does the
+lava-rock of which their walls have been rudely constructed resemble
+natural asphaltum (_hé sho_) and possess a cleavage exactly like that
+of piñon-gum and allied substances (also _hé sho_), but some forms of
+lava are actually known as _á he sho_ or gum-rock. From these
+considerations inferring that the name _hé sho ta pon ne_ derivatively
+signifies something like "a gum-rock shelter with roof supports of
+wood," we may also infer that the Pueblos on their coming into the
+desert regions dispossessed earlier inhabitants or that they chose the
+lava-wastes the better to secure themselves from invasion; moreover
+that the oldest form of building known to them was therefore an
+inclosure of lava-stones, whence the application of the contraction
+_hé sho ta_, and its restriction to mean a walled inclosure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 492.--Plan of Pueblo structure of lava.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 493.--Section of Pueblo structure of lava.]
+
+
+RECTANGULAR FORMS DEVELOPED FROM CIRCULAR.
+
+It may be well in this connection to cite a theory entertained by Mr.
+Victor Mindeleff, of the Bureau of Ethnology, whose wide experience
+among the southwestern ruins entitles his judgment to high
+consideration. In his opinion the rectangular form of architecture,
+which succeeds the type under discussion, must have been evolved from
+the circular form by the bringing together, within a limited area, of
+many houses. This would result in causing the wall of one circular
+structure to encroach upon that of another, suggesting the partition
+instead of the double wall. This partition would naturally be built
+straight as a twofold measure of economy. Supposing three such houses
+to be contiguous to a central one, each separated from the latter by a
+straight wall, it may be seen that (as in the accompanying plan) the
+three sides of a square are already formed, suggesting the
+parallelogramic as a convenient style of sequent architecture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 494.--Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive
+architecture.]
+
+All this, I need scarcely add, agrees not only with my own
+observations in the field but with the kind of linguistic research
+above recorded. It would also apparently explain the occurrence of the
+circular semisubterranean _kí wi tsi we_, or estufas. These being
+sacred have retained the pristine form long after the adoption of a
+modified type of structure for ordinary or secular purposes, according
+to the well known law of survival in ceremonial appurtenances.
+
+In a majority of the lava ruins (for example those occurring near
+Prescott, Arizona), I have observed that the sloping sides rather than
+the level tops of _mesa_ headlands have been chosen by the ancients as
+building-sites. Here, the rude, square type of building prevails, not,
+however, to the entire exclusion of the circular type, which, is
+represented by loosely constructed walls, always on the _outskirts_ of
+the main ruins. The rectangular rooms are, as a rule, built row above
+row. Some of the houses in the upper rows give evidence of having
+overlapped others below. (See section, Fig. 495.)
+
+
+FLAT AND TERRACED ROOFS DEVELOPED FROM SLOPING MESA-SITES.
+
+We cannot fail to take notice of the indications which this brings
+before us.
+
+(1) It is quite probable that the overlapping resulted from an
+increase in the numbers of the ancient builders relative to available
+area, this, as in the first instance, leading to a further massing
+together of the houses. (2) It suggested the employment of rafters and
+the formation of the _flat_ roof, as a means of supplying a level
+entrance way and floor to rooms which, built above and to the rear of
+a first line of houses, yet extended partially over the latter. (3)
+This is I think the earliest form of the terrace.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 495.--Section illustrating evolution of flat roof
+and terrace]
+
+It is therefore not surprising that the flat roof of to-day is named
+_té k'os kwïn ne_, from _te_, space, region, extension, _k'os kwi e_,
+to cut off in the sense of closing or shutting in from one side, and
+_kwïn ne_, place of. Nor is it remarkable that no type of ruin in the
+Southwest _seems_ to connect these first terraced towns with the later
+not only terraced but also literally cellular buildings, which must be
+regarded nevertheless as developed from them. The reason for this will
+become evident on further examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 496.--Perspective view of a typical solitary
+house.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 497.--Plan of a typical solitary house.]
+
+The modern name for house is _k'iá kwïn ne_, from _k'iá we_, water,
+and _kwin ne_, place of, literally "watering place;" which is evidence
+that the first properly so called houses known to the Pueblos were
+solitary and built near springs, pools, streams, or well-places. The
+universal occurrence of the vestiges of single houses throughout the
+less forbidding tracts of the Pueblo country (see Figs. 496 and 497)
+leads to this inference and to the supposition that the necessity for
+protection being at last overcome, the denizens of the lava-fields,
+where planting was well-nigh impossible, descended, building wherever
+conditions favored the horticulture which gradually came to be their
+chief means of support. As irrigation was not known until long
+afterwards, arable areas were limited, hence they were compelled to
+divide into families or small clans, each occupying a single house.
+The traces of these solitary farm-houses show that they were at first
+single-storied. The name of an upper room indicates how the idea of
+the second or third story was developed, as it is _ósh ten u thlan_,
+from _ósh ten_, a shallow cave, or rock-shelter, and _ú thla nai e_,
+placed around, embracing, inclusive of. This goes to show that it was
+not until after the building of the first small farm-houses (which
+gave the name to houses) that the caves or rock-shelters of the
+cliffs were occupied. If predatory border-tribes, tempted by the
+food-stores of the horticultural farm-house builders, made incursions
+on the latter, they would find them, scattered as they were, an easy
+prey.
+
+
+ADDED STORIES FOR CLIFF DWELLINGS DEVELOPED FROM LIMITATIONS OF
+CLIFF-HOUSE SITES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 498.--A typical cliff-dwelling.]
+
+This condition of things would drive the people to seek security in
+the neighboring cliffs of fertile canons, where not only might they
+build their dwelling places in the numerous rock-shelters, but they
+could also cultivate their crops in comparative safety along the
+limited tracts which these eyries overlooked. The narrow foothold
+afforded by many of these elevated cliff-shelves or shelters would
+force the fugitives to construct house over house; that is, build a
+second or upper story around the roof of the cavern. What more
+natural than that this upper room should take a name most descriptive
+of its situation--as that portion built around the cavern-shelter or
+_ósh ten_--or that, when the intervention of peace made return to the
+abandoned farms of the plains or a change of condition possible, the
+idea of the second story should be carried along and the name first
+applied to it survive, even to the present day? That the upper story
+took its name from the rock-shelter may be further illustrated. The
+word _ósh ten_ comes from _ó sho nan te_, the condition of being
+dusky, dank, or mildewy; clearly descriptive of a cavern, but not of
+the most open, best lighted, and driest room in a Pueblo house.
+
+To continue, we may see how the necessity for protection would drive
+the petty clans more and more to the cliffs, how the latter at every
+available point would ultimately come to be occupied, and thus how the
+"_Cliff-dwelling_" (see Fig. 498), was confined to no one section but
+was as universal as the farm-house type of architecture itself, so
+widespread, in fact, that it has been heretofore regarded as the
+monument of a great, now extinct _race_ of people!
+
+
+COMMUNAL PUEBLOS DEVELOPED FROM CONGREGATION OF CLIFF-HOUSE TRIBES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 499.--Typical terraced communal pueblo.]
+
+We may see, finally, how at last the cañons proved too limited and in
+other ways undesirable for occupation, the result of which was the
+confederation of the scattered cliff-dwelling clans, and the
+construction, first on the overhanging cliff-tops, then on _mesas_,
+and farther and farther away, of great, many-storied towns, any one of
+which was named, in consequence of the bringing together in it of many
+houses and clans, _thlu él lon ne_, from _thlu a_, many springing up,
+and _él lon a_, that which stands, or those which stand; in other
+words, "many built standing together." This cannot be regarded as
+referring to the simple fact that a village is necessarily composed of
+many houses standing together. The name for any other village than a
+communal pueblo is _tí na kwïn ne_, from _tí na_--many sitting around,
+and _kwïn ne_, place of. This term is applied by the Zuñis to all
+villages save their own and those of ourselves, which latter they
+regard as Pueblos, in their acceptation of the above native word.
+
+Here, then, in strict accordance with, the teachings of myth,
+folk-lore and tradition, I have used the linguistic argument as
+briefest and most convincing in indicating the probable sequence of
+architectural types in the evolution of the Pueblo; from the brush
+lodge, of which only the name survives, to the recent and present
+terraced, many-storied, communal structures, which we may find
+throughout New Mexico, Arizona, and contiguous parts of the
+neighboring Territories.[1]
+
+   [1] See for confirmation the last Annual Report to the
+   Archæological Institute of America, by Adolph F. Bandelier, one
+   of the most indefatigable explorers and careful students of early
+   Spanish history in America.
+
+
+
+
+POTTERY AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.
+
+
+There is no other section of the United States where the potter's art
+was so extensively practiced, or where it reached such a degree of
+perfection, as within the limits of these ancient Pueblo regions. To
+this statement not even the prolific valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries form an exception.
+
+On examining a large and varied collection of this pottery, one would
+naturally regard it either as the product of four distinct peoples or
+as belonging to four different eras, with an inclination to the
+chronologic division.
+
+When we see the reasonable probability that the architecture, the
+primeval arts and industries, and the culture of the Pueblos are
+mainly indigenous to the desert and semi-desert regions of North
+America, we are in the way towards an understanding of the origin and
+remarkable degree of development in the ceramic art.
+
+In these regions water not only occurs in small quantities, but is
+obtainable only at points separated by great distances, hence to the
+Pueblos the first necessity of life is the transportation and
+preservation of water. The skins and paunches of animals could be used
+in the effort to meet this want with but small success, as the heat
+and aridity of the atmosphere would in a short time render water thus
+kept unfit for use, and the membranes once empty would be liable to
+destruction by drying. So far as language indicates the character of
+the earliest water vessels which to any extent met the requirements of
+the Zuñi ancestry, they were tubes of wood or sections of canes. The
+latter, in ritualistic recitation, are said to have been the
+receptacles that the creation-priests filled with the sacred water
+from the ocean of the cave-wombs of earth, whence men and creatures
+were born, and the name for one of these cane water vessels is _shó
+tom me_, from _shó e_, cane or canes, and _tóm me_, a wooden tube.
+Yet, although in the extreme western borders of the deserts, which
+were probably the first penetrated by the Pueblos, the cane grows to
+great size and in abundance along the two rivers of that country, its
+use, if ever extensive, must have speedily given way to the use of
+gourds, which grew luxuriantly at these places and were of better
+shapes and of larger capacity. The name of the gourd as a vessel is
+_shop tom me_, from _shó e_, canes, _pó pon nai e_, bladder-shaped,
+and _tóm me_, a wooden tube; a seeming derivation (with the exception
+of the interpolated sound significant of form) from _shó tom me_. The
+gourd itself is called _mó thlâ â_, "hard fruit." The inference is
+that when used as a vessel, and called _shopi tom me_, it must have
+been named after an older form of vessel, instead of after the plant
+or fruit which produced it.
+
+While the gourd was large and convenient in form, it was difficult of
+transportation owing to its fragility. To overcome this it was encased
+in a coarse sort of wicker-work, composed of fibrous yucca leaves or
+of flexible splints. Of this we have evidence in a series of
+gourd-vessels among the Zuñis, into which the sacred water is said to
+have been transferred from the tubes, and a pair of which one of the
+priests, who came east with me two years ago, brought from New Mexico
+to Boston in his hands--so precious were they considered as
+relics--for the purpose of replenishing them with water from the
+Atlantic. These vessels are encased rudely but strongly in a meshing
+of splints (see Fig. 500), and while I do not positively claim that
+they have been piously preserved since the time of the universal use
+of gourds as water-vessels by the ancestry of this people, they are
+nevertheless of considerable antiquity. Their origin is attributed to
+the priest-gods, and they show that it must have once been a common
+practice to encase gourds, as above described, in osiery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 500.--Gourd vessel enclosed in wicker.]
+
+
+POTTERY ANTICIPATED BY BASKETRY.
+
+This crude beginning of the wicker-art in connection with
+water-vessels points toward the development of the wonderful
+water-tight basketry of the southwest, explaining, too, the
+resemblance of many of its typical forms to the shapes of
+gourd-vessels. Were we uncertain of this, we might again turn to
+language, which designates the impervious wicker water-receptacle of
+whatever outline as _tóm ma_, an evident derivation from the
+restricted use of the word _tóm me_ in connection with gourd or cane
+vessels, since a basket of any other kind is called _tsí ì le_.
+
+It is readily conceivable that water-tight osiery, once known, however
+difficult of manufacture, would displace the general use of
+gourd-vessels. While the growth of the gourd was restricted to limited
+areas, the materials for basketry were everywhere at hand. Not only
+so, but basket-vessels were far stronger and more durable, hence more
+readily transported full of water, to any distance. By virtue of their
+rough surfaces, any leakage in such vessels was instantly stopped by a
+daubing of pitch or mineral asphaltum, coated externally with sand or
+coarse clay to harden it and overcome its adhesiveness.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 501.--Havasupai clay-lined roasting-tray.]
+
+We may conclude, then, that so long as the Pueblo ancestry were
+semi-nomadic, basketry supplied the place of pottery, as it still does
+for the less advanced tribes of the Southwest, except in cookery.
+Possibly for a time basketry of this kind served in place of pottery
+even for cookery, as with one of the above-mentioned tribes, the _Ha
+va su paí_ or Coçoninos, of Cataract Cañon, Arizona. These people,
+until recently, were cut off from the rest of the world by their
+almost impenetrable cañon, nearly half a mile in depth at the point
+where they inhabit it. For example, when I visited them in 1881, they
+still hafted sharpened bits of iron, like celts, in wood. They had not
+yet forgotten how to boil food in water-tight basketry, by means of
+hot stones, and continued to roast seeds, crickets, and bits of meat
+in wicker-trays, coated inside with gritty clay. (See Fig. 501.) The
+method of preparing and using these roasting-trays has an important
+bearing on several questions to which reference will be made further
+on. A round basket-tray, either loosely or closely woven, is evenly
+coated inside with clay, into which has been kneaded a very large
+proportion of sand, to prevent contraction and consequent cracking
+from drying. This lining of clay is pressed, while still soft, into
+the basket as closely as possible with the hands and then allowed to
+dry. The tray is thus made ready for use. The seeds or other
+substances to be parched are placed inside of it, together with a
+quantity of glowing wood-coals. The operator, quickly squatting,
+grasps the tray at opposite edges, and, by a rapid spiral motion up
+and down, succeeds in keeping the coals and seeds constantly shifting
+places and turning over as they dance after one another around and
+around the tray, meanwhile blowing or puffing, the embers with every
+breath to keep them free from ashes and glowing at their hottest.
+
+That this clay lining should grow hard from continual heating, and in
+some instances separate from its matrix of osiers, is apparent. The
+clay form thus detached would itself be a perfect roasting-vessel.
+
+
+POTTERY SUGGESTED BY CLAY-LINED BASKETRY.
+
+This would suggest the agency of gradual heat in rendering clay fit
+for use in cookery and preferable to any previous makeshift. The
+modern Zuñi name for a parching-pan, which is a shallow bowl of
+black-ware, is _thlé mon ne_, the name for a basket-tray being _thlä´
+lin ne_. The latter name signifies a shallow vessel of twigs, or _thlá
+we_; the former etymologically interpreted, although of earthenware,
+is a hemispherical vessel of the same kind and _material_. All this
+would indicate that the _thlä´ lin ne_, coated with clay for roasting,
+had given birth to the _thlé mon ne_, or parching-pan of earthenware.
+(See Fig. 502.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 502.--Zuñi earthenware roasting tray.]
+
+Among the Havasupaí, still surviving as a sort of bucket, is the
+basket-pot or boiling-basket, for use with hot stones, which form I
+have also found in some of the cave deposits throughout the ancient
+Zuñi country. These vessels (see Fig. 503) were bottle-shaped and
+provided near the rims of their rather narrow mouths with a sort of
+cord or strap-handle, attached to two loops or eyes (Fig. 503 _a_)
+woven into the basket, to facilitate handling when the vessel was
+filled with hot water. In the manufacture of one of these vessels,
+which are good examples of the helix or spirally-coiled type of
+basket, the beginning was made at the center of the bottom. A small
+wisp of fine, flexible grass stems or osiers softened in water was
+first spirally wrapped a little at one end with a flat, limber splint
+of tough wood, usually willow (see Fig. 504). This wrapped portion was
+then wound upon itself; the outer coil thus formed (see Fig. 505)
+being firmly fastened as it progressed to the one already made by
+passing the splint wrapping of the wisp each time it was wound around
+the latter through some strands of the contiguous inner coil, with the
+aid of a bodkin. (See Fig. 506.) The bottom was rounded upward and the
+sides were made by coiling the wisp higher and higher, first outward,
+to produce the bulge of the vessel, then inward, to form the tapering
+upper part and neck, into which, the two little twigs or splint
+loop-eyes were firmly woven. (See again Fig. 503 _a_.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 503.--Havasupaí boiling-basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 504. FIG. 505. FIG. 506.
+               Sketches illustrating manufacture of
+               spirally-coiled basketry.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 507.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 508.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 509.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+These and especially kindred forms of basket-vessels were often quite
+elaborately ornamented, either by the insertion at proper points of
+dyed wrapping-splints, singly, in pairs, or in sets, or by the
+alternate painting of pairs, sets, or series of stitches. Thus were
+produced angular devices, like serrated bands, diagonal or zigzag
+lines, chevrons, even terraces and frets. (See Figs. 507, 508, 509.)
+There can be no doubt that these styles and ways of decoration were
+developed, along with the weaving of baskets, simply by elaborating on
+suggestions of the lines and figures unavoidably produced in
+wicker-work of any kind when strands of different colors happened to
+be employed together. Even slight discolorations in occasional splints
+would result in such suggestions, for the stitches would here show,
+there disappear. The probability of this view of the accidental origin
+of basket-ornamentation may be enhanced by a consideration of the
+etymology of a few Zuñi decorative terms, more of which might be given
+did space admit. A terraced lozenge (see Figs. 510, 511), instead of
+being named after the abstract word _a wi thlui ap í pä tchi na_,
+which signifies a double terrace or two terraces joined together at
+the base, is designated _shu k'u tu li a tsi´ nan_, from _shu e_,
+splints or fibers; _k'u tsu_, a double fold, space, or stitch (see
+Figs. 512, 513); _li a_, an interpolation referring to form; and _tsi´
+nan_, mark; in other words, the "double splint-stitch-form mark."
+Likewise, a pattern, composed principally of a series of diagonal or
+oblique parallel lines _en masse_ (see Fig. 514), is called _shu´
+k'ish pa tsí nan_, from _shú e_, splints; _k'i´sh pai e_, tapering
+(_k'ish pon ne_, neck or smaller part of anything); and _tsí nan_,
+mark; that is, "tapering" or "neck-splint mark." Curiously enough, in
+a bottle-shaped basket as it approaches completion the splints of the
+tapering part or neck all lean spirally side by side of one another
+(see Fig. 515), and a term descriptive of this has come to be used as
+that applied to lines resembling it, instead of a derivative from _ä´s
+sël lai e_, signifying an oblique or leaning line. Where splints
+variously arranged, or stitches, have given names to decorations--applied
+even to painted and embroidered designs--it is not difficult for us to
+see that these same combinations, at first unintentional, must have
+suggested the forms to which they gave names as decorations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 510. FIG. 511.
+               Terraced lozenge decoration, or
+               "double-splint-stitch-forms."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 512. FIG. 513.
+               Double-splint-stitch.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 514.--Diagonal parallel-line decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 515.--Splints at neck of unfinished basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 516. FIG. 517.
+               Examples of indented decoration on corrugated ware.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 518.--Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing
+               conical projections near rim.
+
+_Pueblo coiled pottery developed from basketry._--Seizing the
+suggestion afforded by the rude tray-molded parching-bowls,
+particularly after it was discovered that if well burned they resisted
+the effects of water as well as of heat, the ancient potter would
+naturally attempt in time to reproduce the boiling-basket in clay. She
+would find that to accomplish this she could not use as a mold the
+inside of the boiling-basket, as she had the inside of the tray,
+because its neck was smaller than its body. Nor could she form the
+vase by plastering the clay outside of the vessel, not only for the
+same reason, but also because the clay in drying would contract so
+much that it would crack or scale off. Naturally, then, she pursued
+the process she was accustomed to in the manufacture of the
+basket-bottle. That is, she formed a thin rope of soft clay, which,
+like the wisp of the basket, she coiled around and around a center to
+form the bottom, then spirally upon itself, now widening the diameter
+of each coil more and more, then contracting as she progressed upward
+until the desired height and form were attained. As the clay was
+adhesive, each coil was attached to the one already formed by
+pinching or pressing together the connecting edges at short intervals
+as the winding went on. This produced corrugations or indentations
+marvelously resembling the stitches of basket-work. Hence accidentally
+the vessel thus built up appeared so similar to the basket which had
+served as its model that evidently it did not seem complete until this
+feature had been heightened by art. At any rate, the majority of
+specimens belonging to this type of pottery--especially those of the
+older periods during which it was predominant--are distinguished by an
+indented or incised decoration exactly reproducing the zigzags,
+serrations, chevrons, terraces, and other characteristic devices of
+water-tight basketry. (Compare Figs. 516, 517 with Figs. 507, 508.)
+Evidently with a like intention two little cone-like projections were
+attached to the neck near the rim of the vessel (see Fig. 518) which
+may hence be regarded as survivals of the loops whereby it has been
+seen the ends of the strap-handle were attached to the boiling-basket.
+(See again Fig. 503, _a_.) Although varied in later times to form
+scrolls, rosettes, and other ornate figures (see Fig. 519), they
+continued ever after quite faithful features of the spiral type of
+pot, and may even sometimes be seen on the cooking-vessels of modern
+Zuñi. To add yet another link to this chain of connection between the
+coiled boiling-basket and the spirally-built cooking-pot, the names of
+the two kinds of vessels may be given. The boiling-basket was known as
+_wó li a k'ia ni tu li a tom me_, the corrugated cooking pot as _wo li
+a k'ia te´ ni tu li a ton ne_, the former signifying "coiled
+cooking-basket," the latter "coiled earthenware cooking-basket."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 519--Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing
+               modified projections near rim.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 520.--Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for
+               suspension.]
+
+Other very important types of vessels were made in a similar way. I
+refer especially to canteens and water-bottles. The water-bottle of
+wicker differed little from the boiling-basket. It was generally
+rounder-bodied, longer and narrower necked, and provided at one side
+near the shoulders or rim with two loops of hair or strong fiber,
+usually braided. (See Fig. 520.) The ends of the burden-strap passed
+through these loops made suspension of the vessel easy, or when the
+latter was used simply as a receptacle, the pair of loops served as a
+handle. Sometimes these basket-bottles were strengthened at the bottom
+with rawhide or buckskin, stuck on with gum. When, in the evolution of
+the pitcher, this type of basket was reproduced in clay, not only was
+the general form preserved, but also the details above described. That
+is, without reference to usefulness--in fact at no small expense of
+trouble--the handles were almost always made double (see Fig. 521);
+indeed, often braided, although of clay. Frequently, especially as
+time went on, the bottoms were left plain, as if to simulate the
+smooth skin-bottoming of the basket-bottles. (See Fig. 522.) At first
+it seems odd that with all these points of similarity the two kinds of
+water-vessel should have totally dissimilar names; the basket-bottle
+being known as the _k'iá pu k'ia tom me_, from _k'iá pu kia_, "for
+carrying or placing water in," and _tóm me_; the handled earthen
+receptacle, as the _í mush ton ne_. Yet when we consider that the
+latter was designed not for transporting water, for which it was less
+suited than the former, but for holding it, for which it was even
+preferable, the discrepancy is explained, since the name _í mush ton
+ne_ is from _i´ mu_, to sit, and _tóm me_, a tube. This indicates,
+too, why the basket-bottle was not displaced by the earthen bottle.
+While the former continued in use for bringing water from a distance,
+the latter was employed for storing it. As the fragile earthen vessels
+were much more readily made and less liable to become tainted, they
+were exclusively used as receptacles, removing the necessity of the
+tedious manufacture of a large number of the basket-bottles. Again, as
+the pitcher was thus used exclusively as a receptacle, to be set aside
+in household or camp, the name _í´ mush ton ne_ sufficed without the
+interpolation _te_--"earthenware"--to distinguish it as of _terra
+cotta_, instead of osiery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 521.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing
+               double handle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 522.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing
+               plain bottom.]
+
+
+
+POTTERY INFLUENCED BY LOCAL MINERALS.
+
+Before discussing the origin of other forms, it may be well to
+consider briefly some influences, more or less local, which, in
+addition to the general effect of gourd-forms in suggesting
+basket-types and of the latter in shaping earthenware, had
+considerable bearing on the development of ceramic art in the
+Southwest, pushing it to higher degrees of perfection and diversity in
+some parts than in others.
+
+Perhaps first in importance among these influences was the mineral
+character of a locality. Where clay occurred of a fine tough texture,
+easily mined and manipulated, the work in _terra cotta_ became
+proportionately more elaborate in variety and finer in quality. There
+are to be found about the sites of some ancient pueblos, potsherds
+incredibly abundant and indicating great advancement in decorative
+art, while near others, architecturally similar, even where evidence
+of ethnic connection is not wanting, only coarse, crudely-molded, and
+painted fragments are discoverable, and these in limited quantity.
+
+An example in point is the ruined pueblo of _A´ wat u i_ or
+_Aguatóbi_, as it was known to the Spaniards at the time of the
+conquest, when it was the leading "city of the Province of Tusayan,"
+now Moki. Over the entire extent of this ruin, and to a considerable
+distance around it, fragments of the greatest variety in color, shape,
+size, and finish of ware occur in abundance. In the immediate
+neighborhood, however, are extensive, readily accessible formations
+producing several kinds of clay and nearly all the color minerals
+used in the Pueblo potter's art. Yet at the greatest ruin on the upper
+Colorado Chiquito (in an arm of the valley of which river _A´ wat ú i_
+itself occurs), where the fallen walls betoken equal advancement in
+the status of the ancient builders and indicate by their vast extent
+many times the population of _A´ wat u i_, the potsherds are coarse,
+irregular in curvature, badly decayed, and exceptionally scarce. In
+the immediate neighborhood of this ruin, I need not add, clay is of
+rare occurrence and poor in quality.
+
+A more reliable example is furnished by the farming pueblos of Zuñi.
+At _Hé sho ta tsí nan_ or Ojo del Pescado, fifteen miles east of Zuñi,
+clays of several varieties and color minerals are abundant. The finest
+pottery of the tribe is made there in great quantity, while,
+notwithstanding the facilities for transportation which the Zuñis now
+possess, at the opposite farming town of _K'iáp kwai na kwin_, or Los
+Ojos Calientes, where clay is scarce and of poor texture, the pottery,
+although somewhat abundant, is of miserable quality and of bad shape.
+
+In quality of art quite as much as in that of material this local
+influence was great. In the neighborhood of ruined pueblos which occur
+near mineral deposits furnishing a great variety of pigment-material,
+the decoration of the ceramic remains is so surprisingly and
+universally elaborate, beautiful, and varied as to lead the observer
+to regard the people who dwelt there as different from the people who
+had inhabited towns about the sites of which the sherds show not only
+meager skill and less profuse decorative variety, but almost typical
+dissimilarity. Yet tradition and analogy, even history in rare
+instances, may declare that the inhabitants of both sections were of
+common derivation, if not closely related and contemporaneous.
+Probably, at no one point in the Southwest was ceramic decoration
+carried to a higher degree of development than at _A´ wat u i_, yet
+the Oraibes, by descent the modern representatives of the _A´ wat u i
+ans_ are the poorest potters and painters among the Mokis. Near their
+pueblo the clay and other mineral deposits mentioned as abundant at
+_A´ wat u i_ are meager and inaccessible. Still, it may be urged that
+time may have introduced other than natural causes for change; this
+could not be said of another example pertaining to one period and a
+single tribe. I refer again to the Zuñis. The manufactures of Pescado
+probably surpass in decorative excellence all other modern Pueblo
+pottery, while both in their lack of variety and in delicacy of
+execution of their painted patterns the fictiles of Ojo Caliente are
+so inferior and diverse from the other Zuñi work that the future
+archæologist will have need to beware, or (judging alone from the
+ceramic remains which he finds at the two pueblos) he will attribute
+them at least to distinct periods, perhaps to diverse peoples.
+
+
+POTTERY INFLUENCED BY MATERIALS AND METHODS USED IN BURNING.
+
+Other influences, to a less extent local, had no inconsiderable effect
+on primitive Pueblo pottery: materials employed and methods resorted
+to in burning.
+
+Only one kind of fuel, except for a single class of vessels, is now
+used in pottery-firing; namely, dried cakes or slabs of sheep-dung.
+Anciently, several varieties, such as extremely dry sage-brush or
+grease-wood, piñon and other resinous woods, dung of herbivora when
+obtainable, charcoal, and also bituminous or cannel-coal were
+employed. The principal agent seems, however, to have been dead-wood
+or spunk, pulverized and moistened with some adhesive mixture so that
+flat cakes could be formed of it. I infer this not alone from Zuñi
+tradition, which is not ample, but from the fact that the sheep-dung
+now used is called, in the condition of fuel, _kú ne a_, while its
+name in the abstract or as sheep-dung simply is _má he_. Dry-rot wood
+or spunk is known as _kú me_. In the shape of flat cakes it would be
+termed _kú mo we_ or _kú me a_, whence I doubt not the modern word _kú
+ne a_ is derived.
+
+Of methods, four were in vogue. The simplest and worst consisted in
+burying the vessel to be burned under hot ashes and building a fire
+around it, or inverting it over a bed of embers and encircling it with
+a blazing fire of brush-wood, as is still the practice of the
+Maricopas and other sedentary tribes of the Gila. The most common was
+building a little cone or dome of fuel over the articles to be baked
+and firing; the most perfect was to dig or construct under ground a
+little cist or kiln, line it evenly with fuel, leaving a central space
+for the green ware, and slowly fire the whole mass.
+
+Irrespective of the kind of fuel used, the baking by ash-burial made
+the ware gray, cloudy, or dingy, and not very durable. Pottery burned
+with sage or grease-wood was firm, light gray unless of ocherous clay,
+less cloudy than if ash-baked, yet mottled. Turf and dung, although
+easily managed, did not thoroughly harden the pottery, but burned it
+very evenly; dead wood or spunk-cakes baked as evenly as any of the
+materials thus far mentioned, and more thoroughly than the others.
+Resinous or pitchy woods, while they produced a much higher degree of
+heat, could be used only when color was unimportant, as they still are
+used to some extent in the firing of black-ware or cooking pots. The
+latter, while still hot from a preliminary burning, if coated
+externally with the mucilaginous juice of green cactus, internally
+with piñon gum or pitch, and fired a second or even a third time with
+resinous wood-fuel, are rendered absolutely fire-proof, semi-glazed
+with a black gloss inside, and wonderfully durable. Tradition
+represents that by far the most perfect fuel was found to be cannel
+coal, and that, where abundant, accessible, and of an extremely
+bituminous quality, it was much used. The traces of little pit-kilns
+filled with, cinders of mineral coal about many of the ruins in the
+northwestern portion of the Pueblo region, coupled with the
+semi-fusion and well-preserved condition of most of the ancient jars
+found associated with them, certainly give support to this tradition.
+Happily I have additional confirmation. When, two years ago, I was
+engaged in making ethnologic collections at Moki for the United States
+National Museum, some Indians of the _Te wa_ pueblo brought me a
+quantity of pottery. It had been made with the purpose of deceiving
+me, in careful imitation of ancient types, and was certainly equal to
+the latter in lightness and the condition of the burning. I paid these
+enterprising Indians as good a price as they had been accustomed to
+getting for genuine ancient specimens, but told them that, being a
+Zuñi, I was almost one of themselves, hence they could not deceive me,
+and asked them how they had so cleverly succeeded in burning the ware.
+They laughingly replied that they had simply dug some bituminous coal
+(_u á ko_) and used it in little pits. When I further asked them why
+they did not burn their household utensils thus, they said it was too
+uncertain; representing that the pots did not like to be burned in the
+_u á ko_, probably because it was so hot, hence they broke more
+frequently than if fired in the common way with dried sheep-dung;
+furthermore the latter was less troublesome, requiring only to be dug
+from the corrals near at hand and dried to make it ready for use.
+
+This partially explains why the art of water-tight basket-making has
+here gradually declined since the Spanish conquest, as the ceramic
+industry has increased with the introduction of the sheep, which
+furnishes fuel for the burning, and the horse, before unknown, has
+facilitated transportation, whereby trade for this class of basketry
+with the distant nomadic tribes who still make it is rendered easy.
+Withal, however, the quality of pottery has not improved, but has
+deteriorated; as sheep-dung is but an inferior fuel for firing.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION OF FORMS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 523.--Food trencher of wicker-work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 524.--Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls]
+
+Bearing these statements in mind, the discussion of the evolution as
+well as of the distribution of form, and later of the evolution of
+decoration, in pottery will become easier. By lingering steps there
+was early developed a method of building up vessels by a process
+differing in part from the spiral. As the parching-bowl had been
+evolved from the roasting-tray, so, we may infer, the food-bowl was
+suggested by the hemispherical food-trencher of wicker-work. (See Fig.
+523.) Yet, curiously enough, the inside of the latter seems not at
+first to have been used in molding the food-bowl, as, it will be
+remembered, the tray had been in forming the parching-pan. On the
+contrary, the clay was coiled around and around the _outside_ of the
+bottom of an inverted basket bowl (see Fig. 524), instead of being
+pressed evenly into it. As with the cooking pot, so with this; as the
+coiling progressed it was corrugated, not so much, however from
+necessity, as from habit. In consequence of the difficulty experienced
+in removing these bowl-forms from the bottoms of the baskets--which
+had to be done while they were still plastic, to keep them from
+cracking--they were made very shallow. Hence the specimens found among
+the older ruins and graves are not only corrugated outside, but are
+also very wide in proportion to their height. (See Fig. 525.) As time
+went on it was found that bowls might be made deeper, and yet readily
+be taken off from the basket bottoms, if slightly moistened outside
+and pressed evenly all around, or, better still, scraped; for, being
+plastic, this proceeding caused them to grow thinner, consequently
+larger, thereby to loosen from the basket over which they had been
+molded. As a result of this scraping, however, the corrugated surface
+was destroyed, nor could it easily be restored. Therefore bowls when
+made deep were, as a rule, smooth on the outside as well as on the
+interior surface. When by a perfectly natural sequence of events--as
+will be shown further on--ornamentation by painting came to be applied
+first to the plain interiors of the bowls, the smooth outer surface
+was found preferable to the corrugated surface, not only because it
+took paint more readily, but also because the bowl, when painted
+outside as well as inside, formed a far handsomer utensil for
+household use than if simply decorated by the older methods. As a
+consequence, we find that, while the larger vessels continued to be
+corrugated and indented, the smoothed and painted bowl came into
+general use. Associated later on with this secondary type of bowls
+occurred the larger vessels plain at the bottoms, still corrugated at
+the sides. Nor is this surprising, as the bowl, molded on the basket
+bottom and there smoothed, could be afterward built up by the spiral
+process. When in time the huge hemispherical canteens or water
+carriers of earthen-ware replaced the basket bottles, so also the
+water jar or _olla_ replaced the handled sitter or pitcher, since it
+could be made larger to receive more copious supplies of water than
+the strength of the frail handles on the pitchers would warrant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 525.--Ancient bowl of corrugated ware.]
+
+The water jar, like the food-bowl, is a conspicuous household article;
+for which reason the Zuñi woman expends all her ability to render them
+handsome. Judging by this, the desire to decorate the water-vessel
+with paint, like its constant companion the food-bowl, would early
+lead to the attempt to make its surface smooth. This would need to be
+effected while the article was still soft; which necessity probably
+led to the discovery that ajar of the corrugated or simply coiled type
+may be smoothed while still plastic without danger of distortion, no
+matter what its size, if supported at the bottom in a basket or other
+mold so that it may be shifted or turned about without direct
+handling. (See Fig. 526.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 526.--Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 527.--Clay nucleus for a vessel.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 528.--Clay nucleus shaped to form the base of a
+               vessel.]
+
+After this discovery was made, the molding of large vessels was no
+longer accomplished by the spiral method exclusively. A lump of clay,
+hollowed out (see Fig. 527), was shaped how rudely so ever on the
+bottom of the basket or in the hand (see Fig. 528), then placed inside
+of a hemispherical basket-bowl and stroked until pressed outward to
+conform with the shape, and to project a little above the edges of its
+temporary mold, whence it was built up spirally (see Fig. 529) until
+the desired form had been attained, after which it was smoothed by
+scraping (see Fig. 530).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 529.--Clay nucleus in base-mold, with beginning
+               of spiral building.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 530.--First form of vessel.]
+
+The necks and apertures of these earliest forms of the water jar were
+made very small in proportion to their other dimensions, presumably on
+account of the necessity of often carrying them full of water over
+steep and rough _mesa_ paths, coupled perhaps with the imitation of
+other forms. To render them as light as possible they were also made
+very thin. One of the consequences of all this was that when large
+they could not be stroked inside, as the shoulders or uttermost upper
+peripheries of the vessel could not be reached with the hand or
+scraper through the small openings. The effect of the pressure exerted
+in smoothing them on the outside, therefore, naturally caused the
+upper parts to sink down, generating the spheroidal shape of the jar.
+(see Fig. 531), one of the most beautiful types of the olla ever known
+to the Pueblos. At Zuñi, wishing to have an ancient jar of this form
+which I had seen, reproduced, I showed a drawing of it to a woman
+expert in the manufacture of pottery. Without any instructions from me
+beyond a mere statement of my wishes, she proceeded at once to
+sprinkle the inside of a basket-bowl with sand, managing the clay in
+a way above described and continuing the vessel-shaping upward by
+spiral building. She did not at first make the shoulders low or
+sloping, but rounded or arched them upward and outward (see again Fig.
+529). At this I remonstrated, but she gave no heed other than to
+ejaculate "_wá na ni, àná!_" which meant "just wait, will you!" When
+she had finished the rim, she easily caused the shoulders to sink,
+simply by stroking them--more where uneven than elsewhere--with a wet
+scraper of gourd (see Fig. 532, _a_) until she had exactly reproduced
+the form of the drawing. She then set the vessel aside _in_ the
+basket. Within two days it shrank by drying at the rate of about one
+inch in twelve, leaving the basket far too large. (See Fig. 533.) It
+could hence be removed without the slightest difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 531.--Secondary form, in the mold.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 532.--Scrapers of gourd and earthenware for
+               smoothing pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 533.--Finished form of vessel in mold, showing
+               amount of contraction in drying.]
+
+The sand had prevented contact with the basket which would have caused
+the clay vessel to crack as the latter was very thin. This process
+exists in full force to-day with the Oraibes in the modeling of
+convex-bottomed vessels, and the Zuñis thus make their large bowls and
+huge drum-jars.
+
+Upon the bottoms of many jars of these forms, I have observed the
+impressions of the wicker bowls in which they had been molded--not
+entirely to be removed, it seems, by the most assiduous smoothing
+before burning; for, however smooth any exceptional specimen may
+appear, a squeeze in plaster will still reveal traces of these
+impressions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 534.--Profile of olla, or modern water-jug.]
+
+A characteristic of these older forms of the water-jar is that they
+are invariably flat or round-bottomed, while more recent and all
+modern types of the olla (see Fig. 534) are concave or hollowed at the
+base (see Fig. 535) to facilitate balancing on the head. Outside of
+this concavity and entirely surrounding it (Fig. 536, _a_) is often to
+be observed an indentation (see Fig. 536, _b_) usually slight although
+sometimes pronounced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 535.--Base of olla.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 536.--Section of olla.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 537.--Annular mat of wicker, or "milkmaid's boss."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 538.--Use of annular mat illustrated.]
+
+This has no use, but there is of course a reason for its occurrence
+which, if investigated, may throw light on the origin of the modern
+type of the olla itself. The older or round-bottomed jars were
+balanced on the head in carrying, by means of a wicker-work ring, a
+kind of "milk-maid's boss." (See Fig. 537.) These annular mats are
+still found among the ruins and cave-deposits, and continue in use
+with the modern Pueblos for supporting convex-bottom cooking pots on
+the floor as well as for facilitating the balancing of large
+food-bowls on the head. (See Fig. 538.) Obviously the latter dishes
+have never been hollowed as the ollas have been, because, since they
+were used as eating-bowls, the food could be removed from a plain
+bottom more easily than from a convex surface, which would result from
+the hollowing underneath. Supposing that a water-jar chanced to be
+modeled in one of the convex-bottom bread-baskets (see Fig. 539), it
+would become necessary, on account of the thickness of these wicker
+bowls, to remove the form from the mold before it dried. By absorption
+it would dry so rapidly that it would crack, especially in contracting
+against the convexity in the center of the basket-bottom. (See Fig.
+539, _a_.) In order that this form might be supported in an upright
+position until dry, it would naturally be placed on one of the
+wicker-rings. Moreover, that the bottom might not sink down or fall
+out, a wad of some soft substance would be placed within the ring.
+(See Fig. 540, _a_.) As a consequence the weight of the plastic vessel
+would press the still soft bottom against the central wad, (Fig. 540,
+_a_) and the wicker ring (Fig. 540, _c_) sufficiently to cause the
+rounding upward of the cavity (Fig. 540, _b_) first made by the
+convex-bottom of the basket-mold, as well as form the encircling
+indentation (Fig. 540, _c_). Thus by accident, probably, only possibly
+by intention, was evolved the most useful and distinctive feature of
+the modern water-jar or olla, the _concave bottom_. This, once
+produced, would be held to be peculiarly convenient, dispensing with
+the use of a troublesome auxiliary. Its reproduction would present
+grave difficulties unless the bottom of the first vessel, thickly
+coated with sand to prevent cracking, was employed as a mold, instead
+of the absorbent convex-centered basket-bowl.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 539.--Section of incipient vessel in basket-mold.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 540.--Section of vessel supported for drying.]
+
+I infer this because, to-day, a Zuñi woman is quite at a loss how to
+hollow the bottom of a water-jar if she does not possess a form or
+mold made from the base of some previously broken jar of the same
+type. She therefore, carefully preserves these precious bottoms of her
+broken ollas, even cementing together fractured ones, when not too
+badly shivered, with a mixture of pitch or mineral asphaltum and sand.
+I have seen as many as a dozen or more of these molds (see Fig. 541)
+in a single store room.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 541.--Base-mold (bottom of water-jar).]
+
+As the practice of molding all new vessels of this class in the
+bottoms of older ones was general--I might say invariable--any
+peculiarities of form in the originals must have been communicated to
+those ensuing; from the latter to others, and so on, though in less
+and less degree, to the present time. This theory is but tentative,
+yet it would also explain, on the score of association, why the Pueblo
+women slightly prefer the jars showing the indentation in question to
+more regular ones. With the change from elevated cliff or _mesa_
+habitations to more accessible ones, the Pueblo Indians were enabled
+to enlarge the apertures of their water-jars, since not only did the
+concave bases of the latter make the balancing of them more secure,
+but the trails over which they had to be carried from watering place
+to habitation were less rugged. A natural result of this enlargement
+of the openings, which admitted access with the scraper to the
+interior peripheries of the thin-walled jars, was the rounding upward
+of their shoulders, making them taller in proportion to their
+diameters. This modification of form in the water-jar, taken in
+connection with the fact that thus changed, it displaced the daily use
+of the canteen, explains the totally dissimilar names which were
+applied to the two types. The older, or spheroidal olla, was known as
+the _k'iáp ton ne_, from _k'ia pu_, to place or carry water in, and
+_tóm me_; while the newer _olla_ is called _k'iá wih na k'ia té èle_,
+from _k'iá wih na ki'a na ki'a_, for bringing of water: _té_,
+earthen-ware, and _ë´ le_ or _ë´l lai e_, to stand or standing. The
+latter term, _té è le_, is generic, being applied to nearly all _terra
+cotta_ vessels which are taller than they are broad. _Té_, earthen
+ware, is derived from _t'eh´_, the root also of _té ne a_, to resound,
+to sound hollow; while _é le_, from _ë´l le_ or _ël´ lai ê_, to stand,
+is obviously applied in significance of comparative height as well as
+of function.
+
+Thus I have thrown together a few conjectures and suggestions relative
+to the origin of the Southwestern pottery and the evolution of its
+principal forms.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION OF DECORATION
+
+
+I might go on, appealing to language to account for nearly every
+variety of pottery found existing as a _type_ throughout the region
+referred to; but a subject inseparably connected with this, throwing
+light on it in many ways, and possessing in itself great interest,
+claims treatment on the few remaining pages of this essay. I refer to
+the evolution and significance or symbolism of Pueblo ceramic
+decorations.
+
+Before proceeding with this, however, I must acknowledge that I am as
+much indebted to the teachings of Mr. E.B. Tylor, in his remarkable
+works on Man's Early History and Primitive Culture, to Lubbock, Daniel
+Wilson, Evans, and others, for the direction or _impetus_ of these
+inquiries, as I am to my own observations and experiments for its
+development.
+
+The line of gradual development in ceramic decorations, especially of
+the symbolic element, treated as a subject, is wider in its
+applicability to the study of primitive man, because more clearly
+illustrative of the growth of culture. I regret, therefore, that it
+must here be dealt with only in a most cursory manner. Large
+collections for illustration would be essential to a fuller treatment,
+even were space unlimited.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 542.--Example of Pueblo painted ornamentation.]
+
+Decoratively, Pueblo pottery is characterized by two marked features:
+angular designs predominate and ornamental effect depends as much on
+the open or undecorated space as on the painted lines and areas in the
+devices. (See Fig. 542.) While this is true of recent and modern
+wares, it is more and more notably the case with other specimens in a
+ratio increasing in proportion to their antiquity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 543. & FIG. 544.--Amazonian basket decorations.]
+
+We cannot explain these characteristics, and the conventional aspect
+of the higher and symbolic Pueblo ceramic decorations which grew out
+of them, in a better way than to suppose them, like the forms of this
+pottery, to be the survivals of the influence of basketry. (See, for
+comparison, Figs. 543, 544.) I shall be pardoned, therefore, for
+elaborating suggestions already made in this direction, in the
+paragraphs which treated of the ornamentation of spiral ware, and of
+the derivation of basket decorations from stitch- and splint-suggested
+figures. All students of early man understand his tendency to
+reproduce habitual forms in accustomed association. This feeling,
+exaggerated with savages by a belief in the actual relationship of
+resemblance, is shown in the reproduction of the decorations of basket
+vessels on the clay vessels made from them or in imitation of them.
+
+In entire conformity with this, the succession in the methods of the
+ornamentation of Pueblo pottery seems to have been first by incision
+or indentation; then by relief; afterward by painting in black on a
+natural or light surface; finally, by painting in color on a white or
+colored surface.
+
+As before suggested, the patterns on the coiled, regularly indented
+pottery (which came to be first known to the world as a type, the
+"corrugated," through the earlier explorations and reports of Mr.
+William H. Holmes) were produced simply by emphasized indentation,
+more rarely by incision, and were almost invariably angular,
+reproducing exactly the designs on wicker work. Even in comparatively
+recent examples of the corrugated ware this is true; for, once
+connected with a type, a style of decoration, both seem to have been
+ever after inseparable, with at most but slight modification of the
+latter. One of these modifications, in both method and effect, was in
+the adoption of the raised or relief style of ornamentation found,
+with rare exceptions in the Southwest, only on corrugated ware, and on
+the class which in modern times has replaced it there, vessels used in
+cookery. Although never universal, this style deserves passing
+attention as the outgrowth of an effort to attain the effect of
+contrast produced by dyed or painted splints on wicked work before the
+use of paint was known in connection with pottery. The same kind of
+investigation indicates that the Pueblos largely owed their textile
+industries and designs, as well as their potter's art, to the
+necessity which gave rise to the making of water-tight basketry. The
+terms connected with the rudimentary processes of weaving and
+embroidery, and the principal patterns of both (on, for example,
+blankets, kirtles, sacred girdles, and women's belts), are mostly
+susceptible of interpretation, like the terms in pottery, as having a
+meaning connected with the processes of basket plaiting and painting.
+This renders the conventional character of Pueblo textile ornaments
+easy of comprehension, as well, as the very early, if not the
+earliest, origin of loom-weaving among our Indians in the desert
+regions of America.
+
+Henceforward, then, we have only to consider decoration by painting.
+The probability is that this began as soon as the smooth surface in
+pottery was generally made; evidence of which seemingly exists; as
+eating bowls are, even to the present day, decorated principally on
+the interior; not, as may be supposed, because the exterior is more
+hidden from view, but because, as we have seen on a former page, bowls
+were made plain inside before the corrugated type formed on basket
+bottoms had been displaced by the smoothed type; and were naturally
+first decorated there with paint. It must be constantly borne in mind
+that a style of decoration once coupled with a kind of ware, or even a
+portion of a vessel, retained its association permanently.
+
+It must have been early observed that clay of one kind, applied even
+thinly to the exterior of a vessel of another kind, produced, when
+burned, a different color. With the discovery that clays of different
+kinds burned in a variety of colors, to some extent irrespective of
+the methods and the materials used in firing, there must likewise have
+been hinted, we may safely conclude, the efficacy of clay washes as
+paint, and of paint as a decorative agent.
+
+Among the ceramic remains from the oldest pueblo sites of the
+Southwest, pottery occurs, mostly in four varieties: the corrugated or
+spiral; the plain, yet rough gray; white decorated with geometric
+figures in black; and red, either plain or decorated with geometric
+devices in black and white. The gray or dingy brown, rough variety,
+resulted when a corrugated or coiled jar had been simply smoothed with
+the fingers and scraper before it was fired. A step in advance, easily
+and soon taken, was the additional smoothing of the vessel by slightly
+wetting and rubbing its outer surface. Even this was productive only
+of a moderately smooth surface, since, as learned by the Indian
+potters long before, in their experience with the clay-plastered
+parching-tray, it was necessary to mix the clay of vessels with a
+tempering of sand, crushed potsherds, or the like, to prevent it from
+cracking while drying; this, of course, no amount of rubbing would
+remove. Hence, by another easy step, clay unmixed with a
+grit-tempering, made into a thin paste with water, and thickly applied
+to the half-dried jar with a dab or brash of soft fiber, gave a
+beautifully smooth surface, especially if polished afterward by
+rubbing with water-worn pebbles. The vessel thus prepared, when
+burned, assumed invariably a creamy, pure white, red-brown or, other
+color, according to the quality or kind of the clay used in making the
+paste with which it had been smoothed or washed.
+
+Thus was achieved the art of producing at will fictiles of different
+colors, with which simple suggestion painting also became easy. Black,
+aside from clay paste, was almost the first pigment discovered; quite
+likely because the mineral blacks from iron ores, coal, and the
+various rocks used universally among Indians for staining splints,
+etc., would be the earliest tried, and then adopted, as they remained
+unchanged by firing. Thus it came about, as evidenced by the sequence
+of early remains in the Southwest, that the white and black varieties
+of pottery were the first made, then the red and black, and later the
+red with white and black decoration. Take, as an example, the latter.
+Of course it was a simple mode to employ the red (ocherous) clay for
+the wash, the blue clay (which burned white) for the white pigment in
+making lines, and any of the black minerals above mentioned for other
+marking.
+
+In these earliest kinds of painted pottery the angular decorations of
+the corrugated ware or of basketry were repeated, or at the farthest
+only elaborated, although on some specimens the suggestions of the
+curved ornament already occurred. These resulted, I may not fear to
+claim, from carelessness or awkwardness in drawing, for instance, the
+corners of acute angles, which, "cutting across-lot" would, it may be
+seen, produce the wavy or meandering line from the zigzag, the
+ellipsoid from the rectangle, and so on.
+
+Precisely in accordance with this theory were the studies of my
+preceptor, the lamented Prof. Charles Fred. Hartt. In a paper "On
+Evolution in Ornament," published in several periodicals, among them
+the Popular Science Monthly of January, 1875, this gifted naturalist
+illustrated his studies by actual examples found on decorated burial
+urns from Marajó Island. I must take the liberty of suggesting,
+however, that upon some antecedent kind of vessel, the eyes of the
+Amazonian Islanders may have been, to give Professor Hartt's idea,
+"trained to take physiological and æsthetic delight in regularly
+recurring lines and dots"; not on the pottery itself, as he seemed to
+think, for decoration was old in basketry and the textiles when
+pottery was first made.
+
+
+
+
+DECORATIVE SYMBOLISM.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 545.--Food-bowl.  FIG. 546.--Water-jar.
+               (Showing open or joined space in line near rim.)]
+
+On every class of food- and water-vessels, in collections of both
+ancient and modern Pueblo pottery (except, it is important to note, on
+pitchers and some sacred receptacles), it may be observed as a
+singular, yet almost constant feature, that encircling lines, often
+even ornamental zones, are left open or not as it were closed at the
+ends. (See Figs. 545, _a_, 546, _a_.) This is clearly a conventional
+quality and seemingly of intentional significance. An explanation must
+be sought in various directions, and once found will be useful in
+guiding to an understanding of the symbolic element in Pueblo ceramic
+art. I asked the Indian women, when I saw them making these little
+spaces with great care, why they took so much pains to leave them
+open. They replied that to close them was _a´k ta ni_, "fearful!"--that
+this little space through the line or zone on a vessel was the "exit
+trail of life or being", _o´ ne yäthl kwái na_, and this was all. How
+it came to be first left open and why regarded as the "exit trail,"
+they could not tell. If one studies the mythology of this people and
+their ways of thinking, then watches them closely, he will, however,
+get other clews. When a woman has made a vessel, dried, polished, and
+painted it, she will tell you with an air of relief that it is a "Made
+Being." Her statement is confirmed as a sort of article of faith, when
+you observe that as she places the vessel in the kiln, she also places
+in and beside it food. Evidently she vaguely gives something about the
+vessel a personal existence. The question arises how did these people
+come to regard food-receptacles or water-receptacles as possessed of
+or accompanied by conscious existences. I have found that the Zuñi
+argues actual and essential relationship from similarity in the
+appearance, function, or other attributes of even generically diverse
+things.[2]
+
+   [2] I would refer those, who may wish to find this characteristic
+   more fully set forth, to the introductory pages of my essay on
+   Zuñi Fetiches, published in the second volume of Contributions to
+   North American Ethnology by the Bureau of Ethnology; also to a
+   paper read before the American Academy of Sciences on the
+   Relations to one another of the Zuñi Mythologic and Sociologic
+   Systems, published, I regret to say, without my revision, in the
+   Popular Science Monthly, for July, 1882.
+
+I here allude to this mental bias because it has both influenced the
+decoration of pottery and has been itself influenced by it. In the
+first place, the noise made by a pot when struck or when simmering on
+the fire is supposed to be the voice of its associated being. The
+clang of a pot when it breaks or suddenly cracks in burning is the cry
+of this being as it escapes or separates from the vessel. That it has
+departed is argued from the fact that the vase when cracked or
+fragmentary never resounds as it did when whole. This vague existence
+never cries out violently unprovoked; but it is supposed to acquire
+the power of doing so by imitation; hence, no one sings, whistles, or
+makes other strange or musical sounds resembling those of earthenware
+under the circumstances above described during the smoothing,
+polishing, painting, or other processes of finishing. The being thus
+incited, they think, would surely strive to come out, and would break
+the vessel in so doing. In this we find a partial explanation of the
+native belief that a pot is accompanied by a conscious existence. The
+rest of the solution of this problem in belief is involved in the
+native philosophy and worship of water. Water contains the source of
+continued life. The vessel holds the water; the source of life
+_accompanies_ the water, hence its dwelling place is in the vessel
+with the water. Finally, the vessel is supposed to contain the
+treasured source, irrespective of the water--as do wells and springs,
+or even the places where they have been. If the encircling lines
+inside of the eating bowl, _outside_ of the water jar, were closed,
+there would be no exit trail for this invisible source of life or for
+its influence or breath. Yet, why, it maybe asked, must the source of
+life or its influence be provided with a trail by which to pass out
+from the vessel? In reply to this I will submit two considerations. It
+has been stated that on the earliest Southwestern potteries decoration
+was effected by incised or raised ornamentation. Any one who has often
+attempted to make vessels according to primitive methods as I have has
+found how difficult it is to smoothly join a line incised around a
+still soft clay pot, and that this difficulty is even greater when the
+ornamental band is laid on in relief. It would be a natural outgrowth
+of this predicament to leave the ends unjoined, which indeed the
+savage often did. When paint instead of incision or relief came to be
+the decorative agent, the lines or bands would be left unjoined in
+imitation. As those acquainted with Tylor's "Early History" will
+realize, and myth of observation like the above would come to be
+assigned in after ages. This may or may not be true of the case in
+question; for, as before observed, some classes of sacred receptacles,
+as well as the most ancient painted bowls, are not characterized by
+the unjoined lines. Whether true or not, it is an insufficient
+solution of the problem.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 547.--Conical or flat-bellied canteen.]
+
+It is natural for the Pueblo to consider water as the prime source of
+life, or as accompanied by it, for without the presence of living
+water very few things grow in his desert land. During many a drought
+chronicled in his oral annals, plants, animals, and men have died as
+of a contagious scourge. Naturally, therefore, he has come to regard
+water as the milk of adults, to speak of it as such, and as the
+all-sufficient nourishment which the earth (in his conception of it as
+the mother of men) yields. In the times when his was a race of cliff
+and mesa dwellers, the most common vessel appertaining to his daily
+life was the flat-bellied canteen or water-carrier. (See Fig. 547.)
+This was suspended by a band across the forehead, so as to hang
+against the back, thus leaving the hands as well as the feet free for
+assistance in climbing. It now survives only for use on long journeys
+or at camps distant from water. The original suggestion of its form
+seems to have been that of the human mammary gland, or perhaps its
+peculiar form may have suggested a relationship between the two.
+(Compare Figs. 548, 549.) At any rate, its name in Zuñi is _me´ he ton
+ne_, while _me´ ha na_ is the name of the human mammary gland. _Me´ he
+ton ne_ is from _me´ ha na_, mamma, _e´ ton nai e_, containing within,
+and _to´m me_. From _me´ ha na_ comes _wo´ ha na_, hanging or placed
+against anything, obviously because the mammaries hang or are placed
+against the breast; or, possibly, _mé ha na_ may be derived from _wó
+ha na_ by a reversal of reasoning, which view does not affect the
+argument in question. It is probable that the _me´ he ton_ was at
+first left open at the apex (Fig. 549._a_) instead of at the top (Fig.
+549._b_); but, being found liable to leak when furnished with the
+aperture so low, this was closed. A surviving superstition inclines me
+to this view. When a Zuñi woman has completed the _me´ he ton_ nearly
+to the apex, by the coiling-process, and before she has inserted the
+nozzle (Fig. 549._b_), she prepares a little wedge of clay, and, as
+she closes the apex with it, she turns her eyes away. If you ask her
+why she does this, she will tell you that it is _a´k ta ni_ (fearful)
+to look at the vessel while closing it at this point; that, if she
+look at it during this operation, she will be liable to become barren;
+or that, if children be born to her, they will die during infancy; or
+that she maybe stricken with blindness; or those who drink from the
+vessel will be afflicted with disease and wasting away! My impression
+is that, reasoning from analogy (which with these people means actual
+relationship or connection, it will be remembered), the Zuñi woman
+supposes that by closing the apex of this _artificial_ mamma she
+closes the exit-way for the "source of life;" further, that the woman
+who closes this exit-way knowingly (in her own sight, that is)
+voluntarily closes the exit-way for the source of life in her _own_
+mammæ; further still, that for this reason the privilege of bearing
+infants may be taken away from her, or at any rate (experience showing
+the fallacy of this philosophy) she deserves the loss of the sense
+(sight) which enabled her to "_knowingly_" close the exit-way of the
+source of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 548.  FIG. 549.
+               Conical canteen compared with human mammary gland.]
+
+By that tenacity of conservative reasoning which is a marked mental
+characteristic of the sedentary Pueblo, other types of the canteen, of
+later origin, not only retained the name-root of this primeval form,
+but also its attributed functions. For example, the _me´ wi k'i lik
+ton ne_ (See Fig. 550) is named thus from _me we_, mammaries, _i kí
+lïk toì e´_, joined together by a neck, and _to´m me_.
+
+Now, when closing the ends (Fig. 550, _c_, _c_) of this curious vessel
+in molding it, the women are as careful to turn the eyes away as in
+closing the apex of the older form. As the resemblance of either of
+the ends of this vessel to the mamma is not striking, they place on
+either side of the nozzle a pair of little conical projections,
+resembling the teats, and so called. (Fig. 550, _b_.) There are four
+of these, instead of, as we might reasonably expect, two. The reason
+for this seems to be that the _me´ wi k'i lik ton ne_ is the canteen
+designed for use by the hunter in preference to all other vessels,
+because it may be easily wrapped in a blanket and tied to the back.
+Other forms would not do, as the hunter must have the free use not
+only of his hands but also of his head, that he may turn quickly this
+way or that in looking for or watching game. The proper nourishment of
+the hunter is the game he kills; hence, the source of his life, like
+that of the young of this game, is symbolized in the canteen by the
+mammaries, not of human beings, but of game-animals. A feature in
+these canteens dependent upon all this brings us nearer to an
+understanding of the question under discussion. When ornamental bands
+are painted around either end of the neck of one of them (Fig. 550,
+_b_), they are interrupted at the little projections (Fig. 550, _b,_).
+Indeed, I have observed specimens on which these lines, if placed
+farther out, were interrupted at the top (Fig. 550, _a a_) opposite
+the little projections. So, by analogy, it would seem the Pueblos came
+to regard paint, like clay, a barrier to the exit of the source of
+life. This idea of the source of life once associated with the canteen
+would readily become connected with the water-jar, which, if not the
+offspring of the canteen, at least usurped its place in the household
+economy of these people. From the water-jar it would pass naturally to
+drinking-vessels and eating-bowls, explaining the absence of the
+interrupted lines on the oldest of these and their constant occurrence
+on recent and modern examples; for the painted lines being left open
+at the apexes, or near the projections on the canteens, they should
+also be unjoined on other vessels with which the same ideas were
+associated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 550.--Double lobed or hunter canteen.]
+
+So, also, it will be observed that in paintings of animals there is
+not only a line drawn from the mouth to the plainly depicted heart,
+but a little space is left down the center or either side of this
+line (see Figs. 551, 552), which is called the _o ne yäthl kwa´ to
+na_, or the "entrance trail" (of the source or breath of life).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 551.--Painting of deer.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 552.--Painting of sea-serpent.]
+
+By this long and involved examination of _one_ element in the
+symbolism of Pueblo ceramic decoration, we gain some idea how many
+others not quite so striking, yet equally curious, grew up; how, also,
+they might be explained. Their investigation, however, would be
+attended with such intricate studies, involving so many subjects not
+at sight related to the one in hand, that I must hasten to present two
+other points.
+
+Much wonder has been expressed that the Pueblos, so advanced in
+pottery decoration, have not attempted more representations of natural
+objects. There is less ground for this wonder than at first appears.
+It should be remembered that the original angular models which the
+Pueblo had, out of which to develop his art, bequeathed to him an
+extremely conventional conception of things. This, added to his
+peculiar way of interpreting relationship and personifying phenomena
+and even functions, has resulted in making his depictions obscure. In
+point of fact, in the decoration of certain classes of his pottery he
+has attempted the reproduction of almost everything and of every
+phenomenon in nature held as sacred or mysterious by him. On certain
+other classes he has developed, imitatively, many typical decorations
+which now have no special symbolism, but which once had definite
+significance; and, finally, he has sometimes relegated definite
+meanings to designs which at first had no significance, except as
+decorative agents, after ward using them according to this
+interpretation in his attempts to delineate natural objects, their
+phenomena, and functions. I will illustrate by examples, the last
+point first.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 553.--The fret of basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 554.--The fret of pottery decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 555.--Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery
+               decoration.]
+
+Going back to basketry, we find already the fully developed fret. (See
+Fig. 553.) I doubt not that from this was evolved, in accordance with
+Professor Hartt's theory, the scroll or volute as it appears later on
+pottery. (See Figs. 554, 555.) To both of these designs, and
+modifications of them ages later, the Pueblo has attached meanings.
+Those who have visited the Southwest and ridden over the wide, barren
+plains, during late autumn or early spring, have been astonished to
+find traced on the sand by no visible agency, perfect concentric
+circles and scrolls or volutes yards long and as regular as though
+drawn by a skilled artist. The circles are made by the wind driving
+partly broken weed-stalks around and around their places of
+attachment, until the fibers by which they are anchored sever and the
+stalks are blown away. The volutes are formed by the stems of red-top
+grass and of a round-topped variety of the _chenopodium_, drifted
+onward by the whirlwind yet around and around their bushy adhesive
+tops. The Pueblos, observing these marks, especially that they are
+abundant after a wind storm, have wondered at their similarity to the
+painted scrolls on the pottery of their ancestors. Even to-day they
+believe the sand marks to be the tracks of the whirlwind, which is a
+God in their mythology of such distinctive personality that the
+circling eagle is supposed to be related to him. They have naturally,
+therefore, explained the analogy above noted by the inference that
+their ancestors, in painting the volute, had intended to symbolize the
+whirlwind by representing his tracks. Thenceforward the scroll was
+drawn on certain classes of pottery to represent the whirlwind,
+modifications of it (for instance, by the color-sign belonging to any
+one of the "six regions") to signify other personified winds. So,
+also, the semicircle is classed as emblematic of the rainbow (_a´ mi
+to lan ne_); the obtuse angle, as of the sky (_a´ po yan ne_); the
+zigzag line as lightning (_wi´ lo lo an ne_); terraces as the sky
+horizons (_a´wi thlui a we_), and modifications of the latter as the
+mythic "ancient sacred place of the spaces" (_Te´ thlä shi na kwïn_),
+and so on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 556.--Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar."]
+
+By combining several of these elementary symbols in a single device,
+sometimes a mythic idea was beautifully expressed. Take, as an
+example, the rain totem adopted by the late Lewis H. Morgan as a title
+illumination, from Maj. J.W. Powell, who received it from the Moki.
+Pueblos of Arizona as a token of his induction into the rain gens of
+that people. (See Fig. 557, _a_.) An earlier and simpler form of this
+occurs on a very ancient "sacred medicine jar" which I found in the
+Southwest. (See Fig. 556.) By reference to an enlarged drawing of the
+chief decoration of this jar (see Fig. 557), it may be seen that the
+sky, _a_, the ancient place of the spaces (region of the sky gods),
+_b_, the cloud lines, _c_, and the falling rain, _d_, are combined and
+depicted to symbolize the storm, which was the objective of the
+exhortations, rituals, and ceremonials to which the jar was an
+appurtenance.
+
+[Illustration:     _a._ Modern Moki rain symbol.
+                   _b._ Enlarged decoration of "medicine-jar."
+               FIG. 557.--Decoration of ancient medicine-jar compared
+               with rain symbol of modern Moki totem.]
+
+Thus, upon all sacred vessels, from the drums of the esoteric medicine
+societies of the priesthood and all vases pertaining to them to the
+keramic appurtenances of the sacred dance or _Kâ´ kâ_, all decorations
+were intentionally emblematic. Of this numerous class of vessels, I
+will choose but one for illustration--the prayer-meal-bowl of the _Kâ´
+kâ_. In this, both form and ornamentation are significant. (See Fig.
+558.) In explaining how the form of this vessel is held to be symbolic
+I will quote a passage from the "creation myth" as I rendered it in an
+article on the origin of corn, belonging to a series on "Zuñi
+Breadstuff," published this year in the "Millstone" of Indianapolis,
+Indiana. "Is not the bowl the emblem of the earth, our mother? For
+from her we draw both food and drink, as a babe draws nourishment from
+the breast of its mother; and round, as is the rim of a bowl, so is
+the horizon, terraced with mountains whence rise the clouds." This
+alludes to a medicine bowl, not to one of the handled kind, but I will
+apply it as far as it goes to the latter. The two terraces on either
+side of the handle (Fig. 558, _a a_) are in representation of the
+"ancient sacred place of the spaces," the handle being the line of the
+sky, and sometimes painted with the rainbow figure. Now the
+decorations are a trifle more complex. We may readily perceive that
+they represent tadpoles (Fig. 558, _b b_), dragonflies (Fig: 558, _c
+c_), with also the frog or toad (Fig. 558); all this is of easy
+interpretation. As the tadpole frequents the pools of spring time he
+has been adopted as the symbol of spring rains; the dragon-fly hovers
+over pools in summer, hence typifies the rains of summer; and the
+frog, maturing in them later, symbolizes the rains of the later
+seasons; for all these pools are due to rain fall. When, sometimes,
+the figure of the sacred butterfly (see Fig. 559, _a b_) replaces that
+of the dragon-fly, or alternates with it, it symbolizes the
+beneficence of summer; since, by a reverse order of reasoning, the
+Zuñis think that the butterflies and migratory birds (see Fig. 560)
+_bring_ the warm season from the "Land of everlasting summer."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 558.--Zuñi prayer-meal-bowl.]
+
+Upon vessels of special function, like these we have just noticed,
+peculiar figures may be regarded as emblematic; on other classes, no
+matter how evidently conventional and expressive decorations may seem,
+excepting always, totemic designs, it is wise to use great caution in
+their interpretation as intentional and not merely imitative.
+
+A general examination, even of the most modern of Pueblo pottery,
+shows us that certain types of decoration have once been confined to
+certain types of vessels, all which has its due signification but an
+examination of which would properly form the subject of another essay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 559.--Paintings of sacred butterfly.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 560.--Painting of "summer-bird."]
+
+Happily, a work collateral to the one which I have here merely begun,
+will, I have reason to hope, be carried to a high degree of perfection
+in the forthcoming monographs on the exhaustless ceramic collections
+of the United States National Museum by Mr. William H. Holmes. This
+author and artist will approach his task from a standpoint differing
+from mine, reaching thereby, it may be, conclusions at variance with
+the foregoing; but by means of his wealth of material and illustration
+students will have opportunity of passing a judgment upon the merits
+of not only his work, but of my own.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 561.--Rectangular type of earthen vessel.]
+
+In conclusion, let me very briefly refer to two distinctive American
+types of pottery, unconnected with the Southwestern, which,
+considered in conjunction with those of the latter region, seem to
+me to indicate that the ceramic art has had independent centers of
+origin in America. For the sake of convenience, I may name these types
+the rectangular (see Fig. 561) or Iroquois, and the bisymmetrical or
+kidney-shaped (see Fig. 562), of Nicaragua. The one is almost constant
+in the lake regions of the United States, the other equally constant
+in sections of Central America. In collections gathered from any tribe
+of our Algonquin or Iroquois Indians, one may observe vessels of the
+tough birch- or linden-bark, some of which are spherical or
+hemispherical. To produce this form of utensil from a single piece of
+bark, it is necessary to cut pieces out of the margin and fold it.
+Each fold, when stitched together in the shaping of the vessel, forms
+a corner at the upper part. (See Fig. 563.) These corners and the
+borders which they form are decorated with short lines and
+combinations of lines, composed of coarse embroideries with dyed
+porcupine quills. (See Fig. 564) May not the bark vessel have given
+rise to the rectangular type of pottery and its quill ornamentation to
+the incised straight-line decorations? (Compare Fig. 561.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 562.--Kidney-shaped vessel, Nicaragua.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 563.--Iroquois bark-vessel.]
+
+So, too, in the unsymmetrical urns of Central and Isthmean America,
+which are characterized by the location of the aperture at the upper
+part of one of the extremities and by streak-like decorations, we
+have a decided suggestion of the animal paunch or bladder and of the
+visible veins on its surface when distended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 564.--Porcupine quill decoration.]
+
+If these conjectures be accepted as approximately correct, even in
+tendency, we may hope by a patient study of the ceramic remains of a
+people, no matter where situated, to discover what was the type of
+their pre-ceramic vessels, and thereby we might also learn whether, at
+the time of the origin of the potter's art or during its development,
+they had, like the Pueblos, been indigenous to the areas in which they
+were found, or whether they had, like some of the Central Americans,
+(to make a concrete example and judge it by this method) apparently
+immigrated in part from desert North America, in part from the
+wilderness of an equatorial region in South America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Awatui pottery                                                     493
+
+Basketry anticipated pottery                                   483-485
+Basketry cooking utensils                                      484-486
+Basketry copied in pottery                                         449
+Basketry declined, Manufacture of watertight                       496
+Boiling basket                                                     485
+Burning influence pottery, Materials and methods used in      495, 496
+
+Cane tubes to carry water                                          482
+Cliff-dwellings                                           478, 479-480
+Coal used in pottery firing, Mineral                           495-496
+Coiled pottery, how made                                           500
+Communal Pueblos                                              480, 481
+
+Environments affecting habitations                                 473
+Environments affecting pottery                                     482
+
+Flat and terraced roofs                                            477
+Form evolved in pottery from basketry                              497
+Fuel used in pottery firing                                        495
+
+Gourd vessels to carry water                                  482, 483
+
+Habitations affected by environment                                473
+Hogan, or hut, Navajo                                              473
+Houses built near water, Pueblo                                    477
+
+Lava inclosure earliest form of Navajo hut                         475
+Linguistic indications as to habitations                           474
+Linguistic indications as to primitive water vessels               482
+
+Mindeleff, Victor, on development of rectangular architecture      475
+Minerals influencing pottery                                       493
+Mode of making pottery vessels                                 499-500
+Moki pottery                                                       493
+
+Navajo hogan, or hut                                               473
+
+Ojo Caliente pottery                                               491
+Ollas                                                         498, 500
+Ornament, Ceramic                                                  488
+Ornamentation of coiled basketry                                   487
+
+Pescado pottery                                                    494
+Pottery affected by environment                                    482
+Pottery anticipated by basketry                                483-485
+Pottery declined in quality with introduction of domestic animals  496
+Pottery developed from basketry                                    485
+Pueblo primitive habitations                                       475
+Pueblos, Communal                                             480, 481
+
+Rectangular forms developed from circular in architecture          475
+Roasting tray                                                      484
+
+Stories added in cliff-buildings                                   479
+
+Tusayan, Province of                                               493
+
+Water important to Pueblos, Transportation and preservation of     482
+Wicker cover for gourd vessels                                     483
+
+Zuñi priests' journey to the Atlantic                              483
+Zuñi skill on water jars                                      498, 500
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as
+Illustrative of Zuñi Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery, by Frank Hamilton Cushing.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative
+of  Zu&ntilde;i Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative of Zu&ntilde;i Culture Growth.
+       Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+              Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1882-83,
+              Government Printing Office, Washington, 1886, pages 467-522
+
+Author: Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+Release Date: November 28, 2005 [EBook #17170]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO POTTERY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Victoria Woosley and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h3><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION&mdash;&mdash;BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.</h3>
+
+<hr />
+<h1>
+A STUDY
+of
+PUEBLO POTTERY</h1>
+
+<h2>AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
+ZU&Ntilde;I CULTURE GROWTH.</h2>
+
+<h4>BY</h4>
+
+<h3>FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING.<a name="page468" id="page468"></a></h3>
+
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<p><a name="page469" id="page469"></a></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<table summary="TOC">
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#HABITATIONS_AFFECTED_BY_ENVIRONMENT">
+Habitations affected by environment</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">473</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#RECTANGULAR_FORMS_DEVELOPED_FROM_CIRCULAR">Rectangular forms developed from circular</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">475</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#FLAT_AND_TERRACED_ROOFS_DEVELOPED_FROM_SLOPING_MESA-SITES">Flat and terraced roofs developed from sloping mesa-sites</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">477</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#ADDED_STORIES_FOR_CLIFF_DWELLINGS_DEVELOPED_FROM_LIMITATIONS_OF_CLIFF-HOUSE_SITES">Added stories developed from limitations of cliff-house sites</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">479</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#COMMUNAL_PUEBLOS_DEVELOPED_FROM_CONGREGATION_OF_CLIFF-HOUSE_TRIBES">Communal pueblos developed from congregation of cliff-house tribes</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">480</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#POTTERY_AFFECTED_BY_ENVIRONMENT">Pottery affected by environment </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">482</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#POTTERY_ANTICIPATED_BY_BASKETRY">Anticipated by basketry</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">483</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#POTTERY_SUGGESTED_BY_CLAY-LINED_BASKETRY">Suggested by clay-lined basketry</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">485</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#POTTERY_INFLUENCED_BY_LOCAL_MINERALS">Influenced by local minerals </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">493</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc2"><a href="#POTTERY_INFLUENCED_BY_MATERIALS_AND_METHODS_USED_IN_BURNING">Influenced by materials and methods used in burning</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">495</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#EVOLUTION_OF_FORMS">Evolution of forms</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">497</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#EVOLUTION_OF_DECORATION">Evolution of decoration</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">506</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#DECORATIVE_SYMBOLISM">Decorative symbolism</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">510</td>
+</tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#INDEX">Index</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+<table summary="List of Illustrations">
+<tr><td colspan="4"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a><a name="page471" id="page471"></a></td><td class="tocpn">Page.</td></tr>
+<tr><td rowspan="75" valign="top" class="toc1"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span></td>
+<td class="toc1">490.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig490">A Navajo hut or hogan </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">473</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">491.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig491">Perspective view of earliest or Round-house structures of lava</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">474</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">492.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig492">Plan of same </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">475</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">493.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig493">Section of same </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">475</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">494.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig494">Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive architecture </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">476</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">495.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig495">Section illustrating evolution of flat roof and terrace </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">477</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">496.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig496">Perspective view of a typical solitary-house </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">478</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">497.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig497">Plan of a typical solitary-house </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">478</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">498.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig498">Typical cliff-dwelling </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">479</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">499.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig504">Typical terraced-pueblo&mdash;communal type</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">480</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">500.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig500">Ancient gourd-vessel encased in wicker </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">483</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">501.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig501">Havasupa&iacute; roasting-tray, with clay lining</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">484</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">502.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig502">Zu&ntilde;i roasting-tray of earthenware</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">485</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">503.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig503">Havasupa&iacute; boiling-basket</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">486</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">504.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig504">Sketch illustrating the first stage in manufacture of latter </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">486</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">505.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig505">Sketch illustrating the second stage in manufacture of latter </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">486</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">506.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig506">Sketch illustrating the third stage in manufacture of latter </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">486</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">507.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig507">Typical example of basket decoration </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">487</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">508.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig508">Typical example of basket decoration </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">487</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">509.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig509">Typical example of basket decoration </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">487</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">510.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig510">Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form." (Sh&uacute; k`u tu lia ts&iacute; nan)</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">511.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig511">Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form." (Sh&uacute; k`u tu lia ts&iacute; nan)</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">512.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig512">Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">513.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig513">Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">514.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig514">Diagonal parallel-line decoration. (Sh&uacute; k`ish pa ts&iacute; nan)</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">488</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">515.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig515">Study of splints at neck of unfinished basket illustrating evolution of latter </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">489</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">516.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig516">Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">490</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">517.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig517">Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">490</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">518.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig518">Cooking pot of spirally built or corrugated ware, showing conical projections near rim </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">490</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">519.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig519">The same, illustrating modification of latter </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">491</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">520.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig520">Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for suspension </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">491</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">521.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig521">Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing double handle </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">492</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">522.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig522">The same, showing also plain bottom </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">492</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">523.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig523">Food trencher or bowl of impervious wicker-work </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">497</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">524.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig524">Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">497</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">525.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig525">Ancient bowl of corrugated ware, showing comparative shallowness </a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">498</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">526.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig526">Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">499<a name="page472" id="page472"></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">527.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig527">Clay nucleus illustrating beginning of a vessel</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">499</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">528.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig528">The same shaped to form the base of a vessel</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">499</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">529.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig529">The same as first placed in base-mold, showing beginning of spiral building</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">530.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig530">First form of vessel</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">500</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">531.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig531">Secondary form in mold, showing origin of  spheroidal type of jar</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">501</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">532.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig528">Scrapers or trowels of gourd and earthen-ware for smoothing pottery</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">501</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">533.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig528">Finished form of a vessel in mold, showing amount of contraction in drying</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">501</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">534.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig534">Profile of olla or modern water-jar</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">502</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">535.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig535">Base of same, showing circular indentation at bottom</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">502</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">536.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig536">Section of same, showing central concavity and circular depression</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">502</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">537.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig537">"Milkmaid's boss," or annular mat of wicker for supporting
+round vessels on the head in carrying</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">503</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">538.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig538">Use of annular mat illustrated</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">503</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">539.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig539">Section of incipient vessel in convex-bottomed basket-mold</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">504</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">540.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig540">Section of same as supported on annular mat and wad of soft substance, for drying</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">504</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">541.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig541">Modern base-mold as made from the bottom of water jar</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">504</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">542.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig542">Example of Pueblo painted-ornamentation  illustrating decorative value of open spaces</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">506</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">543<br />544.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig543">Amazonian basket-decorations, illustrating evolution of the above characteristic</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">507</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">545.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig545">Bowl, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">510</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">546.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig546">Water-jar, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">510</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">547.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig547">Conical or flat-bellied canteen</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">512</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">548<br />549.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig548">The same, compared with human mammary gland</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">513</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">550.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig550">Double-lobed or hunter canteen (Me' wi k`i lik ton  ne), showing teat-like projections and open spaces of contiguous lines</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">514</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">551.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig551">Native painting of deer, showing space-line from  mouth to heart</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">515</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">552.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig552">Native painting of sea serpent, showing space-line from mouth to heart</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">515</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">553.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig553">The fret of basket decoration</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">516</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">554.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig554">The fret of pottery decoration</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">516</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">555.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig555">Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery decoration</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">516</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">556.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig556">Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar"</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">517</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">557.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig547">Decoration of above compared with modern Moki rain symbol</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">517</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">558.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig558">Zu&ntilde;i prayer-meal bowl illustrating symbolism in form and decoration</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">518</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">559.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig559">Native paintings of sacred butterfly</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">519</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">560.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig560">Native painting of sacred migratory "summer bird"</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">519</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">561.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig561">Rectangular or Iroquois type of earthen vessel</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">519</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">562.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig562">Kidney-shaped type of vessel of Nicaragua</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">520</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">563.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig563">Iroquois bark vessel, showing angles of juncture</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">520</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="toc1">564.</td>
+<td>&mdash;</td>
+<td class="toc1"><a href="#fig564">Porcupine quill decoration on bark vessel, for comparison with Fig. 561.</a></td>
+<td class="tocpn">521</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'>-473-<a name="page473" id="page473"></a></span></p>
+<h2>A STUDY OF PUEBLO POTTERY AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF ZU&Ntilde;I CULTURE-GROWTH.</h2>
+<hr class="short" />
+
+<h3>BY FRANK H. CUSHING.</h3>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="HABITATIONS_AFFECTED_BY_ENVIRONMENT" id="HABITATIONS_AFFECTED_BY_ENVIRONMENT"></a>HABITATIONS AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>It is conceded that the peculiarities of a culture-status are due
+chiefly to the necessities encountered during its development. In this
+sense the Pueblo phase of life was, like the Egyptian, the product of
+a desert environment. Given that a tribe or stock of people is weak,
+they will be encroached upon by neighboring stronger tribes, and
+driven to new surroundings if not subdued. Such we may believe was the
+influence which led the ancestors of the Pueblo tribes to adopt an
+almost waterless area for their habitat.</p>
+
+<p>It is apparent at least that they entered the country wherein their
+remains occur while comparatively a rude people, and worked out there
+almost wholly their incipient civilization. Of this there is important
+linguistic evidence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig490" id="fig490"></a><img src="./images/fig490.png" alt="Fig. 490" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 490.&mdash;A Navajo hut.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A Navajo hogan, or hut, is a beehive-shaped or conical structure (see
+Fig. <a href="#fig490">490</a>) of sticks and turf or earth, sometimes even of stones<span class='pagenum'>-474-<a name="page474" id="page474"></a></span>
+chinked with mud. Yet its modern Zu&ntilde;i name is <i>h&aacute;m' pon ne</i>, from <i>ha
+we</i>, dried brush, sprigs or leaves; and <i>p&oacute; an ne</i>, covering, shelter
+or roof (<i>po a</i> to place over and <i>ne</i> the nominal suffix); which,
+interpreted, signifies a "brush or leaf shelter." This leads to the
+inference that the temporary shelter with which the Zu&ntilde;is were
+acquainted when they formulated the name here given, presumably in
+their earliest condition, was in shape like the Navajo hogan, but in
+<i>material</i>, of brush or like perishable substance.</p>
+
+<p>The archaic name for a building or walled inclosure is <i>h&eacute; sho ta</i>, a
+contraction of the now obsolete term, <i>h&eacute; sho ta pon ne</i>, from <i>h&eacute;
+sho</i>, gum, or resin-like; <i>sh&oacute; tai e</i>, leaned or placed together
+convergingly; and <i>t&aacute; po an ne</i>, a roof of wood or a roof supported by
+wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig491" id="fig491"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig491.png" alt="Fig. 491" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 491.&mdash;Perspective view of earliest or Round-house structure of lava.</span></div>
+
+<p>The meaning of all this would be obscure did not the oldest remains of
+the Pueblos occur in the almost inaccessible lava wastes bordering the
+southwestern deserts and intersecting them and were not the houses of
+these ruins built on the plan of shelters, round (see Figs. <a href="#fig491">491</a>, <a href="#fig492">492</a>,
+493), rather than rectangular. Furthermore, not only does the
+lava-rock of which their walls have been rudely constructed resemble
+natural asphaltum (<i>h&eacute; sho</i>) and possess a cleavage exactly like that
+of pi&ntilde;on-gum and allied substances (also <i>h&eacute; sho</i>), but some forms of
+lava are actually known as <i>&aacute; he sho</i> or gum-rock. From these
+considerations inferring that the name <i>h&eacute; sho ta pon ne</i> derivatively
+signifies something like "a gum-rock shelter with roof supports of
+wood," we may also infer that the Pueblos on their coming into the
+desert regions dispossessed earlier inhabitants or that they chose the
+lava-wastes the better to secure<span class='pagenum'>-475-<a name="page475" id="page475"></a></span> themselves from invasion; moreover
+that the oldest form of building known to them was therefore an
+inclosure of lava-stones, whence the application of the contraction
+<i>h&eacute; sho ta</i>, and its restriction to mean a walled inclosure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig492" id="fig492"></a><img src="./images/fig492.png" alt="Fig. 492" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 492.&mdash;Plan of Pueblo structure of lava.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig493" id="fig493"></a><img src="./images/fig493.png" alt="Fig. 493" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 493.&mdash;Section of Pueblo structure of lava.</span>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><a name="RECTANGULAR_FORMS_DEVELOPED_FROM_CIRCULAR" id="RECTANGULAR_FORMS_DEVELOPED_FROM_CIRCULAR"></a>RECTANGULAR FORMS DEVELOPED FROM CIRCULAR.</h3>
+
+<p>It may be well in this connection to cite a theory entertained by Mr.
+Victor Mindeleff, of the Bureau of Ethnology, whose wide experience
+among the southwestern ruins entitles his judgment to high
+consider<span class='pagenum'>-476-<a name="page476" id="page476"></a></span>ation. In his opinion the rectangular form of architecture,
+which succeeds the type under discussion, must have been evolved from
+the circular form by the bringing together, within a limited area, of
+many houses. This would result in causing the wall of one circular
+structure to encroach upon that of another, suggesting the partition
+instead of the double wall. This partition would naturally be built
+straight as a twofold measure of economy. Supposing three such houses
+to be contiguous to a central one, each separated from the latter by a
+straight wall, it may be seen that (as in the accompanying plan) the
+three sides of a square are already formed, suggesting the
+parallelogramic as a convenient style of sequent architecture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig494" id="fig494"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig494.png" alt="Fig. 494" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 494.&mdash;Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive architecture.</span></div>
+
+<p>All this, I need scarcely add, agrees not only with my own
+observations in the field but with the kind of linguistic research
+above recorded. It would also apparently explain the occurrence of the
+circular semisubterranean <i>k&iacute; wi tsi we</i>, or estufas. These being
+sacred have retained the pristine form long after the adoption of a
+modified type of structure for ordinary or secular purposes, according
+to the well known law of survival in ceremonial appurtenances.</p>
+
+<p>In a majority of the lava ruins (for example those occurring near
+Prescott, Arizona), I have observed that the sloping sides rather than
+the level tops of <i>mesa</i> headlands have been chosen by the ancients as
+building-sites. Here, the rude, square type of building prevails, not,
+however, to the entire exclusion of the circular type, which, is
+represented by loosely constructed walls, always on the <i>outskirts</i> of
+the main ruins. The rectangular rooms are, as a rule, built row above
+row. Some of the houses in the upper rows give evidence of having
+overlapped others below. (See section, Fig. <a href="#fig495">495</a>.)</p><p><span class='pagenum'>-477-<a name="page477" id="page477"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="FLAT_AND_TERRACED_ROOFS_DEVELOPED_FROM_SLOPING_MESA-SITES" id="FLAT_AND_TERRACED_ROOFS_DEVELOPED_FROM_SLOPING_MESA-SITES"></a>FLAT AND TERRACED ROOFS DEVELOPED FROM SLOPING MESA-SITES.</h3>
+
+<p>We cannot fail to take notice of the indications which this brings
+before us.</p>
+
+<p>(1) It is quite probable that the overlapping resulted from an
+increase in the numbers of the ancient builders relative to available
+area, this, as in the first instance, leading to a further massing
+together of the houses. (2) It suggested the employment of rafters and
+the formation of the <i>flat</i> roof, as a means of supplying a level
+entrance way and floor to rooms which, built above and to the rear of
+a first line of houses, yet extended partially over the latter. (3)
+This is I think the earliest form of the terrace.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig495" id="fig495"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig495.png" alt="Fig. 495" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 495.&mdash;Section illustrating evolution of flat roof and terrace</span></div>
+
+<p>It is therefore not surprising that the flat roof of to-day is named
+<i>t&eacute; k`os kw&iuml;n ne</i>, from <i>te</i>, space, region, extension, <i>k`os kwi e</i>,
+to cut off in the sense of closing or shutting in from one side, and
+<i>kw&iuml;n ne</i>, place of. Nor is it remarkable that no type of ruin in the
+Southwest <i>seems</i> to connect these first terraced towns with the later
+not only terraced but also literally cellular buildings, which must be
+regarded nevertheless as developed from them. The reason for this will
+become evident on further examination.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig496" id="fig496"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig496.png" alt="Fig. 496" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 496.&mdash;Perspective view of a typical solitary house.</span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig497" id="fig497"></a><img src="./images/fig497.png" alt="Fig. 497" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 497.&mdash;Plan of a typical solitary house.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The modern name for house is <i>k`i&aacute; kw&iuml;n ne</i>, from <i>k`i&aacute; we</i>, water,
+and <i>kwin ne</i>, place of, literally "watering place;" which is evidence
+that the first properly so called houses known to the Pueblos were
+solitary and built near springs, pools, streams, or well-places. The
+universal occurrence of the vestiges of single houses throughout the
+less forbidding tracts of the Pueblo country (see Figs. <a href="#fig496">496</a> and <a href="#fig497">497</a>)
+leads to this inference and to the supposition that the necessity for
+protection being at last overcome, the denizens of the lava-fields,
+where planting was well-nigh impossible, descended, building wherever
+conditions favored the horticulture which gradually came to be their
+chief means of support. As irrigation was not known until long
+afterwards, arable areas were limited, hence they were compelled to
+divide into families or small<span class='pagenum'>-478-<a name="page478" id="page478"></a></span> clans, each occupying a single house.
+The traces of these solitary farm-houses show that they were at first
+single-storied. The name of an upper room indicates how the idea of
+the second or third story was developed, as it is <i>&oacute;sh ten u thlan</i>,
+from <i>&oacute;sh ten</i>, a shallow cave, or rock-shelter, and <i>&uacute; thla nai e</i>,
+placed around, embracing, inclusive of. This goes to show that it was
+not until after the building of the first small farm-houses (which
+gave the name to houses) that the caves or rock-<span class='pagenum'>-479-<a name="page479" id="page479"></a></span>shelters of the
+cliffs were occupied. If predatory border-tribes, tempted by the
+food-stores of the horticultural farm-house builders, made incursions
+on the latter, they would find them, scattered as they were, an easy
+prey.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="ADDED_STORIES_FOR_CLIFF_DWELLINGS_DEVELOPED_FROM_LIMITATIONS_OF_CLIFF-HOUSE_SITES" id="ADDED_STORIES_FOR_CLIFF_DWELLINGS_DEVELOPED_FROM_LIMITATIONS_OF_CLIFF-HOUSE_SITES"></a>ADDED STORIES FOR CLIFF DWELLINGS DEVELOPED FROM LIMITATIONS OF
+CLIFF-HOUSE SITES.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig498" id="fig498"></a><img src="./images/fig498.png" alt="Fig. 498" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 498.&mdash;A typical cliff-dwelling.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This condition of things would drive the people to seek security in
+the neighboring cliffs of fertile ca&ntilde;ons, where not only might they
+build their dwelling places in the numerous rock-shelters, but they
+could also cultivate their crops in comparative safety along the
+limited tracts which these eyries overlooked. The narrow foothold
+afforded by many of these elevated cliff-shelves or shelters would
+force the fugitives to construct house over house; that is, build a
+second or upper story<span class='pagenum'>-480-<a name="page480" id="page480"></a></span> around the roof of the cavern. What more
+natural than that this upper room should take a name most descriptive
+of its situation&mdash;as that portion built around the cavern-shelter or
+<i>&oacute;sh ten</i>&mdash;or that, when the intervention of peace made return to the
+abandoned farms of the plains or a change of condition possible, the
+idea of the second story should be carried along and the name first
+applied to it survive, even to the present day? That the upper story
+took its name from the rock-shelter may be further illustrated. The
+word <i>&oacute;sh ten</i> comes from <i>&oacute; sho nan te</i>, the condition of being
+dusky, dank, or mildewy; clearly descriptive of a cavern, but not of
+the most open, best lighted, and driest room in a Pueblo house.</p>
+
+<p>To continue, we may see how the necessity for protection would drive
+the petty clans more and more to the cliffs, how the latter at every
+available point would ultimately come to be occupied, and thus how the
+"<i>Cliff-dwelling</i>" (see Fig. <a href="#fig498">498</a>), was confined to no one section but
+was as universal as the farm-house type of architecture itself, so
+widespread, in fact, that it has been heretofore regarded as the
+monument of a great, now extinct <i>race</i> of people!</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="COMMUNAL_PUEBLOS_DEVELOPED_FROM_CONGREGATION_OF_CLIFF-HOUSE_TRIBES" id="COMMUNAL_PUEBLOS_DEVELOPED_FROM_CONGREGATION_OF_CLIFF-HOUSE_TRIBES"></a>COMMUNAL PUEBLOS DEVELOPED FROM CONGREGATION OF CLIFF-HOUSE TRIBES.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig499" id="fig499"></a><img src="./images/fig499.png" alt="Fig. 499" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 499.&mdash;Typical terraced communal pueblo.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may see, finally, how at last the ca&ntilde;ons proved too limited and in
+other ways undesirable for occupation, the result of which was the
+confederation of the scattered cliff-dwelling clans, and the
+construction,<span class='pagenum'>-481-<a name="page481" id="page481"></a></span> first on the overhanging cliff-tops, then on <i>mesas</i>,
+and farther and farther away, of great, many-storied towns, any one of
+which was named, in consequence of the bringing together in it of many
+houses and clans, <i>thlu &eacute;l lon ne</i>, from <i>thlu a</i>, many springing up,
+and <i>&eacute;l lon a</i>, that which stands, or those which stand; in other
+words, "many built standing together." This cannot be regarded as
+referring to the simple fact that a village is necessarily composed of
+many houses standing together. The name for any other village than a
+communal pueblo is <i>t&iacute; na kw&iuml;n ne</i>, from <i>t&iacute; na</i>&mdash;many sitting around,
+and <i>kw&iuml;n ne</i>, place of. This term is applied by the Zu&ntilde;is to all
+villages save their own and those of ourselves, which latter they
+regard as Pueblos, in their acceptation of the above native word.</p>
+
+<p>Here, then, in strict accordance with, the teachings of myth,
+folk-lore and tradition, I have used the linguistic argument as
+briefest and most convincing in indicating the probable sequence of
+architectural types in the evolution of the Pueblo; from the brush
+lodge, of which only the name survives, to the recent and present
+terraced, many-storied, communal structures, which we may find
+throughout New Mexico, Arizona, and contiguous parts of the
+neighboring Territories.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+
+<hr /><p><span class='pagenum'>-482-<a name="page482" id="page482"></a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="POTTERY_AFFECTED_BY_ENVIRONMENT" id="POTTERY_AFFECTED_BY_ENVIRONMENT"></a>POTTERY AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.</h2>
+
+
+<p>There is no other section of the United States where the potter's art
+was so extensively practiced, or where it reached such a degree of
+perfection, as within the limits of these ancient Pueblo regions. To
+this statement not even the prolific valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries form an exception.</p>
+
+<p>On examining a large and varied collection of this pottery, one would
+naturally regard it either as the product of four distinct peoples or
+as belonging to four different eras, with an inclination to the
+chronologic division.</p>
+
+<p>When we see the reasonable probability that the architecture, the
+primeval arts and industries, and the culture of the Pueblos are
+mainly indigenous to the desert and semi-desert regions of North
+America, we are in the way towards an understanding of the origin and
+remarkable degree of development in the ceramic art.</p>
+
+<p>In these regions water not only occurs in small quantities, but is
+obtainable only at points separated by great distances, hence to the
+Pueblos the first necessity of life is the transportation and
+preservation of water. The skins and paunches of animals could be used
+in the effort to meet this want with but small success, as the heat
+and aridity of the atmosphere would in a short time render water thus
+kept unfit for use, and the membranes once empty would be liable to
+destruction by drying. So far as language indicates the character of
+the earliest water vessels which to any extent met the requirements of
+the Zu&ntilde;i ancestry, they were tubes of wood or sections of canes. The
+latter, in ritualistic recitation, are said to have been the
+receptacles that the creation-priests filled with the sacred water
+from the ocean of the cave-wombs of earth, whence men and creatures
+were born, and the name for one of these cane water vessels is <i>sh&oacute;
+tom me</i>, from <i>sh&oacute; e</i>, cane or canes, and <i>t&oacute;m me</i>, a wooden tube.
+Yet, although in the extreme western borders of the deserts, which
+were probably the first penetrated by the Pueblos, the cane grows to
+great size and in abundance along the two rivers of that country, its
+use, if ever extensive, must have speedily given way to the use of
+gourds, which grew luxuriantly at these places and were of better
+shapes and of larger capacity. The name of the gourd as a vessel is
+<i>sho<ins class="trans" title="lower case p with acute accent">&#7765;</ins> tom me</i>, from <i>sh&oacute; e</i>, canes, <i>p&oacute; pon nai e</i>, bladder-shaped,
+and <i>t&oacute;m me</i>, a wooden tube; a seeming derivation (with the exception
+of the interpolated sound significant of form) from <i>sh&oacute; tom me</i>. The
+gourd itself is called <i>m&oacute; thl&acirc; &acirc;</i>, "hard fruit." The inference is
+that when used<span class='pagenum'>-483-<a name="page483" id="page483"></a></span> as a vessel, and called <i>sho<ins class="trans" title="lower case p with acute accent">&#7765;</ins> tom me</i>, it must have
+been named after an older form of vessel, instead of after the plant
+or fruit which produced it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig500" id="fig500"></a><img src="./images/fig500.png" alt="Fig. 500" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 500.&mdash;Gourd vessel enclosed in wicker.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>While the gourd was large and convenient in form, it was difficult of
+transportation owing to its fragility. To overcome this it was encased
+in a coarse sort of wicker-work, composed of fibrous yucca leaves or
+of flexible splints. Of this we have evidence in a series of
+gourd-vessels among the Zu&ntilde;is, into which the sacred water is said to
+have been transferred from the tubes, and a pair of which one of the
+priests, who came east with me two years ago, brought from New Mexico
+to Boston in his hands&mdash;so precious were they considered as
+relics&mdash;for the purpose of replenishing them with water from the
+Atlantic. These vessels are encased rudely but strongly in a meshing
+of splints (see Fig. <a href="#fig500">500</a>), and while I do not positively claim that
+they have been piously preserved since the time of the universal use
+of gourds as water-vessels by the ancestry of this people, they are
+nevertheless of considerable antiquity. Their origin is attributed to
+the priest-gods, and they show that it must have once been a common
+practice to encase gourds, as above described, in osiery.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="POTTERY_ANTICIPATED_BY_BASKETRY" id="POTTERY_ANTICIPATED_BY_BASKETRY"></a>POTTERY ANTICIPATED BY BASKETRY.</h3>
+
+<p>This crude beginning of the wicker-art in connection with
+water-vessels points toward the development of the wonderful
+water-tight basketry of the southwest, explaining, too, the
+resemblance of many of its typical forms to the shapes of
+gourd-vessels. Were we uncertain of<span class='pagenum'>-484-<a name="page484" id="page484"></a></span> this, we might again turn to
+language, which designates the impervious wicker water-receptacle of
+whatever outline as <i>t&oacute;m ma</i>, an evident derivation from the
+restricted use of the word <i>t&oacute;m me</i> in connection with gourd or cane
+vessels, since a basket of any other kind is called <i>ts&iacute; &igrave; le</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It is readily conceivable that water-tight osiery, once known, however
+difficult of manufacture, would displace the general use of
+gourd-vessels. While the growth of the gourd was restricted to limited
+areas, the materials for basketry were everywhere at hand. Not only
+so, but basket-vessels were far stronger and more durable, hence more
+readily transported full of water, to any distance. By virtue of their
+rough surfaces, any leakage in such vessels was instantly stopped by a
+daubing of pitch or mineral asphaltum, coated externally with sand or
+coarse clay to harden it and overcome its adhesiveness.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig501" id="fig501"></a><img src="./images/fig501.png" alt="Fig. 501" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 501.&mdash;Havasupai clay-lined roasting-tray.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We may conclude, then, that so long as the Pueblo ancestry were
+semi-nomadic, basketry supplied the place of pottery, as it still does
+for the less advanced tribes of the Southwest, except in cookery.
+Possibly for a time basketry of this kind served in place of pottery
+even for cookery, as with one of the above-mentioned tribes, the <i>Ha
+va su pa&iacute;</i> or Co&ccedil;oninos, of Cataract Ca&ntilde;on, Arizona. These people,
+until recently, were cut off from the rest of the world by their
+almost impenetrable ca&ntilde;on, nearly half a mile in depth at the point
+where they inhabit it. For example, when I visited them in 1881, they
+still hafted sharpened bits of iron, like celts, in wood. They had not
+yet forgotten how to boil food in water-tight basketry, by means of
+hot stones, and continued to roast seeds, crickets, and bits of meat
+in wicker-trays, coated inside with gritty clay. (See Fig. <a href="#fig501">501</a>.) The
+method of preparing and using these roasting-trays has an important
+bearing on several questions to which reference will be made further
+on. A round basket-tray, either loosely or closely woven, is evenly
+coated inside with clay, into which has been kneaded a very large
+proportion of sand, to prevent contraction and<span class='pagenum'>-485-<a name="page485" id="page485"></a></span> consequent cracking
+from drying. This lining of clay is pressed, while still soft, into
+the basket as closely as possible with the hands and then allowed to
+dry. The tray is thus made ready for use. The seeds or other
+substances to be parched are placed inside of it, together with a
+quantity of glowing wood-coals. The operator, quickly squatting,
+grasps the tray at opposite edges, and, by a rapid spiral motion up
+and down, succeeds in keeping the coals and seeds constantly shifting
+places and turning over as they dance after one another around and
+around the tray, meanwhile blowing or puffing, the embers with every
+breath to keep them free from ashes and glowing at their hottest.</p>
+
+<p>That this clay lining should grow hard from continual heating, and in
+some instances separate from its matrix of osiers, is apparent. The
+clay form thus detached would itself be a perfect roasting-vessel.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="POTTERY_SUGGESTED_BY_CLAY-LINED_BASKETRY" id="POTTERY_SUGGESTED_BY_CLAY-LINED_BASKETRY"></a>POTTERY SUGGESTED BY CLAY-LINED BASKETRY.</h3>
+
+<p>This would suggest the agency of gradual heat in rendering clay fit
+for use in cookery and preferable to any previous makeshift. The
+modern Zu&ntilde;i name for a parching-pan, which is a shallow bowl of
+black-ware, is <i>thl&eacute; mon ne</i>, the name for a basket-tray being <i>thl&auml;'
+lin ne</i>. The latter name signifies a shallow vessel of twigs, or <i>thl&aacute;
+we</i>; the former etymologically interpreted, although of earthenware,
+is a hemispherical vessel of the same kind and <i>material</i>. All this
+would indicate that the <i>thl&auml;' lin ne</i>, coated with clay for roasting,
+had given birth to the <i>thl&eacute; mon ne</i>, or parching-pan of earthenware.
+(See Fig. <a href="#fig502">502</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig502" id="fig502"></a><img src="./images/fig502.png" alt="Fig. 502" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 502.&mdash;Zu&ntilde;i earthenware roasting tray.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the Havasupa&iacute;, still surviving as a sort of bucket, is the
+basket-pot or boiling-basket, for use with hot stones, which form I
+have also found in some of the cave deposits throughout the ancient
+Zu&ntilde;i country. These vessels (see Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a>) were bottle-shaped and
+provided near the rims of their rather narrow mouths with a sort of
+cord or strap-handle, attached to two loops or eyes (Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a> <i>a</i>)
+woven into the basket, to facilitate handling when the vessel was
+filled with hot water. In the manufacture of one of these vessels,
+which are good examples of the helix or spirally-coiled type of
+basket, the beginning was made<span class='pagenum'>-486-<a name="page486" id="page486"></a></span> at the center of the bottom. A small
+wisp of fine, flexible grass stems or osiers softened in water was
+first spirally wrapped a little at one end with a flat, limber splint
+of tough wood, usually willow (see Fig. <a href="#fig504">504</a>). This wrapped portion was
+then wound upon itself; the outer coil thus formed (see Fig. <a href="#fig505">505</a>)
+being firmly fastened as it progressed to the one already made by
+passing the splint wrapping of the wisp each time it was wound around
+the latter through some strands of the contiguous inner coil, with the
+aid of a bodkin. (See Fig. <a href="#fig506">506</a>.) The bottom was rounded upward and the
+sides were made by coiling the wisp higher and higher, first outward,
+to produce the bulge of the vessel, then inward, to form the tapering
+upper part and neck, into which, the two little twigs or splint
+loop-eyes were firmly woven. (See again Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a> <i>a</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig503" id="fig503"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig503.png" alt="Fig. 503" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 503.&mdash;Havasupa&iacute; boiling-basket.</span><br /></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;"><a name="fig504" id="fig504"></a><a name="fig505" id="fig505"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig504.png" alt="Fig. 504"  />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 504.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 505.</span></div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig506" id="fig506"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig506.png" alt="Fig. 506"  />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 506.</span></div>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">Sketches illustrating manufacture of spirally-coiled basketry.<span class='pagenum'>-487-<a name="page487" id="page487"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig507" id="fig507"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig507.png" alt="Fig. 507" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 507.&mdash;Typical basket decoration.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig508" id="fig508"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig508.png" alt="Fig. 508" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 508.&mdash;Typical basket decoration.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig509" id="fig509"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig509.png" alt="Fig. 509" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 509.&mdash;Typical basket decoration.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These and especially kindred forms of basket-vessels were often quite
+elaborately ornamented, either by the insertion at proper points of
+dyed wrapping-splints, singly, in pairs, or in sets, or by the
+alternate painting of pairs, sets, or series of stitches. Thus were
+produced angular devices, like serrated bands, diagonal or zigzag
+lines, chevrons, even terraces and frets. (See Figs. <a href="#fig507">507</a>, <a href="#fig508">508</a>, <a href="#fig509">509</a>.)
+There can be no doubt that these styles and ways of decoration were
+developed, along with the weaving of baskets, simply by elaborating on
+suggestions of the lines and figures unavoidably produced in
+wicker-work of any kind when strands of different colors happened to
+be employed together. Even slight discolorations in occasional splints
+would result in such suggestions, for the stitches would here show,
+there disappear. The probability of this view of the accidental origin
+of basket-ornamentation may<span class='pagenum'>-488-<a name="page488" id="page488"></a></span> be enhanced by a consideration of the
+etymology of a few Zu&ntilde;i decorative terms, more of which might be given
+did space admit. A terraced lozenge (see Figs. <a href="#fig510">510</a>,<a href="#fig511">511</a>), instead of
+being named after the abstract word <i>a wi thlui ap &iacute; p&auml; tchi na</i>,
+which signifies a double terrace or two terraces joined together at
+the base, is designated <i>shu k`u tu li a tsi' nan</i>, from <i>shu e</i>,
+splints or fibers; <i>k`u tsu</i>, a double fold, space, or stitch (see
+Figs. <a href="#fig512">512</a>, <a href="#fig513">513</a>); <i>li a</i>, an interpolation referring to form; and <i>tsi'
+nan</i>, mark; in other words, the "double splint-stitch-form mark."
+Likewise, a pattern, composed principally of a series of diagonal or
+oblique parallel lines <i>en masse</i> (see Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a>), is called <i>shu'
+k`ish pa ts&iacute; nan</i>, from <i>sh&uacute; e</i>, <span class='pagenum'>-489-<a name="page489" id="page489"></a></span>splints; <i>k`i'sh pai e</i>, tapering
+(<i>k`ish pon ne</i>, neck or smaller part of anything); and <i>ts&iacute; nan</i>,
+mark; that is, "tapering" or "neck-splint mark." Curiously enough, in
+a bottle-shaped basket as it approaches completion the splints of the
+tapering part or neck all lean spirally side by side of one another
+(see Fig. <a href="#fig515">515</a>), and a term descriptive of this has come to be used as
+that applied to lines resembling it, instead of a derivative from <i>&auml;'s
+s&euml;l lai e</i>, signifying an oblique or leaning line. Where splints
+variously arranged, or stitches, have given names to
+decorations&mdash;applied even to painted and embroidered designs&mdash;it is
+not difficult for us to see that these same combinations, at first
+unintentional, must have suggested the forms to which they gave names
+as decorations.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig510" id="fig510"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig510.png" alt="Fig. 510" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 510.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig511" id="fig511"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig511.png" alt="Fig. 511" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 511.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">Terraced lozenge decoration, or "double-splint-stitch-forms."</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig512" id="fig512"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig512.png" alt="Fig. 512" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 512.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig513" id="fig513"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig513.png" alt="Fig. 513" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 513.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Double-splint-stitch.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig514" id="fig514"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig514.png" alt="Fig. 514" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 514.&mdash;Diagonal parallel-line decoration.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig515" id="fig515"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig515.png" alt="Fig. 515" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 515.&mdash;Splints at neck of unfinished basket.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 330px;">
+<a name="fig516" id="fig516"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig516.png" alt="Fig. 516" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 516.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig517" id="fig517"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig517.png" alt="Fig. 517" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 517.</span>
+</div><br />
+</div>
+<p class="caption">Examples of indented decoration on corrugated ware.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Pueblo coiled pottery developed from basketry.</i>&mdash;Seizing the
+suggestion afforded by the rude tray-molded parching-bowls,
+particularly after it was discovered that if well burned they resisted
+the effects of water as well as of heat, the ancient potter would
+naturally attempt in time to reproduce the boiling-basket in clay. She
+would find that to accomplish this she could not use as a mold the
+inside of the boiling-basket, as she had the inside of the tray,
+because its neck was smaller than its body. Nor could she form the
+vase by plastering the clay outside of the vessel, not only for the
+same reason, but also because the clay in drying would contract so
+much that it would crack or scale off. Naturally, then, she pursued
+the process she was accustomed to in the manufacture of the
+basket-bottle. That is, she formed a thin rope of soft clay, which,
+like the wisp of the basket, she coiled around and around a center to
+form the bottom, then spirally upon itself, now widening the diameter
+of each coil more and more, then contracting as she progressed upward
+until the desired height and form were attained. As the clay was
+adhesive, each coil was attached to the one already<span class='pagenum'>-490-<a name="page490" id="page490"></a></span> formed by
+pinching or pressing together the connecting edges at short intervals
+as the winding went on. This produced corrugations or indentations
+marvelously resembling the stitches of basket-work. Hence accidentally
+the vessel thus built up appeared so similar to the basket which had
+served as its model that evidently it did not seem complete until this
+feature had been heightened by art. At any rate, the majority of
+specimens belonging to this type of pottery&mdash;especially those of the
+older periods during which it was predominant&mdash;are distinguished by an
+indented or incised decoration exactly reproducing the zigzags,
+serrations, chevrons, terraces, and other characteristic devices of
+water-tight basketry. (Compare Figs. <a href="#fig516">516</a>, <a href="#fig517">517</a> with Figs. <a href="#fig507">507</a>, <a href="#fig508">508</a>.)
+Evidently with a like intention two little cone-like projections were
+attached to the neck near the rim of the vessel (see Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a>) which
+may hence be regarded as survivals of the loops whereby it has been
+seen the ends of the strap-handle were attached to the boiling-basket.
+(See again Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a>, <i>a</i>.) Although varied in later times to form
+scrolls,<span class='pagenum'>-491-<a name="page491" id="page491"></a></span> rosettes, and other ornate figures (see Fig. <a href="#fig519">519</a>), they
+continued ever after quite faithful features of the spiral type of
+pot, and may even sometimes be seen on the cooking-vessels of modern
+Zu&ntilde;i. To add yet another link to this chain of connection between the
+coiled boiling-basket and the spirally-built cooking-pot, the names of
+the two kinds of vessels may be given. The boiling-basket was known as
+<i>w&oacute; li a k`ia ni tu li a tom me</i>, the corrugated cooking pot as <i>wo li
+a k`ia te' ni tu li a ton ne</i>, the former signifying "coiled
+cooking-basket," the latter "coiled earthenware cooking-basket."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig518" id="fig518"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig518.png" alt="Fig. 518" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 518.&mdash;Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing conical projections near rim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig519" id="fig519"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig519.png" alt="Fig. 519" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 519.&mdash;Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing modified projections near rim.</span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig520" id="fig520"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig520.png" alt="Fig. 520" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 520.&mdash;Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for suspension.</span></div>
+
+<p>Other very important types of vessels were made in a similar way. I
+refer especially to canteens and water-bottles. The water-bottle of
+wicker differed little from the boiling-basket. It was generally
+rounder-<span class='pagenum'>-492-<a name="page492" id="page492"></a></span>bodied, longer and narrower necked, and provided at one side
+near the shoulders or rim with two loops of hair or strong fiber,
+usually braided. (See Fig. <a href="#fig520">520</a>.) The ends of the burden-strap passed
+through these loops made suspension of the vessel easy, or when the
+latter was used simply as a receptacle, the pair of loops served as a
+handle. Sometimes these basket-bottles were strengthened at the bottom
+with rawhide or buckskin, stuck on with gum. When, in the evolution of
+the pitcher, this type of basket was reproduced in clay, not only was
+the general form preserved, but also the details above described. That
+is, without reference to usefulness&mdash;in fact at no small expense of
+trouble&mdash;the handles were almost always made double (see Fig. <a href="#fig521">521</a>);
+indeed, often braided, although of clay. Frequently, especially as
+time went on, the bottoms were left plain, as if to simulate the
+smooth skin-bottoming of the<span class='pagenum'>-493-<a name="page493" id="page493"></a></span> basket-bottles. (See Fig. <a href="#fig522">522</a>.) At first
+it seems odd that with all these points of similarity the two kinds of
+water-vessel should have totally dissimilar names; the basket-bottle
+being known as the <i>k`i&aacute; pu k`ia tom me</i>, from <i>k`i&aacute; pu k<ins class="trans" title="lower case i with breve">&#301;</ins>a</i>, "for
+carrying or placing water in," and <i>t&oacute;m me</i>; the handled earthen
+receptacle, as the <i>&iacute; mush ton ne</i>. Yet when we consider that the
+latter was designed not for transporting water, for which it was less
+suited than the former, but for holding it, for which it was even
+preferable, the discrepancy is explained, since the name <i>&iacute; mush ton
+ne</i> is from <i>i' mu</i>, to sit, and <i>t&oacute;m me</i>, a tube. This indicates,
+too, why the basket-bottle was not displaced by the earthen bottle.
+While the former continued in use for bringing water from a distance,
+the latter was employed for storing it. As the fragile earthen vessels
+were much more readily made and less liable to become tainted, they
+were exclusively used as receptacles, removing the necessity of the
+tedious manufacture of a large number of the basket-bottles. Again, as
+the pitcher was thus used exclusively as a receptacle, to be set aside
+in household or camp, the name <i>&iacute;' mush ton ne</i> sufficed without the
+interpolation <i>te</i>&mdash;"earthenware"&mdash;to distinguish it as of <i>terra
+cotta</i>, instead of osiery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig521" id="fig521"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig521.png" alt="Fig. 521" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 521.&mdash;Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing double handle.</span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig522" id="fig522"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig522.png" alt="Fig. 522" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 522.&mdash;Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing plain bottom.</span></div>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="POTTERY_INFLUENCED_BY_LOCAL_MINERALS" id="POTTERY_INFLUENCED_BY_LOCAL_MINERALS"></a>POTTERY INFLUENCED BY LOCAL MINERALS.</h3>
+
+<p>Before discussing the origin of other forms, it may be well to
+consider briefly some influences, more or less local, which, in
+addition to the general effect of gourd-forms in suggesting
+basket-types and of the latter in shaping earthenware, had
+considerable bearing on the development of ceramic art in the
+Southwest, pushing it to higher degrees of perfection and diversity in
+some parts than in others.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps first in importance among these influences was the mineral
+character of a locality. Where clay occurred of a fine tough texture,
+easily mined and manipulated, the work in <i>terra cotta</i> became
+proportionately more elaborate in variety and finer in quality. There
+are to be found about the sites of some ancient pueblos, potsherds
+incredibly abundant and indicating great advancement in decorative
+art, while near others, architecturally similar, even where evidence
+of ethnic connection is not wanting, only coarse, crudely-molded, and
+painted fragments are discoverable, and these in limited quantity.</p>
+
+<p>An example in point is the ruined pueblo of <i>A' wat u i</i> or
+<i>Aguat&oacute;bi</i>, as it was known to the Spaniards at the time of the
+conquest, when it was the leading "city of the Province of Tusayan,"
+now Moki. Over the entire extent of this ruin, and to a considerable
+distance around it, fragments of the greatest variety in color, shape,
+size, and finish of ware occur in abundance. In the immediate
+neighborhood, however, are extensive, readily accessible formations
+producing several kinds of<span class='pagenum'>-494-<a name="page494" id="page494"></a></span> clay and nearly all the color minerals
+used in the Pueblo potter's art. Yet at the greatest ruin on the upper
+Colorado Chiquito (in an arm of the valley of which river <i>A' wat &uacute; i</i>
+itself occurs), where the fallen walls betoken equal advancement in
+the status of the ancient builders and indicate by their vast extent
+many times the population of <i>A' wat u i</i>, the potsherds are coarse,
+irregular in curvature, badly decayed, and exceptionally scarce. In
+the immediate neighborhood of this ruin, I need not add, clay is of
+rare occurrence and poor in quality.</p>
+
+<p>A more reliable example is furnished by the farming pueblos of Zu&ntilde;i.
+At <i>H&eacute; sho ta ts&iacute; nan</i> or Ojo del Pescado, fifteen miles east of Zu&ntilde;i,
+clays of several varieties and color minerals are abundant. The finest
+pottery of the tribe is made there in great quantity, while,
+notwithstanding the facilities for transportation which the Zu&ntilde;is now
+possess, at the opposite farming town of <i>K`i&aacute;p kwai na kwin</i>, or Los
+Ojos Calientes, where clay is scarce and of poor texture, the pottery,
+although somewhat abundant, is of miserable quality and of bad shape.</p>
+
+<p>In quality of art quite as much as in that of material this local
+influence was great. In the neighborhood of ruined pueblos which occur
+near mineral deposits furnishing a great variety of pigment-material,
+the decoration of the ceramic remains is so surprisingly and
+universally elaborate, beautiful, and varied as to lead the observer
+to regard the people who dwelt there as different from the people who
+had inhabited towns about the sites of which the sherds show not only
+meager skill and less profuse decorative variety, but almost typical
+dissimilarity. Yet tradition and analogy, even history in rare
+instances, may declare that the inhabitants of both sections were of
+common derivation, if not closely related and contemporaneous.
+Probably, at no one point in the Southwest was ceramic decoration
+carried to a higher degree of development than at <i>A' wat u i</i>, yet
+the Oraibes, by descent the modern representatives of the <i>A' wat u i
+ans</i> are the poorest potters and painters among the Mokis. Near their
+pueblo the clay and other mineral deposits mentioned as abundant at
+<i>A' wat u i</i> are meager and inaccessible. Still, it may be urged that
+time may have introduced other than natural causes for change; this
+could not be said of another example pertaining to one period and a
+single tribe. I refer again to the Zu&ntilde;is. The manufactures of Pescado
+probably surpass in decorative excellence all other modern Pueblo
+pottery, while both in their lack of variety and in delicacy of
+execution of their painted patterns the fictiles of Ojo Caliente are
+so inferior and diverse from the other Zu&ntilde;i work that the future
+arch&aelig;ologist will have need to beware, or (judging alone from the
+ceramic remains which he finds at the two pueblos) he will attribute
+them at least to distinct periods, perhaps to diverse peoples.</p><p><span class='pagenum'>-495-<a name="page495" id="page495"></a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="POTTERY_INFLUENCED_BY_MATERIALS_AND_METHODS_USED_IN_BURNING" id="POTTERY_INFLUENCED_BY_MATERIALS_AND_METHODS_USED_IN_BURNING"></a>POTTERY INFLUENCED BY MATERIALS AND METHODS USED IN BURNING.</h3>
+
+<p>Other influences, to a less extent local, had no inconsiderable effect
+on primitive Pueblo pottery: materials employed and methods resorted
+to in burning.</p>
+
+<p>Only one kind of fuel, except for a single class of vessels, is now
+used in pottery-firing; namely, dried cakes or slabs of sheep-dung.
+Anciently, several varieties, such as extremely dry sage-brush or
+grease-wood, pi&ntilde;on and other resinous woods, dung of herbivora when
+obtainable, charcoal, and also bituminous or cannel-coal were
+employed. The principal agent seems, however, to have been dead-wood
+or spunk, pulverized and moistened with some adhesive mixture so that
+flat cakes could be formed of it. I infer this not alone from Zu&ntilde;i
+tradition, which is not ample, but from the fact that the sheep-dung
+now used is called, in the condition of fuel, <i>k&uacute; ne a</i>, while its
+name in the abstract or as sheep-dung simply is <i>m&aacute; he</i>. Dry-rot wood
+or spunk is known as <i>k&uacute; me</i>. In the shape of flat cakes it would be
+termed <i>k&uacute; mo we</i> or <i>k&uacute; me a</i>, whence I doubt not the modern word <i>k&uacute;
+ne a</i> is derived.</p>
+
+<p>Of methods, four were in vogue. The simplest and worst consisted in
+burying the vessel to be burned under hot ashes and building a fire
+around it, or inverting it over a bed of embers and encircling it with
+a blazing fire of brush-wood, as is still the practice of the
+Maricopas and other sedentary tribes of the Gila. The most common was
+building a little cone or dome of fuel over the articles to be baked
+and firing; the most perfect was to dig or construct under ground a
+little cist or kiln, line it evenly with fuel, leaving a central space
+for the green ware, and slowly fire the whole mass.</p>
+
+<p>Irrespective of the kind of fuel used, the baking by ash-burial made
+the ware gray, cloudy, or dingy, and not very durable. Pottery burned
+with sage or grease-wood was firm, light gray unless of ocherous clay,
+less cloudy than if ash-baked, yet mottled. Turf and dung, although
+easily managed, did not thoroughly harden the pottery, but burned it
+very evenly; dead wood or spunk-cakes baked as evenly as any of the
+materials thus far mentioned, and more thoroughly than the others.
+Resinous or pitchy woods, while they produced a much higher degree of
+heat, could be used only when color was unimportant, as they still are
+used to some extent in the firing of black-ware or cooking pots. The
+latter, while still hot from a preliminary burning, if coated
+externally with the mucilaginous juice of green cactus, internally
+with pi&ntilde;on gum or pitch, and fired a second or even a third time with
+resinous wood-fuel, are rendered absolutely fire-proof, semi-glazed
+with a black gloss inside, and wonderfully durable. Tradition
+represents that by far the most perfect fuel was found to be cannel
+coal, and that, where abundant, accessible, and of an extremely
+bituminous quality, it was much used.<span class='pagenum'>-496-<a name="page496" id="page496"></a></span> The traces of little pit-kilns
+filled with, cinders of mineral coal about many of the ruins in the
+northwestern portion of the Pueblo region, coupled with the
+semi-fusion and well-preserved condition of most of the ancient jars
+found associated with them, certainly give support to this tradition.
+Happily I have additional confirmation. When, two years ago, I was
+engaged in making ethnologic collections at Moki for the United States
+National Museum, some Indians of the <i>Te wa</i> pueblo brought me a
+quantity of pottery. It had been made with the purpose of deceiving
+me, in careful imitation of ancient types, and was certainly equal to
+the latter in lightness and the condition of the burning. I paid these
+enterprising Indians as good a price as they had been accustomed to
+getting for genuine ancient specimens, but told them that, being a
+Zu&ntilde;i, I was almost one of themselves, hence they could not deceive me,
+and asked them how they had so cleverly succeeded in burning the ware.
+They laughingly replied that they had simply dug some bituminous coal
+(<i>u &aacute; ko</i>) and used it in little pits. When I further asked them why
+they did not burn their household utensils thus, they said it was too
+uncertain; representing that the pots did not like to be burned in the
+<i>u &aacute; ko</i>, probably because it was so hot, hence they broke more
+frequently than if fired in the common way with dried sheep-dung;
+furthermore the latter was less troublesome, requiring only to be dug
+from the corrals near at hand and dried to make it ready for use.</p>
+
+<p>This partially explains why the art of water-tight basket-making has
+here gradually declined since the Spanish conquest, as the ceramic
+industry has increased with the introduction of the sheep, which
+furnishes fuel for the burning, and the horse, before unknown, has
+facilitated transportation, whereby trade for this class of basketry
+with the distant nomadic tribes who still make it is rendered easy.
+Withal, however, the quality of pottery has not improved, but has
+deteriorated; as sheep-dung is but an inferior fuel for firing.</p><p><span class='pagenum'>-497-<a name="page497" id="page497"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="EVOLUTION_OF_FORMS" id="EVOLUTION_OF_FORMS"></a>EVOLUTION OF FORMS.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig523" id="fig523"></a><img src="./images/fig523.png" alt="Fig. 523" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 523.&mdash;Food trencher of wicker-work.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig524" id="fig524"></a><img src="./images/fig524.png" alt="Fig. 524" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 524.&mdash;Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Bearing these statements in mind, the discussion of the evolution as
+well as of the distribution of form, and later of the evolution of
+decoration, in pottery will become easier. By lingering steps there
+was early developed a method of building up vessels by a process
+differing in part from the spiral. As the parching-bowl had been
+evolved from the roasting-tray, so, we may infer, the food-bowl was
+suggested by the hemispherical food-trencher of wicker-work. (See Fig.
+<a href="#fig523">523</a>.) Yet, curiously enough, the inside of the latter seems not at
+first to have been used in molding the food-bowl, as, it will be
+remembered, the tray had been in forming the parching-pan. On the
+contrary, the clay was coiled around and around the <i>outside</i> of the
+bottom of an inverted basket bowl (see Fig. <a href="#fig524">524</a>), instead of being
+pressed evenly into it. As with the cooking pot, so with this; as the
+coiling progressed it was corrugated, not so much,<span class='pagenum'>-498-<a name="page498" id="page498"></a></span> however from
+necessity, as from habit. In consequence of the difficulty experienced
+in removing these bowl-forms from the bottoms of the baskets&mdash;which
+had to be done while they were still plastic, to keep them from
+cracking&mdash;they were made very shallow. Hence the specimens found among
+the older ruins and graves are not only corrugated outside, but are
+also very wide in proportion to their height. (See Fig. <a href="#fig525">525</a>.) As time
+went on it was found that bowls might be made deeper, and yet readily
+be taken off from the basket bottoms, if slightly moistened outside
+and pressed evenly all around, or, better still, scraped; for, being
+plastic, this proceeding caused them to grow thinner, consequently
+larger, thereby to loosen from the basket over which they had been
+molded. As a result of this scraping, however, the corrugated surface
+was destroyed, nor could it easily be restored. Therefore bowls when
+made deep were, as a rule, smooth on the outside as well as on the
+interior surface. When by a perfectly natural sequence of events&mdash;as
+will be shown further on&mdash;ornamentation by painting came to be applied
+first to the plain interiors of the bowls, the smooth outer surface
+was found preferable to the corrugated surface, not only because it
+took paint more readily, but also because the bowl, when painted
+outside as well as inside, formed a far handsomer utensil for
+household use than if simply decorated by the older methods. As a
+consequence, we find that, while the larger vessels continued to be
+corrugated and indented, the smoothed and painted bowl came into
+general use. Associated later on with this secondary type of bowls
+occurred the larger vessels plain at the bottoms, still corrugated at
+the sides. Nor is this surprising, as the bowl, molded on the basket
+bottom and there smoothed, could be afterward built up by the spiral
+process. When in time the huge hemispherical canteens or water
+carriers of earthen-ware replaced the basket bottles, so also the
+water jar or <i>olla</i> replaced the handled sitter or pitcher, since it
+could be made larger to receive more copious supplies of water than
+the strength of the frail handles on the pitchers would warrant.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig525" id="fig525"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig525.png" alt="Fig. 525" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 525.&mdash;Ancient bowl of corrugated ware.</span></div>
+
+<p>The water jar, like the food-bowl, is a conspicuous household article;
+for which reason the Zu&ntilde;i woman expends all her ability to render them
+handsome. Judging by this, the desire to decorate the water-vessel
+with paint, like its constant companion the food-bowl, would early
+lead to the attempt to make its surface smooth. This would need to be
+effected while the article was still soft; which necessity probably
+led to the discovery that ajar of the corrugated or simply coiled type
+may be<span class='pagenum'>-499-<a name="page499" id="page499"></a></span> smoothed while still plastic without danger of distortion, no
+matter what its size, if supported at the bottom in a basket or other
+mold so that it may be shifted or turned about without direct
+handling. (See Fig. <a href="#fig526">526</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig526" id="fig526"></a>
+<a href="./images/fig526.png"><img src="./images/fig526_th.png" alt="Fig. 526" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 526.&mdash;Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig527" id="fig527"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig527.png" alt="Fig. 527" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 527.&mdash;Clay nucleus for a vessel.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig528" id="fig528"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig528.png" alt="Fig. 528" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 528.&mdash;Clay nucleus shaped to form the base of a vessel.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>After this discovery was made, the molding of large vessels was no
+longer accomplished by the spiral method exclusively. A lump of clay,
+hollowed out (see Fig. <a href="#fig527">527</a>), was shaped how rudely so ever on the
+bottom of the basket or in the hand (see Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>), then placed inside
+of a hemispherical basket-bowl and stroked until pressed outward to
+conform with the shape, and to project a little above the edges of its
+tem<span class='pagenum'>-500-<a name="page500" id="page500"></a></span>porary mold, whence it was built up spirally (see Fig. <a href="#fig529">529</a>) until
+the desired form had been attained, after which it was smoothed by
+scraping (see Fig. <a href="#fig530">530</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig529" id="fig529"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig529.png" alt="Fig. 529" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 529.&mdash;Clay nucleus in base-mold, with beginning of spiral building.</span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig530" id="fig530"></a><img src="./images/fig530.png" alt="Fig. 530" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 530.&mdash;First form of vessel.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The necks and apertures of these earliest forms of the water jar were
+made very small in proportion to their other dimensions, presumably on
+account of the necessity of often carrying them full of water over
+steep and rough <i>mesa</i> paths, coupled perhaps with the imitation of
+other forms. To render them as light as possible they were also made
+very thin. One of the consequences of all this was that when large
+they could not be stroked inside, as the shoulders or uttermost upper
+peripheries of the vessel could not be reached with the hand or
+scraper through the small openings. The effect of the pressure exerted
+in smoothing them on the outside, therefore, naturally caused the
+upper parts to sink down, generating the spheroidal shape of the jar.
+(see Fig. <a href="#fig531">531</a>), one of the most beautiful types of the olla ever known
+to the Pueblos. At Zu&ntilde;i, wishing to have an ancient jar of this form
+which I had seen, reproduced, I showed a drawing of it to a woman
+expert in the manufacture of pottery. Without any instructions from me
+beyond a mere statement of my wishes, she proceeded at once to
+sprinkle the inside of<span class='pagenum'>-501-<a name="page501" id="page501"></a></span> a basket-bowl with sand, managing the clay in
+a way above described and continuing the vessel-shaping upward by
+spiral building. She did not at first make the shoulders low or
+sloping, but rounded or arched them upward and outward (see again Fig.
+529). At this I remonstrated, but she gave no heed other than to
+ejaculate "<i>w&aacute; na ni, &agrave;n&aacute;!</i>" which meant "just wait, will you!" When
+she had finished the rim, she easily caused the shoulders to sink,
+simply by stroking them&mdash;more where uneven than elsewhere&mdash;with a wet
+scraper of gourd (see Fig. <a href="#fig532">532</a>, <i>a</i>) until she had exactly reproduced
+the form of the drawing. She then set the vessel aside <i>in</i> the
+basket. Within two days it shrank by drying at the rate of about one
+inch in twelve, leaving the basket far too large. (See Fig. <a href="#fig533">533</a>.) It
+could hence be removed without the slightest difficulty.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig531" id="fig531"></a><img src="./images/fig531.png" alt="Fig. 531" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 531.&mdash;Secondary form, in the mold.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig532" id="fig532"></a>
+<a href="./images/fig532.png"><img src="./images/fig532_th.png" alt="Fig. 532" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 532.&mdash;Scrapers of gourd and earthenware for smoothing pottery.</span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig533" id="fig533"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig533.png" alt="Fig. 533" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 533.&mdash;Finished form of vessel in mold, showing amount of contraction in drying.</span></div>
+
+<p>The sand had prevented contact with the basket which would have caused
+the clay vessel to crack as the latter was very thin. This process<span class='pagenum'>-502-<a name="page502" id="page502"></a></span>
+exists in full force to-day with the Oraibes in the modeling of
+convex-bottomed vessels, and the Zu&ntilde;is thus make their large bowls and
+huge drum-jars.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the bottoms of many jars of these forms, I have observed the
+impressions of the wicker bowls in which they had been molded&mdash;not
+entirely to be removed, it seems, by the most assiduous smoothing
+before burning; for, however smooth any exceptional specimen may
+appear, a squeeze in plaster will still reveal traces of these
+impressions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig534" id="fig534"></a><img src="./images/fig534.png" alt="Fig. 534" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 534.&mdash;Profile of olla, or modern water-jug.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A characteristic of these older forms of the water-jar is that they
+are invariably flat or round-bottomed, while more recent and all
+modern types of the olla (see Fig. <a href="#fig534">534</a>) are concave or hollowed at the
+base (see Fig. <a href="#fig535">535</a>) to facilitate balancing on the head. Outside of
+this concavity and entirely surrounding it (Fig. <a href="#fig536">536</a>, <i>a</i>) is often to
+be observed an indentation (see Fig. <a href="#fig536">536</a>, <i>b</i>) usually slight although
+sometimes pronounced.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig535" id="fig535"></a><img src="./images/fig535.png" alt="Fig. 535" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 535.&mdash;Base of olla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig536" id="fig536"></a><img src="./images/fig536.png" alt="Fig. 536" />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 536.&mdash;Section of olla.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig537" id="fig537"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig537.png" alt="Fig. 537" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 537.&mdash;Annular mat of wicker, or "milkmaid's boss."</span></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig538" id="fig538"></a><a href="./images/fig538.png"><img src="./images/fig538_th.png" alt="Fig. 538" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 538.&mdash;Use of annular mat illustrated.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>This has no use, but there is of course a reason for its occurrence
+which, if investigated, may throw light on the origin of the modern
+type of the<span class='pagenum'>-503-<a name="page503" id="page503"></a></span> olla itself. The older or round-bottomed jars were
+balanced on the head in carrying, by means of a wicker-work ring, a
+kind of "milk-maid's boss." (See Fig. <a href="#fig537">537</a>.) These annular mats are
+still found among the ruins and cave-deposits, and continue in use
+with the modern Pueblos for supporting convex-bottom cooking pots on
+the floor as well as for facilitating the balancing of large
+food-bowls on the head. (See Fig. <a href="#fig538">538</a>.) Obviously the latter dishes
+have never been hollowed as the ollas have been, because, since they
+were used as eating-bowls, the food could be removed from a plain
+bottom more easily than from a convex surface, which would result from
+the hollowing underneath. Supposing that a water-jar chanced to be
+modeled in one of the convex-bottom bread-baskets (see Fig. <a href="#fig539">539</a>), it
+would become necessary, on account of the thickness of these wicker
+bowls, to remove the form from the mold before it dried. By absorption
+it would dry so rapidly that it would crack, especially in contracting
+against the convexity in the center of the basket-bottom. (See Fig.
+<a href="#fig539">539</a>, <i>a</i>.) In order that this form might be supported in an upright
+position until dry, it would naturally be placed on one of the
+wicker-rings. Moreover, that the bottom might not sink down or fall
+out, a wad of some soft substance would be placed within the ring.
+(See Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>, <i>a</i>.) As a consequence the weight of the plastic vessel
+would press the still soft bottom against the central wad, (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>,
+<i>a</i>) and the<span class='pagenum'>-504-<a name="page504" id="page504"></a></span> wicker ring (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>, <i>c</i>) sufficiently to cause the
+rounding upward of the cavity (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>, <i>b</i>) first made by the
+convex-bottom of the basket-mold, as well as form the encircling
+indentation (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>, <i>c</i>). Thus by accident, probably, only possibly
+by intention, was evolved the most useful and distinctive feature of
+the modern water-jar or olla, the <i>concave bottom</i>. This, once
+produced, would be held to be peculiarly convenient, dispensing with
+the use of a troublesome auxiliary. Its reproduction would present
+grave difficulties unless the bottom of the first vessel, thickly
+coated with sand to prevent cracking, was employed as a mold, instead
+of the absorbent convex-centered basket-bowl.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig539" id="fig539"></a><img src="./images/fig539.png" alt="Fig. 539" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 539.&mdash;Section of incipient vessel in basket-mold.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig540" id="fig540"></a><img src="./images/fig540.png" alt="Fig. 540" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 540.&mdash;Section of vessel supported for drying.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>I infer this because, to-day, a Zu&ntilde;i woman is quite at a loss how to
+hollow the bottom of a water-jar if she does not possess a form or
+mold made from the base of some previously broken jar of the same
+type. She therefore, carefully preserves these precious bottoms of her
+broken ollas, even cementing together fractured ones, when not too
+badly shivered, with a mixture of pitch or mineral asphaltum and sand.
+I have seen as many as a dozen or more of these molds (see Fig. <a href="#fig541">541</a>)
+in a single store room.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig541" id="fig541"></a><img src="./images/fig541.png" alt="Fig. 541" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 541.&mdash;Base-mold (bottom of water-jar).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>As the practice of molding all new vessels of this class in the
+bottoms of older ones was general&mdash;I might say invariable&mdash;any
+peculiarities of form in the originals must have been communicated to
+those ensuing; from the latter to others, and so on, though in less
+and less<span class='pagenum'>-505-<a name="page505" id="page505"></a></span> degree, to the present time. This theory is but tentative,
+yet it would also explain, on the score of association, why the Pueblo
+women slightly prefer the jars showing the indentation in question to
+more regular ones. With the change from elevated cliff or <i>mesa</i>
+habitations to more accessible ones, the Pueblo Indians were enabled
+to enlarge the apertures of their water-jars, since not only did the
+concave bases of the latter make the balancing of them more secure,
+but the trails over which they had to be carried from watering place
+to habitation were less rugged. A natural result of this enlargement
+of the openings, which admitted access with the scraper to the
+interior peripheries of the thin-walled jars, was the rounding upward
+of their shoulders, making them taller in proportion to their
+diameters. This modification of form in the water-jar, taken in
+connection with the fact that thus changed, it displaced the daily use
+of the canteen, explains the totally dissimilar names which were
+applied to the two types. The older, or spheroidal olla, was known as
+the <i>k`i&aacute;p ton ne</i>, from <i>k`ia pu</i>, to place or carry water in, and
+<i>t&oacute;m me</i>; while the newer <i>olla</i> is called <i>k`i&aacute; wih na k`ia t&eacute; &egrave;le</i>,
+from <i>k`i&aacute; wih na ki`a na ki`a</i>, for bringing of water: <i>t&eacute;</i>,
+earthen-ware, and <i>&euml;' le</i> or <i>&euml;'l lai e</i>, to stand or standing. The
+latter term, <i>t&eacute; &egrave; le</i>, is generic, being applied to nearly all <i>terra
+cotta</i> vessels which are taller than they are broad. <i>T&eacute;</i>, earthen
+ware, is derived from <i>t&acute;eh'</i>, the root also of <i>t&eacute; ne a</i>, to resound,
+to sound hollow; while <i>&eacute; le</i>, from <i>&euml;'l le</i> or <i>&euml;l' lai &ecirc;</i>, to stand,
+is obviously applied in significance of comparative height as well as
+of function.</p>
+
+<p>Thus I have thrown together a few conjectures and suggestions relative
+to the origin of the Southwestern pottery and the evolution of its
+principal forms.</p><p><span class='pagenum'>-506-<a name="page506" id="page506"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="EVOLUTION_OF_DECORATION" id="EVOLUTION_OF_DECORATION"></a>EVOLUTION OF DECORATION</h2>
+
+
+<p>I might go on, appealing to language to account for nearly every
+variety of pottery found existing as a <i>type</i> throughout the region
+referred to; but a subject inseparably connected with this, throwing
+light on it in many ways, and possessing in itself great interest,
+claims treatment on the few remaining pages of this essay. I refer to
+the evolution and significance or symbolism of Pueblo ceramic
+decorations.</p>
+
+<p>Before proceeding with this, however, I must acknowledge that I am as
+much indebted to the teachings of Mr. E.B. Tylor, in his remarkable
+works on Man's Early History and Primitive Culture, to Lubbock, Daniel
+Wilson, Evans, and others, for the direction or <i>impetus</i> of these
+inquiries, as I am to my own observations and experiments for its
+development.</p>
+
+<p>The line of gradual development in ceramic decorations, especially of
+the symbolic element, treated as a subject, is wider in its
+applicability to the study of primitive man, because more clearly
+illustrative of the growth of culture. I regret, therefore, that it
+must here be dealt with only in a most cursory manner. Large
+collections for illustration would be essential to a fuller treatment,
+even were space unlimited.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig542" id="fig542"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig542.png" alt="Fig. 542" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 542.&mdash;Example of Pueblo painted ornamentation.</span></div>
+
+<p>Decoratively, Pueblo pottery is characterized by two marked features:
+angular designs predominate and ornamental effect depends as much on
+the open or undecorated space as on the painted lines and areas in the
+devices. (See Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>.) While this is true of recent and modern
+wares, it is more and more notably the case with other specimens in a
+ratio increasing in proportion to their antiquity.</p><p><span class='pagenum'>-507-<a name="page507" id="page507"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig543" id="fig543"></a><img src="./images/fig543.png" alt="Fig. 543" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 543.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig544" id="fig544"></a><img src="./images/fig544.png" alt="Fig. 544" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 544.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">Amazonian basket decorations.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot explain these characteristics, and the conventional aspect
+of the higher and symbolic Pueblo ceramic decorations which grew out
+of them, in a better way than to suppose them, like the forms of this
+pottery, to be the survivals of the influence of basketry. (See, for
+comparison, Figs. <a href="#fig543">543</a>, <a href="#fig544">544</a>.) I shall be pardoned, therefore, for
+elaborating suggestions already made in this direction, in the
+paragraphs which treated of the ornamentation of spiral ware, and of
+the derivation of basket decorations from stitch- and splint-suggested
+figures. All students of early man understand his tendency to
+reproduce habitual forms in accustomed association. This feeling,
+exaggerated with savages by a belief in the actual relationship of
+resemblance, is shown in the reproduction of the decorations of basket
+vessels on the clay vessels made from them or in imitation of them.</p>
+
+<p>In entire conformity with this, the succession in the methods of the
+ornamentation of Pueblo pottery seems to have been first by incision
+or indentation; then by relief; afterward by painting in black on a
+natural or light surface; finally, by painting in color on a white or
+colored surface.</p>
+
+<p>As before suggested, the patterns on the coiled, regularly indented
+pottery (which came to be first known to the world as a type, the
+"corrugated," through the earlier explorations and reports of Mr.
+William H. Holmes) were produced simply by emphasized indentation,
+more rarely by incision, and were almost invariably angular,
+reproducing exactly the designs on wicker work. Even in comparatively
+recent examples of the corrugated ware this is true; for, once
+connected with a type, a style of decoration, both seem to have been
+ever after inseparable, with at most but slight modification of the
+latter. One of these modifications, in both method and effect, was in
+the adoption of the raised or<span class='pagenum'>-508-<a name="page508" id="page508"></a></span> relief style of ornamentation found,
+with rare exceptions in the Southwest, only on corrugated ware, and on
+the class which in modern times has replaced it there, vessels used in
+cookery. Although never universal, this style deserves passing
+attention as the outgrowth of an effort to attain the effect of
+contrast produced by dyed or painted splints on wicked work before the
+use of paint was known in connection with pottery. The same kind of
+investigation indicates that the Pueblos largely owed their textile
+industries and designs, as well as their potter's art, to the
+necessity which gave rise to the making of water-tight basketry. The
+terms connected with the rudimentary processes of weaving and
+embroidery, and the principal patterns of both (on, for example,
+blankets, kirtles, sacred girdles, and women's belts), are mostly
+susceptible of interpretation, like the terms in pottery, as having a
+meaning connected with the processes of basket plaiting and painting.
+This renders the conventional character of Pueblo textile ornaments
+easy of comprehension, as well, as the very early, if not the
+earliest, origin of loom-weaving among our Indians in the desert
+regions of America.</p>
+
+<p>Henceforward, then, we have only to consider decoration by painting.
+The probability is that this began as soon as the smooth surface in
+pottery was generally made; evidence of which seemingly exists; as
+eating bowls are, even to the present day, decorated principally on
+the interior; not, as may be supposed, because the exterior is more
+hidden from view, but because, as we have seen on a former page, bowls
+were made plain inside before the corrugated type formed on basket
+bottoms had been displaced by the smoothed type; and were naturally
+first decorated there with paint. It must be constantly borne in mind
+that a style of decoration once coupled with a kind of ware, or even a
+portion of a vessel, retained its association permanently.</p>
+
+<p>It must have been early observed that clay of one kind, applied even
+thinly to the exterior of a vessel of another kind, produced, when
+burned, a different color. With the discovery that clays of different
+kinds burned in a variety of colors, to some extent irrespective of
+the methods and the materials used in firing, there must likewise have
+been hinted, we may safely conclude, the efficacy of clay washes as
+paint, and of paint as a decorative agent.</p>
+
+<p>Among the ceramic remains from the oldest pueblo sites of the
+Southwest, pottery occurs, mostly in four varieties: the corrugated or
+spiral; the plain, yet rough gray; white decorated with geometric
+figures in black; and red, either plain or decorated with geometric
+devices in black and white. The gray or dingy brown, rough variety,
+resulted when a corrugated or coiled jar had been simply smoothed with
+the fingers and scraper before it was fired. A step in advance, easily
+and soon taken, was the additional smoothing of the vessel by slightly
+wetting and rubbing its outer surface. Even this was productive only
+of a moderately smooth surface, since, as learned by the Indian
+potters long before, in their experience with the clay-plastered
+parching-tray,<span class='pagenum'>-509-<a name="page509" id="page509"></a></span> it was necessary to mix the clay of vessels with a
+tempering of sand, crushed potsherds, or the like, to prevent it from
+cracking while drying; this, of course, no amount of rubbing would
+remove. Hence, by another easy step, clay unmixed with a
+grit-tempering, made into a thin paste with water, and thickly applied
+to the half-dried jar with a dab or brash of soft fiber, gave a
+beautifully smooth surface, especially if polished afterward by
+rubbing with water-worn pebbles. The vessel thus prepared, when
+burned, assumed invariably a creamy, pure white, red-brown or, other
+color, according to the quality or kind of the clay used in making the
+paste with which it had been smoothed or washed.</p>
+
+<p>Thus was achieved the art of producing at will fictiles of different
+colors, with which simple suggestion painting also became easy. Black,
+aside from clay paste, was almost the first pigment discovered; quite
+likely because the mineral blacks from iron ores, coal, and the
+various rocks used universally among Indians for staining splints,
+etc., would be the earliest tried, and then adopted, as they remained
+unchanged by firing. Thus it came about, as evidenced by the sequence
+of early remains in the Southwest, that the white and black varieties
+of pottery were the first made, then the red and black, and later the
+red with white and black decoration. Take, as an example, the latter.
+Of course it was a simple mode to employ the red (ocherous) clay for
+the wash, the blue clay (which burned white) for the white pigment in
+making lines, and any of the black minerals above mentioned for other
+marking.</p>
+
+<p>In these earliest kinds of painted pottery the angular decorations of
+the corrugated ware or of basketry were repeated, or at the farthest
+only elaborated, although on some specimens the suggestions of the
+curved ornament already occurred. These resulted, I may not fear to
+claim, from carelessness or awkwardness in drawing, for instance, the
+corners of acute angles, which, "cutting across-lot" would, it may be
+seen, produce the wavy or meandering line from the zigzag, the
+ellipsoid from the rectangle, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Precisely in accordance with this theory were the studies of my
+preceptor, the lamented Prof. Charles Fred. Hartt. In a paper "On
+Evolution in Ornament," published in several periodicals, among them
+the Popular Science Monthly of January, 1875, this gifted naturalist
+illustrated his studies by actual examples found on decorated burial
+urns from Maraj&oacute; Island. I must take the liberty of suggesting,
+however, that upon some antecedent kind of vessel, the eyes of the
+Amazonian Islanders may have been, to give Professor Hartt's idea,
+"trained to take physiological and &aelig;sthetic delight in regularly
+recurring lines and dots"; not on the pottery itself, as he seemed to
+think, for decoration was old in basketry and the textiles when
+pottery was first made.</p><p><span class='pagenum'>-510-<a name="page510" id="page510"></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr />
+<h2><a name="DECORATIVE_SYMBOLISM" id="DECORATIVE_SYMBOLISM"></a>DECORATIVE SYMBOLISM.</h2>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig545" id="fig545"></a><a href="./images/fig545.png"><img src="./images/fig545_th.png" alt="Fig. 545" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 545.&mdash;Food-bowl.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig546" id="fig546"></a><a href="./images/fig546.png"><img src="./images/fig546_th.png" alt="Fig. 546" /></a><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 546.&mdash;Water-jar. (Showing open or joined space in line near rim.)</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>On every class of food- and water-vessels, in collections of both
+ancient and modern Pueblo pottery (except, it is important to note, on
+pitchers and some sacred receptacles), it may be observed as a
+singular, yet almost constant feature, that encircling lines, often
+even ornamental zones, are left open or not as it were closed at the
+ends. (See Figs. <a href="#fig545">545</a>, <i>a</i>, <a href="#fig546">546</a>, <i>a</i>.) This is clearly a conventional
+quality and seemingly of intentional significance. An explanation must
+be sought in various directions, and once found will be useful in
+guiding to an understanding of the symbolic element in Pueblo ceramic
+art. I asked the Indian women, when I saw them making these little
+spaces with great care, why they took so much pains to leave them
+open. They replied that to close them was <i>a'k ta ni</i>,
+"fearful!"&mdash;that this little space through the line or zone on a
+vessel was the "exit trail of life or being", <i>o' ne y&auml;thl kw&aacute;i na</i>,
+and this was all. How it came to be first left open and why regarded
+as the "exit trail," they could not tell. If one studies the mythology
+of this people and their ways of thinking, then watches them closely,
+he will, however, get other clews. When a woman has made a vessel,
+dried, polished, and painted it, she will tell you with an air of
+relief that it is a "Made Being." Her statement is confirmed as a sort
+of article of faith, when you observe that as she places the vessel in
+the kiln, she also places in and beside it food. Evidently she vaguely
+gives something about the vessel a personal existence. The question
+arises how did these people come to regard food-receptacles or
+water-receptacles as possessed of or accompanied by conscious
+existences. I have found that the Zu&ntilde;i argues actual and essential
+relationship from simi<span class='pagenum'>-511-<a name="page511" id="page511"></a></span>larity in the appearance, function, or other
+attributes of even generically diverse things.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+
+<p>I here allude to this mental bias because it has both influenced the
+decoration of pottery and has been itself influenced by it. In the
+first place, the noise made by a pot when struck or when simmering on
+the fire is supposed to be the voice of its associated being. The
+clang of a pot when it breaks or suddenly cracks in burning is the cry
+of this being as it escapes or separates from the vessel. That it has
+departed is argued from the fact that the vase when cracked or
+fragmentary never resounds as it did when whole. This vague existence
+never cries out violently unprovoked; but it is supposed to acquire
+the power of doing so by imitation; hence, no one sings, whistles, or
+makes other strange or musical sounds resembling those of earthenware
+under the circumstances above described during the smoothing,
+polishing, painting, or other processes of finishing. The being thus
+incited, they think, would surely strive to come out, and would break
+the vessel in so doing. In this we find a partial explanation of the
+native belief that a pot is accompanied by a conscious existence. The
+rest of the solution of this problem in belief is involved in the
+native philosophy and worship of water. Water contains the source of
+continued life. The vessel holds the water; the source of life
+<i>accompanies</i> the water, hence its dwelling place is in the vessel
+with the water. Finally, the vessel is supposed to contain the
+treasured source, irrespective of the water&mdash;as do wells and springs,
+or even the places where they have been. If the encircling lines
+inside of the eating bowl, <i>outside</i> of the water jar, were closed,
+there would be no exit trail for this invisible source of life or for
+its influence or breath. Yet, why, it maybe asked, must the source of
+life or its influence be provided with a trail by which to pass out
+from the vessel? In reply to this I will submit two considerations. It
+has been stated that on the earliest Southwestern potteries decoration
+was effected by incised or raised ornamentation. Any one who has often
+attempted to make vessels according to primitive methods as I have has
+found how difficult it is to smoothly join a line incised around a
+still soft clay pot, and that this difficulty is even greater when the
+ornamental band is laid on in relief. It would be a natural outgrowth
+of this predicament to leave the ends unjoined, which indeed the
+savage often did. When paint instead of incision or relief came to be
+the decorative agent, the lines or bands would be left unjoined in
+imitation. As those acquainted with Tylor's "Early History" will
+realize, and myth of observation like the above would come to be
+assigned in after ages.<span class='pagenum'>-512-<a name="page512" id="page512"></a></span> This may or may not be true of the case in
+question; for, as before observed, some classes of sacred receptacles,
+as well as the most ancient painted bowls, are not characterized by
+the unjoined lines. Whether true or not, it is an insufficient
+solution of the problem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig547" id="fig547"></a><img src="./images/fig547.png" alt="Fig. 547" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 547.&mdash;Conical or flat-bellied canteen.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is natural for the Pueblo to consider water as the prime source of
+life, or as accompanied by it, for without the presence of living
+water very few things grow in his desert land. During many a drought
+chronicled in his oral annals, plants, animals, and men have died as
+of a contagious scourge. Naturally, therefore, he has come to regard
+water as the milk of adults, to speak of it as such, and as the
+all-sufficient nourishment which the earth (in his conception of it as
+the mother of men) yields. In the times when his was a race of cliff
+and mesa dwellers, the most common vessel appertaining to his daily
+life was the flat-bellied canteen or water-carrier. (See Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>.)
+This was suspended by a band across the forehead, so as to hang
+against the back, thus leaving the hands as well as the feet free for
+assistance in climbing. It now survives only for use on long journeys
+or at camps distant from water. The original suggestion of its form
+seems to have been that of the human mammary gland, or perhaps its
+peculiar form may have suggested a relationship between the two.
+(Compare Figs. <a href="#fig548">548</a>, <a href="#fig549">549</a>.) At any rate, its name in Zu&ntilde;i is <i>me' he ton
+ne</i>, while <i>me' ha na</i> is the name of the human mammary gland. <i>Me' he
+ton ne</i> is from <i>me' ha na</i>, mamma, <i>e' ton nai e</i>, containing within,
+and <i>to'm me</i>. From <i>me' ha na</i> comes <i>wo' ha na</i>, hanging or placed
+against anything, obviously because the mammaries hang or are placed
+against the breast; or, possibly, <i>m&eacute; ha na</i> may be derived <span class='pagenum'>-513-<a name="page513" id="page513"></a></span>from <i>w&oacute;
+ha na</i> by a reversal of reasoning, which view does not affect the
+argument in question. It is probable that the <i>me' he ton</i> was at
+first left open at the apex (Fig. <a href="#fig549">549<i>a</i></a>) instead of at the top (Fig.
+<a href="#fig549">549<i>b</i></a>); but, being found liable to leak when furnished with the
+aperture so low, this was closed. A surviving superstition inclines me
+to this view. When a Zu&ntilde;i woman has completed the <i>me' he ton</i> nearly
+to the apex, by the coiling-process, and before she has inserted the
+nozzle (Fig. <a href="#fig549">549<i>b</i></a>), she prepares a little wedge of clay, and, as
+she closes the apex with it, she turns her eyes away. If you ask her
+why she does this, she will tell you that it is <i>a'k ta ni</i> (fearful)
+to look at the vessel while closing it at this point; that, if she
+look at it during this operation, she will be liable to become barren;
+or that, if children be born to her, they will die during infancy; or
+that she maybe stricken with blindness; or those who drink from the
+vessel will be afflicted with disease and wasting away! My impression
+is that, reasoning from analogy (which with these people means actual
+relationship or connection, it will be remembered), the Zu&ntilde;i woman
+supposes that by closing the apex of this <i>artificial</i> mamma she
+closes the exit-way for the "source of life;" further, that the woman
+who closes this exit-way knowingly (in her own sight, that is)
+voluntarily closes the exit-way for the source of life in her <i>own</i>
+mamm&aelig;; further still, that for this reason the privilege of bearing
+infants may be taken away from her, or at any rate (experience showing
+the fallacy of this philosophy) she deserves the loss of the sense
+(sight) which enabled her to "<i>knowingly</i>" close the exit-way of the
+source of life.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig548" id="fig548"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig548.png" alt="Fig. 548" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 548.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig549" id="fig549"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig549.png" alt="Fig. 549" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 549.</span>
+</div>
+<p class="caption">Conical canteen compared with human mammary gland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By that tenacity of conservative reasoning which is a marked mental
+characteristic of the sedentary Pueblo, other types of the canteen, of
+later origin, not only retained the name-root of this primeval form,
+but also its attributed functions. For example, the <i>me' wi k`i lik
+ton ne</i> (See Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>) is named thus from <i>me we</i>, mammaries, <i>i k&iacute;
+l&iuml;k to&igrave; e'</i>, joined together by a neck, and <i>to'm me</i>.</p><p><span class='pagenum'>-514-<a name="page514" id="page514"></a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now, when closing the ends (Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>, <i>c, c</i>) of this curious vessel
+in molding it, the women are as careful to turn the eyes away as in
+closing the apex of the older form. As the resemblance of either of
+the ends of this vessel to the mamma is not striking, they place on
+either side of the nozzle a pair of little conical projections,
+resembling the teats, and so called. (Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>, <i>b</i>.) There are four
+of these, instead of, as we might reasonably expect, two. The reason
+for this seems to be that the <i>me' wi k&acute;i lik ton ne</i> is the canteen
+designed for use by the hunter in preference to all other vessels,
+because it may be easily wrapped in a blanket and tied to the back.
+Other forms would not do, as the hunter must have the free use not
+only of his hands but also of his head, that he may turn quickly this
+way or that in looking for or watching game. The proper nourishment of
+the hunter is the game he kills; hence, the source of his life, like
+that of the young of this game, is symbolized in the canteen by the
+mammaries, not of human beings, but of game-animals. A feature in
+these canteens dependent upon all this brings us nearer to an
+understanding of the question under discussion. When ornamental bands
+are painted around either end of the neck of one of them (Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>,
+<i>b</i>), they are interrupted at the little projections (Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>, <i>b,</i>).
+Indeed, I have observed specimens on which these lines, if placed
+farther out, were interrupted at the top (Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>, <i>a a</i>) opposite
+the little projections. So, by analogy, it would seem the Pueblos came
+to regard paint, like clay, a barrier to the exit of the source of
+life. This idea of the source of life once associated with the canteen
+would readily become connected with the water-jar, which, if not the
+offspring of the canteen, at least usurped its place in the household
+economy of these people. From the water-jar it would pass naturally to
+drinking-vessels and eating-bowls, explaining the absence of the
+interrupted lines on the oldest of these and their constant occurrence
+on recent and modern examples; for the painted lines being left open
+at the apexes, or near the projections on the canteens, they should
+also be unjoined on other vessels with which the same ideas were
+associated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig550" id="fig550"></a><img src="./images/fig550.png" alt="Fig. 550" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 550.&mdash;Double lobed or hunter canteen.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>So, also, it will be observed that in paintings of animals there is
+not only a line drawn from the mouth to the plainly depicted heart,
+but a<span class='pagenum'>-515-<a name="page515" id="page515"></a></span> little space is left down the center or either side of this
+line (see Figs. <a href="#fig551">551</a>, 552), which is called the <i>o ne y&auml;thl kwa' to
+na</i>, or the "entrance trail" (of the source or breath of life).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 625px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig551" id="fig551"></a><img src="./images/fig551.png" alt="Fig. 551" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 551.&mdash;Painting of deer.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="fig552" id="fig552"></a><img src="./images/fig552.png" alt="Fig. 552" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 552.&mdash;Painting of sea-serpent.</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>By this long and involved examination of <i>one</i> element in the
+symbolism of Pueblo ceramic decoration, we gain some idea how many
+others not quite so striking, yet equally curious, grew up; how, also,
+they might be explained. Their investigation, however, would be
+attended with such intricate studies, involving so many subjects not
+at sight related to the one in hand, that I must hasten to present two
+other points.</p>
+
+<p>Much wonder has been expressed that the Pueblos, so advanced in
+pottery decoration, have not attempted more representations of natural
+objects. There is less ground for this wonder than at first appears.
+It should be remembered that the original angular models which the
+Pueblo had, out of which to develop his art, bequeathed to him an
+extremely conventional conception of things. This, added to his
+peculiar way of interpreting relationship and personifying phenomena
+and even functions, has resulted in making his depictions obscure. In
+point of fact, in the decoration of certain classes of his pottery he
+has attempted the reproduction of almost everything and of every
+phenomenon in nature held as sacred or mysterious by him. On certain
+other classes he has developed, imitatively, many typical decorations
+which now have no special symbolism, but which once had definite
+significance; and, finally, he has sometimes relegated definite
+meanings to designs which at first had no significance, except as
+decorative agents, after ward using them according to this
+interpretation in his attempts to delineate natural objects, their
+phenomena, and functions. I will illustrate by examples, the last
+point first.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig553" id="fig553"></a><img src="./images/fig553.png" alt="Fig. 553" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 553.&mdash;The fret of basket decoration.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig554" id="fig554"></a><img src="./images/fig554.png" alt="Fig. 554" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 554.&mdash;The fret of pottery decoration.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig555" id="fig555"></a>
+<img src="./images/fig555.png" alt="Fig. 555" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 555.&mdash;Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery decoration.</span></div>
+
+<p>Going back to basketry, we find already the fully developed fret. (See
+Fig. <a href="#fig553">553</a>.) I doubt not that from this was evolved, in accordance with
+Professor Hartt's theory, the scroll or volute as it appears later on
+pottery. (See Figs. <a href="#fig554">554</a>, <a href="#fig555">555</a>.) To both of these designs, and
+modifications of them ages later, the Pueblo has attached meanings.
+Those who have visited the Southwest and ridden over the wide, barren
+plains, during late autumn or early spring, have been astonished to
+find traced on the sand by no visible agency, perfect concentric
+circles and scrolls or volutes yards long and as regular as though
+drawn by a skilled artist.<span class='pagenum'>-516-<a name="page516" id="page516"></a></span> The circles are made by the wind driving
+partly broken weed-stalks around and around their places of
+attachment, until the fibers by which they are anchored sever and the
+stalks are blown away. The volutes are formed by the stems of red-top
+grass and of a round-topped variety of the <i>chenopodium</i>, drifted
+onward by the whirlwind yet around and around their bushy adhesive
+tops. The Pueblos, observing these marks, especially that they are
+abundant after a wind storm, have wondered at their similarity to the
+painted scrolls on the pottery of their ancestors. Even to-day they
+believe the sand marks to be the tracks of the whirlwind, which is a
+God in their mythology of such distinctive personality that the
+circling eagle is supposed to be related to him. They have naturally,
+therefore, explained the analogy above noted by the inference that
+their ancestors, in painting the volute, had intended to symbolize the
+whirlwind by representing his tracks. Thenceforward the scroll was
+drawn on certain classes of pottery to represent the whirlwind,
+modifications of it (for instance, by the color-sign belonging to any
+one of the "six regions") to signify other personified winds. So,
+also, the semicircle is classed as emblematic of the rainbow (<i>a' mi
+to lan ne</i>); the obtuse angle, as of the sky (<i>a' po yan ne</i>); the
+zigzag line as lightning (<i>wi' lo lo an ne</i>); terraces as the sky
+horizons (<i>a'wi thlui a we</i>), and modi<span class='pagenum'>-517-<a name="page517" id="page517"></a></span>fications of the latter as the
+mythic "ancient sacred place of the spaces" (<i>Te' thl&auml; shi na kw&iuml;n</i>),
+and so on.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig556" id="fig556"></a><img src="./images/fig556.png" alt="Fig. 556" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 556.&mdash;Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar."</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>By combining several of these elementary symbols in a single device,
+sometimes a mythic idea was beautifully expressed. Take, as an
+example, the rain totem adopted by the late Lewis H. Morgan as a title
+illumination, from Maj. J.W. Powell, who received it from the Moki.
+Pueblos of Arizona as a token of his induction into the rain gens of
+that people. (See Fig. <a href="#fig557">557</a>, <i>a</i>.) An earlier and simpler form of this
+occurs on a very ancient "sacred medicine jar" which I found in the
+Southwest. (See Fig. <a href="#fig556">556</a>.) By reference to an enlarged drawing of the
+chief decoration of this jar (see Fig. <a href="#fig557">557</a>), it may be seen that the
+sky, <i>a</i>, the ancient place of the spaces (region of the sky gods),
+<i>b</i>, the cloud lines, <i>c</i>, and the falling rain, <i>d</i>, are combined and
+depicted to symbolize the storm, which was the objective of the
+exhortations, rituals, and ceremonials to which the jar was an
+appurtenance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 650px;"><a name="fig557" id="fig557"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="./images/fig557a.png" alt="Fig. 557a" />
+<span class="caption"><i>a.</i> Modern Moki rain symbol.</span>
+</div>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="./images/fig557b.png" alt="Fig. 557b" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><i>b.</i> Enlarged decoration of "medicine-jar."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 557.&mdash;Decoration of ancient medicine-jar compared with rain symbol of modern Moki totem.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, upon all sacred vessels, from the drums of the esoteric medicine
+societies of the priesthood and all vases pertaining to them to the
+keramic appurtenances of the sacred dance or <i>K&acirc;' k&acirc;</i>, all decorations
+were intentionally emblematic. Of this numerous class of vessels, I
+will choose but one for illustration&mdash;the prayer-meal-bowl of the <i>K&acirc;'
+k&acirc;</i>.<span class='pagenum'>-518-<a name="page518" id="page518"></a></span> In this, both form and ornamentation are significant. (See Fig.
+<a href="#fig558">558</a>.) In explaining how the form of this vessel is held to be symbolic
+I will quote a passage from the "creation myth" as I rendered it in an
+article on the origin of corn, belonging to a series on "Zu&ntilde;i
+Breadstuff," published this year in the "Millstone" of Indianapolis,
+Indiana. "Is not the bowl the emblem of the earth, our mother? For
+from her we draw both food and drink, as a babe draws nourishment from
+the breast of its mother; and round, as is the rim of a bowl, so is
+the horizon, terraced with mountains whence rise the clouds." This
+alludes to a medicine bowl, not to one of the handled kind, but I will
+apply it as far as it goes to the latter. The two terraces on either
+side of the handle (Fig. <a href="#fig558">558</a>, <i>a a</i>) are in representation of the
+"ancient sacred place of the spaces," the handle being the line of the
+sky, and sometimes painted with the rainbow figure. Now the
+decorations are a trifle more complex. We may readily perceive that
+they represent tadpoles (Fig. <a href="#fig558">558</a>, <i>b b</i>), dragonflies (Fig <a href="#fig558">558</a>, <i>c
+c</i>), with also the frog or toad (Fig. <a href="#fig558">558</a>); all this is of easy
+interpretation. As the tadpole frequents the pools of spring time he
+has been adopted as the symbol of spring rains; the dragon-fly hovers
+over pools in summer, hence typifies the rains of summer; and the
+frog, maturing in them later, symbolizes the rains of the later
+seasons; for all these pools are due to rain fall. When, sometimes,
+the figure of the sacred butterfly (see Fig. <a href="#fig559">559</a>, <i>a b</i>) replaces that
+of the dragon-fly, or alternates with it, it symbolizes the
+beneficence of summer; since, by a reverse order of reasoning, the
+Zu&ntilde;is think that the butterflies and migratory birds (see Fig. <a href="#fig560">560</a>)
+<i>bring</i> the warm season from the "Land of everlasting summer."</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig558" id="fig558"></a><img src="./images/fig558.png" alt="Fig. 558" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 558.&mdash;Zu&ntilde;i prayer-meal-bowl.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Upon vessels of special function, like these we have just noticed,
+peculiar figures may be regarded as emblematic; on other classes, no
+matter how evidently conventional and expressive decorations may seem,
+excepting always, totemic designs, it is wise to use great caution in
+their interpretation as intentional and not merely imitative.</p>
+
+<p>A general examination, even of the most modern of Pueblo pottery,<span class='pagenum'>-519-<a name="page519" id="page519"></a></span>
+shows us that certain types of decoration have once been confined to
+certain types of vessels, all which has its due signification but an
+examination of which would properly form the subject of another essay.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 700px;">
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 443px;">
+<a name="fig559" id="fig559"></a><img src="./images/fig559.png" alt="Fig. 559" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 559.&mdash;Paintings of sacred butterfly.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 213px;">
+<a name="fig560" id="fig560"></a><img src="./images/fig560.png" alt="Fig. 560" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 560.&mdash;Painting of "summer-bird."</span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Happily, a work collateral to the one which I have here merely begun,
+will, I have reason to hope, be carried to a high degree of perfection
+in the forthcoming monographs on the exhaustless ceramic collections
+of the United States National Museum by Mr. William H. Holmes. This
+author and artist will approach his task from a standpoint differing
+from mine, reaching thereby, it may be, conclusions at variance with
+the foregoing; but by means of his wealth of material and illustration
+students will have opportunity of passing a judgment upon the merits
+of not only his work, but of my own.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig561" id="fig561"></a><img src="./images/fig561.png" alt="Fig. 561" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 561.&mdash;Rectangular type of earthen vessel.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>In conclusion, let me very briefly refer to two distinctive American
+types of pottery, unconnected with the Southwestern, which,
+considered<span class='pagenum'>-520-<a name="page520" id="page520"></a></span> in conjunction with those of the latter region, seem to
+me to indicate that the ceramic art has had independent centers of
+origin in America. For the sake of convenience, I may name these types
+the rectangular (see Fig. <a href="#fig561">561</a>) or Iroquois, and the bisymmetrical or
+kidney-shaped (see Fig. <a href="#fig562">562</a>), of Nicaragua. The one is almost constant
+in the lake regions of the United States, the other equally constant
+in sections of Central America. In collections gathered from any tribe
+of our Algonquin or Iroquois Indians, one may observe vessels of the
+tough birch- or linden-bark, some of which are spherical or
+hemispherical. To produce this form of utensil from a single piece of
+bark, it is necessary to cut pieces out of the margin and fold it.
+Each fold, when stitched together in the shaping of the vessel, forms
+a corner at the upper part. (See Fig. <a href="#fig563">563</a>.) These corners and the
+borders which they form are decorated with short lines and
+combinations of lines, composed of coarse embroideries with dyed
+porcupine quills. (See Fig. <a href="#fig564">564</a>) May not the bark vessel have given
+rise to the rectangular type of pottery and its quill ornamentation to
+the incised straight-line decorations? (Compare Fig. <a href="#fig561">561</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig562" id="fig562"></a><img src="./images/fig562.png" alt="Fig. 562" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 562.&mdash;Kidney-shaped vessel, Nicaragua.</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig563" id="fig563"></a><img src="./images/fig563.png" alt="Fig. 563" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 563.&mdash;Iroquois bark-vessel.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>So, too, in the unsymmetrical urns of Central and Isthmean America,
+which are characterized by the location of the aperture at the upper
+part<span class='pagenum'>-521-<a name="page521" id="page521"></a></span> of one of the extremities and by streak-like decorations, we
+have a decided suggestion of the animal paunch or bladder and of the
+visible veins on its surface when distended.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="fig564" id="fig564"></a><img src="./images/fig564.png" alt="Fig. 564" /><br />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 564.&mdash;Porcupine quill decoration.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>If these conjectures be accepted as approximately correct, even in
+tendency, we may hope by a patient study of the ceramic remains of a
+people, no matter where situated, to discover what was the type of
+their pre-ceramic vessels, and thereby we might also learn whether, at
+the time of the origin of the potter's art or during its development,
+they had, like the Pueblos, been indigenous to the areas in which they
+were found, or whether they had, like some of the Central Americans,
+(to make a concrete example and judge it by this method) apparently
+immigrated in part from desert North America, in part from the
+wilderness of an equatorial region in South America.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnote">
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Footnotes</span></p>
+<p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> See for confirmation the last Annual Report to the
+Arch&aelig;ological Institute of America, by Adolph F. Bandelier, one of the
+most indefatigable explorers and careful students of early Spanish
+history in America.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> I would refer those, who may wish to find this
+characteristic more fully set forth, to the introductory pages of my
+essay on Zu&ntilde;i Fetiches, published in the second volume of
+Contributions to North American Ethnology by the Bureau of Ethnology;
+also to a paper read before the American Academy of Sciences on the
+Relations to one another of the Zu&ntilde;i Mythologic and Sociologic
+Systems, published, I regret to say, without my revision, in the
+Popular Science Monthly, for July, 1882.</p>
+</div>
+<hr />
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+<ul>
+<li>Awatui pottery  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page493">493</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Basketry anticipated pottery  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page483">483-485</a></li>
+<li>Basketry cooking utensils  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page484">484-486</a></li>
+<li>Basketry declined, Manufacture of watertight  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page496">496</a></li>
+<li>Boiling basket  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page485">485</a></li>
+<li>Burning influence pottery, Materials and methods used in  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page495">495</a>,  <a href="#page496">496</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Cane tubes to carry water  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page482">482</a></li>
+<li>Cliff-dwellings &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page478">478</a>, <a href="#page479">479-480</a></li>
+<li>Coal used in pottery firing, Mineral  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page495">495-496</a></li>
+<li>Coiled pottery, how made  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page500">500</a></li>
+<li>Communal Pueblos &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page480">480</a>,  <a href="#page481">481</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Environments affecting habitations  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page473">473</a></li>
+<li>Environments affecting pottery  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page482">482</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Flat and terraced roofs  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page477">477</a></li>
+<li>Form evolved in pottery from basketry  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page497">497</a></li>
+<li>Fuel used in pottery firing  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page495">495</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Gourd vessels to carry water &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page482">482</a>,  <a href="#page483">483</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Habitations affected by environment  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page473">473</a></li>
+<li>Hogan, or hut, Navajo  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page473">473</a></li>
+<li>Houses built near water, Pueblo  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page477">477</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Lava inclosure earliest form of Navajo hut  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page475">475</a></li>
+<li>Linguistic indications as to habitations  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page474">474</a></li>
+<li>Linguistic indications as to primitive water vessels  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page482">482</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Mindeleff, Victor, on development of rectangular architecture  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page475">475</a></li>
+<li>Minerals influencing pottery  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page493">493</a></li>
+<li>Mode of making pottery vessels  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page499">499-500</a></li>
+<li>Moki pottery  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page493">493</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Navajo hogan, or hut  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page473">473</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Ojo Caliente pottery  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page491">491</a></li>
+<li>Ollas  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page498">498</a>,  <a href="#page500">500</a></li>
+<li>Ornament, Ceramic  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page488">488</a></li>
+<li>Ornamentation of coiled basketry  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page487">487</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Pescado pottery  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page494">494</a></li>
+<li>Pottery affected by environment  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page482">482</a></li>
+<li>Pottery anticipated by basketry  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page483">483-485</a></li>
+<li>Pottery declined in quality with introduction of domestic animals  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page496">496</a></li>
+<li>Pottery developed from basketry  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page485">485</a></li>
+<li>Pueblo primitive habitations  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page475">475</a></li>
+<li>Pueblos, Communal&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page480">480</a>,  <a href="#page481">481</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Rectangular forms developed from circular in architecture  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page475">475</a></li>
+<li>Roasting tray  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page484">484</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Stories added in cliff-buildings  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page479">479</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Tusayan, Province of  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page493">493</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Water important to Pueblos, Transportation and preservation of  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page482">482</a></li>
+<li>Wicker cover for gourd vessels  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page483">483</a></li>
+<li>&nbsp;</li>
+<li>Zu&ntilde;i priests' journey to the Atlantic  &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page483">483</a></li>
+<li>Zu&ntilde;i skill on water jars &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#page498">498</a>,  <a href="#page500">500</a></li>
+
+</ul>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as
+Illustrative of Zu&ntilde;i Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative
+of Zuni Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Study of Pueblo Pottery as Illustrative of Zuni Culture Growth.
+       Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the
+       Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1882-83,
+       Government Printing Office, Washington, 1886, pages 467-522
+
+Author: Frank Hamilton Cushing
+
+Release Date: November 28, 2005 [EBook #17170]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PUEBLO POTTERY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Carlo Traverso, Victoria Woosley and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by the Bibliotheque nationale de France (BnF/Gallica) at
+http://gallica.bnf.fr)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION----BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    A STUDY
+
+                       of
+
+                 PUEBLO POTTERY
+
+
+               AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
+              ZUNI CULTURE GROWTH.
+
+                       BY
+              FRANK HAMILTON CUSHING.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+  Habitations affected by environment                                  473
+    Rectangular forms developed from circular                          475
+    Flat and terraced roofs developed from sloping mesa-sites          477
+    Added stories developed from limitations of cliff-house sites      479
+    Communal pueblos developed from congregation of cliff-house tribes 480
+
+  Pottery affected by environment                                      482
+    Anticipated by basketry                                            483
+    Suggested by clay-lined basketry                                   485
+    Influenced by local minerals                                       493
+    Influenced by materials and methods used in burning                495
+
+  Evolution of forms                                                   497
+
+  Evolution of decoration                                              506
+
+  Decorative symbolism                                                 510
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+  FIG.                                                               Page.
+  490.--A Navajo hut or hogan                                         473
+  491.--Perspective view of earliest or Round-house structures of
+        lava                                                          474
+  492.--Plan of same                                                  475
+  493.--Section of same                                               475
+  494.--Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive architecture      476
+  495.--Section illustrating evolution of flat roof and terrace       477
+  496.--Perspective view of a typical solitary-house                  478
+  497.--Plan of a typical solitary-house                              478
+  498.--Typical cliff-dwelling                                        479
+  499.--Typical terraced-pueblo--communal type                        480
+  500.--Ancient gourd-vessel encased in wicker                        483
+  501.--Havasupai roasting-tray, with clay lining                     484
+  502.--Zuni roasting-tray of earthenware                             485
+  503.--Havasupai boiling-basket                                      486
+  504.--Sketch illustrating the first stage in manufacture of latter  486
+  505.--Sketch illustrating the second stage in manufacture of latter 486
+  506.--Sketch illustrating the third stage in manufacture of latter  486
+  507.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  508.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  509.--Typical example of basket decoration                          487
+  510.--Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form."
+        (Shu k'u tu lia tsi nan)                                      488
+  511.--Terraced lozenge decoration or "Double-splint-stitch-form."
+        (Shu k'u tu lia tsi nan)                                      488
+  512.--Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated          488
+  513.--Double-splint-stitch, from which same was elaborated          488
+  514.--Diagonal parallel-line decoration. (Shu k'ish pa tsi nan)     488
+  515.--Study of splints at neck of unfinished basket illustrating
+        evolution of latter                                           489
+  516.--Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware             490
+  517.--Example of indented decoration on corrugated ware             490
+  518.--Cooking pot of spirally built or corrugated ware, showing
+        conical projections near rim                                  490
+  519.--The same, illustrating modification of latter                 491
+  520.--Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for suspension      491
+  521.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing double handle        492
+  522.--The same, showing also plain bottom                           492
+  523.--Food trencher or bowl of impervious wicker-work               497
+  524.--Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls                     497
+  525.--Ancient bowl of corrugated ware, showing comparative
+        shallowness                                                   498
+  526.--Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels                    499
+  527.--Clay nucleus illustrating beginning of a vessel               499
+  528.--The same shaped to form the base of a vessel                  499
+  529.--The same as first placed in base-mold, showing beginning of
+        spiral building                                               500
+  530.--First form of vessel                                          500
+  531.--Secondary form in mold, showing origin of spheroidal type of
+        jar                                                           501
+  532.--Scrapers or trowels of gourd and earthen-ware for smoothing
+        pottery                                                       501
+  533.--Finished form of a vessel in mold, showing amount of
+        contraction in drying                                         501
+  534.--Profile of olla or modern water-jar                           502
+  535.--Base of same, showing circular indentation at bottom          502
+  536.--Section of same, showing central concavity and circular
+        depression                                                    502
+  537.--"Milkmaid's boss," or annular mat of wicker for supporting
+        round vessels on the head in carrying                         503
+  538.--Use of annular mat illustrated                                503
+  539.--Section of incipient vessel in convex-bottomed basket-mold    504
+  540.--Section of same as supported on annular mat and wad of soft
+        substance, for drying                                         504
+  541.--Modern base-mold as made from the bottom of water jar         504
+  542.--Example of Pueblo painted-ornamentation illustrating
+        decorative value of open spaces  506
+  543 and 544.--Amazonian basket-decorations, illustrating evolution
+        of the above characteristic 507
+  545.--Bowl, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim        510
+  546.--Water-jar, showing open or unjoined space in lines near rim   510
+  547.--Conical or flat-bellied canteen                               512
+  548 and 549.--The same, compared with human mammary gland           513
+  550.--Double-lobed or hunter canteen (Me' wi k'i lik ton ne),
+        showing teat-like projections and open spaces of contiguous
+        lines                                                         514
+  551.--Native painting of deer, showing space-line from mouth to
+        heart                                                         515
+  552.--Native painting of sea serpent, showing space-line from mouth
+        to heart                                                      515
+  553.--The fret of basket decoration                                 516
+  554.--The fret of pottery decoration                                516
+  555.--Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery decoration             516
+  556.--Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar"                                 517
+  557.--Decoration of above compared with modern Moki rain symbol     517
+  558.--Zuni prayer-meal bowl illustrating symbolism in form and
+        decoration                                                    518
+  559.--Native paintings of sacred butterfly                          519
+  560.--Native painting of sacred migratory "summer bird"             519
+  561.--Rectangular or Iroquois type of earthen vessel                519
+  562.--Kidney-shaped type of vessel of Nicaragua                     520
+  563.--Iroquois bark vessel, showing angles of juncture              520
+  564.--Porcupine quill decoration on bark vessel, for comparison
+        with Fig. 561                                                 521
+~~~
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+  A STUDY OF PUEBLO POTTERY AS ILLUSTRATIVE OF
+              ZUNI CULTURE-GROWTH.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+              BY FRANK H. CUSHING.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+HABITATIONS AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.
+
+
+It is conceded that the peculiarities of a culture-status are due
+chiefly to the necessities encountered during its development. In this
+sense the Pueblo phase of life was, like the Egyptian, the product of
+a desert environment. Given that a tribe or stock of people is weak,
+they will be encroached upon by neighboring stronger tribes, and
+driven to new surroundings if not subdued. Such we may believe was the
+influence which led the ancestors of the Pueblo tribes to adopt an
+almost waterless area for their habitat.
+
+It is apparent at least that they entered the country wherein their
+remains occur while comparatively a rude people, and worked out there
+almost wholly their incipient civilization. Of this there is important
+linguistic evidence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 490.--A Navajo hut.]
+
+A Navajo hogan, or hut, is a beehive-shaped or conical structure (see
+Fig. 490) of sticks and turf or earth, sometimes even of stones
+chinked with mud. Yet its modern Zuni name is _ham' pon ne_, from _ha
+we_, dried brush, sprigs or leaves; and _po an ne_, covering, shelter
+or roof (_po a_ to place over and _ne_ the nominal suffix); which,
+interpreted, signifies a "brush or leaf shelter." This leads to the
+inference that the temporary shelter with which the Zunis were
+acquainted when they formulated the name here given, presumably in
+their earliest condition, was in shape like the Navajo hogan, but in
+_material_, of brush or like perishable substance.
+
+The archaic name for a building or walled inclosure is _he sho ta_, a
+contraction of the now obsolete term, _he sho ta pon ne_, from _he
+sho_, gum, or resin-like; _sho tai e_, leaned or placed together
+convergingly; and _ta po an ne_, a roof of wood or a roof supported by
+wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 491.--Perspective view of earliest or Round-house
+structure of lava.]
+
+The meaning of all this would be obscure did not the oldest remains of
+the Pueblos occur in the almost inaccessible lava wastes bordering the
+southwestern deserts and intersecting them and were not the houses of
+these ruins built on the plan of shelters, round (see Figs. 491, 492,
+493), rather than rectangular. Furthermore, not only does the
+lava-rock of which their walls have been rudely constructed resemble
+natural asphaltum (_he sho_) and possess a cleavage exactly like that
+of pinon-gum and allied substances (also _he sho_), but some forms of
+lava are actually known as _a he sho_ or gum-rock. From these
+considerations inferring that the name _he sho ta pon ne_ derivatively
+signifies something like "a gum-rock shelter with roof supports of
+wood," we may also infer that the Pueblos on their coming into the
+desert regions dispossessed earlier inhabitants or that they chose the
+lava-wastes the better to secure themselves from invasion; moreover
+that the oldest form of building known to them was therefore an
+inclosure of lava-stones, whence the application of the contraction
+_he sho ta_, and its restriction to mean a walled inclosure.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 492.--Plan of Pueblo structure of lava.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 493.--Section of Pueblo structure of lava.]
+
+
+RECTANGULAR FORMS DEVELOPED FROM CIRCULAR.
+
+It may be well in this connection to cite a theory entertained by Mr.
+Victor Mindeleff, of the Bureau of Ethnology, whose wide experience
+among the southwestern ruins entitles his judgment to high
+consideration. In his opinion the rectangular form of architecture,
+which succeeds the type under discussion, must have been evolved from
+the circular form by the bringing together, within a limited area, of
+many houses. This would result in causing the wall of one circular
+structure to encroach upon that of another, suggesting the partition
+instead of the double wall. This partition would naturally be built
+straight as a twofold measure of economy. Supposing three such houses
+to be contiguous to a central one, each separated from the latter by a
+straight wall, it may be seen that (as in the accompanying plan) the
+three sides of a square are already formed, suggesting the
+parallelogramic as a convenient style of sequent architecture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 494.--Evolution of rectangular forms in primitive
+architecture.]
+
+All this, I need scarcely add, agrees not only with my own
+observations in the field but with the kind of linguistic research
+above recorded. It would also apparently explain the occurrence of the
+circular semisubterranean _ki wi tsi we_, or estufas. These being
+sacred have retained the pristine form long after the adoption of a
+modified type of structure for ordinary or secular purposes, according
+to the well known law of survival in ceremonial appurtenances.
+
+In a majority of the lava ruins (for example those occurring near
+Prescott, Arizona), I have observed that the sloping sides rather than
+the level tops of _mesa_ headlands have been chosen by the ancients as
+building-sites. Here, the rude, square type of building prevails, not,
+however, to the entire exclusion of the circular type, which, is
+represented by loosely constructed walls, always on the _outskirts_ of
+the main ruins. The rectangular rooms are, as a rule, built row above
+row. Some of the houses in the upper rows give evidence of having
+overlapped others below. (See section, Fig. 495.)
+
+
+FLAT AND TERRACED ROOFS DEVELOPED FROM SLOPING MESA-SITES.
+
+We cannot fail to take notice of the indications which this brings
+before us.
+
+(1) It is quite probable that the overlapping resulted from an
+increase in the numbers of the ancient builders relative to available
+area, this, as in the first instance, leading to a further massing
+together of the houses. (2) It suggested the employment of rafters and
+the formation of the _flat_ roof, as a means of supplying a level
+entrance way and floor to rooms which, built above and to the rear of
+a first line of houses, yet extended partially over the latter. (3)
+This is I think the earliest form of the terrace.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 495.--Section illustrating evolution of flat roof
+and terrace]
+
+It is therefore not surprising that the flat roof of to-day is named
+_te k'os kwin ne_, from _te_, space, region, extension, _k'os kwi e_,
+to cut off in the sense of closing or shutting in from one side, and
+_kwin ne_, place of. Nor is it remarkable that no type of ruin in the
+Southwest _seems_ to connect these first terraced towns with the later
+not only terraced but also literally cellular buildings, which must be
+regarded nevertheless as developed from them. The reason for this will
+become evident on further examination.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 496.--Perspective view of a typical solitary
+house.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 497.--Plan of a typical solitary house.]
+
+The modern name for house is _k'ia kwin ne_, from _k'ia we_, water,
+and _kwin ne_, place of, literally "watering place;" which is evidence
+that the first properly so called houses known to the Pueblos were
+solitary and built near springs, pools, streams, or well-places. The
+universal occurrence of the vestiges of single houses throughout the
+less forbidding tracts of the Pueblo country (see Figs. 496 and 497)
+leads to this inference and to the supposition that the necessity for
+protection being at last overcome, the denizens of the lava-fields,
+where planting was well-nigh impossible, descended, building wherever
+conditions favored the horticulture which gradually came to be their
+chief means of support. As irrigation was not known until long
+afterwards, arable areas were limited, hence they were compelled to
+divide into families or small clans, each occupying a single house.
+The traces of these solitary farm-houses show that they were at first
+single-storied. The name of an upper room indicates how the idea of
+the second or third story was developed, as it is _osh ten u thlan_,
+from _osh ten_, a shallow cave, or rock-shelter, and _u thla nai e_,
+placed around, embracing, inclusive of. This goes to show that it was
+not until after the building of the first small farm-houses (which
+gave the name to houses) that the caves or rock-shelters of the
+cliffs were occupied. If predatory border-tribes, tempted by the
+food-stores of the horticultural farm-house builders, made incursions
+on the latter, they would find them, scattered as they were, an easy
+prey.
+
+
+ADDED STORIES FOR CLIFF DWELLINGS DEVELOPED FROM LIMITATIONS OF
+CLIFF-HOUSE SITES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 498.--A typical cliff-dwelling.]
+
+This condition of things would drive the people to seek security in
+the neighboring cliffs of fertile canons, where not only might they
+build their dwelling places in the numerous rock-shelters, but they
+could also cultivate their crops in comparative safety along the
+limited tracts which these eyries overlooked. The narrow foothold
+afforded by many of these elevated cliff-shelves or shelters would
+force the fugitives to construct house over house; that is, build a
+second or upper story around the roof of the cavern. What more
+natural than that this upper room should take a name most descriptive
+of its situation--as that portion built around the cavern-shelter or
+_osh ten_--or that, when the intervention of peace made return to the
+abandoned farms of the plains or a change of condition possible, the
+idea of the second story should be carried along and the name first
+applied to it survive, even to the present day? That the upper story
+took its name from the rock-shelter may be further illustrated. The
+word _osh ten_ comes from _o sho nan te_, the condition of being
+dusky, dank, or mildewy; clearly descriptive of a cavern, but not of
+the most open, best lighted, and driest room in a Pueblo house.
+
+To continue, we may see how the necessity for protection would drive
+the petty clans more and more to the cliffs, how the latter at every
+available point would ultimately come to be occupied, and thus how the
+"_Cliff-dwelling_" (see Fig. 498), was confined to no one section but
+was as universal as the farm-house type of architecture itself, so
+widespread, in fact, that it has been heretofore regarded as the
+monument of a great, now extinct _race_ of people!
+
+
+COMMUNAL PUEBLOS DEVELOPED FROM CONGREGATION OF CLIFF-HOUSE TRIBES.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 499.--Typical terraced communal pueblo.]
+
+We may see, finally, how at last the canons proved too limited and in
+other ways undesirable for occupation, the result of which was the
+confederation of the scattered cliff-dwelling clans, and the
+construction, first on the overhanging cliff-tops, then on _mesas_,
+and farther and farther away, of great, many-storied towns, any one of
+which was named, in consequence of the bringing together in it of many
+houses and clans, _thlu el lon ne_, from _thlu a_, many springing up,
+and _el lon a_, that which stands, or those which stand; in other
+words, "many built standing together." This cannot be regarded as
+referring to the simple fact that a village is necessarily composed of
+many houses standing together. The name for any other village than a
+communal pueblo is _ti na kwin ne_, from _ti na_--many sitting around,
+and _kwin ne_, place of. This term is applied by the Zunis to all
+villages save their own and those of ourselves, which latter they
+regard as Pueblos, in their acceptation of the above native word.
+
+Here, then, in strict accordance with, the teachings of myth,
+folk-lore and tradition, I have used the linguistic argument as
+briefest and most convincing in indicating the probable sequence of
+architectural types in the evolution of the Pueblo; from the brush
+lodge, of which only the name survives, to the recent and present
+terraced, many-storied, communal structures, which we may find
+throughout New Mexico, Arizona, and contiguous parts of the
+neighboring Territories.[1]
+
+   [1] See for confirmation the last Annual Report to the
+   Archaeological Institute of America, by Adolph F. Bandelier, one
+   of the most indefatigable explorers and careful students of early
+   Spanish history in America.
+
+
+
+
+POTTERY AFFECTED BY ENVIRONMENT.
+
+
+There is no other section of the United States where the potter's art
+was so extensively practiced, or where it reached such a degree of
+perfection, as within the limits of these ancient Pueblo regions. To
+this statement not even the prolific valleys of the Mississippi and
+its tributaries form an exception.
+
+On examining a large and varied collection of this pottery, one would
+naturally regard it either as the product of four distinct peoples or
+as belonging to four different eras, with an inclination to the
+chronologic division.
+
+When we see the reasonable probability that the architecture, the
+primeval arts and industries, and the culture of the Pueblos are
+mainly indigenous to the desert and semi-desert regions of North
+America, we are in the way towards an understanding of the origin and
+remarkable degree of development in the ceramic art.
+
+In these regions water not only occurs in small quantities, but is
+obtainable only at points separated by great distances, hence to the
+Pueblos the first necessity of life is the transportation and
+preservation of water. The skins and paunches of animals could be used
+in the effort to meet this want with but small success, as the heat
+and aridity of the atmosphere would in a short time render water thus
+kept unfit for use, and the membranes once empty would be liable to
+destruction by drying. So far as language indicates the character of
+the earliest water vessels which to any extent met the requirements of
+the Zuni ancestry, they were tubes of wood or sections of canes. The
+latter, in ritualistic recitation, are said to have been the
+receptacles that the creation-priests filled with the sacred water
+from the ocean of the cave-wombs of earth, whence men and creatures
+were born, and the name for one of these cane water vessels is _sho
+tom me_, from _sho e_, cane or canes, and _tom me_, a wooden tube.
+Yet, although in the extreme western borders of the deserts, which
+were probably the first penetrated by the Pueblos, the cane grows to
+great size and in abundance along the two rivers of that country, its
+use, if ever extensive, must have speedily given way to the use of
+gourds, which grew luxuriantly at these places and were of better
+shapes and of larger capacity. The name of the gourd as a vessel is
+_shop tom me_, from _sho e_, canes, _po pon nai e_, bladder-shaped,
+and _tom me_, a wooden tube; a seeming derivation (with the exception
+of the interpolated sound significant of form) from _sho tom me_. The
+gourd itself is called _mo thla a_, "hard fruit." The inference is
+that when used as a vessel, and called _shopi tom me_, it must have
+been named after an older form of vessel, instead of after the plant
+or fruit which produced it.
+
+While the gourd was large and convenient in form, it was difficult of
+transportation owing to its fragility. To overcome this it was encased
+in a coarse sort of wicker-work, composed of fibrous yucca leaves or
+of flexible splints. Of this we have evidence in a series of
+gourd-vessels among the Zunis, into which the sacred water is said to
+have been transferred from the tubes, and a pair of which one of the
+priests, who came east with me two years ago, brought from New Mexico
+to Boston in his hands--so precious were they considered as
+relics--for the purpose of replenishing them with water from the
+Atlantic. These vessels are encased rudely but strongly in a meshing
+of splints (see Fig. 500), and while I do not positively claim that
+they have been piously preserved since the time of the universal use
+of gourds as water-vessels by the ancestry of this people, they are
+nevertheless of considerable antiquity. Their origin is attributed to
+the priest-gods, and they show that it must have once been a common
+practice to encase gourds, as above described, in osiery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 500.--Gourd vessel enclosed in wicker.]
+
+
+POTTERY ANTICIPATED BY BASKETRY.
+
+This crude beginning of the wicker-art in connection with
+water-vessels points toward the development of the wonderful
+water-tight basketry of the southwest, explaining, too, the
+resemblance of many of its typical forms to the shapes of
+gourd-vessels. Were we uncertain of this, we might again turn to
+language, which designates the impervious wicker water-receptacle of
+whatever outline as _tom ma_, an evident derivation from the
+restricted use of the word _tom me_ in connection with gourd or cane
+vessels, since a basket of any other kind is called _tsi i le_.
+
+It is readily conceivable that water-tight osiery, once known, however
+difficult of manufacture, would displace the general use of
+gourd-vessels. While the growth of the gourd was restricted to limited
+areas, the materials for basketry were everywhere at hand. Not only
+so, but basket-vessels were far stronger and more durable, hence more
+readily transported full of water, to any distance. By virtue of their
+rough surfaces, any leakage in such vessels was instantly stopped by a
+daubing of pitch or mineral asphaltum, coated externally with sand or
+coarse clay to harden it and overcome its adhesiveness.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 501.--Havasupai clay-lined roasting-tray.]
+
+We may conclude, then, that so long as the Pueblo ancestry were
+semi-nomadic, basketry supplied the place of pottery, as it still does
+for the less advanced tribes of the Southwest, except in cookery.
+Possibly for a time basketry of this kind served in place of pottery
+even for cookery, as with one of the above-mentioned tribes, the _Ha
+va su pai_ or Coconinos, of Cataract Canon, Arizona. These people,
+until recently, were cut off from the rest of the world by their
+almost impenetrable canon, nearly half a mile in depth at the point
+where they inhabit it. For example, when I visited them in 1881, they
+still hafted sharpened bits of iron, like celts, in wood. They had not
+yet forgotten how to boil food in water-tight basketry, by means of
+hot stones, and continued to roast seeds, crickets, and bits of meat
+in wicker-trays, coated inside with gritty clay. (See Fig. 501.) The
+method of preparing and using these roasting-trays has an important
+bearing on several questions to which reference will be made further
+on. A round basket-tray, either loosely or closely woven, is evenly
+coated inside with clay, into which has been kneaded a very large
+proportion of sand, to prevent contraction and consequent cracking
+from drying. This lining of clay is pressed, while still soft, into
+the basket as closely as possible with the hands and then allowed to
+dry. The tray is thus made ready for use. The seeds or other
+substances to be parched are placed inside of it, together with a
+quantity of glowing wood-coals. The operator, quickly squatting,
+grasps the tray at opposite edges, and, by a rapid spiral motion up
+and down, succeeds in keeping the coals and seeds constantly shifting
+places and turning over as they dance after one another around and
+around the tray, meanwhile blowing or puffing, the embers with every
+breath to keep them free from ashes and glowing at their hottest.
+
+That this clay lining should grow hard from continual heating, and in
+some instances separate from its matrix of osiers, is apparent. The
+clay form thus detached would itself be a perfect roasting-vessel.
+
+
+POTTERY SUGGESTED BY CLAY-LINED BASKETRY.
+
+This would suggest the agency of gradual heat in rendering clay fit
+for use in cookery and preferable to any previous makeshift. The
+modern Zuni name for a parching-pan, which is a shallow bowl of
+black-ware, is _thle mon ne_, the name for a basket-tray being _thlae'
+lin ne_. The latter name signifies a shallow vessel of twigs, or _thla
+we_; the former etymologically interpreted, although of earthenware,
+is a hemispherical vessel of the same kind and _material_. All this
+would indicate that the _thlae' lin ne_, coated with clay for roasting,
+had given birth to the _thle mon ne_, or parching-pan of earthenware.
+(See Fig. 502.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 502.--Zuni earthenware roasting tray.]
+
+Among the Havasupai, still surviving as a sort of bucket, is the
+basket-pot or boiling-basket, for use with hot stones, which form I
+have also found in some of the cave deposits throughout the ancient
+Zuni country. These vessels (see Fig. 503) were bottle-shaped and
+provided near the rims of their rather narrow mouths with a sort of
+cord or strap-handle, attached to two loops or eyes (Fig. 503 _a_)
+woven into the basket, to facilitate handling when the vessel was
+filled with hot water. In the manufacture of one of these vessels,
+which are good examples of the helix or spirally-coiled type of
+basket, the beginning was made at the center of the bottom. A small
+wisp of fine, flexible grass stems or osiers softened in water was
+first spirally wrapped a little at one end with a flat, limber splint
+of tough wood, usually willow (see Fig. 504). This wrapped portion was
+then wound upon itself; the outer coil thus formed (see Fig. 505)
+being firmly fastened as it progressed to the one already made by
+passing the splint wrapping of the wisp each time it was wound around
+the latter through some strands of the contiguous inner coil, with the
+aid of a bodkin. (See Fig. 506.) The bottom was rounded upward and the
+sides were made by coiling the wisp higher and higher, first outward,
+to produce the bulge of the vessel, then inward, to form the tapering
+upper part and neck, into which, the two little twigs or splint
+loop-eyes were firmly woven. (See again Fig. 503 _a_.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 503.--Havasupai boiling-basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 504. FIG. 505. FIG. 506.
+               Sketches illustrating manufacture of
+               spirally-coiled basketry.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 507.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 508.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 509.--Typical basket decoration.]
+
+These and especially kindred forms of basket-vessels were often quite
+elaborately ornamented, either by the insertion at proper points of
+dyed wrapping-splints, singly, in pairs, or in sets, or by the
+alternate painting of pairs, sets, or series of stitches. Thus were
+produced angular devices, like serrated bands, diagonal or zigzag
+lines, chevrons, even terraces and frets. (See Figs. 507, 508, 509.)
+There can be no doubt that these styles and ways of decoration were
+developed, along with the weaving of baskets, simply by elaborating on
+suggestions of the lines and figures unavoidably produced in
+wicker-work of any kind when strands of different colors happened to
+be employed together. Even slight discolorations in occasional splints
+would result in such suggestions, for the stitches would here show,
+there disappear. The probability of this view of the accidental origin
+of basket-ornamentation may be enhanced by a consideration of the
+etymology of a few Zuni decorative terms, more of which might be given
+did space admit. A terraced lozenge (see Figs. 510, 511), instead of
+being named after the abstract word _a wi thlui ap i pae tchi na_,
+which signifies a double terrace or two terraces joined together at
+the base, is designated _shu k'u tu li a tsi' nan_, from _shu e_,
+splints or fibers; _k'u tsu_, a double fold, space, or stitch (see
+Figs. 512, 513); _li a_, an interpolation referring to form; and _tsi'
+nan_, mark; in other words, the "double splint-stitch-form mark."
+Likewise, a pattern, composed principally of a series of diagonal or
+oblique parallel lines _en masse_ (see Fig. 514), is called _shu'
+k'ish pa tsi nan_, from _shu e_, splints; _k'i'sh pai e_, tapering
+(_k'ish pon ne_, neck or smaller part of anything); and _tsi nan_,
+mark; that is, "tapering" or "neck-splint mark." Curiously enough, in
+a bottle-shaped basket as it approaches completion the splints of the
+tapering part or neck all lean spirally side by side of one another
+(see Fig. 515), and a term descriptive of this has come to be used as
+that applied to lines resembling it, instead of a derivative from _ae's
+sel lai e_, signifying an oblique or leaning line. Where splints
+variously arranged, or stitches, have given names to decorations--applied
+even to painted and embroidered designs--it is not difficult for us to
+see that these same combinations, at first unintentional, must have
+suggested the forms to which they gave names as decorations.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 510. FIG. 511.
+               Terraced lozenge decoration, or
+               "double-splint-stitch-forms."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 512. FIG. 513.
+               Double-splint-stitch.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 514.--Diagonal parallel-line decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 515.--Splints at neck of unfinished basket.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 516. FIG. 517.
+               Examples of indented decoration on corrugated ware.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 518.--Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing
+               conical projections near rim.
+
+_Pueblo coiled pottery developed from basketry._--Seizing the
+suggestion afforded by the rude tray-molded parching-bowls,
+particularly after it was discovered that if well burned they resisted
+the effects of water as well as of heat, the ancient potter would
+naturally attempt in time to reproduce the boiling-basket in clay. She
+would find that to accomplish this she could not use as a mold the
+inside of the boiling-basket, as she had the inside of the tray,
+because its neck was smaller than its body. Nor could she form the
+vase by plastering the clay outside of the vessel, not only for the
+same reason, but also because the clay in drying would contract so
+much that it would crack or scale off. Naturally, then, she pursued
+the process she was accustomed to in the manufacture of the
+basket-bottle. That is, she formed a thin rope of soft clay, which,
+like the wisp of the basket, she coiled around and around a center to
+form the bottom, then spirally upon itself, now widening the diameter
+of each coil more and more, then contracting as she progressed upward
+until the desired height and form were attained. As the clay was
+adhesive, each coil was attached to the one already formed by
+pinching or pressing together the connecting edges at short intervals
+as the winding went on. This produced corrugations or indentations
+marvelously resembling the stitches of basket-work. Hence accidentally
+the vessel thus built up appeared so similar to the basket which had
+served as its model that evidently it did not seem complete until this
+feature had been heightened by art. At any rate, the majority of
+specimens belonging to this type of pottery--especially those of the
+older periods during which it was predominant--are distinguished by an
+indented or incised decoration exactly reproducing the zigzags,
+serrations, chevrons, terraces, and other characteristic devices of
+water-tight basketry. (Compare Figs. 516, 517 with Figs. 507, 508.)
+Evidently with a like intention two little cone-like projections were
+attached to the neck near the rim of the vessel (see Fig. 518) which
+may hence be regarded as survivals of the loops whereby it has been
+seen the ends of the strap-handle were attached to the boiling-basket.
+(See again Fig. 503, _a_.) Although varied in later times to form
+scrolls, rosettes, and other ornate figures (see Fig. 519), they
+continued ever after quite faithful features of the spiral type of
+pot, and may even sometimes be seen on the cooking-vessels of modern
+Zuni. To add yet another link to this chain of connection between the
+coiled boiling-basket and the spirally-built cooking-pot, the names of
+the two kinds of vessels may be given. The boiling-basket was known as
+_wo li a k'ia ni tu li a tom me_, the corrugated cooking pot as _wo li
+a k'ia te' ni tu li a ton ne_, the former signifying "coiled
+cooking-basket," the latter "coiled earthenware cooking-basket."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 519--Cooking-pot of corrugated ware, showing
+               modified projections near rim.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 520.--Wicker water-bottle, showing double loops for
+               suspension.]
+
+Other very important types of vessels were made in a similar way. I
+refer especially to canteens and water-bottles. The water-bottle of
+wicker differed little from the boiling-basket. It was generally
+rounder-bodied, longer and narrower necked, and provided at one side
+near the shoulders or rim with two loops of hair or strong fiber,
+usually braided. (See Fig. 520.) The ends of the burden-strap passed
+through these loops made suspension of the vessel easy, or when the
+latter was used simply as a receptacle, the pair of loops served as a
+handle. Sometimes these basket-bottles were strengthened at the bottom
+with rawhide or buckskin, stuck on with gum. When, in the evolution of
+the pitcher, this type of basket was reproduced in clay, not only was
+the general form preserved, but also the details above described. That
+is, without reference to usefulness--in fact at no small expense of
+trouble--the handles were almost always made double (see Fig. 521);
+indeed, often braided, although of clay. Frequently, especially as
+time went on, the bottoms were left plain, as if to simulate the
+smooth skin-bottoming of the basket-bottles. (See Fig. 522.) At first
+it seems odd that with all these points of similarity the two kinds of
+water-vessel should have totally dissimilar names; the basket-bottle
+being known as the _k'ia pu k'ia tom me_, from _k'ia pu kia_, "for
+carrying or placing water in," and _tom me_; the handled earthen
+receptacle, as the _i mush ton ne_. Yet when we consider that the
+latter was designed not for transporting water, for which it was less
+suited than the former, but for holding it, for which it was even
+preferable, the discrepancy is explained, since the name _i mush ton
+ne_ is from _i' mu_, to sit, and _tom me_, a tube. This indicates,
+too, why the basket-bottle was not displaced by the earthen bottle.
+While the former continued in use for bringing water from a distance,
+the latter was employed for storing it. As the fragile earthen vessels
+were much more readily made and less liable to become tainted, they
+were exclusively used as receptacles, removing the necessity of the
+tedious manufacture of a large number of the basket-bottles. Again, as
+the pitcher was thus used exclusively as a receptacle, to be set aside
+in household or camp, the name _i' mush ton ne_ sufficed without the
+interpolation _te_--"earthenware"--to distinguish it as of _terra
+cotta_, instead of osiery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 521.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing
+               double handle.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 522.--Water-bottle of corrugated ware, showing
+               plain bottom.]
+
+
+
+POTTERY INFLUENCED BY LOCAL MINERALS.
+
+Before discussing the origin of other forms, it may be well to
+consider briefly some influences, more or less local, which, in
+addition to the general effect of gourd-forms in suggesting
+basket-types and of the latter in shaping earthenware, had
+considerable bearing on the development of ceramic art in the
+Southwest, pushing it to higher degrees of perfection and diversity in
+some parts than in others.
+
+Perhaps first in importance among these influences was the mineral
+character of a locality. Where clay occurred of a fine tough texture,
+easily mined and manipulated, the work in _terra cotta_ became
+proportionately more elaborate in variety and finer in quality. There
+are to be found about the sites of some ancient pueblos, potsherds
+incredibly abundant and indicating great advancement in decorative
+art, while near others, architecturally similar, even where evidence
+of ethnic connection is not wanting, only coarse, crudely-molded, and
+painted fragments are discoverable, and these in limited quantity.
+
+An example in point is the ruined pueblo of _A' wat u i_ or
+_Aguatobi_, as it was known to the Spaniards at the time of the
+conquest, when it was the leading "city of the Province of Tusayan,"
+now Moki. Over the entire extent of this ruin, and to a considerable
+distance around it, fragments of the greatest variety in color, shape,
+size, and finish of ware occur in abundance. In the immediate
+neighborhood, however, are extensive, readily accessible formations
+producing several kinds of clay and nearly all the color minerals
+used in the Pueblo potter's art. Yet at the greatest ruin on the upper
+Colorado Chiquito (in an arm of the valley of which river _A' wat u i_
+itself occurs), where the fallen walls betoken equal advancement in
+the status of the ancient builders and indicate by their vast extent
+many times the population of _A' wat u i_, the potsherds are coarse,
+irregular in curvature, badly decayed, and exceptionally scarce. In
+the immediate neighborhood of this ruin, I need not add, clay is of
+rare occurrence and poor in quality.
+
+A more reliable example is furnished by the farming pueblos of Zuni.
+At _He sho ta tsi nan_ or Ojo del Pescado, fifteen miles east of Zuni,
+clays of several varieties and color minerals are abundant. The finest
+pottery of the tribe is made there in great quantity, while,
+notwithstanding the facilities for transportation which the Zunis now
+possess, at the opposite farming town of _K'iap kwai na kwin_, or Los
+Ojos Calientes, where clay is scarce and of poor texture, the pottery,
+although somewhat abundant, is of miserable quality and of bad shape.
+
+In quality of art quite as much as in that of material this local
+influence was great. In the neighborhood of ruined pueblos which occur
+near mineral deposits furnishing a great variety of pigment-material,
+the decoration of the ceramic remains is so surprisingly and
+universally elaborate, beautiful, and varied as to lead the observer
+to regard the people who dwelt there as different from the people who
+had inhabited towns about the sites of which the sherds show not only
+meager skill and less profuse decorative variety, but almost typical
+dissimilarity. Yet tradition and analogy, even history in rare
+instances, may declare that the inhabitants of both sections were of
+common derivation, if not closely related and contemporaneous.
+Probably, at no one point in the Southwest was ceramic decoration
+carried to a higher degree of development than at _A' wat u i_, yet
+the Oraibes, by descent the modern representatives of the _A' wat u i
+ans_ are the poorest potters and painters among the Mokis. Near their
+pueblo the clay and other mineral deposits mentioned as abundant at
+_A' wat u i_ are meager and inaccessible. Still, it may be urged that
+time may have introduced other than natural causes for change; this
+could not be said of another example pertaining to one period and a
+single tribe. I refer again to the Zunis. The manufactures of Pescado
+probably surpass in decorative excellence all other modern Pueblo
+pottery, while both in their lack of variety and in delicacy of
+execution of their painted patterns the fictiles of Ojo Caliente are
+so inferior and diverse from the other Zuni work that the future
+archaeologist will have need to beware, or (judging alone from the
+ceramic remains which he finds at the two pueblos) he will attribute
+them at least to distinct periods, perhaps to diverse peoples.
+
+
+POTTERY INFLUENCED BY MATERIALS AND METHODS USED IN BURNING.
+
+Other influences, to a less extent local, had no inconsiderable effect
+on primitive Pueblo pottery: materials employed and methods resorted
+to in burning.
+
+Only one kind of fuel, except for a single class of vessels, is now
+used in pottery-firing; namely, dried cakes or slabs of sheep-dung.
+Anciently, several varieties, such as extremely dry sage-brush or
+grease-wood, pinon and other resinous woods, dung of herbivora when
+obtainable, charcoal, and also bituminous or cannel-coal were
+employed. The principal agent seems, however, to have been dead-wood
+or spunk, pulverized and moistened with some adhesive mixture so that
+flat cakes could be formed of it. I infer this not alone from Zuni
+tradition, which is not ample, but from the fact that the sheep-dung
+now used is called, in the condition of fuel, _ku ne a_, while its
+name in the abstract or as sheep-dung simply is _ma he_. Dry-rot wood
+or spunk is known as _ku me_. In the shape of flat cakes it would be
+termed _ku mo we_ or _ku me a_, whence I doubt not the modern word _ku
+ne a_ is derived.
+
+Of methods, four were in vogue. The simplest and worst consisted in
+burying the vessel to be burned under hot ashes and building a fire
+around it, or inverting it over a bed of embers and encircling it with
+a blazing fire of brush-wood, as is still the practice of the
+Maricopas and other sedentary tribes of the Gila. The most common was
+building a little cone or dome of fuel over the articles to be baked
+and firing; the most perfect was to dig or construct under ground a
+little cist or kiln, line it evenly with fuel, leaving a central space
+for the green ware, and slowly fire the whole mass.
+
+Irrespective of the kind of fuel used, the baking by ash-burial made
+the ware gray, cloudy, or dingy, and not very durable. Pottery burned
+with sage or grease-wood was firm, light gray unless of ocherous clay,
+less cloudy than if ash-baked, yet mottled. Turf and dung, although
+easily managed, did not thoroughly harden the pottery, but burned it
+very evenly; dead wood or spunk-cakes baked as evenly as any of the
+materials thus far mentioned, and more thoroughly than the others.
+Resinous or pitchy woods, while they produced a much higher degree of
+heat, could be used only when color was unimportant, as they still are
+used to some extent in the firing of black-ware or cooking pots. The
+latter, while still hot from a preliminary burning, if coated
+externally with the mucilaginous juice of green cactus, internally
+with pinon gum or pitch, and fired a second or even a third time with
+resinous wood-fuel, are rendered absolutely fire-proof, semi-glazed
+with a black gloss inside, and wonderfully durable. Tradition
+represents that by far the most perfect fuel was found to be cannel
+coal, and that, where abundant, accessible, and of an extremely
+bituminous quality, it was much used. The traces of little pit-kilns
+filled with, cinders of mineral coal about many of the ruins in the
+northwestern portion of the Pueblo region, coupled with the
+semi-fusion and well-preserved condition of most of the ancient jars
+found associated with them, certainly give support to this tradition.
+Happily I have additional confirmation. When, two years ago, I was
+engaged in making ethnologic collections at Moki for the United States
+National Museum, some Indians of the _Te wa_ pueblo brought me a
+quantity of pottery. It had been made with the purpose of deceiving
+me, in careful imitation of ancient types, and was certainly equal to
+the latter in lightness and the condition of the burning. I paid these
+enterprising Indians as good a price as they had been accustomed to
+getting for genuine ancient specimens, but told them that, being a
+Zuni, I was almost one of themselves, hence they could not deceive me,
+and asked them how they had so cleverly succeeded in burning the ware.
+They laughingly replied that they had simply dug some bituminous coal
+(_u a ko_) and used it in little pits. When I further asked them why
+they did not burn their household utensils thus, they said it was too
+uncertain; representing that the pots did not like to be burned in the
+_u a ko_, probably because it was so hot, hence they broke more
+frequently than if fired in the common way with dried sheep-dung;
+furthermore the latter was less troublesome, requiring only to be dug
+from the corrals near at hand and dried to make it ready for use.
+
+This partially explains why the art of water-tight basket-making has
+here gradually declined since the Spanish conquest, as the ceramic
+industry has increased with the introduction of the sheep, which
+furnishes fuel for the burning, and the horse, before unknown, has
+facilitated transportation, whereby trade for this class of basketry
+with the distant nomadic tribes who still make it is rendered easy.
+Withal, however, the quality of pottery has not improved, but has
+deteriorated; as sheep-dung is but an inferior fuel for firing.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION OF FORMS.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 523.--Food trencher of wicker-work.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 524.--Latter inverted, as used in forming bowls]
+
+Bearing these statements in mind, the discussion of the evolution as
+well as of the distribution of form, and later of the evolution of
+decoration, in pottery will become easier. By lingering steps there
+was early developed a method of building up vessels by a process
+differing in part from the spiral. As the parching-bowl had been
+evolved from the roasting-tray, so, we may infer, the food-bowl was
+suggested by the hemispherical food-trencher of wicker-work. (See Fig.
+523.) Yet, curiously enough, the inside of the latter seems not at
+first to have been used in molding the food-bowl, as, it will be
+remembered, the tray had been in forming the parching-pan. On the
+contrary, the clay was coiled around and around the _outside_ of the
+bottom of an inverted basket bowl (see Fig. 524), instead of being
+pressed evenly into it. As with the cooking pot, so with this; as the
+coiling progressed it was corrugated, not so much, however from
+necessity, as from habit. In consequence of the difficulty experienced
+in removing these bowl-forms from the bottoms of the baskets--which
+had to be done while they were still plastic, to keep them from
+cracking--they were made very shallow. Hence the specimens found among
+the older ruins and graves are not only corrugated outside, but are
+also very wide in proportion to their height. (See Fig. 525.) As time
+went on it was found that bowls might be made deeper, and yet readily
+be taken off from the basket bottoms, if slightly moistened outside
+and pressed evenly all around, or, better still, scraped; for, being
+plastic, this proceeding caused them to grow thinner, consequently
+larger, thereby to loosen from the basket over which they had been
+molded. As a result of this scraping, however, the corrugated surface
+was destroyed, nor could it easily be restored. Therefore bowls when
+made deep were, as a rule, smooth on the outside as well as on the
+interior surface. When by a perfectly natural sequence of events--as
+will be shown further on--ornamentation by painting came to be applied
+first to the plain interiors of the bowls, the smooth outer surface
+was found preferable to the corrugated surface, not only because it
+took paint more readily, but also because the bowl, when painted
+outside as well as inside, formed a far handsomer utensil for
+household use than if simply decorated by the older methods. As a
+consequence, we find that, while the larger vessels continued to be
+corrugated and indented, the smoothed and painted bowl came into
+general use. Associated later on with this secondary type of bowls
+occurred the larger vessels plain at the bottoms, still corrugated at
+the sides. Nor is this surprising, as the bowl, molded on the basket
+bottom and there smoothed, could be afterward built up by the spiral
+process. When in time the huge hemispherical canteens or water
+carriers of earthen-ware replaced the basket bottles, so also the
+water jar or _olla_ replaced the handled sitter or pitcher, since it
+could be made larger to receive more copious supplies of water than
+the strength of the frail handles on the pitchers would warrant.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 525.--Ancient bowl of corrugated ware.]
+
+The water jar, like the food-bowl, is a conspicuous household article;
+for which reason the Zuni woman expends all her ability to render them
+handsome. Judging by this, the desire to decorate the water-vessel
+with paint, like its constant companion the food-bowl, would early
+lead to the attempt to make its surface smooth. This would need to be
+effected while the article was still soft; which necessity probably
+led to the discovery that ajar of the corrugated or simply coiled type
+may be smoothed while still plastic without danger of distortion, no
+matter what its size, if supported at the bottom in a basket or other
+mold so that it may be shifted or turned about without direct
+handling. (See Fig. 526.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 526.--Basket-bowl as base-mold for large vessels.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 527.--Clay nucleus for a vessel.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 528.--Clay nucleus shaped to form the base of a
+               vessel.]
+
+After this discovery was made, the molding of large vessels was no
+longer accomplished by the spiral method exclusively. A lump of clay,
+hollowed out (see Fig. 527), was shaped how rudely so ever on the
+bottom of the basket or in the hand (see Fig. 528), then placed inside
+of a hemispherical basket-bowl and stroked until pressed outward to
+conform with the shape, and to project a little above the edges of its
+temporary mold, whence it was built up spirally (see Fig. 529) until
+the desired form had been attained, after which it was smoothed by
+scraping (see Fig. 530).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 529.--Clay nucleus in base-mold, with beginning
+               of spiral building.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 530.--First form of vessel.]
+
+The necks and apertures of these earliest forms of the water jar were
+made very small in proportion to their other dimensions, presumably on
+account of the necessity of often carrying them full of water over
+steep and rough _mesa_ paths, coupled perhaps with the imitation of
+other forms. To render them as light as possible they were also made
+very thin. One of the consequences of all this was that when large
+they could not be stroked inside, as the shoulders or uttermost upper
+peripheries of the vessel could not be reached with the hand or
+scraper through the small openings. The effect of the pressure exerted
+in smoothing them on the outside, therefore, naturally caused the
+upper parts to sink down, generating the spheroidal shape of the jar.
+(see Fig. 531), one of the most beautiful types of the olla ever known
+to the Pueblos. At Zuni, wishing to have an ancient jar of this form
+which I had seen, reproduced, I showed a drawing of it to a woman
+expert in the manufacture of pottery. Without any instructions from me
+beyond a mere statement of my wishes, she proceeded at once to
+sprinkle the inside of a basket-bowl with sand, managing the clay in
+a way above described and continuing the vessel-shaping upward by
+spiral building. She did not at first make the shoulders low or
+sloping, but rounded or arched them upward and outward (see again Fig.
+529). At this I remonstrated, but she gave no heed other than to
+ejaculate "_wa na ni, ana!_" which meant "just wait, will you!" When
+she had finished the rim, she easily caused the shoulders to sink,
+simply by stroking them--more where uneven than elsewhere--with a wet
+scraper of gourd (see Fig. 532, _a_) until she had exactly reproduced
+the form of the drawing. She then set the vessel aside _in_ the
+basket. Within two days it shrank by drying at the rate of about one
+inch in twelve, leaving the basket far too large. (See Fig. 533.) It
+could hence be removed without the slightest difficulty.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 531.--Secondary form, in the mold.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 532.--Scrapers of gourd and earthenware for
+               smoothing pottery.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 533.--Finished form of vessel in mold, showing
+               amount of contraction in drying.]
+
+The sand had prevented contact with the basket which would have caused
+the clay vessel to crack as the latter was very thin. This process
+exists in full force to-day with the Oraibes in the modeling of
+convex-bottomed vessels, and the Zunis thus make their large bowls and
+huge drum-jars.
+
+Upon the bottoms of many jars of these forms, I have observed the
+impressions of the wicker bowls in which they had been molded--not
+entirely to be removed, it seems, by the most assiduous smoothing
+before burning; for, however smooth any exceptional specimen may
+appear, a squeeze in plaster will still reveal traces of these
+impressions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 534.--Profile of olla, or modern water-jug.]
+
+A characteristic of these older forms of the water-jar is that they
+are invariably flat or round-bottomed, while more recent and all
+modern types of the olla (see Fig. 534) are concave or hollowed at the
+base (see Fig. 535) to facilitate balancing on the head. Outside of
+this concavity and entirely surrounding it (Fig. 536, _a_) is often to
+be observed an indentation (see Fig. 536, _b_) usually slight although
+sometimes pronounced.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 535.--Base of olla.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 536.--Section of olla.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 537.--Annular mat of wicker, or "milkmaid's boss."]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 538.--Use of annular mat illustrated.]
+
+This has no use, but there is of course a reason for its occurrence
+which, if investigated, may throw light on the origin of the modern
+type of the olla itself. The older or round-bottomed jars were
+balanced on the head in carrying, by means of a wicker-work ring, a
+kind of "milk-maid's boss." (See Fig. 537.) These annular mats are
+still found among the ruins and cave-deposits, and continue in use
+with the modern Pueblos for supporting convex-bottom cooking pots on
+the floor as well as for facilitating the balancing of large
+food-bowls on the head. (See Fig. 538.) Obviously the latter dishes
+have never been hollowed as the ollas have been, because, since they
+were used as eating-bowls, the food could be removed from a plain
+bottom more easily than from a convex surface, which would result from
+the hollowing underneath. Supposing that a water-jar chanced to be
+modeled in one of the convex-bottom bread-baskets (see Fig. 539), it
+would become necessary, on account of the thickness of these wicker
+bowls, to remove the form from the mold before it dried. By absorption
+it would dry so rapidly that it would crack, especially in contracting
+against the convexity in the center of the basket-bottom. (See Fig.
+539, _a_.) In order that this form might be supported in an upright
+position until dry, it would naturally be placed on one of the
+wicker-rings. Moreover, that the bottom might not sink down or fall
+out, a wad of some soft substance would be placed within the ring.
+(See Fig. 540, _a_.) As a consequence the weight of the plastic vessel
+would press the still soft bottom against the central wad, (Fig. 540,
+_a_) and the wicker ring (Fig. 540, _c_) sufficiently to cause the
+rounding upward of the cavity (Fig. 540, _b_) first made by the
+convex-bottom of the basket-mold, as well as form the encircling
+indentation (Fig. 540, _c_). Thus by accident, probably, only possibly
+by intention, was evolved the most useful and distinctive feature of
+the modern water-jar or olla, the _concave bottom_. This, once
+produced, would be held to be peculiarly convenient, dispensing with
+the use of a troublesome auxiliary. Its reproduction would present
+grave difficulties unless the bottom of the first vessel, thickly
+coated with sand to prevent cracking, was employed as a mold, instead
+of the absorbent convex-centered basket-bowl.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 539.--Section of incipient vessel in basket-mold.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 540.--Section of vessel supported for drying.]
+
+I infer this because, to-day, a Zuni woman is quite at a loss how to
+hollow the bottom of a water-jar if she does not possess a form or
+mold made from the base of some previously broken jar of the same
+type. She therefore, carefully preserves these precious bottoms of her
+broken ollas, even cementing together fractured ones, when not too
+badly shivered, with a mixture of pitch or mineral asphaltum and sand.
+I have seen as many as a dozen or more of these molds (see Fig. 541)
+in a single store room.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 541.--Base-mold (bottom of water-jar).]
+
+As the practice of molding all new vessels of this class in the
+bottoms of older ones was general--I might say invariable--any
+peculiarities of form in the originals must have been communicated to
+those ensuing; from the latter to others, and so on, though in less
+and less degree, to the present time. This theory is but tentative,
+yet it would also explain, on the score of association, why the Pueblo
+women slightly prefer the jars showing the indentation in question to
+more regular ones. With the change from elevated cliff or _mesa_
+habitations to more accessible ones, the Pueblo Indians were enabled
+to enlarge the apertures of their water-jars, since not only did the
+concave bases of the latter make the balancing of them more secure,
+but the trails over which they had to be carried from watering place
+to habitation were less rugged. A natural result of this enlargement
+of the openings, which admitted access with the scraper to the
+interior peripheries of the thin-walled jars, was the rounding upward
+of their shoulders, making them taller in proportion to their
+diameters. This modification of form in the water-jar, taken in
+connection with the fact that thus changed, it displaced the daily use
+of the canteen, explains the totally dissimilar names which were
+applied to the two types. The older, or spheroidal olla, was known as
+the _k'iap ton ne_, from _k'ia pu_, to place or carry water in, and
+_tom me_; while the newer _olla_ is called _k'ia wih na k'ia te ele_,
+from _k'ia wih na ki'a na ki'a_, for bringing of water: _te_,
+earthen-ware, and _e' le_ or _e'l lai e_, to stand or standing. The
+latter term, _te e le_, is generic, being applied to nearly all _terra
+cotta_ vessels which are taller than they are broad. _Te_, earthen
+ware, is derived from _t'eh'_, the root also of _te ne a_, to resound,
+to sound hollow; while _e le_, from _e'l le_ or _el' lai e_, to stand,
+is obviously applied in significance of comparative height as well as
+of function.
+
+Thus I have thrown together a few conjectures and suggestions relative
+to the origin of the Southwestern pottery and the evolution of its
+principal forms.
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION OF DECORATION
+
+
+I might go on, appealing to language to account for nearly every
+variety of pottery found existing as a _type_ throughout the region
+referred to; but a subject inseparably connected with this, throwing
+light on it in many ways, and possessing in itself great interest,
+claims treatment on the few remaining pages of this essay. I refer to
+the evolution and significance or symbolism of Pueblo ceramic
+decorations.
+
+Before proceeding with this, however, I must acknowledge that I am as
+much indebted to the teachings of Mr. E.B. Tylor, in his remarkable
+works on Man's Early History and Primitive Culture, to Lubbock, Daniel
+Wilson, Evans, and others, for the direction or _impetus_ of these
+inquiries, as I am to my own observations and experiments for its
+development.
+
+The line of gradual development in ceramic decorations, especially of
+the symbolic element, treated as a subject, is wider in its
+applicability to the study of primitive man, because more clearly
+illustrative of the growth of culture. I regret, therefore, that it
+must here be dealt with only in a most cursory manner. Large
+collections for illustration would be essential to a fuller treatment,
+even were space unlimited.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 542.--Example of Pueblo painted ornamentation.]
+
+Decoratively, Pueblo pottery is characterized by two marked features:
+angular designs predominate and ornamental effect depends as much on
+the open or undecorated space as on the painted lines and areas in the
+devices. (See Fig. 542.) While this is true of recent and modern
+wares, it is more and more notably the case with other specimens in a
+ratio increasing in proportion to their antiquity.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 543. & FIG. 544.--Amazonian basket decorations.]
+
+We cannot explain these characteristics, and the conventional aspect
+of the higher and symbolic Pueblo ceramic decorations which grew out
+of them, in a better way than to suppose them, like the forms of this
+pottery, to be the survivals of the influence of basketry. (See, for
+comparison, Figs. 543, 544.) I shall be pardoned, therefore, for
+elaborating suggestions already made in this direction, in the
+paragraphs which treated of the ornamentation of spiral ware, and of
+the derivation of basket decorations from stitch- and splint-suggested
+figures. All students of early man understand his tendency to
+reproduce habitual forms in accustomed association. This feeling,
+exaggerated with savages by a belief in the actual relationship of
+resemblance, is shown in the reproduction of the decorations of basket
+vessels on the clay vessels made from them or in imitation of them.
+
+In entire conformity with this, the succession in the methods of the
+ornamentation of Pueblo pottery seems to have been first by incision
+or indentation; then by relief; afterward by painting in black on a
+natural or light surface; finally, by painting in color on a white or
+colored surface.
+
+As before suggested, the patterns on the coiled, regularly indented
+pottery (which came to be first known to the world as a type, the
+"corrugated," through the earlier explorations and reports of Mr.
+William H. Holmes) were produced simply by emphasized indentation,
+more rarely by incision, and were almost invariably angular,
+reproducing exactly the designs on wicker work. Even in comparatively
+recent examples of the corrugated ware this is true; for, once
+connected with a type, a style of decoration, both seem to have been
+ever after inseparable, with at most but slight modification of the
+latter. One of these modifications, in both method and effect, was in
+the adoption of the raised or relief style of ornamentation found,
+with rare exceptions in the Southwest, only on corrugated ware, and on
+the class which in modern times has replaced it there, vessels used in
+cookery. Although never universal, this style deserves passing
+attention as the outgrowth of an effort to attain the effect of
+contrast produced by dyed or painted splints on wicked work before the
+use of paint was known in connection with pottery. The same kind of
+investigation indicates that the Pueblos largely owed their textile
+industries and designs, as well as their potter's art, to the
+necessity which gave rise to the making of water-tight basketry. The
+terms connected with the rudimentary processes of weaving and
+embroidery, and the principal patterns of both (on, for example,
+blankets, kirtles, sacred girdles, and women's belts), are mostly
+susceptible of interpretation, like the terms in pottery, as having a
+meaning connected with the processes of basket plaiting and painting.
+This renders the conventional character of Pueblo textile ornaments
+easy of comprehension, as well, as the very early, if not the
+earliest, origin of loom-weaving among our Indians in the desert
+regions of America.
+
+Henceforward, then, we have only to consider decoration by painting.
+The probability is that this began as soon as the smooth surface in
+pottery was generally made; evidence of which seemingly exists; as
+eating bowls are, even to the present day, decorated principally on
+the interior; not, as may be supposed, because the exterior is more
+hidden from view, but because, as we have seen on a former page, bowls
+were made plain inside before the corrugated type formed on basket
+bottoms had been displaced by the smoothed type; and were naturally
+first decorated there with paint. It must be constantly borne in mind
+that a style of decoration once coupled with a kind of ware, or even a
+portion of a vessel, retained its association permanently.
+
+It must have been early observed that clay of one kind, applied even
+thinly to the exterior of a vessel of another kind, produced, when
+burned, a different color. With the discovery that clays of different
+kinds burned in a variety of colors, to some extent irrespective of
+the methods and the materials used in firing, there must likewise have
+been hinted, we may safely conclude, the efficacy of clay washes as
+paint, and of paint as a decorative agent.
+
+Among the ceramic remains from the oldest pueblo sites of the
+Southwest, pottery occurs, mostly in four varieties: the corrugated or
+spiral; the plain, yet rough gray; white decorated with geometric
+figures in black; and red, either plain or decorated with geometric
+devices in black and white. The gray or dingy brown, rough variety,
+resulted when a corrugated or coiled jar had been simply smoothed with
+the fingers and scraper before it was fired. A step in advance, easily
+and soon taken, was the additional smoothing of the vessel by slightly
+wetting and rubbing its outer surface. Even this was productive only
+of a moderately smooth surface, since, as learned by the Indian
+potters long before, in their experience with the clay-plastered
+parching-tray, it was necessary to mix the clay of vessels with a
+tempering of sand, crushed potsherds, or the like, to prevent it from
+cracking while drying; this, of course, no amount of rubbing would
+remove. Hence, by another easy step, clay unmixed with a
+grit-tempering, made into a thin paste with water, and thickly applied
+to the half-dried jar with a dab or brash of soft fiber, gave a
+beautifully smooth surface, especially if polished afterward by
+rubbing with water-worn pebbles. The vessel thus prepared, when
+burned, assumed invariably a creamy, pure white, red-brown or, other
+color, according to the quality or kind of the clay used in making the
+paste with which it had been smoothed or washed.
+
+Thus was achieved the art of producing at will fictiles of different
+colors, with which simple suggestion painting also became easy. Black,
+aside from clay paste, was almost the first pigment discovered; quite
+likely because the mineral blacks from iron ores, coal, and the
+various rocks used universally among Indians for staining splints,
+etc., would be the earliest tried, and then adopted, as they remained
+unchanged by firing. Thus it came about, as evidenced by the sequence
+of early remains in the Southwest, that the white and black varieties
+of pottery were the first made, then the red and black, and later the
+red with white and black decoration. Take, as an example, the latter.
+Of course it was a simple mode to employ the red (ocherous) clay for
+the wash, the blue clay (which burned white) for the white pigment in
+making lines, and any of the black minerals above mentioned for other
+marking.
+
+In these earliest kinds of painted pottery the angular decorations of
+the corrugated ware or of basketry were repeated, or at the farthest
+only elaborated, although on some specimens the suggestions of the
+curved ornament already occurred. These resulted, I may not fear to
+claim, from carelessness or awkwardness in drawing, for instance, the
+corners of acute angles, which, "cutting across-lot" would, it may be
+seen, produce the wavy or meandering line from the zigzag, the
+ellipsoid from the rectangle, and so on.
+
+Precisely in accordance with this theory were the studies of my
+preceptor, the lamented Prof. Charles Fred. Hartt. In a paper "On
+Evolution in Ornament," published in several periodicals, among them
+the Popular Science Monthly of January, 1875, this gifted naturalist
+illustrated his studies by actual examples found on decorated burial
+urns from Marajo Island. I must take the liberty of suggesting,
+however, that upon some antecedent kind of vessel, the eyes of the
+Amazonian Islanders may have been, to give Professor Hartt's idea,
+"trained to take physiological and aesthetic delight in regularly
+recurring lines and dots"; not on the pottery itself, as he seemed to
+think, for decoration was old in basketry and the textiles when
+pottery was first made.
+
+
+
+
+DECORATIVE SYMBOLISM.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 545.--Food-bowl.  FIG. 546.--Water-jar.
+               (Showing open or joined space in line near rim.)]
+
+On every class of food- and water-vessels, in collections of both
+ancient and modern Pueblo pottery (except, it is important to note, on
+pitchers and some sacred receptacles), it may be observed as a
+singular, yet almost constant feature, that encircling lines, often
+even ornamental zones, are left open or not as it were closed at the
+ends. (See Figs. 545, _a_, 546, _a_.) This is clearly a conventional
+quality and seemingly of intentional significance. An explanation must
+be sought in various directions, and once found will be useful in
+guiding to an understanding of the symbolic element in Pueblo ceramic
+art. I asked the Indian women, when I saw them making these little
+spaces with great care, why they took so much pains to leave them
+open. They replied that to close them was _a'k ta ni_, "fearful!"--that
+this little space through the line or zone on a vessel was the "exit
+trail of life or being", _o' ne yaethl kwai na_, and this was all. How
+it came to be first left open and why regarded as the "exit trail,"
+they could not tell. If one studies the mythology of this people and
+their ways of thinking, then watches them closely, he will, however,
+get other clews. When a woman has made a vessel, dried, polished, and
+painted it, she will tell you with an air of relief that it is a "Made
+Being." Her statement is confirmed as a sort of article of faith, when
+you observe that as she places the vessel in the kiln, she also places
+in and beside it food. Evidently she vaguely gives something about the
+vessel a personal existence. The question arises how did these people
+come to regard food-receptacles or water-receptacles as possessed of
+or accompanied by conscious existences. I have found that the Zuni
+argues actual and essential relationship from similarity in the
+appearance, function, or other attributes of even generically diverse
+things.[2]
+
+   [2] I would refer those, who may wish to find this characteristic
+   more fully set forth, to the introductory pages of my essay on
+   Zuni Fetiches, published in the second volume of Contributions to
+   North American Ethnology by the Bureau of Ethnology; also to a
+   paper read before the American Academy of Sciences on the
+   Relations to one another of the Zuni Mythologic and Sociologic
+   Systems, published, I regret to say, without my revision, in the
+   Popular Science Monthly, for July, 1882.
+
+I here allude to this mental bias because it has both influenced the
+decoration of pottery and has been itself influenced by it. In the
+first place, the noise made by a pot when struck or when simmering on
+the fire is supposed to be the voice of its associated being. The
+clang of a pot when it breaks or suddenly cracks in burning is the cry
+of this being as it escapes or separates from the vessel. That it has
+departed is argued from the fact that the vase when cracked or
+fragmentary never resounds as it did when whole. This vague existence
+never cries out violently unprovoked; but it is supposed to acquire
+the power of doing so by imitation; hence, no one sings, whistles, or
+makes other strange or musical sounds resembling those of earthenware
+under the circumstances above described during the smoothing,
+polishing, painting, or other processes of finishing. The being thus
+incited, they think, would surely strive to come out, and would break
+the vessel in so doing. In this we find a partial explanation of the
+native belief that a pot is accompanied by a conscious existence. The
+rest of the solution of this problem in belief is involved in the
+native philosophy and worship of water. Water contains the source of
+continued life. The vessel holds the water; the source of life
+_accompanies_ the water, hence its dwelling place is in the vessel
+with the water. Finally, the vessel is supposed to contain the
+treasured source, irrespective of the water--as do wells and springs,
+or even the places where they have been. If the encircling lines
+inside of the eating bowl, _outside_ of the water jar, were closed,
+there would be no exit trail for this invisible source of life or for
+its influence or breath. Yet, why, it maybe asked, must the source of
+life or its influence be provided with a trail by which to pass out
+from the vessel? In reply to this I will submit two considerations. It
+has been stated that on the earliest Southwestern potteries decoration
+was effected by incised or raised ornamentation. Any one who has often
+attempted to make vessels according to primitive methods as I have has
+found how difficult it is to smoothly join a line incised around a
+still soft clay pot, and that this difficulty is even greater when the
+ornamental band is laid on in relief. It would be a natural outgrowth
+of this predicament to leave the ends unjoined, which indeed the
+savage often did. When paint instead of incision or relief came to be
+the decorative agent, the lines or bands would be left unjoined in
+imitation. As those acquainted with Tylor's "Early History" will
+realize, and myth of observation like the above would come to be
+assigned in after ages. This may or may not be true of the case in
+question; for, as before observed, some classes of sacred receptacles,
+as well as the most ancient painted bowls, are not characterized by
+the unjoined lines. Whether true or not, it is an insufficient
+solution of the problem.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 547.--Conical or flat-bellied canteen.]
+
+It is natural for the Pueblo to consider water as the prime source of
+life, or as accompanied by it, for without the presence of living
+water very few things grow in his desert land. During many a drought
+chronicled in his oral annals, plants, animals, and men have died as
+of a contagious scourge. Naturally, therefore, he has come to regard
+water as the milk of adults, to speak of it as such, and as the
+all-sufficient nourishment which the earth (in his conception of it as
+the mother of men) yields. In the times when his was a race of cliff
+and mesa dwellers, the most common vessel appertaining to his daily
+life was the flat-bellied canteen or water-carrier. (See Fig. 547.)
+This was suspended by a band across the forehead, so as to hang
+against the back, thus leaving the hands as well as the feet free for
+assistance in climbing. It now survives only for use on long journeys
+or at camps distant from water. The original suggestion of its form
+seems to have been that of the human mammary gland, or perhaps its
+peculiar form may have suggested a relationship between the two.
+(Compare Figs. 548, 549.) At any rate, its name in Zuni is _me' he ton
+ne_, while _me' ha na_ is the name of the human mammary gland. _Me' he
+ton ne_ is from _me' ha na_, mamma, _e' ton nai e_, containing within,
+and _to'm me_. From _me' ha na_ comes _wo' ha na_, hanging or placed
+against anything, obviously because the mammaries hang or are placed
+against the breast; or, possibly, _me ha na_ may be derived from _wo
+ha na_ by a reversal of reasoning, which view does not affect the
+argument in question. It is probable that the _me' he ton_ was at
+first left open at the apex (Fig. 549._a_) instead of at the top (Fig.
+549._b_); but, being found liable to leak when furnished with the
+aperture so low, this was closed. A surviving superstition inclines me
+to this view. When a Zuni woman has completed the _me' he ton_ nearly
+to the apex, by the coiling-process, and before she has inserted the
+nozzle (Fig. 549._b_), she prepares a little wedge of clay, and, as
+she closes the apex with it, she turns her eyes away. If you ask her
+why she does this, she will tell you that it is _a'k ta ni_ (fearful)
+to look at the vessel while closing it at this point; that, if she
+look at it during this operation, she will be liable to become barren;
+or that, if children be born to her, they will die during infancy; or
+that she maybe stricken with blindness; or those who drink from the
+vessel will be afflicted with disease and wasting away! My impression
+is that, reasoning from analogy (which with these people means actual
+relationship or connection, it will be remembered), the Zuni woman
+supposes that by closing the apex of this _artificial_ mamma she
+closes the exit-way for the "source of life;" further, that the woman
+who closes this exit-way knowingly (in her own sight, that is)
+voluntarily closes the exit-way for the source of life in her _own_
+mammae; further still, that for this reason the privilege of bearing
+infants may be taken away from her, or at any rate (experience showing
+the fallacy of this philosophy) she deserves the loss of the sense
+(sight) which enabled her to "_knowingly_" close the exit-way of the
+source of life.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 548.  FIG. 549.
+               Conical canteen compared with human mammary gland.]
+
+By that tenacity of conservative reasoning which is a marked mental
+characteristic of the sedentary Pueblo, other types of the canteen, of
+later origin, not only retained the name-root of this primeval form,
+but also its attributed functions. For example, the _me' wi k'i lik
+ton ne_ (See Fig. 550) is named thus from _me we_, mammaries, _i ki
+lik toi e'_, joined together by a neck, and _to'm me_.
+
+Now, when closing the ends (Fig. 550, _c_, _c_) of this curious vessel
+in molding it, the women are as careful to turn the eyes away as in
+closing the apex of the older form. As the resemblance of either of
+the ends of this vessel to the mamma is not striking, they place on
+either side of the nozzle a pair of little conical projections,
+resembling the teats, and so called. (Fig. 550, _b_.) There are four
+of these, instead of, as we might reasonably expect, two. The reason
+for this seems to be that the _me' wi k'i lik ton ne_ is the canteen
+designed for use by the hunter in preference to all other vessels,
+because it may be easily wrapped in a blanket and tied to the back.
+Other forms would not do, as the hunter must have the free use not
+only of his hands but also of his head, that he may turn quickly this
+way or that in looking for or watching game. The proper nourishment of
+the hunter is the game he kills; hence, the source of his life, like
+that of the young of this game, is symbolized in the canteen by the
+mammaries, not of human beings, but of game-animals. A feature in
+these canteens dependent upon all this brings us nearer to an
+understanding of the question under discussion. When ornamental bands
+are painted around either end of the neck of one of them (Fig. 550,
+_b_), they are interrupted at the little projections (Fig. 550, _b,_).
+Indeed, I have observed specimens on which these lines, if placed
+farther out, were interrupted at the top (Fig. 550, _a a_) opposite
+the little projections. So, by analogy, it would seem the Pueblos came
+to regard paint, like clay, a barrier to the exit of the source of
+life. This idea of the source of life once associated with the canteen
+would readily become connected with the water-jar, which, if not the
+offspring of the canteen, at least usurped its place in the household
+economy of these people. From the water-jar it would pass naturally to
+drinking-vessels and eating-bowls, explaining the absence of the
+interrupted lines on the oldest of these and their constant occurrence
+on recent and modern examples; for the painted lines being left open
+at the apexes, or near the projections on the canteens, they should
+also be unjoined on other vessels with which the same ideas were
+associated.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 550.--Double lobed or hunter canteen.]
+
+So, also, it will be observed that in paintings of animals there is
+not only a line drawn from the mouth to the plainly depicted heart,
+but a little space is left down the center or either side of this
+line (see Figs. 551, 552), which is called the _o ne yaethl kwa' to
+na_, or the "entrance trail" (of the source or breath of life).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 551.--Painting of deer.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 552.--Painting of sea-serpent.]
+
+By this long and involved examination of _one_ element in the
+symbolism of Pueblo ceramic decoration, we gain some idea how many
+others not quite so striking, yet equally curious, grew up; how, also,
+they might be explained. Their investigation, however, would be
+attended with such intricate studies, involving so many subjects not
+at sight related to the one in hand, that I must hasten to present two
+other points.
+
+Much wonder has been expressed that the Pueblos, so advanced in
+pottery decoration, have not attempted more representations of natural
+objects. There is less ground for this wonder than at first appears.
+It should be remembered that the original angular models which the
+Pueblo had, out of which to develop his art, bequeathed to him an
+extremely conventional conception of things. This, added to his
+peculiar way of interpreting relationship and personifying phenomena
+and even functions, has resulted in making his depictions obscure. In
+point of fact, in the decoration of certain classes of his pottery he
+has attempted the reproduction of almost everything and of every
+phenomenon in nature held as sacred or mysterious by him. On certain
+other classes he has developed, imitatively, many typical decorations
+which now have no special symbolism, but which once had definite
+significance; and, finally, he has sometimes relegated definite
+meanings to designs which at first had no significance, except as
+decorative agents, after ward using them according to this
+interpretation in his attempts to delineate natural objects, their
+phenomena, and functions. I will illustrate by examples, the last
+point first.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 553.--The fret of basket decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 554.--The fret of pottery decoration.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 555.--Scroll as evolved from fret in pottery
+               decoration.]
+
+Going back to basketry, we find already the fully developed fret. (See
+Fig. 553.) I doubt not that from this was evolved, in accordance with
+Professor Hartt's theory, the scroll or volute as it appears later on
+pottery. (See Figs. 554, 555.) To both of these designs, and
+modifications of them ages later, the Pueblo has attached meanings.
+Those who have visited the Southwest and ridden over the wide, barren
+plains, during late autumn or early spring, have been astonished to
+find traced on the sand by no visible agency, perfect concentric
+circles and scrolls or volutes yards long and as regular as though
+drawn by a skilled artist. The circles are made by the wind driving
+partly broken weed-stalks around and around their places of
+attachment, until the fibers by which they are anchored sever and the
+stalks are blown away. The volutes are formed by the stems of red-top
+grass and of a round-topped variety of the _chenopodium_, drifted
+onward by the whirlwind yet around and around their bushy adhesive
+tops. The Pueblos, observing these marks, especially that they are
+abundant after a wind storm, have wondered at their similarity to the
+painted scrolls on the pottery of their ancestors. Even to-day they
+believe the sand marks to be the tracks of the whirlwind, which is a
+God in their mythology of such distinctive personality that the
+circling eagle is supposed to be related to him. They have naturally,
+therefore, explained the analogy above noted by the inference that
+their ancestors, in painting the volute, had intended to symbolize the
+whirlwind by representing his tracks. Thenceforward the scroll was
+drawn on certain classes of pottery to represent the whirlwind,
+modifications of it (for instance, by the color-sign belonging to any
+one of the "six regions") to signify other personified winds. So,
+also, the semicircle is classed as emblematic of the rainbow (_a' mi
+to lan ne_); the obtuse angle, as of the sky (_a' po yan ne_); the
+zigzag line as lightning (_wi' lo lo an ne_); terraces as the sky
+horizons (_a'wi thlui a we_), and modifications of the latter as the
+mythic "ancient sacred place of the spaces" (_Te' thlae shi na kwin_),
+and so on.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 556.--Ancient Pueblo "medicine-jar."]
+
+By combining several of these elementary symbols in a single device,
+sometimes a mythic idea was beautifully expressed. Take, as an
+example, the rain totem adopted by the late Lewis H. Morgan as a title
+illumination, from Maj. J.W. Powell, who received it from the Moki.
+Pueblos of Arizona as a token of his induction into the rain gens of
+that people. (See Fig. 557, _a_.) An earlier and simpler form of this
+occurs on a very ancient "sacred medicine jar" which I found in the
+Southwest. (See Fig. 556.) By reference to an enlarged drawing of the
+chief decoration of this jar (see Fig. 557), it may be seen that the
+sky, _a_, the ancient place of the spaces (region of the sky gods),
+_b_, the cloud lines, _c_, and the falling rain, _d_, are combined and
+depicted to symbolize the storm, which was the objective of the
+exhortations, rituals, and ceremonials to which the jar was an
+appurtenance.
+
+[Illustration:     _a._ Modern Moki rain symbol.
+                   _b._ Enlarged decoration of "medicine-jar."
+               FIG. 557.--Decoration of ancient medicine-jar compared
+               with rain symbol of modern Moki totem.]
+
+Thus, upon all sacred vessels, from the drums of the esoteric medicine
+societies of the priesthood and all vases pertaining to them to the
+keramic appurtenances of the sacred dance or _Ka' ka_, all decorations
+were intentionally emblematic. Of this numerous class of vessels, I
+will choose but one for illustration--the prayer-meal-bowl of the _Ka'
+ka_. In this, both form and ornamentation are significant. (See Fig.
+558.) In explaining how the form of this vessel is held to be symbolic
+I will quote a passage from the "creation myth" as I rendered it in an
+article on the origin of corn, belonging to a series on "Zuni
+Breadstuff," published this year in the "Millstone" of Indianapolis,
+Indiana. "Is not the bowl the emblem of the earth, our mother? For
+from her we draw both food and drink, as a babe draws nourishment from
+the breast of its mother; and round, as is the rim of a bowl, so is
+the horizon, terraced with mountains whence rise the clouds." This
+alludes to a medicine bowl, not to one of the handled kind, but I will
+apply it as far as it goes to the latter. The two terraces on either
+side of the handle (Fig. 558, _a a_) are in representation of the
+"ancient sacred place of the spaces," the handle being the line of the
+sky, and sometimes painted with the rainbow figure. Now the
+decorations are a trifle more complex. We may readily perceive that
+they represent tadpoles (Fig. 558, _b b_), dragonflies (Fig: 558, _c
+c_), with also the frog or toad (Fig. 558); all this is of easy
+interpretation. As the tadpole frequents the pools of spring time he
+has been adopted as the symbol of spring rains; the dragon-fly hovers
+over pools in summer, hence typifies the rains of summer; and the
+frog, maturing in them later, symbolizes the rains of the later
+seasons; for all these pools are due to rain fall. When, sometimes,
+the figure of the sacred butterfly (see Fig. 559, _a b_) replaces that
+of the dragon-fly, or alternates with it, it symbolizes the
+beneficence of summer; since, by a reverse order of reasoning, the
+Zunis think that the butterflies and migratory birds (see Fig. 560)
+_bring_ the warm season from the "Land of everlasting summer."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 558.--Zuni prayer-meal-bowl.]
+
+Upon vessels of special function, like these we have just noticed,
+peculiar figures may be regarded as emblematic; on other classes, no
+matter how evidently conventional and expressive decorations may seem,
+excepting always, totemic designs, it is wise to use great caution in
+their interpretation as intentional and not merely imitative.
+
+A general examination, even of the most modern of Pueblo pottery,
+shows us that certain types of decoration have once been confined to
+certain types of vessels, all which has its due signification but an
+examination of which would properly form the subject of another essay.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 559.--Paintings of sacred butterfly.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 560.--Painting of "summer-bird."]
+
+Happily, a work collateral to the one which I have here merely begun,
+will, I have reason to hope, be carried to a high degree of perfection
+in the forthcoming monographs on the exhaustless ceramic collections
+of the United States National Museum by Mr. William H. Holmes. This
+author and artist will approach his task from a standpoint differing
+from mine, reaching thereby, it may be, conclusions at variance with
+the foregoing; but by means of his wealth of material and illustration
+students will have opportunity of passing a judgment upon the merits
+of not only his work, but of my own.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 561.--Rectangular type of earthen vessel.]
+
+In conclusion, let me very briefly refer to two distinctive American
+types of pottery, unconnected with the Southwestern, which,
+considered in conjunction with those of the latter region, seem to
+me to indicate that the ceramic art has had independent centers of
+origin in America. For the sake of convenience, I may name these types
+the rectangular (see Fig. 561) or Iroquois, and the bisymmetrical or
+kidney-shaped (see Fig. 562), of Nicaragua. The one is almost constant
+in the lake regions of the United States, the other equally constant
+in sections of Central America. In collections gathered from any tribe
+of our Algonquin or Iroquois Indians, one may observe vessels of the
+tough birch- or linden-bark, some of which are spherical or
+hemispherical. To produce this form of utensil from a single piece of
+bark, it is necessary to cut pieces out of the margin and fold it.
+Each fold, when stitched together in the shaping of the vessel, forms
+a corner at the upper part. (See Fig. 563.) These corners and the
+borders which they form are decorated with short lines and
+combinations of lines, composed of coarse embroideries with dyed
+porcupine quills. (See Fig. 564) May not the bark vessel have given
+rise to the rectangular type of pottery and its quill ornamentation to
+the incised straight-line decorations? (Compare Fig. 561.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 562.--Kidney-shaped vessel, Nicaragua.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 563.--Iroquois bark-vessel.]
+
+So, too, in the unsymmetrical urns of Central and Isthmean America,
+which are characterized by the location of the aperture at the upper
+part of one of the extremities and by streak-like decorations, we
+have a decided suggestion of the animal paunch or bladder and of the
+visible veins on its surface when distended.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 564.--Porcupine quill decoration.]
+
+If these conjectures be accepted as approximately correct, even in
+tendency, we may hope by a patient study of the ceramic remains of a
+people, no matter where situated, to discover what was the type of
+their pre-ceramic vessels, and thereby we might also learn whether, at
+the time of the origin of the potter's art or during its development,
+they had, like the Pueblos, been indigenous to the areas in which they
+were found, or whether they had, like some of the Central Americans,
+(to make a concrete example and judge it by this method) apparently
+immigrated in part from desert North America, in part from the
+wilderness of an equatorial region in South America.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Awatui pottery                                                     493
+
+Basketry anticipated pottery                                   483-485
+Basketry cooking utensils                                      484-486
+Basketry copied in pottery                                         449
+Basketry declined, Manufacture of watertight                       496
+Boiling basket                                                     485
+Burning influence pottery, Materials and methods used in      495, 496
+
+Cane tubes to carry water                                          482
+Cliff-dwellings                                           478, 479-480
+Coal used in pottery firing, Mineral                           495-496
+Coiled pottery, how made                                           500
+Communal Pueblos                                              480, 481
+
+Environments affecting habitations                                 473
+Environments affecting pottery                                     482
+
+Flat and terraced roofs                                            477
+Form evolved in pottery from basketry                              497
+Fuel used in pottery firing                                        495
+
+Gourd vessels to carry water                                  482, 483
+
+Habitations affected by environment                                473
+Hogan, or hut, Navajo                                              473
+Houses built near water, Pueblo                                    477
+
+Lava inclosure earliest form of Navajo hut                         475
+Linguistic indications as to habitations                           474
+Linguistic indications as to primitive water vessels               482
+
+Mindeleff, Victor, on development of rectangular architecture      475
+Minerals influencing pottery                                       493
+Mode of making pottery vessels                                 499-500
+Moki pottery                                                       493
+
+Navajo hogan, or hut                                               473
+
+Ojo Caliente pottery                                               491
+Ollas                                                         498, 500
+Ornament, Ceramic                                                  488
+Ornamentation of coiled basketry                                   487
+
+Pescado pottery                                                    494
+Pottery affected by environment                                    482
+Pottery anticipated by basketry                                483-485
+Pottery declined in quality with introduction of domestic animals  496
+Pottery developed from basketry                                    485
+Pueblo primitive habitations                                       475
+Pueblos, Communal                                             480, 481
+
+Rectangular forms developed from circular in architecture          475
+Roasting tray                                                      484
+
+Stories added in cliff-buildings                                   479
+
+Tusayan, Province of                                               493
+
+Water important to Pueblos, Transportation and preservation of     482
+Wicker cover for gourd vessels                                     483
+
+Zuni priests' journey to the Atlantic                              483
+Zuni skill on water jars                                      498, 500
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Study of Pueblo Pottery as
+Illustrative of Zuni Culture Growth., by Frank Hamilton Cushing
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